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THEOLOGICAL  DICTIONARY, 

CONTAINING 

DEFINITIONS  OF  ALL  RELIGIOUS  TERMS ; 

A  COMPREHEJ^SIVE 

VIEW  OF  EVt:RY  ARTICLE 

IN 

THE  SYSTEM  OF  DIVINITY, 

AN  IMPARTIAL 

ACCOUNT  OF  ALL  THE  PRIISCIPAL  DENOMINATIONS 

WHXCK    HAVE    SUBSISTED    IN 

THE  RELIGIOUS  WORLD, 

FROM  THE 

BIRTH  OF  CHRIST  TO  THE  PRESENT  DAY  : 

TOGETHER    WITH 

AN  ACCURATE  STATEMENT 

OF 

THE  MOST  REMARKABLE  TRANSACTIONS  AND  EVENTS 

RECORDED  IN  ECCLESIASTICAL  HISTORY. 


BY  CHARLESBUCkT 


TWO  VOLUMES  IN  ONE. 

— _  I 

FOURTH  AMERICAN,  FROM;,THE  THIRD  LONDON  EDITION,  WITH  ADDItAs, 


AZSOt 
An  Account  of  the  Cumberland  Presbyterians  in  the  United  States. 


PmLAJiELrbU. 
PRINTED  FOR  W.  W.  WOODWARD, 

No,    52,    CORNER    OF    CU£SN'UT    AJ.D    StCOXI)    STRIETS. 


A.  iix'ig%i  ir  K.  Dickinson,  Pr'ntcrs.. 

1815. 


District  of  Pennsylvania,  to  "ait: 
BE  IT  i^KMEMBERED,  That  on  the  fifteenth  day  of  February,  in  the  thirty-cighti- 
tear  of  the  Independence  of  the  United  States  of  America,  A.  D.  1814..     X^illiam  \V. 
Woodward,  of  the  said  district,  hath  deposited  in  this  office  the  Title  of  a  Book,  the 
right  whereof  he  claims  as  proprietor,  in  the  woi-ds  following  to  wit : 

"  A  Theological  Dictionary,  containing  definitions  of  all  religious  terms ;  a  comprehen- 
"  sive  view  of  every  article  in  the  system  of  Divinity,  an  impai-tial  account  of  al!  the  prin- 
"  cipal  Denominations  wtuch  have  subsisted  in  the  religious  world,  from  the  birth  of  Christ 
"  to  the  present  day  :  Together  with  an  accurate  statt-ment  of  the  most  remarkable  trans- 
•'  actions  and  events  recorded  in  Ecclesiastical  History.  By  Charles  Buck,— two  vol- 
"  umes  in  ojie.  Fourth  American,  from  the  third  London  Edition,  with  additions.  Also 
*'  an  account  of  the  Cumberland  Presbyterians  in  the  United  States." 

In  conformity  to  the  act  of  the  Congress  of  the  United  States,  entitled,  "  An  act  for  the 
encouragement  of  learning,  by  securing  the  copies  of  Maps,  Charts  and  Bocks,  to  the 
Authors  and  Proprietors  of  such  copies  during  the  times  therein  mentioned."  And  also 
to  the  Act,  entitled,  "  An  Act  supplementary  to  An  Act,  entitled  "  An  act  for  the  en- 
couragement of  learning,  by  securing  the  copies  of  Maps,  Charts,  and  Books,  to  the  Au- 
thors and  Proprietors  of  such  copies  during  the  times  therein  mentioned,"  and  extending 
the  benefits  thereof  to  tlie  arts  of  designing,  engraving,  and  «tching  historical  and  other 
prints." 

,  D.  CJLDWELL,  Clerk 

of  the  District  of  Famsytvania. 


PREFACE. 


Knowledge,  in  a  great  measure,  forms  the  true  dignity  and  happiness 
of  man  :  It  is  that  by  which  he  holds  an  honourable  rank  in  the  scale  of  being, 
and  by  which  he  is  rendered  capable  of  adding  to  the  felicity  of  his  fellow* 
creatures.  Every  attempt,  therefore,  to  enlarge  its  boundaries,  and  tacilitate 
its  acquisition,  must  be  considered  as  worthy  of  our  attention  and  regard. 
The  present  work  is  designed  to  promote  these  valuable  and  important  ends. 

The  plan  of  conveying  knowledge  by  dictionaries  has  been  long  establish- 
ed, and  well  received  in  the  republic  of  letters.  A  dictionary,  however,  of 
a  religious  and  ecclesiastical  nature  was  still  a  desideratum  in  the  religious 
world ;  for  although  we  have  had  dictionaries  which  explained  scripture 
terms,  yet  it  is  evident  these  could  not  embrace  the  history  of  the  church 
since  the  sacred  canon  was  concluded,  nor  explain  the  numerous  terms 
which  have  been  used ;  nor,  indeed,  point  out  the  various  sects  and  de- 
nominations which  have  subsisted  since  that  time.  I  do  not  mean,  by  these 
remarks,  to  depreciate  the  v?iluable  works  above  referred  to  :  I  am  sensible 
of  their  excellencies,  and  I  have  no  wish  to  undervalue  t/iefu  in  order  to  ex- 
alt my  own.  This  work,  however,  is  of  a  different  nature,  as  the  reader 
will  easily  see,  if  he  take  the  trouble  to  compare  and  examine. 

There  may,  doubtless,  be  defects  in  this  publication  which  may  have  es- 
caped my  attention  :  but  whoever  considers  the  various  books  that  must  have 
been  consulted  ;  the  discriminations  that  were  necessary  to  be  made  ;  the  pa- 
tient investigation  required  ;  and  the  toil  of  selecting,  transcribing,  and  com- 
posing, must  be  convinced  that  it  has  been  attended  with  no  small  difficulty. 
The  advantages,  however,  which  my  own  mind  derived  from  the  work,  and 
the  probability  of  its  being  useful  to  others,  greatly  encouraged  me  in  its 
prosecution.  Besides,  to  be  active,  to  be  useful,  to  do  something-  for  the 
good  of  mankind,  I  have  always  considered  as  the  honour  of  an  intelligent 
being.  It  is  not  the  student,  wrapped  up  in  metaphysical  subtilties  ,*  it  is 
not  the  recluse  living  in  perpetual  solitude  ;  it  is  not  the  raiser  who  is  con- 
tinually amassing  wealth,  that  can  be  considered  as  the  greatest  ornaments  or 
the  greatest  blessings  to  human  society  : — It  is  rather  the  useful  than  the 
shining  talent  that  is  to  be  coveted. 

Perhaps  it  may  be  said,  the  work  is  tinctured  too  much  with  my  own  s'  n- 
timents,  and  thfit  the  theology  is  too  antiquated  to  please  the  liberal,  philoso- 
phizing, and  refined  nge.  In  answer  to  this,  I  observe,  that  I  could  do  no 
other,  as  an  honi  st  man,  than  communicate  what  I  believed  to  be  the  truth. 
It  is  a  false  liberality  to  acquiesce  with  every  man's  opinion,  to  fall  in  wich 
every  man's  scheme,  to  trifle  with  error,  or  imagine  there  is  no  difference  be- 
tween one  sentiment  and  another;  yet,  notwithstanding  this  declaration,  E 
trust  the  features  of  bigotry  are  not  easily  discerniljle  in  this  work  ;  and  that, 
while  I  have  endeavoured  to  carrv  the  torch  of  Truth  in  my  hand,  I  have 
not  forgotten  to  walk  in  the  path  of  Candour. 


-:^  PREFACE. 

It  is  almost  needless  here  to;S»y,  that  I  have  availed  myself  of  all  the 
writings  of  the  best  and  most  eminent  authors  I  could  obtain.  Whatever  has 
struck  me  as  important  in  ecclesiastical  history;  whatever  good  and  accu- 
rate in  definition  ;  whatever  just  views  of  the  passions  of  the  human  mind  j 
whatever  tenisused  in  the  religious  world;  and  whatever  instructive  and  im- 
pressive in  the  systems  of  divinity  and-jnoral  philosophy,  I  have  endeavour- 
ed to  incorporate  in  this  work.  And  in  order  to  prevent  its  being  a  dry  de- 
tail of  terms  and  of  dates,  I  have  given  the  substance  of  what  has  been  gene- 
rally advanced  on  each  subject,  and  occasionally  selected  some  of  the  most 
interesting  and  practical  passages  from  our  best  and  celebrated  sermons.  I 
trust,  thr^refore,  It  will  not  only  be  of  use  to  inform  the  mind,  but  impress 
the  heart ;  and  thus  promote  the  real  good  of  the  reader.  The  Critic,  how- 
ever, iray  be  disposed  to  be  severe  ;  and  it  will,  perhaps,  be  easy  for  him  to 
observe  impcrftctions.  But  be  this  as  it  may  :  I  can  assure  him  I  feel  my- 
self happy  in  the  idea  that  the  work  is  not  intended  to  serve  a  party,  to  en- 
courage bigotry,  or  strengthen  prejudice,  but  "  for  the  service  of  Truth,  by 
one  V  ho  would  be  glad  to  attend  and  grace  her  triumphs  ;  as  her  soldier,  if 
he  has  had  the  honour  to  serve  successfully  under  her  banner  ;  or  as  a  captive 
tied  to  her  chariot  wheels,  if  he  has,  though  undesignedly,  committed  any 
offence  against  her."  After  all,  however,  what  a  learned  author  said  of  ano- 
ther work  1  say  of  this — "  If  it  have  merit  it  will  go  down  to  posterity  ;  if 
it  have  none,  the  sooner  it  dies  and  is  forgot,  the  better." 

C.  B. 


THEOLOGICAL  DICTIONARY. 


ABB 

Abb  A,  a  Syriac  word,  signifying  Father 
It  is  more  particularly  used  in  the  Syriac, 
Coptic,  and  Ethiopic  churches,  as  a  title 
given  to  the  bishops.  The  bishops  them- 
selves bestowed  the  title  jibba  more  emi- 
nently on  the  bishop  of  Alexandria,  which 
^  occasioned  the  people  to  give  him  the  title 
of  Baba  or  Pajia  ;  that  is.  Grandfather  :  a 
title  wl.ich  he  bore  before  the  bishop  of 
Rome.  It  is  a  Jewish  title  of  honour  given 
to  certain  Rabbins  called  Tanaites :  it  is  also 
used  by  some  writers  of  the  middle  age  for 
the  superior  of  a  monastery.  Saint  Mark  and 
Saint  Paul  use  this  word  in  their  Greek, 
Mark  xiv.  36.  Rom.  viii.  15.  Gal.  iv.  6.  be- 
cause it  was  then  commonly  known  in  the 
synagogues  and  the  primitive  assemblies  of 
the  Christians.  It  is  thought  by  Selden, 
Witsius,  Doddridge,  and  others,  that  Saint 
Paul  alluded  to  a  law  among  the  Jews  which 
forbade  servants  or  slaves  to  call  their  mas- 
ter Abba,  or  Father ;  and  that  the  apostle 
meant  to  convey  the  idea  that  those  who 
believed  in  Christ  were  no  longer  slaves  to 
sin  ;  but  being  brought  into  a  state  of  holy 
freedom,  might  consequently  address  God 
as  their  Father. 

ABBE.  The  same  with  Abbot,  which 
see.  Also  the  name  of  curious  popular 
characters  in  France  ;  who  are  persons  who 
have  not  yet  obtained  any  precise  or  fixed 
settlement  in  church  or  state,  but  most 
heartily  wish  for  and  would  accept  of  either, 
just  as  it  may  happen  In  the  mean  while 
their  privileges  are  many.  In  college  they 
are  the  instructors  of  youth,  and  in  private 
families  the  tutors  of  young  gentlemen. 

ABBESS,  the  superior  of  an  abbey  or  con- 
vent of  nuns.  The  abbess  has  the  same 
rights  and  authority  over  her  nuns  that  the 
abbots  regular  have  over  their  monks.  The 
sex,  indeed,  does  not  allow  her  to  perform 
the  spiritual  functions  annexed  to  the 
priesthood,  wherewith  the  abbot  is  usually 
invested ;  but  there  are  instances  of  some 
abbesses  who  have  a  right,  or  rather  a  pri- 
vilege, to  commission  a  priest  to  act  for 
them.  They  have  even  a  kind  of  episcopal 
jurisdiction,  as  well  as  some  abbots  wl\o 
are  exempted  from  tlie  visitation  of  their 
diocesan. 

ABBEY,  a  monastery,  governed  by  a  su- 
perior under  the  title  of  Abbot  or  Abbess. 
Monasteries  were  at  first  nothing  more  than 
religious  houses,   whither  persons  retired 


ABB 

from  the  bustle  of  the  world  to  spend  their 
time  in  soHtude  and  devotion  :  but  they  soon 
degenerated  from  their  original  institution, 
and  procured  large  privileges,  exemptions, 
and  riches.  They  prevailed  greatiy  in  Bri- 
tain before  the  reforntation,  particularly  in 
England  ;  and  as  they  increased  in  riches, 
so  the  state  became  poor,  for  the  lands 
which  these  regulars  possessed  could  never 
revert  to  the  lords  who  gave  them.  These 
<  places  were  wholly  abolished  by  Henry  Vill, 
He  first  appointed  visitors  to  inspect  into 
the  lives  of  the  monks  and  nuns,  which 
were  found  in  some  places  ve:  y  disorderly ; 
upon  which  the  abbots,  perceiving  their 
dissolution  unavoidable,  were  induced  to 
resign  their  houses  to  the  king,  who  by 
that  means  became  invested  with  the  ab- 
beys land  ;  these  were  afterwards  granted 
to  different  persons,  whose  descendants  en- 
joy tliem  at  this  day  :  they  were  then  valu- 
ed at  2,853,000/.  per  annum  ;  an  immense 
sum  in  those  days. — Though  the  suppression 
of  these  houses,  considered  in  a  religious 
and  political  light,  was  a  great  benefit  to 
the  nation,  yet  it  must  be  owned,  that,  at 
the  time  they  flourished,  they  were  not 
entirely  useless.  Abbeys  were  then  the  re- 
positories as  well  as  the  seminaries  of  ieaiTi- 
ing :  many  valuable  books  and  national  re- 
cords have  been  preserved  in  their  libra- 
ries ;  the  only  places  wherein  they  could 
have  been  safely  lodged  in  tiiose  turbulent 
times.  Indeed,  the  historians  of  this  coun- 
try are  chiefly  beholden  to  the  monks  for 
the  knowledge  they  have  of  former  na-  ■ 
tional  events.  Thus  a  kind  Providence 
overruled  even  the  institutions  of  supersti- 
tion for  gnod.  See  Monastkry. 

ABB()T,  the  chief  ruler  of  a  monastery  or 
abbey.  At  first  they  were  laymen,  and  sab- 
Ject  to  the  bishoy)  and  ordiii.'iry  pastors. 
Their  monasteries  being  remote  from  cities, 
and  built  in  the  farthest  solitudes,  they  had 
no  share  in  ecclesiastical  affairs;  but,  there 
being  among  them  several  peisons  of  learn- 
ing, they  were  called  out  of  their  deserts  by 
the  bishops,  and  fix'  d  in  the  suburbs  of  the 
cities;  and  at  length  in  the  cities  them- 
selves. From  that  time  they  degenerated, 
and,  learning  to  be  ambitious,  asj^ired  to  be 
independent  of  the  bishops,  which  occasion-  . 
ed  some  severe  laws  to  be  made  against 
them.  At  length,  however,  the  abbots  car-  ' 
ried  their  point,  and  obtained  the  title  of " 

\ 


ABS 


ABS 


lord,  with  other  badges  of  the  episcopate, 
particularly  the  mitre.  Hence  arose  new 
distiiictions  among  them.  Those  were  term- 
ed miired  abbots  who  were  privileged  to 
wear  the  miire,  and  exercise  episcopal  au- 
thority within  their  respective  precincts,  bp- 
ing  exempted  from  tiie  jurisdiction  of  the 
bishop.  Others  were  called  crosiered  abbots, 
from  their  bearing  the  croaier^  or  pastor  il 
staff.  Others  were  styled  acumenical  or  uiii- 
rersal  abbots,  in  imitation  of  the  patiiarch 
of  Constantinople  ;  while  ethers  were  term- 
ed cardinal  abbots,  from  tiieir  superiority 
over  all  other  abbots.  At  present,  in  the 
Roman  catholic  countries,  the  cliief  distinc- 
tions are  those  of  regular  and  commenda- 
tory. The  former  take  the  vow  and  wear 
the  habit  of  their  order ;  whereas  the  latter 
are  secular,  though  they  are  obliged  by  their 
bulls  to  take  orders  when  of  proper  age. 

ABELIANS,  or  Abelonians,  a  sect 
•which  arose  in  the  diocese  of  Hippoo  in 
Africa,  and  is  supposed  to  have  begun  in 
the  reigH  of  Arcadius,  and  ended  in  that  ot 
Theodosius,  Indeed,  it  was  not  calculated 
for  being  of  any  long  continuance.  They 
regulated  marriage  after  the  example  of 
Abel,  who,  they  pr<  tended,  vvas  married,  but 
lived  in  a  state  of  continence :  they  there- 
fore allowed  each  man  to  marry  one  woman, 
but  enjoined  them  to  live  in  the  same  state. 
To  keep  up  the  sect,  when  a  man  and 
woman  entered  into  this  society,  they  adopt- 
ed a  boy  and  a  girl,  who  were  to  inherit 
their  goods,  and  to  marry  upon  the  same 
terms  of  not  having  children,  but  of  adopt- 
ing two  of  different  sexes. 

ABESTA,  the  name  of  one  of  the  sacred 
books  of  the  Persian  Magi,  which  they  as- 
cribe to  tlieir  great  foimder  Zoroaster.  The 
Abesta  is  a  commentary  on  two  others  of 
their  religious  books,  called  Zend  and  Pa- 
zend;  the  three  together  including  the  whole 
system  of  the  Ignicold,  or  worshi[)persof  fire. 

ABILITY.    See  Inability. 

ABLUTION,  a  ceremony  in  use  among 
the  ancients,  and  still  practised  in  several 
parts  of  the  world.  It  consisted  in  washing 
the  body,  wliich  was  always  done  before 
sacrificing,  or  even  entering  tlieir  houses 
i^b'utions  appear  to  be  as  old  as  any  cere- 
monies, and  external  worship  itself.  Moses 
enjoined  them,  the  heathens  adopted  tliem, 
and  Mahomet  and  his  followers  Iiave  con- 
tinued them.  The  E;jryptians,  the  Greeks, 
the  Romans,  the  Jews,  all  had  them.  The 
ancient  Christians  had  the  r  ablutions  bef<\re 
communion,  wliich  the  Romish  church  still 
retain  before  their  mass,  and  sometimes 
after.  The  Syiians,  Copts,  &.c.  have  their 
solemn  washings  on  Good  Fiiday ;  the  Turks 
also  have  their  ablutions,  their  (ihast,  their 
VVodou,  A  man,  &ic.. 

ABIiAHAMlTES,  an  order  of  monks 
extern!  natcd  for  idolatry  Iw  Theojjhikis,  in 
the  ninth  ceiibiry.  Also  the  name  of  another 
sect  of  heretics  who  had  adojjted  the  errois 
of  Panhis.     See  I'aulicans.  ''• 

ABSOLUTION  signifies  acquittal.     It  is 


taken  also  from  that  act  whereby  the  priest 
declares  the  sins  of  such  as  are  penitent  re- 
mitted. The  Romanists  hold  absolution  a 
part  of  the  sacrament  of  penance  ;  and  the 
council  of  Trent  and  that  of  Florence  de- 
clare the  form  or  essence  of  the  sacrament 
to  lie  in  the  words  of  absolution.  "  1  absolve 
"  thee  of  thy  sins."  According  to  this,  no 
one  can  receive  absolution  without  the  pri- 
vity, consent,  and  declaration  of  the  prie&t ; 
except,  therefore,  the  priest  be  willing,  God 
himself  cannot  pardon  any  man.  This  is  a 
doctrine  as  blasphemous  as  it  is  ridiculous. 
The  chief  passage  on  which  the\  ground 
their  power  of  absolution  is  that  in  John  xx. 
23 — "  Whose  soever  sins  ye  remit,  they  are 
remitted  unto  them,  and  whose  soever  sins  ye 
retain,  they  are  retained."  But  this  is  not  to 
the  purpose  ;  since  this  was  a  special  com- 
niibsion  to  the  apostles  themselves,  and  the 
first  preachers  of  the  Gospel,  and  most  pro- 
bably referred  to  the  power  he  gave  them 
of  discerning  spirits.  By  virtue  of  this  pow- 
er, Peter  struck  Ananias  and  Sapphira  dead, 
and  Paul  struck  E!imas  blind.  But  suppos- 
ing the  passage  w  question  to  apply  to  the 
successors  of  the  apostles,  and  to  ministers 
in  general,  it  can  only  import  that  their 
oflfice  is  to  preach  pardon  to  the  penitent, , 
assuring  those  who  believe  that  their  sins  are 
forgiven  throu'<h  the  merits  of  Jesus  Christ ; 
and  that  those  who  i-emain  in  unbelief  are  in 
a  state  of  condemnation  Any  idea  of  author- 
ity given  to  fallible,  uninspired  men  to  ab- 
solve sinners,  different  from  this,  is  unscrip- 
tural ;  nor  can  I  see  much  utility  in  the 
terms  ministerial  or  declarative  absoludon, 
as  adopted  by  some  divines,  since  absolution 
is  whoily  the  prerogative  of  God ;  and  the 
terms  above-mentioned,  may,  to  say  the 
least,  have  no  good  influence  on  the  minds  of 
the  ignorant  and  superstitious. 

ABSTEMII,  a  name  given  to  such  per- 
sons as  could  not  partake  of  the  cup  of  the 
eucharist,  on  account  of  their  natural  aver- 
sion to  wine. 

ABSTINENCE,  in  a  general  sense,  is 
the  act  of  refraining  from  something  which 
we  ha\  e  a  propension  to  or  find  jilcasure  in. 
It  is  more  particularly  used  for  fasting  or 
forbearing  of  necessary  food.  Among  the 
.Tews,  various  kinds  of  abstinence  wore  or- 
dained by  their  law.  Among  the  primitive 
Christians,  some  denied  themselves  the  use 
(»f  such  meats  as  were  prohibited  by  that  law ; 
others  looked  upon  this  abstinence  with  con- 
tempt; as  to  wliich  Paul  gives  his  opinion, 
Rom.  xiv.  1.  .3.  The  council  of  Jerusalem, 
wliich  was  held  by  tlie  apostles,  enjoined  the 
Christian  converts  to  abstain  from  meats 
strangled,  from  blood,  from  fornicadon,  and 
from  idolatry.  Acts  xv.  Upon  this  passage, 
Dr.  Doddridge  observes,  "that  though  nei- 
ther tliini^s  sarriticed  to  idols,  nor  the  flesh 
of  strangled  animals,  nor  blood,  have  or  can 
have  any  moral  evil  in  them,  which  should 
make  the  eating  of  them  absolutely  and 
universally  unlawful;  yet  they  were  forbid- 
den to  the  Gentile  converts,  because  the  Jews 


ABY 


AC  A 


had  such  an  aversion  to  them,  that  they 
coukl  not  converse  freely  with  any  who  used 
them.  This  is  plainly  the  reason  which 
James  assigns  in  the  very  next  words,  the 
21st  verse,  and  it  is  abundantly  sufficient. 
This  reason  is  now  ceased,  and  the  obliga- 
tion to  abstain  from  eating  these  things 
ceases  with  it.  But  were  we  in  like 
circumstances  again.  Christian  charity  wculd 
surely  require  us  to  lay  ourselves  under 
the  same  restraint." — The  spiritual  mo- 
narchy of  the  western  world  introduced 
another  sort  of  abstinence,  which  may  be 
called  ritual,  and  consists  in  abstaining  from 
particular  meats  at  certain  times  and  seasons, 
the  rules  of  which  are  called  rogations.  If 
1  mistake  not,  the  impropriety  of  this  kind 
of  abstinence  is  clearly  pointed  out  in  1  Tim. 
iv.  3  — In  England,  abstinence  from  flesh  has 
been  enjoined  by  statute,  even  since  the  re- 
formation ;  particularly  on  Fridays  and  Sa- 
turdays, on  vigils,  and  on  all  days  commonly 
called  fish  days.  The  like  injunctions  were 
renewed  under  queen  Elizabeth  ;  but  at  the 
same  time  it  was  declared,  that  this  was 
done  not  out  of  motives  of  religion,  as  if  there 
was  any  difFi-rence  in  meats,  but  in  favour 
of  the  consumption  of  fish,  and  to  multiply 
the  number  of  fishermen  and  mariners,  as 
well  as  to  spare  the  stock  of  slieep.  See 
Fast  i  vg 

ABSTINENTS,  a  set  of  heretics  that 
appeared  in  France  and  Spain  about  the  end 
of  the  third  century.  They  are  supposed  to 
have  boiTowed  part  of  their  opinions  from 
the  Gnostics  and  Manichaeans,  because  they 
opposed  marriage,  condemned  the  use  of 
flesh  meat,  and  placed  the  Holy  Ghost  in  the 
class  of  created  beings. 

ABYSS,  in  a  general  sense,  denotes  some- 
thing profound;  in  its  literal  sense  it  signifies 
"without  a  bottom;  in  a  more  particular  sense, 
it  denotes  a  deep  mass  or  fund  of  waters. 
In  this  last  sense  the  word  is  used  in  the 
Septuagint  for  the  water  which  God  created 
at  the  beginning  with  the  eaith,  which  our 
translators  render  by  deep.  Thus  it  is  that 
darkness  is  said  to  have  been  on  the  face  of 
the  abyns.  Gen.  i.  2.  Abyss  is  also  used  for  an 
immense  cavern  in  the  earth,  wherein  God 
is  supposed  to  have  collected  all  those  waters 
on  the  third  day,  which  in  our  version  is 
rendered  the  seas,  and  elsewhere  the  great 
deep.  Abyss  is  likewise  used  to  denote  the 
grave  or  common  receptacle  of  the  dead, 
Rom.  X.  7;  also  hell,  or  the  bottomless  pit, 
Luke  viii.  31.  Rev.  ix.  1.  Rev.  xi.  7.  See 
Deluge. 

ABYSSINIAN  CHURCH,  that  which 
is  established  in  the  empire  of  Abyssinia. 
They  are  a  branch  of  tlie  Copts,  with  whom 
they  agree  in  admitting  only  one  nature  in 
Jtsus  Ciirist,  and  rejecting  the  council  of 
Chalcedon  ;  whence  they  are  also  called 
Monophysites  and  Euiyciiians,  which  see. 
The  Abyssinian  church  is  governed  by  a 
bishop  styled  abuna.  They  have  canons 
also,  and  monks.  'J'he  em])eror  has  a  kind 
of  supremacy  in  ecclesiastical  matters.  'I'he 


Abyssinians  have  at  divers  limes  expressed 
an  inclination  to  be  reconciled  to  the  see  of 
Rome ;  but  rather  from  interested  views 
tlian  any  other  motive.  They  pract'ce  cir- 
cumcision on  females  as  well  as  males. 
They  eat  no  meats  prohibited  by  the  law  of 
Moses.  They  observe  both  Saturday  and 
Sunday  sabbaths.  Women  are  obliged  to 
tlie  legal  purifications.  Brothers  marry 
brother.s'  wives,  &c.  On  the  other  hand, 
they  celebrate  the  Epiphany  with  pecuhar 
festivity ;  have  four  Lents ;  pray  for  the 
dead;  and  invoke  angels.  Images  in  paint- 
ing they  venerate  ;  but  abhor  all  those  in 
relievo,  except  the  cross.  They  admit  the 
apociyphal  books  and  the  canons  of  the 
apostles,  as  well  as  the  apostolical  constitui> 
tions,  for  genuine.  They  allow  of  divorce, 
which  is  easily  granted  among  them,  and  by 
the  civil  judge  ;  nor  do  their  civil  laws  pro- 
hibit polygamy  — They  have,  at  least,  as 
many  miracles  and  legends  of  saints  as  the 
Romish  church.  They  hold  that  the  soul  of 
man  is  not  created  ;  because,  say  they,  God 
finished  all  his  works  on  the  sixth  day.  Thus 
we  see  that  tlie  doctrines  and  ritual  of  this 
sect  form  a  strange  compound  of  Judaism 
and  Christianity,  ignorance  and  superstition. 
Some,  indeed,  have  been  at  a  loss  to  know 
whether  they  are  most  Christians  or  Jews : 
it  is  to  be  feared,  however,  that  there  is  little 
beside  the  name  of  Christianity  among  them. 
Should  the  reader  be  desirous  to  know  more 
of  this  sect,  he  may  consult  Father  Lobd'a 
Voyage  to  Abyssinia  ;  tiruce's  Travels  ; 
Ludolfih's  Hist,  of  Ethiofiia  ;  and  Diet,  of 
Arts  and  Sciences,  vol.  i.  p.  15. 

ACACIANS,  a  sect  of  heretics  in  the  4th 
century  ;  so  named  from  Acacius,  bishop  of 
Cxsarea,  who  denied  the  Son  to  be  of  the 
same  substance  with  the  Father,  though 
some  of  them  allowed  that  he  was  of  a 
similar  substance.  Also  the  name  of  ano- 
ther sect,  named  after  Acacius,  patriarch 
of  Constantinople,  in  the  fifth  century,  who 
favoured  the  opinions    of    Eutychus.      See 

EUTYCHIANS. 

ACADEMICS,  a  denomination  given  to 
the  cultivators  of  a  species  of  philosophy 
criginally  derived  from  Socrates,  and  after- 
wards illustrated  and  enforced  by  Plato. 
The  contradictoiy  systems  which  had  been] 
successively  urged  upon  the  world  were  be-; 
come  so  numerous,  that,  from  a  vieAv  of  the ' 
variety  and  uncertainty  of  human  opinions, 
many  were  led  to  conclude  that  truth  lay 
beyond  the  reach  of  our  comprehension. 
The  consequence  of  this  conclusion  was  ab- 
solute scepticism :  hence  the  existence  uf 
God,  the  immortahty  of  the  soul,  the  pre- 
ferableness  of  virtue  to  vice,  Avere  all  held 
as  uncertain.  This  sect,  with  that  of  the 
Epicurcariii,  were  the  two  chief  that  werci 
in  vogue  at  the  time  of  Christ's  appearance, 
and  were  embraced  and  supported  by  per-^ 
sons  of  high  rank  and  wealth.  A  con.Mde- 
ration  of  the  principles  of  these  tAvo  sects 
[see  Epicurkans]  will  lead  us  to  fiirm  an 
idta  of  the  deplorable  stale  of  the  world  at : 


ACC 


ACT 


tiie  time  of  Christ's  birth ;  and  the  necessity 
tliere  was  of  some  divine  teacher  to  convey 
to  the  mind  true  and  certain  principles  of 
religion  and  wisdom.  Jesus  Christ,  there- 
fore, is  with  great  propriety  called  the  Day 
Spring  from  on  High,  the  Sun  of  Righteous- 
ness, that  arose  upon  a  benighted  world  to 
dispel  the  clouds  of  ignorance  and  error, 
and  discover  to  lost  man  the  path  of  happi- 
ness and  heaven.  But,  as  we  do  not  mean 
to  enlarge  much  upon  these  and  some  other 
sects,  which  belong  rather  to  philosophy 
than  theology,  we  stiall  refer  the  reader  to 
Buddeu^s  Iniroduction  to  the  History  of 
Philoaofihy  ;  Stanley^a  Lives  ;  Brucker'a 
History  of  Philosofihy  ;  or  (which  is  more 
modt-rii)  Enfield's  Abridgment. 

ACCLAMATIONS,  ecclesiastical,  were 
shouts  of  joy  which  the  people  expressed  by 
way  of  approbation  of  their  preachers.  It 
hardly  seems  credible  to  us  that  practices  of 
this  kind  should  ever  have  found  their  way 
into  the  church,  where  all  ought  to  be  reve- 
rence and  solemnity.  Yet  so  it  was  in  the 
fourth  century.  The  people  were  not  only 
permitted,  but  sometimes  even  exhorted,  by 
the  preacher  himst;!/,  to  approve  his  talents 
by  clapping  of  hands,  and  loud  acclamations 
of  praise.  The  unusual  words  they  made 
use  of  were,  "Orthodox,"  "Third  apostle," 
&e.  These  acclamations  being  carried  to 
excess,  and  often  misplaced,  were  frequently 
prohibited  by  tJie  ancient  doctors,  and  at 
length  abrogated.  Even  as  late,  however, 
as  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries, 
we  find  practices  that  were  not  very  deco- 
rous ;  such  as  loud  humming,  frequent  groan- 
ing, strange  gestures  of  the  body,  &c  See 
articles  Dancers,  Shakers. 
ACCOMMODATION  of  SCRIPTURE 
is  the  application  of  it,  not  to  its  literal 
meaning,  but  to  something  analagous  to  it. 
Thus  a  prophecy  is  said  to  be  fulfilled  pro- 
perly when  a  thing  foretold  comt's  to  pass ; 
and,  by  way  of  accommodation,  when  an 
event  happens  to  any  place  or  people  similar 
to  what  fell  out  some  time  before  to  another. 
Thus  the  words  of  Isaiah,  spr.ken  to  those 
of  his  own  time,  are  said  to  be  fulfilled  in 
those  who  lived  in  our  Saviour's — "  Ye  hy- 
pocrites, well  did  Esias  prophesy,  &c  :  which 
s;ime  words  St.  Paul  afterwards  accommo- 
dates to  the  Jews  of  his  time.  Is.  xxix.  14. 
Matt.  XV  8  Acts  -viii.  41.  Great  care,  how- 
ever, should  be  taken  by  preachers  wJio  are 
fond  of  acconunodating  texts,  that  they  first 
clearlv  state  the  literal  sense  of  the  passage. 
ACCURSED,  something  that  lies  under 
a  curse  or  sentence  of  excommunicauon.  In 
the  Jewibh  idii  m,  accursed  and  crucified 
were  synonvmons:  among  them,  every  one 
■was  accounted  accursed  who  died  on  a  tree 
This  serves  to  explain  the  difficult  passage 
in  Rom.  ix.  3.  where  the  apostle  wishes 
\\\'cx\?,t\i  accursed  a^fer  the  manner  if  Cl'rist ; 
j.  e.  crucified,  if  happily  he  mij^ht  by  such 
a  death  save  his  countrymen.  '1  he  pre|jo- 
sitjon  dirt   here  ma;!e  use  of  is  used  in  the 


same  sense,  2  Tim.  i.  3.  where  it  obyiousJy 
signifies  after  the  manner  of. 

ACEPHALI,  such  bishops  as  were  ex- 
empt from  the  disciphne  and  jurisdiction  of 
their  ordinary  bishop  or  patriarch.  It  was 
also  the  denomination  ot  certain  sects ;  1,  of 
those  -who,  in  the  aflpair  of  the  council  of 
Ephesus,  refused  to  follow  either  St  Cyril  or 
John  of  Antioch  ;  2.  of  certain  heretics  m 
the  fifth  centuiy.  who,  at  first,  followed  Pe- 
ter Mongus,  but  afterwards  abandoned  him, 
upon  his  subscribing  to  the  council  of  Chal- 
cedon,  they  themselvts  adhering  to  the  Eu- 
tychian  heresy  ;  and,  S.  of  the  followers  of 
Sevems  of  Antioch,  and  of  all,  in  general, 
who  held  out  against  the  council  of  Chalce- 
don. 

ACOEMETj^E,  or  Acoemeti,  an  order' 
of  monks  at  Constantinople  in  the  fifth  cen- 
tury, whom  the  writers  of  that  and  the  fol- 
lowing ages  called  Axo<^£«t<}  that  is. 
Watchers,  because  they  performed  divine 
service  day  and  night  without  intermission. 
They  divided  themselves  into  three  classes, 
who  alternately  succeeded  one  another,  so 
that  they  kept  up  a  perpetual  course  of 
worship.  This  practice  they  founded  upon 
that  passage — "  pray  without  ceasing,"  I 
Thess.  V.  If. 

ACOLY THI,  or  Acoluthi,  young  peo- 
ple who,  in  the  primitive  times,  aspired  to 
the  ministry,  and  for  that  purpose  continu- 
ally attended  the  bishop.  In  the  Romish 
church,  Acolythi  were  of  longer  continuance ; 
but  their  functions  were  different  from  those 
of  their  first  institution.  Their  business  was 
to  light  the  tapers,  carry  the  candlesticks 
and  the  incense  pot,  and  prepare  the  wine 
and  water.  At  Rome  there  were  three  kinds ; 
1.  those  who  waited  on  the  pope  ;  2.  those 
who  served  in  the  churches  ;  3.  and  others, 
who,  together  with  the  deacons,  officiated 
in  other  parts  of  the  city. 

ACT  OF  FAITH  (Auto  da  FeJ  in  the 
Romish  church,  is  a  solemn  day  held  by  the 
Inquisition  for  the  punishment  of  heretics, 
and  the  absolution  of  the  innocent  accused. 
They  usually  contrive  the  Auto  to  fall  on 
some  great  festival,  that  the  execution  may 
pass  with  the  more  awe ;  and  it  is  always 
on  a  Sunday.  The  Auto  da  Fe  may  be 
called  the  last  act  of  the  Inquisitorial  trage- 
dy :  it  is  a  kind  of  goal-delivery,  appointed 
as  often  as  a  c«mpetent  number  of  prisonere 
in  the  Inquisition  are  convicted  of  heresy, 
either  by  dieir  own  voluntary  or  extorted 
confession,  or  on  the  evidence  of  certain  wit- 
nesses. The  process  i&  this  :— In  the  morn- 
ing they  are  brought  into  a  great  hall ;  where 
they  have  certain  habits  put  on,  which  they 
are  to  wear  in  the  procession,  and  by  which 
thev  knnrw  their  doom.  The  procession  is 
led  up  by  Dominican  friars,  after  which  dome 
the  penitents,  being  all  in  black  coats  with- 
cnit  sleeves,  and  b;irefooted,  with  a  wax  can- 
dle in  tlieir  hands.  These  are  followed  by 
the  penitents  who  have  narrowly  escaped 
txiing  burnt,  who  over  tlieir  black  coats  have 


ACT 


ADA 


flames  painted,  with   their   points  turned 
downwards.     Next  come  the  negative  and 
relapsed,  who  are  to  l)e  burnt,  having  ilanies 
on  their  habits   pointing  upwards.      After 
these  come  such  as  profess   doctrines  con- 
traiy  to  the   faith  of   Rome,  wlio,  besides 
flames  ptuntinji- upwards,  have  tlieir  picture 
painted  on  their  breasts,  witli  dogs,  serpents, 
and  devils,  all  open-mou'hed,  about  it.  Each 
prisoner  is  attended  with  a  familiar  of  the 
Inquisition  ;  and  those  to  be  burnt  have  also 
a  Jesuit  on  each  hand,  who  are  continually 
preaching    to  them   to  abjure      After  ihe 
prisoners,  comes  a   troop  of  familiars   on 
hors'-back;  and  after  t'nem  tlie   Inquisitors, 
and  other  officers  of  the  court,  on  mules  : 
last  of  all,  the  inquisitor-general  on  a  white 
horse,  led  by  two  men  with  bl;\ck  hats  and 
green-hatbands.     A    scaffold  is  erected  big 
enougli  for  two  or  three  thousand   people  ; 
at  one  end  of  which  are  the  prisoners,  at  the 
other  the  Inquisitors   After  a  sermon  made 
up  of  encomiums  of  the  Inquisiticn,  and  in- 
vectives against  heretics,  a  priest  ascends  a 
desk  near  the  scaffold,   and   having   taken 
the  abjuration  of  the  penitents,   rccib-s  the 
final  sentence  of  those  who  arc  to  be  put  to 
death,  and  delivers  them  to  the  secular  arm, 
earnestly  beseeching  at  the   same  the  secu- 
lar power  not  to  touch   thdr  bloody   or  put 
their  liv^s  in  danger  !  !  !     The  prisoners, 
being  thus  in  the  hands  .)('  Hie  civil   magis- 
trate, are  presently  loaded  with  chains,  and 
carried  fii-st  to  the  seculai    gaol,   and  fmm 
thence,  in  an  hour  or  two,   iimught  before 
the  civil  judge  -,  who,  after  asking  in   what 
religion  they  intend  to  die,  pronounces  sen- 
tence on   such  as  declare  they  die   in   the 
communion  of  the  Church  '-f  Rome,  that  they 
shall  be  first  strangled,   and   then    burnt  to 
ashes;  or  sucli  as  die  in  any  other  faith,  that 
thev  be  burnt  alive.     Both  are  inn"nei!iaiely 
carried  to  the  Ribera,  the  place  of  execu- 
tion, where  there  are  as  many  stakes  set  up 
as  there  are  prisoners  to  be  burnt,  with  a 
quantitv  of  dry    furze   about    them.     The 
stakes  of  the  professed,  that  is,  such  as  per- 
sist in  the  heresy,  are  about  four  vards  high, 
having  a  small  board   towards   the  tr  p   for 
the  prisoner  t'l  be  seated  on.     The  negative 
and  relapsed  being  first  strangled  and  burnt 
the  professed  mount  their  stakes  by  a  lad- 
der, and  the  Jesuits,  after  several  repeated 
exhortations  to  be  reconciled  to  the  church, 
part    with   them  ;   telling   them   that    they 
leave  them  t"  the  devil,  who  is  standing  at 
their  e!!>ow,  to  receive  their  souls,  and  carry 
them  with   him  to  the  flames  of  hell.     On 
this  a  great  shout  is  raided  ;  and  the  cry  is, 
•'  Let  the  dof^s*  beards  be  made  .'"  which  is 
done  by  thrusting  framing  furzes  fastened  to 
long  poles  against  their  faces,  till  their  faces, 
are  burnt  to  a  coal,  which  is  accompanied 
•with  the  loudest  acclamations  of  joy.  At  last, 
fire  i';  set  to  the  furze  at  the  bottom  of  the 
stake,  over  which  the  prifessed  arc  chained 
so  high,  that  the   top  of  the   flame    seldom 
reaches  higher  than    the  seat  they  sit   on ; 
so  that  they  rather  seem  roasted  than  burnt 
E 


there  cannot  be  a  more  lamentable  specta- 
cle :  tlie  sufferers  continually  cry  out  while 
they  are  aWe,  "  Piiy,  for  the  love  of  God  !" 
♦Yet  it  is  beheld  by  all  sexes  and  ages  with 
transports  of  joy  and  satisf.vction — ()  merci- 
ful God  !  is  this  the  benign,  humane  religion 
thou  hast  given  to  men  ?  Sureij  not.  If  such 
were  the  geiius  of  Christianity,  then  it 
would  be  no  hoiK^ur  to  be  a  Christian.  Let 
us,  however,  rejoice  that  the  time  is  coming 
when  the  demon  uf  Persecution  shall  be  ban- 
ished out  of  this  our  world,  and  the  true 
spirit  of  benevolence  and  candour  pervade 
the  universe  ;  when  ncme  shall  hurt  <.r  de- 
stroy, but  the  earth  be  filled  with  the  know- 
ledge of  the  Lord,  as  the  waters  cover  the 
sea  I  See  Inquisition. 
ACTION    FOR    THE    PULPI,T.-See 

DeCI.  AMA      ION. 

AC  IS  OF  THE  ASPOSTLES,  one  of 

the  sacrt  d  ijooks  of  the  New  Testament,  con- 
tainiiig  tiie  history  of  the  infant  church  du- 
ring the  space  of  twenty-nine  or  thirty  years 
from  the  ascension  of  our  Lord  to  the  year 
of  Clirist  63.  It  was  written  by  Luke,  and 
addressed  to  riieophilus,  the  person  to  wh(.)m 
ilie  evangelist  had  bef  re  dedicated  his  gos- 
pel. The  style  of  this  work,  which  was  ori- 
ginally composed  in  Greek,  is  much  purer 
than  that  of  the  other  canonical  writers.  For 
the  contents  of  this  book  we  refer  the  I'ead- 
cr  to  the  book,  itself. 

There  have  been  several  acts  of  the  apos- 
tles, such  as  the  acts  of  .Abdias,  of  Peter,  of 
Paul.  St  J-.ihn  the  Evar.gelist,  St  Andrew, 
St.  Thomas,  St.  Philip,  and  St.  Matthias  ; 
but  they  have  been  all  jjroved  to  be  spurious. 

ACl'S  OF  PILATE,  a  relation  sent  by- 
Pilate  to  the  emperor  Tiberius,  amcerning 
Jesus  Christ,  his  death,  resurrection,  ascei>- 
sion,  and  the  criines  of  which  he  was  con- 
victed before  him.  It  was  a  custom  among 
the  Romans,  that  the  pro-consuls  and  gover- 
nors of  provinces  should  draw  up  acts  or 
memoirs  of  what  happened  in  the  course  of 
their  govemnierit,  and  send  them  to  the  em>- 
peror  at^d  senate.  The  genuine  act  of  Pi- 
late wrre  sent  by  him  to  Tiberius,  wh<9  re- 
iser'ed  them  to  the  senate;  but  they  were 
rejected  by  that  assembly,  becau,sc  xuX  im- 
mediately addressed  to  them  ;  as  is  testified 
by  Tertuliian,  in  his  Apol  cap.  5  &  20,  21. 
The  heretic*  forged  acts  in  imitation  of 
thetn  ;  but  be,th  the  genuine  and  the  spurious  i 
are  now  lost. 

ADAMITES,  a  sect  that  sprung  up  in 
the  second  centuiy   E])iphanius  tells  us,  that 
they  were  called  Adamitt  s  *rom  their  pre- 
tending to  be  re-established  in  the    state  of 
innocence,  such  as  Adam  v;as  at  the  moment 
of  his  creati  n,  whence  they  ought  to  imitate  , 
him    in   going  naked.     They  detested   mar-  j 
riage4  maintaining  that  the  conjugal  vmioa' 
wf^uld  never  have  taken  plire   upon  earth, 
had  sin  been  unknown.     This  obscure  and 
rif'iculous  sect   did   not   last  long.     It  was,  • 
however,  revived  with  additienal  absurdities 
in  the  twelfth  century.  About  the  beginning 
of  the  fifteenth  century,  these  errors  spread  ; 


ADO 


10 


ADO 


in  Germany  and  Bohemia :  it  found  also 
some  partisans  in  Poland,  Holland,  and  Eng- 
land. They  assembled  in  the  rlight ;  and,  it 
is  said,  one  of  the  fundamental  maxims  ot 
their  society  was  cimtaiued  in  the  following 
verse  : 

Jura,  perjiira,  secretum  prodere  noli. 
Sw<:-ar,  foiswtar,  and  reveal  not  the  secret. 

ADESSENARIANS,  a  branch  of  the  Sa- 
cramentanans;  so  called  from  the  Latin 
jidesse,  to  be  present,  because  they  believed 
the  presence  of  Christ's  body  in  the  eucha- 
rist,  though  in  a  manner  different  from  the 
Romanists. 

ADIAPHORISTS,  a  name  given  in  Uie 
sixteenth  century  to  the  moderate  Lutherans 
■who  adhered  to  the  sentiments  of  Melanc- 
thon  ;  and  afterwards  to  those  who  subscri- 
bed the  interim  ot  Charles  V  [See  In  i  erim]. 
The  word  is  of  Greek  origin  (a^tx,(pop(^j, 
and  signifies  indifference  or  lukewarmness. 

ADMIRATION  is  that  passion  of  the 
mind  which  is  excited  by  the  discovery  of 
any  great  excellence  in  an  object.  It  has  by 
some  writers  been  used  as  synonymous  with 
surprise  and  wonder  ;  but  it  is  evident  they 
are  not  the  same.  Surprise  refers  to  some- 
thing unexpected ;  wonder,  to  something 
great  or  strange  ;  but  admiration  includes 
the  idea  of  high  esteem  or  respect.  Thus, 
■we  say  we  admire  a  man's  excellencies ;  but 
•we  do  not  say  that  we  are  surprised  at  them. 
We  wonder  at  an  extraordinary  object  or 
event,  but  we  do  not  always  admire  it. 

ADMONITION  denotes  a  hint  or  advice 
«;iven  to  another,  whereby  we  reprove  hrm 
foi-  his  fault,  or  remind  him  of  his  duty.  Ad- 
monition w'as  a  part  of  the  discipline  much 
used  in  the  ancient  church  :  it  was  the  first 
act  or  step  towards  the  punishment  or  ex- 
pulsion of  delinquents  In  case  of  private 
offences,  it  was  perf  .rmed  according  to  the 
evangelical  rule,  privately  ;  in  case  of  public 
offence,  openly  before  the  church.  If  either 
of  thi^se  sufficed  for  the  recoveiy  of  the 
fallen  i)ersrn,  all  farther  pr.nceeding-s,  in  a 
"wav  of  censure,  ceased  ;  if  they  did  not,  re- 
doiir.se  was  had  to  excommunication. — Tit. 
iii.  10.  1  Thess.  v.  14.  Eph    vi    4. 

ADONAI,  one  of  the  names  of  the  Su- 
preme Being  in  the  Scriptures.  The  pro- 
per meaning  of  the  wo'd  is  "  my  Lords,'" 
in  the  plural  number  ;  as  ^dovi  is7w?/  Lord, 
in  the  singular.  The  Jews,  who  either  out 
of  respect  or  superstition  do  not  pionounce 
the  name  of  Jt-hovah,  read  .Adonai  in  the 
room  of  it,  as  often  as  they  meet  with  Jeho- 
vah in  the  Hebrew  text.  But  the  ancient 
Jews  were  not  so  scrupulous  ;  nor  is  there 
any  law  which  forbids  them  to  pronounce 
the  name  of  God. 

ADONTSTS,  a  party  among  divines  and 
critics,  who  maintain  that  the  Hebrew  points 
ordinarily  annexed  to  the  consonants  of  the 
word  Jehovah  are  not  the  natural  points  be- 
longing to  that  word,  nor  express  the  true 
pr  nunciation  of  it ;  but  are  the  vrwal  points 
beloifging  to  the  words  ^donai  and  Elohim, 
applied  to  the  consonants  of  the  ineffable 


name  Jehovah,  to  warn  the  readers,  that  in- 
stead of  the  word  Jehovah,  which  the  Jews 
were  forbid  to  pronounce,  and  the  true  pro- 
nunciation of  which  had  been  long  unknown 
to  them,  they  are  always  to  read  Adonai. 
They  are  opposed  to  Je/iovists,  of  whom  the 
principal  are  Drusius,  CapeUus,  Buxtorf, 
Alting,  and  Reland. 

ADOPTIONISTS,  the  fellowers  of  Felix 
of  Uj-gil  and  Eiipand  of  Toledo,  who,  tow- 
ards the  end  of  the  eighth  century,  advan- 
ced the  notion  that  Jesus  Christ  in  his  hu- 
man nature  is  the  Son  of  God,  not  by  nature, 
but  by  adoption. 

ADOPTION,  an  act  whereby  any  person 
receives  another  into  his  family,  owns  him 
for  his  son,  and  appoints  him 'his  heir.  2. 
Spiritual  adoption  is  an  act  of  God's  free 
grace,  whereby  we  are  received  into  the 
number,  and  have  a  right  to  all  the  privileges 
of  the  sons  of  God. — 3.  Glorious,  is  that  in 
which  the  saints,  being  raised  from  the  dead, 
are  at  the  last  day  solemnly  owned  to  be  the 
children  of  God,  and  enter  into  the  full  pos- 
session of  that  itiheritance  provided  for  them, 
Rom.  viii.  19.  23.  Adoption  is  a  woi'd  taken 
from  the  civil  law,  and  was  much  in  use 
among  the  Romans  in  the  apostles*  time  ; 
when  it  was  a  custom  for  persons  who  had 
no  children  of  their  own,  and  were  possessed 
of  an  estate,  to  prevent  its  being  divided,  or 
descending  to  strangers,  to  make  choice  of 
such  who  were  agreeable  to  them,  and  be- 
loved by  them,  whom  they  took  into  this 
political  relation  of  children ;  obliging  them 
to  take  their  name  upon  them,  and  to  pay 
respect  to  tliem  as  though  they  were  their 
natur.^1  parents,  and  engaging  to  deal  with 
them  as  though  they  had  been  so ;  and  ac- 
cordingly to  give  them  a  right  to  their  es- 
tates, as  an  inheritance.  This  new  relation, 
founded  in  a  mutual  consent,  is  a  bond  of  af- 
fection ;  and  the  privilege  arising  from 
thence  is,  that  he  who  is  in  this  sense  a  fa- 
ther, takes  care  of  and  provides  for  the  per- 
son %vhom  he  adopts,  as  though  he  were  his 
son  b\  nature  ;  and  therefore  civilians  call  it 
an  act  of  legitimation,  imitating  nature,  or 
supplying  the  place  of  it. 

It  is  easy,  then,  to  conceive  the  propriety 
of  the  term  as  used  by  the  ajx)stles  in  refe- 
rence to  this  act,  tliough  it  must  be  confess- 
ed there  is  some  difference  between  civil  and 
spiritual  adoption.  Civil  adoption  was  allow- 
ed of  and  provided  for  the  rolief  and  com- 
fort of  those  who  had  no  children  ;  but  in 
spiritual  adoption  this  reason  does  not  appear. 
The  Almighty  was  under  no  obligation  to 
do  this;  forhehad  innumerable  spirits  whom 
he  had  created,  besides  his  own  Son,  who 
had  ail  the  perfections  of  the  divine  nature, 
who  was  the  object  of  his  delight,  and  who 
is  styled  the  heir  of  all  things,  Heb  i.  3. 
When  men  adopt,  it  is  on  account  of  some 
t='xcellency  in  the  persons  who  are  adopted  ; 
thus  Pharaoh's  daughter  adopted  Moses  be- 
cause he  was  exceeding  fair.  Acts  vii.  20, 
21  ;  and  Mordecai  adopted  Esther  because 
she  was  his  uncle's  daughter,  and  exceeding 


ADO 


11 


ADO 


fair,  Esth.  ii.  7 :  but  man  has  nothing  in  him 
that  merits  this  divine  aet,  Ezek.  xvi.  5.  In 
civil  adoption,  though  the  name  of  a  son  be 
given,  the  nature  of  a  son  may  not :  this  re- 
lation may  not  necessarily  be  attended  with 
any  change  of  disposition  or  temper.  But  in 
spiritual  adoption  we  are  made  partakers 
of  the  divine  nature,  and  a  temper  or  disposi- 
tion given  us  becoming  the  relationship  we 
bear,  Jer.  iii.  19. 

Much  has  been  said  as  to  the  time  of  adop- 
tion. Some  place  it  before  regeneration  be- 
cause it  is  supposed  that  we  must  be  in  the 
family  before  we  can  be  partakers  of  the 
blessings  of  it.  But  it  is  difficult  to  conceive 
of  one  before  the  other ;  for  although  adop- 
tion may  seem  to  precede  regeneration  in  or- 
der of  nature,  yet  not  of  time  ;  they  may  be 
distinguished,  but  cannot  be  separated.  "As 
many  as  received  him,  to  them  gave  he 
power  to  become  the  sons  of  God,  even  to 
them  that  believe  on  his  name,"  John  i.  12 
There  is  no  adoption,  says  the  great  Char- 
nock,  without  regeneration.  *'  Adoption," 
says  the  same  author,  "  is  not  a  mere  rela- 
tion ;  the  privilege  and  the  image  of  the 
sons  of  God  go  together.  A  state  of  adop- 
tion is  never  without  a  separation  from  de- 
filement. Cor.  ii.  17,  18.  The  new  name  in 
adoption  is  never  given  till  the  new  crea- 
ture be  formed.  '  As  many  as  are  led  by  the 
Spirit  of  Gad,  they  are  the  sons  of  God,' 
Rom.  viii.  14.  Yet  these  are  to  be  distin- 
guished. Regeneration  as  a  physical  act, 
gives  a  likeness  to  God  in  our  nature  ; 
adoption,  as  a  legal  act,  gives  us  a  right  to 
an  inheritance.  Regeneration  makes  us/br- 
mally  his  sons,  by  conveying  a  principle,  Pet. 
i.  23  ;  adoption  make  us  relatively  his  sons, 
by  conveying  a  power,  John  i.  12.  By  the 
one  we  are  instated  in  the  divine  affectirn  ; 
by  the  other  we  are  partakers  of  tlie  divine 
nature  " 

The  firivileges  ofadofition  are  every  luay 
great  and  extensive.  1.  It  implies  great 
honour.  They  have  God's  name  put  upon 
them,  and  are  described  as  "  his  people,  call- 
ed by  his  name,"  2  Chron.  vii.  24  Eph.  iii. 
15.  They  are  no  longer  slaves  to  sin  and  the 
■world  ;  but  emancipated  from  its  dreadful 
bondage,  are  raised  to  dignity  and  hcTnour. 
Gal.  iv.  7.  1  John,  iii.  1,  2. — 2.  Inexhaus- 
tible firovision  and  riches.  They  inherit  all 
things.  Rev.  xxi.  7.  All  the  blessings  of  a 
temporal  kind  that  are  for  their  good  shall 
be  given  them.  Psalm  Ixxxiv.  11.  All  the 
blessings  of  grace  are  treasured  up  in  Jesus 
Christ'for  them,  Eph.  i.  3.  All  the  bles- 
sings of  glory  shall  be  enjoyed  by  them,  Cnl 
i.  27.  "All  things  are  yours,"  says  the 
apostle,  "  wliether  Paul,  or  Apollos,  or  Ce- 
phas, or  the  world,  or  life,  or  death,  or  things 
present,  or  things  to  cnme,  all  are  yours  " 
1  Cor.  iii.  22. — 13.  Divine  protection.  "  In 
the  fear  of  the  Lord  is  strong  conlidence. 
and  his  children  shall  have  a  place  of  re- 
fuge," Prov.  xiv.  26.  As  the  master  of  a 
f  family  is  enp;ac;ed  to  defend  and  secure  all 
under  his  roof  and  committed  to  his  cave,  sn 


Jesus  Christ  is  engaged  to  protect  and  de?- 
fend  his  people.  "  They  shall  dwell  in  a 
peaceable  habitation,  and  in  sure  dwellings, 
and  quiet  resting  places,"  I?,  xxxii.  18.  Heb. 
i.  14. — 4.  Unsptakable  Jllkity.  They  enjo^ 
the  most  intimate  communion  with  the  Fa- 
ther, and  with  his  Son  Jesus  Christ.  They 
have  access  to  his  throne  at  all  times,  and 
under  all  circumstances  They  see  divine 
wisdom  regulating  every  affair  and  render- 
ing every  thing  subservient  to  their  good. 
Heb.  xii.  6 — 11.  The  laws,  the  liberty,  the 
privileges,  the  relations,  the  provisions,  and 
the  security  of  this  family,  are  all  sources  of 
happiness  ;  but  especially  the  presence,  the 
approbation,  and  the  goodness  of  God,  as  the 
governor  thereof,  afford  joy  unspeakable  and 
full  of  gloiy,  1  Pet.  i.  8.  Prov.  iii  17.  Heb. 
iv.  17 — 5.  Eternal  glory.  In  some  cases, 
civil  adoption  might  be  made  null  and  void, 
as  among  the  Romans,  when  against  the 
right  of  the  pontifes,  and  without  the  de- 
cree of  the  college ;  but  spiritual  adoption, 
as  it  is  divine  as  to  its  origin,  so  it  is  perpe- 
tual as  to  its  duration.  "The  Son  abideth 
in  the  house  forever."  John  viii.  35.  "  The 
inheritance  of  the  saints  is  incorruptible,  un- 
defiled,  and  never  fadeth  away,"  1  Pet.  i.  4. 
"  Now  are  we  the  sons  of  God,  and  it  doth 
not  yet  appear  what  we  shall  be  :  but  we 
know  that  when  he  shall  appear,  we  shall  be 
like  him,  for  we  shall  see  him  as  he  is,"  1 
John  iii  2.  In  the  present  state  we  are  as 
children  at  school :  but  in  heaven  we  shall 
be  as  children  at  home,  whei-e  we  shall  al- 
ways behold  the  face  of  our  heavenly  Father, 
for  ever  celebrating  his  praises,  admiring 
his  perfections,  and  enjoying  his  presence. 
"  So  shall  we  be  ever  with  the  Lord,"  1 
Thess.  iv.  17. 

The  evidences  of  adoption  are,  1  Renun- 
ciation of  all  former  dtpendencies.  When 
a  child  is  adopted,  he  relinquishes  the  ob- 
ject of  his  past  confidence,  and  submits  him- 
self to  the  will  and  pleasure  of  the  adopter ; 
so  they  who  are  brought  into  the  family  of 
God,  will  evidence  it,  by  giving  up  every 
other  object  so  far  as  it  interferes  with  the 
will  and  glory  cf  their  heaveoly  Father, 
"  Ephraim  shall  say,  what  have  I  to  do  any 
more  with  idols  ?"  Hos.  xiv.  8.  "  Othei 
lords  have  had  dominion  over  us,  but  by 
thee  only  will  we  make  mention  of  thy 
name."  Is.  xxvi  13  Matt.  xiii.  45,  46.  Phil, 
iii.  8 — 2.  ylffcction.  This  may  not  alwaysj 
apply  to  civil  adoption,  but  it  always  does 
to  spiritual.  The  children  of  God  feel 
regard  for  him  above  every  other  objec 
His  own  excellency,  his  unspeakable  good-- 
ness  to  them,  his  ])romises  of  future  bless- 
ingfi,  are  all  grounds  of  the  strongest  love, 
"Whom  ha', e  1  in  heaven  but  thee?  an 
there  is  none  upon  earth  that  I  desire  b 
sides  thee,"  P.salm  Ixxiii.  25.  "  Thou 
my  porticn,  saith  my  soul,  thej-efore  will  | 
hope  in  tliee,"  Lam.  iii.  24.  Luke  vii.  47.  P^ 
xviii.  1 — 3.  .Access  to  God  with  a  holi 
holdne&s-  The}'  who  are  children  by  adop 
tion  are  FMT)p'^Rcd  to  liave  the  same  liberty 


ADO 


12 


ADU 


of  access  as  those  who  are  children  by 
nature  ;  so  those  wlio  are  partakers  of  the 
blessings  of  spiritual  adoption  will  prove  it 
by  a  re\'erential  yet  fami  iar  address  to  tlie 
Father  of  spirits  :  they  will  confess  their 
un worthiness,  acknowled,y;e  thtir  depend- 
ance,  and  implore  the  iiitrcy  and  favour  of 
God.  "  Because  ye  are  sons,  Gud  hatli  st-nt 
forth  the  Spirit  of  his  Son  into  your  liearts 
crying,  Abba.  Father,"  Gal  iv.  6.  "  Through 
Jesus  Christ  we  have  accesb  by  one  Spirit 
unto  the  Father,"  Eph.  ii.  18.  Having  such 
a  privilege,  they  come  boldly  to  the  throne 
of  grace  that  they  may  obtain  mercy,  and 
find  grace  to  help  in  time  of  need,  Heb.  iv. 
16. — 4  Obedience.  'I'hose  who  are  adopted 
into  a  family  must  obey  the  laws  of  that 
(family  :  so  believers  prove  themselves  adopt- 
ed by  their  obedience  to  the  word  and  or- 
dinances of  God.  "  Ye  are  my  friends,  if 
ye  do  whatsoever  1  command  you,"  John  xv. 
14.  "  Whoso  Keepeth  his  word,  in  hiin  veri- 
ly is  the  love  of  Gud  perfected :  hereby  know 
■we  tliat  we  are  in  him.  He  tliat  sa-ith  he 
abideth  in  him,  ought  himself  also  to  walk 
even  as  he  walked,"  1  John,  ii,  4,  .5. — 5. 
Patient,  yet  joyful  exfiectation  of  the  in- 
hei  LiMce.  In  civi;  adoption,  indeed,  an  in- 
heritance is  not  aiways  certain;  but  in 
spiritual  adoption  it  is,  "  To  them  who,  by 
patient  contiiuiance  m  well  doing,  seek  for 
glory,  and  honour,  atvl  immortality,  eternal 
life,"  Rom.  ii.  7.  "  We  look  not  at  the 
th  i.  ;i  which  are  seen,  but  at  the  things 
■which  are  not  seen  ;  ftir  the  things  which 
are  seen  are  temp-ral,  Imt  the  things  which 
are  not  seen  are  eternal,"  2.  Cor.  iv.  18. 
Rom.  vi,  23.  Heb.  xi.  26,  27.  From  the  con- 
sideration of  the  whole  of  this  doctrine,  we 
may  learn  that  adoption  is  an  act  of  free 
grace  through  Jesus  Chri.Nt,  Eph  i.  5.  Appli- 
ed to  believers  by  the  Holy  Spirit,  Gal.  iv. 
6.  Rom  viii  15,  16  A  blessing  of  the  great- 
est importance,  1  J.  hn  iii.  1.  and  lays  us 
under  an  invi'iabli"' obligation  of  submismoTi, 
Heb.  xu.  9  imitation,  Eph.  v.  1.  and  de- 
fiendana,  iVIatt.  vi,  32.  See  Eid.trlcy'fi  and 
Gill's  P'odij  of  Div.  art.  Adojition  ;  Char- 
lock's Works,  vol.  ii.  p.  32 — 72  :  Flavets 
Works,  vol.  2.  p.  601  :  Brown's  System  of 
ISTat.  and  Rev.  Religion,  p.  442:  Witsii 
(Econ.  Ficd.  p.  165. 

ADORA  TION,  the  act  of  rendering  divine 
lonours,  including  in  it  reverence,  esteem, 
ind  love  :  this  is  called  supreme,  oi- absolute. 
The  word  is  compounded,  of  ad,  "to,"  and 
)s,  oris,  "  month  ;"  and  literally  signifies  to 
ipply  the  hand  o  the  mouth,  "  to  kiss  the 
land;  this  being  in  the  eastern  countries, 
fie  of  the  great  marks  of  respect  and  sub- 
nissioii.  See  Job  xxxi.  26,  27.  The  attitude 
'if  adoration,  however,  we  find  has  not  Iwen 
onhned  to  this  mode,  standing,  kneeling, 
ticovering  the  head,  prostration,  bowing, 
fting  up  the  eyes  to  heaven,  or  sometime  s 
ixing  them  ujKin  the  earth  with  the  b(xlv 
.•ending  forward :  sitting  with  tlie  under 
arts  of  the  thighs  resting  on  the  heels,  have 
[1  been    used,   as  expressive  of  veneration 


and  esteem.  Whatever  be  the  form,  how- 
ever, it  must  be  remembered,  that  adora- 
tion, as  an  act  of  wi  rship,  is  due  to  God 
alone,  M.itt.  iv.  lO.  Act;,  x.  25,  26.  Rev.  xix. 
10,  There  is  2.  what  may  be  called  adora- 
tion humun,  or  paying  homage  or  respect  to 
persons  of  great  rank  and  dignity.  I'hishas 
been  performed  by  bowing,  bendiiig  the  knee, 
falling  on  the  face.  Tlie  practice  of  adora- 
tion may  be  said  to  be  still  subsisting  in  Eng- 
land, in  the  ceremony  of  kissing  the  king's 
or  queen's  hand,  and  in  serving  them  at 
table,  both  being  performed  kneeling  on  one 
knee.  Tiiere  is  also,  3  adoratifm  relative^ 
which  Consists  in  woiship  paid  to  an  object 
as  belonging  to  or  representative  of  another. 
In  this  sense  the  Romanists  profess  to  adore 
the  cross  not  simply  er  immediately,  but  in 
respect  of  Jesus  Christ,  whom  they  suppose 
to  be  on  it.  This  is  generally,  JKjwever,  con- 
sidered by  protestants,  as  coming  little  short 
of  idolatry.  S-e  Idolatry. 

ADVERSARY,  one  who  sets  himself  in 
opposition  to  another:  one  of  the  names, of 
Satan-  See  Satan. 

ADVERSITY,  a  state  which  is  opposite 
to  our  wi.shes,  and  the  cause  of  sorrow.  It 
stands  opposed  to  prosperity.    See  Afflic- 

TI^>N. 

ADULTERY,  an  unlawful  commerce  be- 
tween one  married  person  and  another,  or 
berween  a  married  and  unmarried  person. — , 
2.  It  is  also  used  in  scripture  foi  idolatry,  or 
departing  from  the  true  G)d,  Jer.  iii  9. — 3. 
Also  for  any  species  of  impurity  or  crime 
against  tJie  virtue  of  chastity.  Matt,  v  28. — 
4.  It  is  also  used  in  ecclesiastical  writers  for 
a  person's  invading  or  intruding  into  a  bishop- 
rick  during  the  former  bishop's  life. — 5-  The 
word  is  also  tised  in  ancient  customs  for  the 
punishment  or  fine  imposed  for  that  offence, 
or  the  privilege  of  prosecuting  for  it — Al- 
though adultery  is  prohibited  by  the  law  of 
Ciod,  yet  some  have  endeavoured  to  explain 
away  the  moral  turpitude  of  it ;  but  it  is 
evident,  observes  Paley,  that  on  the  part  of 
the  man  who  solicit.^  the  chastity  of  a  marri- 
ed woman,  it  certainly  includes  the  crime  of 
seduction,  and  is  attei;ded  with  mischief  still 
more  extensive  and  complicated  ;  it  creates 
a  new  sufferer,  the  injured  husband,  upon 
whose  afifcction  is  inflicted  a  wound  the  most 
painful  and  incurable  that  human  nature 
knows  The  infidelity  of  the  nvoman  is 
aggravated  by  cnielty  to  her  children,  who 
are  generally  invc^Ived  in  their  parents' 
shame,  and  always  made  unhappy  by  their 
quarrel.  The  marriage  vow  is  witnessed 
before  God,  and  accompanied  with  circum- 
stances of  solemnity  and  religion,  which  ap- 
proacli  to  the  nature  of  an  oath.  The  mar- 
ried offender,  therefore,  incurs  a  crime  little 
short  of  perjury,  and  the  seduction  of  a 
married  woman  is  little  less  than  subornation 
of  ])eriury.  But  the  strongest  apology  for 
adultery  is,  the  prior  transgression  of  the 
other  i)arty  ;  and  so  far,  indeed,  as  the  l:)ad 
eiFects  of  adultery  are  antici])ated  by  the 
conduct  of  the  husband  or  wife  wiio  offends 


AFF 


13 


AFF 


first,  the  giiilt  of  the  second  offender  is  ex- 
tenuattcl.  But  this  can  never  antount  to  a 
justihcdtion.  Unless  it  could  be  shown  that 
the  obligation  of  the  marriage  vgw  depends 
'  upon  tiK-  condition  of  reciprocal  fidelity  ;  a 
constrtiction  which  appears  founded  neither 
in  expediency,  nor  in  terms  of  the  vow,  nor 
in  the  design  of  the  legislature,  which  pre- 
scribed the  marriage  rite.  To  consider  ttic 
offence  upon  the  footing  of  prox'Ocation, 
therefore,  can  by  no  mtans  vindicate  re- 
tahation.  "  Thou  shalt  not  Gommit  adul- 
tery," it  must  be  ever  remembered,  was  an 
interdict  delivered  by  God  himself.  This 
crime  has  been  punished  in  almost  all  ages 
and  nations.  By  the  Jewish  law  it  was  pun- 
ished with  death  in  both  parties.where  either 
the  woman  was  married,  or  both.  Ammig  the 
Egyptians,  adultery  in  the  man  was  puriish- 
ed  by  a  thousand  lashes  with  rods,  and  in 
the  woman  by  the  loss  of  her  nose.  The 
Greeks  put  out  the  eyes  of  the  adulterers 
Among  the  Romans,  it  was  punished  by 
banishment,  cutting  off  the  ears,  noses,  a<id 
by  sewing  tlie  adulterers  in  sacks,  and  throw- 
ing them  into  the  sea  ;  scourging,  burning 
&c.  In  Spain  and  Poland  they  were  almost 
as  severe.  The  Saxons  furnierly  burnt  the 
adulteress,  and  over  her  ashes  erected  a 
gibbet,  whereon  the  adulterer  was  hanged. 
King  Edmund  in  hiskingdora,  ordered  adul- 
tery to  be  punished  in  the  same  manner  as 
homicide.  Canute  ordered  the  man  to  be 
banished,  and  the  woman  to  have  her  nose 
and  ears  cut  oft".  Modern  punishments,  in 
different  nations,  do  not  seem  to  be  so  severe. 
In  Britain  it  is  reckoned  a  spiritual, offence, 
and  is  cognizable  by  the  spiritual  courts, 
where  it  is  punished  by  fine  and  penance. 
See  Paley\'i  Moral  and  PoUticai  Ph'dosofihy, 
p.  309,  vol.  i.  12th  edition. 

AERIANS,  a  branch  of  Arians  in  the 
reign  of  Constantine,  who  held  that  there  was 
no  difference  between  bishops  and  priests ;  a 
doctrine  maintained  by  many  modern  divines, 
particularly  of  the  presbyter)  ans  and  reform- 
ed churches.  The  sect  received  its  denomi- 
nation from  Aerius,  who  founded  his  doc- 
trine on  1  Tim.  iv.  14.      See  Episcopacy 

AETIANS,  those  who  maintained  that 
the  Son  and  Holy  Ghost  were  in  all  things 
dissimilar  ta  the  Father.  They  received 
their  name  from  Aetius,  one  of  the  most 
zealous  defenders  of  Arianism,  who  w^as  born 
in  Syria,  and  flourished  about  the  year  336. 
Besides  the  opinions  v/hich  the  Aetians  held 
in  common  with  the  Arians,  they  maintaii>ed 
that  faith  without  works  was  sufficient  to 
salvation  :  and  that  no  sin,  however  priev- 
ous._  would  be  imputed  to  the  faithful. 
Aetius,  moreover,  affirmed  that  what  Gcd 
had  concealed  from  the  apostles,  he  had  re- 
vealed! to  him. 

AFFECTION,  in  a  philosophical  sense, 
refers  to  the  manner  in  which  we  are  uffcct- 
cdhy  any  tiling  for  a  continuance,  whether 
painful  or  pleasant:  but  in  the  most  common 
sense,  it  may  be  defined  to  te  a  settled  bent 
of  mind  towards  a  particular  being  or  thing. 


It  holds  a  middle  place  between  disfiosition 
on  the  one  hand,  and  passion  on  the  other. 
It  is  distinguishable  from  dU/iosidon,  which 
being  a  branch  of  one's  nature  originally, 
must  exist  before  there  can  be  an  oppor- 
tunity to  exert  it  upon  any  particular  object; 
whereas  affection  can  never  be  original,  be- 
cause having  a  special  relation  to  a  par- 
ticular object,  it  cannot  exist  till  the  object 
have  once,  at  least,  bten  presented,  it  is 
also  distinguishable  from  passion,  which,  de- 
pending on  the  real  or  ideal  presence  of  its 
object,  vanishes  with  its  object;  whereas 
affection  is  a  lasting  connection,  and,  lika 
other  connectirns,  subsist  even  when  we  do 
not  think  of  the  object.  [See  Disposition 
and  Pas-sion  ]  Ihe  affections,  as  they  re- 
spect religion,  deserve  ii;  this  place  a  little 
attention.  They  may  be  t'efined  to  be  the 
"  vigorous  and  sensible  exercises  of  the  in- 
clinatitai  and  wiil  (  f  the  srul  towards  reli- 
gious objects "  Whatever  extremes  stoics 
or  enthusiasts  have  run  into,  it  is  evident 
that  the  exercise  of  the  affectinns  is  essential 
to  the  existence  of  true  religion  It  is  true, 
indeed,  "  that  all  affectionate  devotion  is 
not  wise  and  rational  ;  but  it  is  no  less  true, 
thai  all  wise  and  rational  devotion  must  be 
affectionate  "  The  affections  are  the  s]  irfngs 
of  action  ;  they  belong  to  our  nature,  so  that 
with  the  highest  perceptions  of  tinith  and 
religion,  we  should  be  inactive  without  them 
They  have  considerable  influence  on  men  in 
the  common  concerns  of  life ;  how  much 
more,  then,  should  they  operate  in  those 
important  objects  that  relate  to  the  Divine 
Being,  the  immortality  of  the  soul,  and  the 
happiness  or  miser}'  of  a  future  state  !  The* 
religion  of  the  most  eminent  saints  has  always 
consisted  in  the  exercise  of  holy  afftctions. 
Jesus  Christ  himself  affords  us  an  example  I 
of  the  most  lively  and  vigorous  affections ;  * 
and  we  have  everv  reason  to  believe  that 
the  employment  of  heaven  corsists  in  the 
exercise  of  them.  In  addition  to  all  which 
the  scripture  of  truth  teach  us,  that  reli- 
gion is  nothing,  if  it  occupy  not  the  affections, 
Deut.  vi.  4  £c  5.  Deut.  xxx.  6.  Rom.  xii.  11. 
1  Cor.  xiii.  13.    Ps.  xxvii   14. 

A  distinction,  howevei',  must  be  made  be-  ■ 
tween   what  may  be    inertly  natural,  and 
what    is    truly  ifiiritv.al.      The     affections 
may  be  excited  in  a  natural  way  under  or-  ^ 
dinances  by    a    natural  impressio?i,    Ezek.  ^ 
xxxiii.  32  :  by   a  natural  sympathy,  or  by 
the  natural  /f.?(Ac?'c?/i'e.^f  of  our  cr nstitution. 
It  is  no  sign  trliat  our  affections  are  spiritual  : 
because  they  are  raised  very  high  ;  produce  ■ 
great  effects  on  tlie  body ;  excite  us  to  be 
very  zealous  in  externals;  to  be  always  con- 
versing ab^ut  ourselves,  Sec.     These  things 
are  often  found  in  those  who  are  only  mere 
professors  of  religion,  Matt.  vii.  21,  22. 

Now,  in  order  to  Hscertain  whether  wir 
affections  are  excited  in  a  spiritual  manner, 
we  must  enquire  whether  that  wliicli  moves 
our  affect!(-ns  be  truly  spiritual  whether  our 
consdcnces  be  alarmed,  and  cur  hearts  im-  ^ 
pressed  ;  whether  the  judgment  be  enlight-   | 


AGA 


14 


AGO 


ened,  and  we  have  a  perception  of  the  moral 
excellency  of  divine  things;  and,  lastly, 
•whether  cur  aflFtctions  have  a  holy  tendency, 
and  produce  the  hapyy  effects  of  obedience 
to  God,  humility  in  ourselves,  and  justice  to 
our  fellow  creatures.  As  this  is  a  subject 
worthy  of  close  attention,  the  reader  may 
consult  Lord  Kami's  Elements  of  Criticism, 
vol  ii.  p.  517  ;  Ednvards  on  the  affections  ; 
Pike  and  Hayivards'  Cases  of  Conscience  : 
Watt's  Use  and  ^buse  of  the  Passions  ; 
M'Laurin's  Essays,  sect.  5  and  6,  where 
this  subjtct  is  masterly  handled. 

AFFLICTION,  that  which  causes  a  sen- 
sation of  pain.  Calamity  or  distress  of  any 
kind     The  afflictions  of  the  saints  are  re- 
presented in  the  scripture,  as  apfiointed,    1 
Thes.  iii.  3.  Job.   v.   6,  7  ;    numerous,    Ps. 
xxxiv.  19  ;  transient,  2  Cor,  iv.  17.  Heb.  x. 
37 ;  and  when  sanctified,  beneficial,  1  Pet.  i. 
6,  Ps.  cxix.    67,  71.    They  wean   from  the 
world  ;  work  submission  ;  produce  humility  ; 
excite   to  diligence  ;  stir  up  to  prayer  ;  and 
conform  us  to  the  divine  image.     To  bear 
them  with  patience,  we  should  consider  our 
own   unworthiness ;   the    design  of  God   in 
sending  them  ;  the  promises  of  support  under 
them  ;  and  the  real  good  they  are  productive 
of.     The  afflictions  of  a  good  man,  sa\  s  an 
elegant  writer,  never  befal  without  a  cause, 
ncr  are  sent  but  upon  a  proper  errand.  These 
storms  are  never  allowed  to  rise  but  in  order 
to  dispel  some  noxiour  vapours,  and  restore 
salubrity  to  the  moral  atmosphere.      Who 
that  for  the  first  time  beheld  the  earth  in 
the  midst  of  winter,  bound  up  with  frost,  or 
drenched  in  floods  of  rain,   or  covered  with 
snow  would  have  imagined  that  Nature,  in 
this  dreary  and  torpid  state,  was  working  to- 
wards its  own  renovation  in  the  spring  ?  Yet 
we  by  experience  know  that   those  vicissi- 
tudes of  winter  are  necessary  for  fertilizing 
the  earth  ;  and  that  under  wintry  rains  and 
snows  lie    concealed   the  seeds  of  those  ro- 
ses that  are  to  blossom  in  the  spring;  of  those 
fruits  that  are  to  ripen  in  the  summer  ;  and 
of  the  corn  and  wine  wliich  are  in   harvest 
to  make  glad  the  heart  of  man.     It  would 
;   be  more  agreeable  to  us  to  be  always  enter- 
'    tained   with  a  fair  and   clear    atmosphere, 
'    with  cloudless  skies,  and  perpetual  sunshine, 
'    yet  in  such  climates  as  we  have  most  know- 
ledge of,  the  earth,   were  it  always  to  re- 
i    main  in  such  a  state,   would  refuse  to  yield 
I   its  fruits ;  and,  in  the  midst  of  our  imagined 
I   scenes  of  beauty,    the    starved    inliabitants 
'.   would   perish    for   want  of  food.     Let   us, 
I    therefore  quietly  submit  to  Providence.  Let 
I    us  conceive  this  life  to  be  the  winter  of  our 
t  existence.    Now  the  rains  must  fall,  and  the 
r  winds  must  roar  around  us  ;  but   shelterinp: 
•^  ourselves  under   him    who   is  the    "  covert 
<  from    the  tempest,"    let  us  wait   witii  pa- 
\  tience  till  the  storms  of  life  shall  terminate 
i  in  an  everlasting  calm.     JUair's  Scr.  vol.  v 
I  ser.  5:   Vincmr,   Case,  and  ylddington,  ov 
K  AfPiiction  ;  Wiliison's  Jlfflicled  Man's  Com- 
B  pan  Ion. 
\     AGAPili^,  or  Love  Feasts  (from  aya^;;, 


"  love,")  feasts  of  charity  among  the  ancient 
Christians,  when  liberal  contributions  were 
made  by  the  rich  to  the  poor.  St.   Chrysos- 
tum  gives  the  following  account  of  this  feast, 
which  he  derives  from  the  apostolic  practice. 
He  says, — "  the   first   Christians    had    all 
things  ill  common,  as  we  read  in  the  Act*  of 
the  apostles  ;  but  when  that  equality  of  pos- 
sessions ceased,  as  it  did  even  in  the  apos- 
tles time,  the  Agape  or  love  feast  was  sub- 
stituted in  the  room  of  it.  Upon  certain  days, 
after  partaking  of  the  Lord's  supper,  they 
met  at  a  common  feast;  the  rich  biinglng 
provisions,  and  the  poor,  who  had  nothing, 
being  invited."  It  wae  always  attended  with 
receiving  the  holy  sacrament ;  but  there  is 
some  difference    between  the  ancient  and 
modern  interpreters  as  to  tlie  circumstance 
of  time ;  viz.  whether  this  feast  was  held 
before  or  after  the  communion.  St.  Chry sos- 
tom  is  of  the  latter  opinion  ;  the  learned  Dr. 
Cave  of  the  former.     These  love-feasts  du- 
ring the  three  first  centuries,   were  held  in 
the  church  without  scandal  or  offence  ;   but 
in  after-times  the  heathens  began  to  tax  them 
with  impurity.    This  gave  occasion  to  a  re- 
formation of  these  Agapes.  The  kiss  of  cha- 
rity, with  which  the  ceremonv  used  to  end, 
was  no  longer  given  between  different  sexes ; 
and  it  was  expressly"  forbidden  to  have  any 
beds  or  couches  for  the  conveniency  of  those 
who  should  be  disposed  to  eat  more  at  their 
ease.     Notwithstanding   these    precautions, 
the  abuses  committed  in  them  became  so  no- 
torious, that  the  holding  them  (in  churches 
at  least)   was   solemnly  condemned  at  the 
council  of  Carthage  in  the  year  397.     At- 
tempts have  been  made  of  late  years,  to  re- 
vive these  feasts  ;  but  in  a  different  manner 
from   the    primitive  custom,  and,  perhaps, 
with  little  edification.    They  are,  however, 
not  verv  general. 

AGAPET/E,  a  name  given  to  certain 
virgins  and  widows,  who  in  the  ancient 
chuixh  associated  themselves  with  and  at- 
tended on  ecclesiastics,  out  of  a  motive  of 
piety  and  charity.  See  Deaconesses. 

AGENDA,  among  divines  and  philoso- 
phers, signifies  the  duties  which  a  man  lies 
under  an  obligation  to  perform :  thus  we  meet 
with  the  agenda  of  a  christian,  or  the  duties 
he  ought  to  perform,  in  opposition  to  the 
credenda,  or  things  he  is  to  believe.  It  is 
also  applied  to  the  service  or  office  of  the 
church,  and  to  church  books  compiled  by 
public  authority,  prescribing  the  order  to  be 
observed  :  and  amounts  to  the  same  as  ritu- 
al, formulary,  directory,  missal,  Sec. 

AGENT,  that  which  acts:  opposed  to 
fiaiient,  or  that  which  is  acted  upon. 

A(iENTS,  moral.  See  Moral  Agent. 
AG()NET.iE,  (from  ooyioiu  "  to  be  igno- 
rant of,")  a  sect  which  apjieared  about  370. 
They  called  in  question  the  omniscence  of 
God  :  alleging  that  he  knew  things  past 
only  by  memory,  and  things  future  only  by 
an  unc'ortiunprescienc  .  There  arose  another 
sect  iif  the  same  name  in  the  sixth  century, 
who  followed  Themistius,  deacon  of  Alex 


ALB 


15 


ALL 


andria:  They  maintained  that  Christ  was  ig-  I 
norant  of  certain  things,  and  particularly  of 
the  time  of  the  day  of  judgment.  It  is  sup-  ! 
posed  they  bult  theu'  hypothesis  on  that  pas- 
sage in  Mark  xiii.  32. — "  Of  that  day  and 
that  hour  knoweth  no  man ;  no,  not  the  an- 
gels which  are  in  heaven,  neither  the  Son, 
but  the  Father."  The  meaning  of  which, 
most  probably,  is,  that  this  was  not  known 
to  the  Messiah  himself  in  his  human  nature, 
or  by  virtue  of  his  unction,  as  any  part  of 
the  mysteries  he  was  to  reveal;  for,  consi- 
dering him  as  God,  he  could  not  be  ignorant 
of  any  thing. 

AGNUS  DEI,  in  the  church  of  Rome,  a 
cake  of  wax,  stamped  with  the  figure  of  a 
lamb  supporting  the  banner  of  the  cross. 
The  name  literally  signifies  "  lamb  of  God." 
These  cakes,  being  consecrated  by  the  pope 
with  grea'  solemnity,  and  distributed  among 
the  people,  are  supposed  to  have  great  virtues. 
They  cover  them  with  a  piece  of  stuff  cut 
in  the  form  of  a  heart,  and  carry  them  \evy 
devoutly  in  their  processions.  The  Romish 
priests  and  reUgious  derive  considerable  pe- 
cuniary advantage  from  selling  them  to  some 
and  presenting  them  to  others. 

AGONISTICI,  a  name  given  by  Donatus 
to  such  of  his  disciples  as  he  sent  to  fairs, 
markets,  and  other  public  places,  to  propa- 
gate his  doctrine.  They  were  called  Ago- 
nistici  from  the  Greek  uyov,  "combat,"  be- 
cause they  were  sent,  as  it  were,  to  fight  and 
subdue  the  people  to  their  opinions.     See 

DoNATIST. 

AGONYCLITiE,  a  sect  of  Christians  in 
the  seventh  century,  who  prayed  always 
standing,  as  thinking  it  unlawful  to  kneel. 

AGYNIANI,  a  sect  which  appeared  about 
694.  They  condemned  all  use  of  flesh  and 
marriage  as  not  instituted  by  God,  but  intro- 
duced at  the  instigation  of  the  devil. 

AL.\SCANI,  a  sect  of  Anti-lutherans  in 
the  sixteenth  century,  whose  distinguished 
tenet,  besides  their  denying  baptism,  is  said 
to  have  been  this,  that  the  words,  "  This  is 
my  body,"  in  the  institution  of  the  eucharist, 
are  not  to  be  understood  of  the  bread,  but 
of  the  whole  action  or  celelai-ation  of  the 
supper, 

ALBANENSES,  a  denomination  which 
commenced  about  the  year  796.  They  held, 
■with  the  Gnostics  and  Manicheans,  two  prin- 
ciples, the  one  of  good  and  the  other  of  ev^l. 
They  denied  the  divinity  and  even  the  hu- 
manity of  Jesus  Christ ;  asserting  that  he 
was  not  truly  man,  did  not  suffer  on  the 
cross,  die,  rise  again,  nor  really  ascend  into 
heaven.  They  rejected  the  doctrine  of  the 
resurrection,  affirmed  that  the  general  judg- 
ment was  past,  and  that  hell  torments  were 
no  other  than  the  evils  we  feel  and  suffer  in 
this  life.  They  denied  free  will,  did  not  ad- 
mit original  sin,  and  never  administered  bap- 
tism to  infants.  They  held  that  a  man  can 
give  the  Holy  Spirit  of  himself,  and  that  it 
is  unlawful  for  a  Christian  to  take  an  oath. 

This  denomination  derived  their  name 
from  the  place  where  their  spiritual  ruler 


resided.    See  Manicheans  and  Cathe- 

RIST. 

ALBANOIS,  a  denomination  which  sprung 
up  in  the  eighth  century,  and  renewed  the 
greatest  part  of  the  Manichean  principles. 
They  also  maintained  that  the  world  was 
from  eternity.     See  Manicheans. 

ALBIGENSES,  a  party  of  reformers 
about  Toulouse  and  the  Albigeois  in  Lan- 
guedoc,  who  sprung  up  in  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury, and  distinguished  themselves  by  their 
opposition  to  the  church  of  Rome.  They 
were  charged  with  many  errors  by  the  monks 
of  those  days  ;  but  from  these  charges  they 
are  genei-ally  acquitted  by  the  Protestants, 
who  consider  them  only  as  the  inventions  of 
the  Romish  church  to  blacken  their  charac- 
ter. The  Albigenses  grew  so  formidable, 
that  the  Catholics  agreed  upon  a  holy  league 
or  cimsade  against  tliem.  Pope  Innocent  III, 
desirous  to  put  a  stop  to  their  progress,  tirred 
up  the  great  men  of  the  kingdom  to  make 
war  upon  them.  After  suffering  from  their 
persecutors,  they  dwindled  by  little  and  little, 
till  the  time  of  the  reformation  ;  when  such 
of  them  as  were  left,  fell  in  with  the  Vau- 
dois,  and  conformed  to  the  doctrine  of 
Zuinglius,  and  the  d  sciples  of  Geneva.  The 
Albigenses  have  been  frequently  confounded 
with  the  Waldenses ;  from  whom  it  is  said 
they  differ  in  many  respects,  both  as  being 
prior  to  them  in  point  of  time,  as  having 
their  origin  in  a  different  country,  and  as  be- 
ing charged  with  divers  heresies,  particu- 
larly Manicheism,  from  which  the  Walden- 
ses were  exempt    See  Waldenses. 

ALEXANDRIAN  MANUSCRIPT,  a 
famous  copy  of  the  scriptures,  in  four  volumes 
quarto.  It  contains  the  whole  Bible  in  Greek, 
including  the  Old  and  New  Testament,  with 
the  Apocrypha,  and  some  smaller  pieces, 
but  not  quite  complete.  It  is  preserved  in 
the  British  Museum:  it  was  sent  as  a  present 
to  king  Chailes  I.  from  Cyrillus  Lucaris, 
patriarch  of  Constantinople,  by  Sir  Thomas 
Rowe,  ambassador  from  England  to  the 
Grand  Seignior,  about  the  year  1628.  Cy- 
rillus brought  it  with  him  from  Alexandria, 
where  probably  it  was  written.  In  a  schedule 
annexed  to  it,  he  gives  this  account: — That 
it  was  written,  as  tradition  informed  them, 
by  Thecla,  a  noble  Egyptian  lady,  about  1300 
years  ago,  not  long  after  the  council  of  Nice. 
But  this  high  antiquity,  and  the  authority  of 
the  tradition  to  which  the  patriarch  refers, 
have  been  disputed;  nor  are  the  most  accu- 
rate biblical  writers  agreed  about  its  age. 
Grabe  thinks  that  it  might  have  been  written 
before  the  end  of  the  fourth,  century  ;  others 
are  of  opinion  that  it  was  not  written  till  near 
the  end  of  the  fifth  century,  ov  somewhat 
later.     See  Dr.  IJ'oide's  edition  of  it.  I 

ALKORAN.     See  Koran  ' 

ALL-SUFFICIENCY  OF  GOD,  is  that 
power  or  attribute  of  his  nature  whereby  he 
is  able  to  communicate  as  much  blessedness 
to  his  creatures  as  he  is  pleased  to  make 
them  capable  of  receiving.  As  his  self-suf- 
Jicienrij  is  that  whereby  he  has  enough  in 


ALM 


16 


AMA 


himselftodenominate  him  completely  blessed, 
as  a  God  of  infinite  perfection,  so  his  all-suf- 
Jiciency  is  that  by  which  he  hath  enough  in 
himself  to  satisfy  tlie  most  enlarged  desires 
of  his  creatures,  and  to  make  them  com- 
pletely blessed.  We  practically  deny  this 
perfection,  when  we  are  discontented  with 
our  present  condition,  and  desire  more  than 
God  has  allotted  for  us,  Gen.  iii.  5.  Prov.  xix. 
3. — 2.  When  we  seek  blessings  of  wliat  kind 
soever  in  an  indirect  way,  as  though  God 
were  not  able  to  bestow  them  upon  ifs  in  his 
own  way,  or  in  the  use  of  lawful  means.  Gen. 
xxvii.  35. — 3.  When  we  use  unlawful  means 
to  escape  imminent  dangers,  1  Sam.  xxi.  13. 
Gen.  XX.  and  xxvi. — 4.  When  we  distrust 
his  providence,  though  we  had  large  expe- 
rience of  his  appeariig  for  us  in  various  in- 
stances, 1  Sam.  xxvii.  1.  Ps.  ixxviii.  ;9.  2 
Chron.  xvi.  2  Chron.  xiv  9.  13  Josh.  vii.  7 
9. — 5.  When  we  doubt  of  tlie  truth  or  certain 
accnmplisliment  of  the  promises,  Gen.  xviii. 
12.  Fs.  Ixxvii.  74  Is.  x)ix.  14 — 6.  When 
we  decline  great  services,  though  called  to 
them  by  God,  under  a  pretence  of  our  un- 
fitness for  tliem,  Jer.  i.  6.  8. 

The  consideration  of  this  doctrine  should 
lead  us,  1  To  seek  happiness  in  God  alone, 
and  not  in  human  thintcs,  Jer.  ii.  13. — 2  To 
commit  all  our  wants  and  trials  to  him,  1 
Sam.  XXX.  6.  Heb.  xi  19.  2  Cor.  xii  8,  9  — 
S.  To  be  courageous  in  the  midst  ^  f  danger 
and  opposition,  Ps.  xxvii.  I  — 4  To  be  satis- 
fied with  his  dispensations,  Rom.  viii.  28  — 
5.  To  persevere  in  the  path  of  duty,  however 
difficult,  Gen.  xvii.  l.Ridgley^s  Body  of  Div. 
ques.  17.  Saimn's  Ser.  slT  5.  vol  i. ;  Bar- 
row^s  Works-  vol.  ii.  sei'    11. 

ALMAlllCIANS,   a  denomination   that 
arose  in  the  thirteenth  century.     They  de^ 
rived  their  origin  from  Almaric,  professor  of 
logic  and  theology  at  Paris     His  adversaries 
charged  him  with  having  taught  that  every 
Christian  was  obliged  to  believe   himself  a 
member  of  Jesus  Christ,  and  that  without 
this  belief  none  could  be  saved.  His  followers 
asserted  that  the  power  of  the  Fatht  r  had 
continued  only  during  the  Mosaic  dispensa- 
tion, that  of  the  Son  twelve  hundred  years 
lafter  his  enti"ance   upon  earth ;    and   that 
in  tlie  thirteenth  century  the  age  of  the 
Holy  spirit  commenced,  in  which  tlie  sacra- 
ments and  all  external  worship  were  to  Ije 
abolished ;  and  that  eveiy  ©ne  was  to  be  saved 
by  the  internal  operations  of  the  Holy  Spirit 
alone,   without  any  external  act  of  religion. 
ALMONER,   a  person  employed  by  an- 
other, in  the  distribution  of  charity.     In  its 
1  primitive  sense-  it  deJioted  an  officer  in  reli- 
:   gious  houses,    to  whom    b^loDged   the  ma- 
I  nagement  and  distributicin  of  the  alms  of  the 
I   house. 

'  ALMS,Avhatis  given  gratuitously  forthere- 
I  lief  of  the  poor,  and  in  repairinor  the  churches. 
j  That  alms  giving  is  a  duty  is  eveiy  way  evi- 
i  dent  from  the  variety  of  ])assages  which  en- 
i  join  it  in  the  sacred  scriptures.  It  is  ob.ser- 
I  vable,  however,  wh.at  a  numter  of  excuses 
1  are  made  by  those  who  are  not  found  in  the 


exercise  of  the  duty  :  1.  That  they  have  no- 
thing to  spare;  2.  That  charity  begins  at 
home ;  3.  That  charity  does  not  consist  in 
giving  money,  but  in  benevolence,  love  to  all 
mankind,  8cc.  4.  That  giving  to  the  poor  is 
not  mentioned  in  St.  Paul's  description  of 
charity,  1  Cor.  xiii. ;  5.  That  they  pay  the 
poor  rates ;  6.  Tliat  they  employ  rnany  poor 
persons;  7.  That  the  poor  do  not  suffer  so 
much  as  we  imagine ;  8.  That  the.se  people, 
give  them  what  you  will,  will  never  be 
thankful ;  9.  That  we  are  liable  to  be  impo- 
sed upon ;  10  That  they  should  apply  to 
their  parishes;  11.  That  giving  money  en- 
courages idleness ;  12.  That  we  have  too 
many  objects  of  charity  at  home.  O  the  love 
of  money,  how  fruitful  is  it  'n  apologies  for  a 
contracted  mercenary  spirit !  In  giving  of 
alms,  however,  the  following  rules  should  be 
observed  :  first,  That  they  should  be  given 
with  justice ;  only  our  own,  to  which  we 
have  a  just  right,  should  he  given.  2.  With 
cheerfulness.,  Deut  xv.  10.  2  Cor.  ix.  7.  3. 
With  simfiUcity  and  smce^'ity,  Rom.  xii. 
Matt.  vi.  3.  4.  With  compassion  and  affec- 
tion., Is.  Iviii  10.  1  John  iii.  17.  5.  Seasona- 
bly, Gal.  vi.  10.  Prov.  iv.  27.  6  Bounifidhjt 
Deut.  xviii.  11.  1  Tim.  vi.  18.  7.  Prudnitly , 
according  to  every  one's  i>eed,  1  Tim  v  8. 
.^cts  iv.  35.  See  Dr.  Barroivs'  admirable 
Sermon  on  Bounty  to  the  Poor,  ivhich  ti  ok 
ii/i  three  hows  and  an  half  in  fireaching ; 
Sa?/rin's  St.r.  vol  iv.  £ng:  Trans,  ser.  9. ; 
FaUn/s  Mor.  Phil.  ch.  5.  vol  i. 

ALOGIANS,  a  sect  of  ancient  heretics 
who  denied  that  Jesus  Christ  was  the  Logos, 
and  consequently  rejected  tlie  Gospel  of.  St. 
Jolin.  I'he  word  is  compounded  of  the  pri- 
v.'ttive  u,  and  Aovj  ;  Q-  d.  without  logos,  or 
word.  They  made  their  a;)j)earance  toward, 
the  close  of  the  second  century. 

AL  TAR,  a  kind  of  table  or  raised  place 
whereon  the  ancient  sacrifices  were  offered. 
2.  The  table,  in  Christian  chm-ches,  where 
the  Lord's  supper  is  administered.  Altars 
are,  doubtless,  of  great  antiquity ;  some 
suppose  they  were  as  early  as  Adam  ;  but 
there  is  no  mention  made  of  them  till  after 
the  flood,  When  Noah  built  onc/,  and  offered 
burnt  offerings  on  it.  The  Jews  had  two 
altars  in  and  about  their  temple  ;  1.  the  al- 
tar of  burnt  offerings ;  2.  the  alfir  of  in- 
cense ;  S(ime  also  call  the  table  for  shew 
in-ead  an  altar,  but  improperly,  Ex(xl.  xx. 
24,  ■25  1  Kings  xviii.  30.  E.^od.  xxv.  xxvii. 
and  XXX   Heb.  ix 

AM\URITES;  the  followers  of  Amauri. 
a  clergyman  of  Ronne,  in  the  tliirteenth  cen- 
tury. He  acknowledged  the  divine  Three, 
to  whom  he  attributed  the  empire  of  the 
world.  But  according  to  him,  religion  had 
three  epochas,  which  bore  a  similitude  to 
the  reign  of  the  three  persons  in  tlie  'i'rinity. 
The  reivtn  of  God  had  existed  as  In-g  as  the 
law  of  Mnses.  The  reign  of  the  Son  would 
not  always  last.  A  time  would  come  when 
the  sacraments  should  cease,  and  then  the 
religion  of  the  Holy  Ghost  would  'legin, 
when  men  would  render  a  spiritual  worship 


AMM 


17 


ANA 


to  the  Supreme  Bemg.  This  reign  Amauri 
thought  would  succeed  to  the  Christian  i-eli- 
gion,  as  tlie  Christian  had  succeeded  to  that 
of  Moses. 

AiVIAZEMENT,  a  term  sometimes  em- 
ployed to  express  our  wonder  ;  but  it  is  ra- 
ther to  be  considered  as  a  medium  between 
wonder  and  astonishment.  It  is  manifestly 
borrowed  from  the  extensive  and  complica- 
ted intricacies  of  a  labyrinth,  in  wliich  there 
are  endless  mazes,  without  the  discovery  of 
a  clue.  Hence  an  idea  is  conveyed  of  more 
than  simple  wonder ;  the  mind  is  lost  in 
wonder.  iSee  Wonder. 

AMIilTiON,  a  desire  of  excelling,  or  at 
least  of  being  thrtught  to  e.\cel,  our  neigh- 
bours in  any  thing.  It  is  generally  used  in 
a  bad  sense  for  an  immoderate  or  illegal 
pursuit  of  power  or  honour.  See  Praise. 

AMEDIANS,  a  congregation  of  religious 
in  Italy  ;  so  called  from  thuir  professing 
tliemselvesawa7i/es  Deum,  "  loversof  God;'" 
or  rather  avmti  Deo,  "  beloved  of  God." 
They  wore  a  grey  liabit  and  wocden  shoes, 
had  no  breeches,  and  girt  themselves  with 
a  cord.  They  had  twenty-eiglit  convents, 
and  were  united  by  pope  Pius  V.  partly 
with  the  Bistercian  order,  and  partly  witii 
tlittcof  the  Scccoiaiiti,  or  wooden  shoe  wear- 
ers. 

AMEN,  a  Hebrew  word,  which,  when 
^prefixed  to  an  assertion,  signifies  a/tsureillt/, 
certa'nitij,  or  empliatically  no  it  in  ;  but  when 
it  concludes  a  prayer,  so  be  it,  or  .so  let  it  he, 
i.s  its  manifest  import.  In  the  former  case 
ic  is  assertive,  or  assures  of  a  trutii  or  a 
fact ;  and  is  an  asservation,  and  is  pro- 
perly translated,  ■verilij,  John  iii.  3.  In  the 
latter  case  it  is  pttiiior.ary,  and.  as  it  were, 
epitomises  all  the  requests  with  which  it 
stands  connected,  Nunib.  v.  22.  Rev.  xxii. 
2Q.  This  emphatical  term  was  net  used 
among  the  Hebrews  by  detached  individuals 
only,  but  on  certain  ccca^ons,  by  an  assem- 
bly at  large,  j)eut.  x^:vii.  14,  20.  It  was 
adopted,  also,  in  the  public  worship  of  the 
primitive  churches,  as  appears  by  that  pas- 
sage, 1  Cor.  xiv.  26,  and  was  continued 
among  the  Christians  in  following  times ; 
yea,  such  was  Ihe  extreme  into  which  manv 
run,  that  Jeronie  informs  us,  in  his  time*, 
that,  at  the  cmc'usion  of  every  public 
prayer,  the  united  amen  of  the  people 
^ouiided  like  ^^^^fall  of  ivater,  or  the  noise 
of  thunder.  Nor  is  the  practice  of  some 
professors  in  our  own  time  to  be  commend- 
ed, who,  with  a  low  though  audible  voice, 
add  their  amen  to  almost  every  sentence  as 
it  proceeds  from  the  lips  of'him  who  is 
praying.  As  this  has  a  tendency  to  inter- 
rupt the  devotion  of  those  that  are  near 
them,  and  may  disconcert  the  thoughts  of 
him  who  leads  the  worship,  it  would  be  bet- 
ter omitted,  and  a  mental  amen  is  sufficient. 
The  term,  as  used  at  the  end  of  our  prayers, 
suggests  that  we  should  pray  with  under- 
standing, faith,  fervour,  and  expectation. 
See  Mr.  Booth's  Amen  to  social  Prayer. 

AMMONIANS,  See  New^  Platonics. 

C 


AMSDORFIANS,  a  sect,  in  the  sixteenth 
century,  who  took  their  name  from  Ams- 
dorf,  their  leader.  Tiiey  maintained  that 
good  works  were  not  only  unprofitable,  but 
were  ob.stacles  to  salvation. 

AMYRALDISM,  a  name  given  by  some 
writers  to  the  doctrine  of  universal  grace, 
as  explained  and  asserted  by  Amyraldus  or 
Moses  Amyrault,  and  others,  hisx followers, 
among  the  reformed  in  France,  towards  the 
middle  of  the  seventeenth  century.  This 
docti-ine  principally  consisted  of  the  follow- 
ing particulars,  viz.  that  God  desires  the 
happiness  of  all  men,  and  none  are  excluded 
by  a  divine  decree  ;  that  none  can  obtain 
salvation  without  faith  in  Christ ;  that  God 
refuses  to  none  the  power  of  believing, 
though  he  does  not  grant  to  all  his  assistance 
that  they  may  improve  this  power  to  saving 
purposes  ;  and  that  they  may  perish  through 
their  own  fault.  Those  who  embraced  this 
doctrine  v.'ere  called  Universalists ;  though 
it  is  evident  they  rendered  grace  imix^enal 
in  words  bwx.  partial  in  reality.  See  Cajie- 

RONITES. 

ANABAPTISTS,  these  who  maintain 
that  baptism  ought  always  to  be  performed 
by  immersirn.  The  word  is  compounded 
ot  «vci,  "  new,"  and  )icc7r1ifr-/Sy  "  a  Baptist;'* 
signifying  that  those  who  have  been  baptized 
in  their  infancy,  ought  to  be  i>aptized  anew. 
It  is  a  vv'oid  wiiichhas  been  indiscriminately 
applied  to  Christians  of  very  difi'erent  prin- 
ciples aiid  practices.  The  English  and 
Dutch  Baptists  do  not  consider  the  word  as 
at  all  applicable  to  their  sect ;  because 
those  persons  whom  they  baptize  they  con- 
sider as  never  having  been  baptized  before, 
although  th.ey  have  undergone  what  they 
term  the  ceremony  of  sprinkling  in  their 
infancy. 

Tile  Anabaptists  cf  Germany,  besides 
their  notions  concerning  baptism,  depended 
much  upon  certain  ideas  which  they  enter- 
tained concerning  a  perfect  church  estab- 
lisliment,  pure  in  its  members,  and  free 
from  the  institutions  of  human  policy,  'i'he 
most  prudent  part  of  them  considered  it  pos- 
sible, i)y  human  industry  and  vigilance,  to 
purify  the  church  ;  and  seeing  the  attempts 
of  Luther  to  be  successful,  they  hoped  that 
the  period  was  arrived  in  which  the  church 
was  to  be  restored  to  this  purity.  Otheri, 
not  satisfied  with  Luther's  plan  of  reforma- 
tion, undertook  a  more  perfect  plan,  or,  more 
properly,  a  visionary  enterprise,  to  found  a 
new  churc!i  entirely  spiritual  and  divine. 

This  sect  was  soon  joined  by  great  num- 
bers, whose  characters  and  capacities  were 
very  different.  Their  progress  was  rapid  ; 
for,  in  a  very  short  space  oftime,  their  dis- 
courses, visions,  and  predictions,  ex  cited  great 
commotions  in  a  great  part  of  Europe.  The 
most  pernicious  faction  of  all  those  which 
composed  this  motley  multitude,  was  tliat 
which  pretended  that  the  founders  of  this 
?ieiv  and  perfect  church  were  under  a  divine 
impulse,  and  were  armed  against  all  oppo- 
sition by  the  power  of  working  miracles.   It 


ANA 


18 


ANA 


•was  this  faction,  that,  in  the  year  1521,  be- 
gan their  fanatical  work  under  the  guidance 
of  Munzer,  Stubner,  Storick,  &c.  These 
men  taught,  that,  amcngChristians,  whohad 
the  prec-epts  of  the  gospel  to  direct,  and  the 
Spirit  of  God  to  guide  ihem,  the  office  of 
magistracy  was  not  only  unnecessary,  bnt  an 
unlawfHl  encroachment  on  their  spiritual 
liberty  ;  that  the  distinctions  occasioned  by 
birtli,  rank,  or  weaUh,  should  be  abolished  ; 
that  all  Christians,  throwing  their  pi  sses- 
sions  into  one  stock,  should  live  together  in 
that  state  of  equahty  which  becomes  mem- 
bers of  the  same  family  ;  that  as  neither  the 
laws  of  nature,  nor  the  precepts  of  the  New 
Testament,  had  pi'ohibited  polygamy,  they 
should  use  the  same  liberty  as  the  patri- 
archs did  in  this  respect. 

They  employed,  at  first,  the  various  arts 
of  persuasion,  in  order  to  propagate  tlieir 
doctrines;  and  related  a  numwr  of  visions 
and  revekitionr-,  with  which  they  pretended 
to  have  been  favoured  from  above ;  but, 
when  they  found  that  this  would  not  avail, 
and  that  the  ministry  of  Luther  and  other 
reformers  was  detrimental  to  their  cause, 
they  then  madly  attempted  to  propagate 
their  sentiments  by  force  of  aims.  JVIunzer 
and  his  associates,  in  the  year  1525,  put 
themselves  at  the  head  of  a  numerous  army, 
and  declared  war  against  all  laws,  govern- 
ments, and  magistrates  of  every  kind,  under 
the  chimerical  pretext,  that  Christ  himself 
was  now  to  take  the  reigns  of  all  goverment 
into  his  hands  :  but  this  seditious  crowd  was 
routed  and  dispersed  by  the  elector  of  Sax- 
ony and  other  princes,  and  Munzer,  their 
leader,  put  to  death. 

Many  of  his  followers,  however,  survived, 
and  propagated  their  opinions  through  Ger- 
many,, Switzerland  and  Holland.  In  1533  a 
{)arty  of  them  settled  at  Munster;  under  two 
eaders  of  the  names  of  Matthias  and  Bock- 
holdt.  Having  made  themselves  masters  of 
the  city,  they  deposed  the  magistrates,  con- 
fiscated the  estates  of  such  as  had  escaped, 
and  deposited  the  wealth  in  a  public  trea- 
sury for  common  use.  They  made  prepa- 
rations for  the  defence  of  the  city  ;  invited 
the  Anabaptists  in  the  low  countries  to  as- 
semble at  Munstir,  which  they  called  Mount 
Sion,  that  from  thence  they  might  reduce  all 
the  nations  of  the  earth  under  their  domin- 
ion, Matthias  was  scon  cut  ofl"by  the  bishop 
of  Munster's  army,  and  was  succeeded  by 
Brockholdt,  wlio  was  proclaimed  by  a  spe- 
cial designation  of  heaven,  as  the  pretended 
king  of  Sion,  and  invested  with  legislative 
powers  like  those  of  Moses.  The  city  of 
Munster  however  was  taken,  after  a  long 
siege,  and  Brockholdt  punished  with  death. 
It  roust  be  acknowledged  that  the  true  rise 
of  the  insurrections  of  this  period  ought  not 
to  be  attributed  to  religious  opinions.  The 
first  insurgents  groaned  under  severe  op- 
pressions, and  took  up  arms  in  defence  of 
their  civil  liberties ;  and  of  these  commo- 
tions the  Aimbaptists  seem  rather  to  have 
availed  themselves,  than  to  have  been  the 


prime  movers.  That  a  great  part  was  Ana- 
baptists, seems  indisputable  .  at  the  sam.e 
time  it  appears  from  hist(,ry,  that  a  great 
part  also  were  Reman  catholics,  and  a  still 
greater  part  of  those  who  had  scarcely  any 
religious  principles  at  all.  Indeed,  when  we 
read  cf  the  vast  numbers  that  were  con- 
cerned in  these  insurrectii  ns,  of  whom  it  is 
reported  that  IGO.OOO  tell  by  the  sword,  it 
appears  reasonable  to  conclude  that  they 
were  not  all  Anabaptists. 

It  is  but  justice  to  observe  also  that  the 
Baptists  in  England  and  Holland  are  to  be 
considered  in  a  different  light  from  those 
above-mentioned :  they  proless  an  equal 
aversion  to  all  principles  of  rebellion  en  the 
rne  hand,  and  to  enthusiasm  on  the  other. 
See  Robertson's  Hist,  of  Charles  V. :  Enc. 
Brit.  vol.  i.  p.  644 ;  and  articles  Baptists 

and   MeNN'  NITES. 

ANALOGY  OF  FAITH,  is  the  propor- 
tion that  the  doctrines  of  the  Gospel  bear  to 
each  other,  or  the  close  connection  between 
the  truths  of  revealed  religion,  Rom.  xii.  6. 
This  is  considered  as  a  grajid  i"ule  for  under- 
standing the  true  sense  of  scripture.  It  is 
evident  that  the  Almighty  doth  not  act  with- 
out a  design  in  the  system  of  Christianity  any 
more  than  he  dees  in  the  works  of  nature. 
Now  this  design  must  be  uniform  ;  for  as  in 
the  system  of  the  universe  every  part  is  pro- 
portioned to  the  whole,  and  made  subservi- 
ent to  it,  so  in  the  system  of  the  Gospel  all 
the  various  truths,  doctrines,  declarations, 
precepts,  and  promises,  must  correspond 
with  and  tend  to  the  end  designed.  For  in- 
stance, supposing  the  glory  of  God  in  the 
salvation  of  ir.an  by  free  grace  be  the  grand 
design ;  then  whatever  doctrine,  assertion, 
or  hypothesis,  agree  not  with  this,  it  is  to  be 
considered  as  false. — Great  care,  however, 
j  must  be  taken  in  making  use  of  this  method. 
I  that  the  enquirer  previ(,usly  understand  the 
j  whole  scheme,  and  that  he  harbour  not  a 
jM-edilection  for  a  part ;  without  atten- 
tion to  this  we  shall  be  liable  to  error.  If 
we  come  to  the  scrijnures  with  any  precon- 
ceived opinicns,  and  are  more  desirous  to 
put  that  sense  upon  the.  text  which  quad- 
rates with  our  sentiments  rather  than  the 
truth,  it  becomes  then  the  analogy  of  oitr 
faith,  rather  than  that  of  the  whole  system. 
This  was  the  source  of  the  error  of  the  Jews 
in  our  Saviour's  time.  They  searched  the 
scriptures;  but,  such  were  their  favourite 
opinions,  that  tliey  could  not,  or  would  not, 
discover  that  the  sacred  volume  testified  of 
Christ.  And  the  reast^n  was  evident,  for 
their  great  rule  of  interpretation  was  what 
they  might  call  the  analogij  rf faith;  i.  e. 
the  system  of  the  Pliarisean  scribes,  the 
doctrine  then  in  vogue,  and  in  the  profound 
veneration  of  which  they  had  been  educated. 
Perha])s  there  is  hardly  any  sect  but  what 
has  more  or  less  been  guilty  in  this  repect. 
It  may.  however,  be  of  use  to  the  serious  and 
candid  enquirer;  for  as  some  texts  may 
seem  to  contradict  each  other,  and  difficul- 
ties present    themselves,  by  keeping  the 


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analogy  of  faith  in  view,  he  will  the  more 
easily  resolve  those  difficulties,  and  collect 
the  true  sense  of  the  sacred  oracles.  VVhut 
*'  the  apiiorisms  of  Hippocrates  are  to  a 
physicia  1,  the  axioms  in  geo:netry  to  a  ma- 
thematician, the  adjudged  cases  in  law  to 
a  counsellor,  or  the  maxims  of  war  to  a 
general,  such  is  the  analogy  of  faitli  to  a 
Christian."  Of  the  analogy  of  religion  to  tlie 
constitution  and  course  of  nature,  we  must 
refer  our  readers  to  bishop  Kucier's  excel- 
lent treatise  on  tliat  subject. 

AN.\CHOK.E  rs.or  Anchorites,  ason 
of  nnntcs  in  tiie  primitive  church,  who  re- 
tired from  the  society  of  m.tnkind  into  some 
des.-rt<wit!i  a  view  to  avoid  tiie  temptations 
of  the  worl.'l,  and  to  be  more  at  leisure  for 
prayer,  meditation,  &c.  Such  were  Paul, 
Anthony,  and  Hdarion,  the  first  founders 
of  monastic  life  in  Egypt  and  Palestine. 

AN.\G0G1CAL,  signifies  mysterious, 
transporting ;  and  is  used  to  express  what- 
ever elcvaies  the  mind,  not  only  to  the 
knowledge  of  divine  tilings,  but  of  divint- 
things  in  the  next  life.  The  word  is  seldom 
used,  but  with  regard  to  the  different  senses 
of  scripture.  The  anagogical  sense  is,  when 
the  sacred  text  is  explained  with  regard  to 
eternal  life,tlie  point  which  Christians  should 
have  in  view ;  for  example,  the  rest  of  thf 
sabbath,  in  the  anagogical  sense,  signilies  the 
repose  of  everlasting  happiness. 

AN.\TtIE.VIA,  imports  whatever  is  set 
aparc,  separated,  or  divided;  but  is  most 
usually  meant  to  express  the  cutting  off  of  a 

fier.von  from  the  c.itnmunion  of  the  faithful, 
t  was  practised  in   the   primitive   church  i 
against  notorious  offenders     Several   coun- ' 
oils  also  havf  pronounced  anathemas  against 
such  as  ihey  thnight  corrupted  the  purity  , 
of  the  faith.     Jna'hsma  Maranatka,  men- 
tioned by  Paul,  (1  Cor.  xiv.  22.)  imports  that 
he  who  loves  not  the  Lord  Jesus  will  be  ac- 
cursed at  his  Coming.     Anathema  signifies  a 
thing  devoted  to  destruction,  and  Alarana- 
tha  \s  a  Syriac  word,   signifying   the  Lord, 
comes.     It  is  probable  in  this  passage  there ' 
is  an  allusion  to  tlie  form  of  the  Jews,  who,  | 
•when  unable  to  inflict  so  great   a  punish- 
ment as  the  crime  deserved,   devoted  the 
culprit  to  the  immediate  vindictive  retribu- 
tion  of  divine  vengeance,  both  in  this  life 
and  in  a  future  state. 

ANDRON.\,  a  term  used  for  that  part 
in  churches  which  was  destined  for  the  men. 
Anciently,  it  was  the  custom  tx>r  the  men 
and  wnmen  to  have  separate  apai'tments  in 
places  of  worship,  where  they  performed 
their  devotions  asunder,  which  method  is 
still  religiously  observed  in  the  Greek  church. 

ANGEL,  a  spiritual  intelligent  substance, 
the  ftrst  in  rank  and  dignity  among  created 
beings.  The  word  angel  (<«yye>n5)  is  Greek 
and  signifies  a  messenger.  The  Hebrew 
•word  Ts'?n  signifies  the  same.  Angels,  there- 
fore, in  the  proper  signification  of  the  word, 
do  not  import  the  nature  of  any  being,  but 
only  the  office  to  which  they  are  appointed, 
especially  by  •way  of  message  or  intercourse 


between  (lod  and  his  creatures.   Hence  the 
word  is  used  differently  in  various  parts  of 
the  scripture,  and  sonifies,  1.  Human  mes- 
sengers, or  agents  for  others,  2  Sam.  ii.  5. 
"  David  sent   messengers  (Heb.  angels)  to 
Jabesh  Gilead,   Prov.   xiii.    17.     Mark  i.  2„ 
James  ii.  25. — 2.  Officers  of  the  churches, 
whether    prophets    or   ordinary   ministers, 
Hag.  i  13.    Rev.  i.  ?0. — 3.  Jesus  Christ,  iVlal. 
iii.  1.  Is.  Ixiii  9. — 4.    Some  add  the  dispen- 
sations of  God's  providence,  either  beneficial 
or  calamitous,  Gen.  xxiv.  7.    Ps.  xxxiv.  7. 
Act's  xii.  23     1  Sam.  xiv.   14;  but  I  must 
confess,  that,  though  I  do  not  at  all  see  the 
impropriety  of  considering  the  providences 
of  God  as  his  angels  or  messengers  for  good 
or  for  evil,  yet  the  passages  generally  educed 
under  this  head  do  not  prove  to  me  that  the 
providences  of  God  are  meant  in  distinction 
from  created  angels. — 5.  Created  intelligen- 
ces, both  good  and  bad,  Heb.  i.  14.    Jude  6, 
the  subject  of  the  present  article. — As  to  the 
time  when  the  angels  were  created,  much 
has  been  said  by  the  learned.  Some  wonder 
that  Mosfs,  in  his  account  of  the  creation, 
should  pass  over  this  in  silence.   Others  sup- 
pose that  he  did  this  because  of  the  prone- 
ness  of  the  Gentile  world,  and  even  the  Jew*,, 
to  idolatry  ;  but  a  better  reason  has  been  as- 
signed by  otlier.'i,  viz   that  this  first  history 
was  purposely  and  princii>ally  written  for  in- 
formation concerning  the  visible  world ;  the 
invisible,  of  which  we  know  but  in  pare,  be- 
ing reserved  for  a  better  life.     Some  think 
that  the  idea  of  God's  not  creating  them  be- 
fore this  world  was  made,  is  very  contract- 
ed. To  suppose,  say  they,  that  no  creatures 
whatever,  neither  angels  nor  other  wcu'lds. 
liad  been  created  previous  to  the  creation 
of  our  world,  is  to  suppose  that  a  Being  of 
infinite  power,  wisdom,  and  goodness,  had 
remained  totally  inactive   from  all  eternity, 
and  had  permitted   the  infuiity  of  space  to 
continue  a  perfect  vacuifm  till  within  these 
6000  years  ;  that  such  an  idea  only  tends  toj 
discredit  revelation,    instead  of   serving  it.' 
0.1  the  other  hand  it  is   alleged,  that  they 
must  have  been  created  v/ithin  the  six  days  ; 
because  it  is  said,  that  within  this  space  God 
made  heaven  and  earth,  and  all  things  that 
arc  therein      It  is,  however,  a  needless  spe- 
culation, and  we  dare  not  indulge  a  spirit  of 
conjecture.  It.  is  our  happiness  to  kno'W  that 
they  are  all  ministering  spirits,  sent  forth  ta 
minister  to  them  who  are  tieii's  of  salvation.  ; 
As  to  the  nature  of  these  beings,,  we  are. 
told  that  they  are  spirits;  bat  -ft'liether  pure 
spirits  dive.sted  of  all   matter,  or  united  to 
some  thin  bxlies,  or  corporeal  vehicle's,  has 
been  a   controversy  of   long    standing   the 
inore  general  opinion  is,  that  they  are  sub- 
stances entirely  spiritual,  though  they  can  at 
any  time  assume  bodies,  and  appear  in  human 
shape,     Gen.    xviii.  and  xix.     Gen    xxxii. 
Matt,  xxviii.    Luke  i.  8cc.    The  scriptures 
represent  them  as  endued  with  extraordinary 
wisdom  and  power,  2  Sam.  xiv.  20.  Ps  ciii.  i 
20 ;  holy,  and  regular  in  their  iwdinations ;  | 
zealous   in  their  employ,   and   complttsl/ j 


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happy  in  their  minds,  Job  xxxviii.  7.  Heb.  i. 
7.  Matt,  xviii.  10.  Their  nuitiber  seems  to  be 
great.  Ps.lxviii.17.  Heb.  xii.22;  and- perhaps 
have  distinct  orders,  Col,  i.  16,  17.  i  Pet.  iii. 
22.  1  Thes.  iv.  16.  Dan.  x,  13.  They  are  de- 
lighted with  the  grand  scheme  of  redemp- 
tion, and  the  conversion  of  sinners  to  God, 
Luke  ii.  12.  1  Pet.  i.  12.  Luke  xv.  10.  They 
not  only  worship  God,  and  execute  his  com- 
mands at  large,  but  are  attendant  on  the  saints 
of  God  while  here  below,  Ps.  xci.  11,  l.:*. 
Heb.  i.  13.  Luke  xvi  22.  Some  conjecture 
tha.t  every  good  man  has  his  particular  guar- 
dian angel.  Matt,  xviii.  10.  Acts  xii.  15  ;  but 
this  is  easier  to  be  supposed  than  to  be  pro- 
ved; nor  is  it  a  matter  of  consequence  to 
know.  "  What  need  we  dispute,"  says  Hen- 
ry, "  whether  every  particular  saint  has  a 
guardiaji  angel,  when  we  are  'sure  he  has 
a  guard  of  angels  about  him  .■"'  They  will 
gather  the  elect  in  the  last  day,  attend  the 
final  judgment.  Matt.  xxv.  31.  Rev.  xiv.  18. 
Matt.  xiii.  39,  and  live  for  ever  in  the  world 
of  glory,  Luke  xx.  36. 

Althougli  the  angels  were  originally  created 
perfect,  yet  they  were  mutable:  some  of  them 
sinned,  and  kept  not  their  first  estate  ;  and 
60,  of  the  most  blessed  and  glorious,  became 
the  most  vile  and  miserable  of  all  God's 
creatures.  They  were  expelled  th .-  regions 
of  light,  and  with  heaven  lost  their  heavenly 
disposition,  and  fell  into  a  settled  rancour 
against  God,  and  malice  against  men.  What 
their  offence  was  is  difficult  to  determine, 
the  scripture  being  silent  about  it.  Some 
think  envy,  others  unbelief;  but  most  sup- 
pose it  was  pride.  As  to  the  time  of  their 
fall,  we  are  certain  it  could  not  be  before  the 
sixth  day  of  the  creation,  because  on  that 
day  it  is  said,  "  God  saw  every  thing  that  he 
had  rSade,  and  behold  it  was  very  good  ;'' 
but  that  it  was  not  long  after,  is  very  proba- 
ble, as  it  must  have  pi-eceded  the  fall  of  our 
first  parents.  The  number  ef  tlie  fallen  angels 
seems  to  be  great,  and,  like  the  holy  angels, 
perhaps  have  various  orders  among  thtm, 
Matt.  xii.  24,  Eph.  ii.  2.  Eph.  vi.  12.  Col.  ii. 
15.  Rev.  xii.  7.  Their  constant  employ  is  not 
only  doing  evil  themselves,  but  endeavouring 
by  all  arts  to  seduce  and  pervert  mankind, 
1  Pet.  V.  8.  Job  i  6.  It  is  supposed  they  will 
be  restrained  during  the  milleimium.  Rev. 
XX.  2,  but  afterwards  again  for  a  short  time, 
deceive  the  nations.  Rev.  xx  8,  and  then 
finally  punished.  Matt.  xxv.  41.  The  autliors 
•who  have  written  on  this  subject  have  beeit 
very  numerous,  we  shall  only  refer  to  a  ftw  : 
MeynoUVs  Enquiry  into  the  Stale  and  O'lco- 
nomy  of  the  Jhigelical  World;  Doddridge's 
Lect.  p.  10.  lect.  210  to  214  ;  Milton's  Par- 
adise Lost ;  Up.  J^'eivton's  Works.  yo\.  iii. 
p.  538,  568;  Shepherd  of  AngeVs  ;  GUfiin 
on  Tcmfitation  ;  Casmanni  Angclographia  ; 
Gill  and  Ridgeley's  Bodies  of  Divinity. 

ANGELICS,  an  ancient  sect,  sup])(ksed  l)y 

jSome  to  have  got  this  appellation  from  their 

'  excessive  veneration  of  angels,  and  by  others 

from  maintaining  that  the  world  was  created 

by  angels. 


ANGELITES,  a  sect  in  the  reign  of  the 
emperor  Anastasius,  about  the  year  494 ;  so 
called  from  Angelium,  a  place  in  the  city  of 
Alexandria  where  they  held  their  hrst  meet- 
ings. They  were  called  likewise  Severitcs, 
from  Sevcrns,  who  was  the  head  of  their 
sect ;  as  also  Theodosiun!s  from  one  Theo- 
dosius,  whom  they  made  pope  at  Alexan- 
dria. They  held  tlurt  the  persons  of  the  tri- 
nity are  not  the  same  ;  that  none  of  them 
exists  of  himself,  and  of  liis  own  nature;  but 
that  there  is  a  common  Gotl  iir  Deity  exist- 
ing in  them  all,  and  that  each  is  God  by  a 
participation  of  this  Deit5'> 

ANGER,  a  violent  passion  of  the  mind, 
arising  upon  the  receipt,  or  supposed  receipt 
of  any  injury,  with  a  present  purpose  of  re- 
venge. All  anger  is  by  no  means  sinful ;  it 
was  designed  by  the  Author  of  our  nature 
for  self  defence  ;  nor  is  it  altogether  a  self- 
ish passion,  since  it  is  excited  by  injuries  of- 
fered to  others  as  well  as  ourselves,  and 
sometimes  prompts  us  to  reclaim  oifenders 
from  sin  and  danger,  Eph.  iv.  27 ;  but  it  be- 
comes sinful  when  conceived  upon  trivial  oc- 
casions or  inadequate  provocations ;  when  it 
breaks  forth  into  outrageous  acti(jns  ;  vents 
itself  in  reviling  language,  or  is  concealed 
in  our  thoughts  to  the  degree  of  hatred. 
To  suppress  this  passion,  the  following  re- 
flections of  arch-deacon  Paley,  may  not  be 
unsuitable ;  "  We  should  consider  the  possi- 
bility of  mistaking  the  motives  from  which 
ttie  conduct  that  oiFends  us  proceeded  ;  \\o\f 
often  our  offences  have  been  the  effect  of 
inadveitency,  when  they  were  construed  into 
indications  of  mahce,  the  inducement  which 
prompted  our  adversary  to  act  as  he  did, 
and  how  powerfully  the  same  inducement 
has,  at  one  time  or  other,  ojjerated  upon  our- 
selves; that  he  is  suffering,  i)erhaps  under 
a  contrition,  which  he  is  ashamed,  or  wants 
opportunity  to  confess  ;  and  how  ungenerous 
it  is  to  triufnph  by  coldness  or  insult  over  a 
spirit  already  humbled  in  secret ;  that  the 
returns  of  kindness  are  sweet,  and  that  there 
is  neitlier  honour,  nor  virtue,  nor  use,  in  re- 
sisting them  ;  for  some  persons  think  them- 
selves bound  to  cherish  and  kce])  alive  their 
indignation,  when  they  find  it  dying  away  of 
itself.  We  may  remember  that  others  have 
their  passions,  their  prejudices,  their  fa- 
vourite aims,  their  fears,  their  cautions, 
their  interests,  their  sudden  impulses,  their 
varieties  of  apprehension,  as  well  as  we; 
we  may  recollect  what  hath  sometimes 
passed  in  our  own  minds,  when  we  have  got 
on  the  wrong  side  of  a  quarrel,  and  imagine 
the  same  to  be  passing  in  our  adversary's 
mind  now :  when  we  become  insensible  of 
our  misbehaviour,  what  palliations  we  per- 
ceived in  it,  and  expected  others  to  perceive; 
how  we  wei-e  affected  by  the  kindness,  and 
felt  the  superiority  of  a  generous  reception, 
and  ready  forgiveness  ;  how  persecution  re- 
vived«our  spirits  with  our  enmity,  and  seemed 
to  justify  the  conduct  in  ourselves,  which  we 
before  blamed.  Add  to  this  the  indecency 
"  of  extravagant  anger ;   how  it  renders  us 


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•while  it  lasts  the  scorn  and  sport  of  all  about 
us,  of  which  it  leaves  us,  when  it  ceases, 
sensible  and  ashamed  ;  the  inconvcnit-aices 
and  irretrievable  misconduct  into  whicli  our' 
irrascibility  has  sometimes  betrayed  us:  tlie 
friendsliips  it  has  lost  us ;  the  distresses 
and  embarrassments  in  which  we  have  been 
involved  by  it;  and  the  repentance  which, 
on  one  account  or  other,  it  always  costs  us. 
Ikjt  the  reflection,  calculated  above  all  others 
to  allay  that  iiaughtiness  of  temper  which  is 
ever  tindini;  out  provocations,  and  which 
renders  anger  so  impetuous,  is,  that  which 
the  Gospel  proposes  -,  namely,  that  we  our- 
selves are,  or  shortly  shall  be,  supplicants 
for  mercy  and  pardon  at  the  judgment  seat 
of  God.  Imagine  our  secret  sins  all  disclosed 
and  brought  to  light ;  imagine  us  thus  hum- 
bled and  exposed  ;  tremblnig  under  the  hand 
of  God  :  casting  ourselves  on  his  compassion  ; 
crying  out  for  mercy;  imagine  such  a  crea- 
ture to  talk  of  satisfaction  and  revenge  ;  I'e- 
I'using  to  be  entreated,  disdaining  to  forgive  ; 
extreme  to  mark  and  to  resent  what  is  done 
amiss;  imagine,  I  say,  this,  and  you  can 
haMly  feign  to  yourself  an  instance  of  more 
impious  and  unnatural  arrogance."  Paley's 
Mor.  Phil.  ch.  7.  vol.  i.  ;  Fawcets  excel- 
lent Treatise  on  Anger;  Seed's  Postk. 
Serm.  ser.  11. 
ANGER  OF  GOD.  See  Wrath. 
ANGLO-C.\LVINISTS,  a  name  given 
by  some  writers  to  the  members  of  the 
church  of  England,  us  agreeing  with  the  other 
Calvinists  in  most  points,  excepting  church 
government. 

ANN1H1L.\TI0N,  the  act  of  reducing 
any  created  being  into  nothing.  The  senti- 
ments of  mankind  have  differed  widely  as  to 
the  possibility  and  impossibility  of  annihila- 
tion. According  to  some,  nothing  is  so  diffi- 
cult:  it  requires  the  infinite  power  of  God 
to  effect  it :  according  to  others,  nothing  so 
easy.  Existence,  say  the\',  is  a  state  of  vio- 
lence ;  all  things  are  continually  endeavour- 
ing to  return  to  their  primitive  nothing;  it 
requires  no  power  at  all ;  it  will  do  itself  : 
«iay,  more,  it  requires  an  infinite  power  to 
prevent  it  Widi  respect  to  human  beings, 
it  appears  probable  from  reason  ;  but  it  is 
confirmed  by  scripture  that  they  will  not  bi 
annihilated,  but  exist  in  a  future  state.  Matt. 
X  28.  Ecc  xii.  7.  John  v.  24.  1  Thess  v,  10 
Matt  XXV.  34,  41.  Luke  xvi.  23.  28.  Luke  xx. 
37,  38.  1  Cor.  xv.  See  158,  8cc.  vol.  i.  JIcis- 
sJlon's  iter.  Eng.  Trans. ;  Xo.  129, 
Guardian  ;  Blair's  Ser.  vol.  i.  p.  461  ;  and 
articles  Destructionists,  Resurrec- 
tion. Soul. 

ANNUNCIATION,  the  tidings  brought 
by  the  angel  Gabriel  to  the  virgin  Mary  of 
the  incarnation  of  Christ.  It  is  also  used  to 
denote  a  festival  kept  by  the  church  on  the 
25th  of  March,  in  commemoration  of  these 
tidings. 

ANOMOEANS,  the  name  by  which  the 
pure  Arians  were  called  in  the  fourth  cen- 
tury, in  contradistinction  to  the  Semi-arians. 
The  word  is  formed  from  the  Greek  mofA.otoi, 


different.  See.ARiANs  and  Semiarians. 
ANTI-.DILUVIANS,  a  general  name  f«r 
all  mankir.d  who  lived  before  the  flood,  in- 
cluding the  whole  human  race  from  the  cre- 
ation to  the  deluge.  For  the  history  of  the 
Antediluvians,  see  Book  of  Genesis,  U'his- 
ton's  Jo&ejihus,  Cockburn's  Treatise  on 
Deluge,  and  article  Deluge. 

AN  I'HEM,  a  church  song  performed  in 
cathedral  service  by  choristers  wlio  sung  al- 
ternately. It  was  used  to  denote  both  psalms 
and  hymns,  when  performed  in  this  manner; 
but,  at  present,  anthem  is  used  in  a  more 
confined  sense,  being  applied  to  certain  passa- 
ges taken  out  of  the  scriptures,  and  adapted 
to  a  particular  solenmity.  Anthems  were 
first  introduced  in  the  reformed  service  of 
the  English  church,  in  the  beginning  of  the 
reign  of  queen  Elizabeth. 

ANTHROPOMORPHITES,  a  sect  of 
ancient  heretics,  who,  taking  every  tiling 
spoken  of  God  in  the  scripture  in  a  literal 
sense,  particularly  that  passage  of  Genesis 
in  which  it  is  said,  "  God  made  man  after 
his  own  image,"  maintained  that  God  had 
a  human  shape. 

ANTHROPOPATHY,  a  figure,  expres- 
sion or  discoure,  whereby  some  passion  is 
attributed  to  God  which  properly  belongs 
only  to  man.  Anthropopathy  is  frequently 
used  promiscuously  with  anthropology  ;  yet 
in  strictness  they  ought  to  be  distinguished, 
as  the  genus  from  the  species  Anthr.  pology 
may  be  understood  of  any  thing  human  at- 
tributed to  God,  as  eyes,  hands,  8cc. ;  hut  an- 
thropopathy only  of  human  affections  and" 
passions,  as  joy,  grief.  \Vc  have  frequent 
instances  of  the  use  of  these  figures  in  holy 
scripture. 

ANTIBURGHERS,  a  numerous  and,  re- 
spectable b)dy  of  dissenters  from  the  chrfrch 
of  Scotland,  who  differ  from  the  established 
church  chiefly  in  matters  of  church  govern- 
ment ;  and  who  differ,  also,  from  the  Burgher 
seceders,  with  whom  they  were  originally 
united,  chiefly,  if  not  solely,  respecting  the 
lawfnlness  of  taking  the  Burgess  oath.  For 
an  account  of  their  origin  and  principles,  see 
iSeceders. 

I      .ANTICHRIST,  an  adversary  to   Jesus 
[  Christ.     There  have   been  canons  opinions 
i  concerning  the  Antichrist  mentioned  in  the 
j  Scripture,  1  John  ii.   18.   Some  have    held 
;  tl^at  the  Jew^  are   to  ,be   reputed    as   Anti- 
I  Christ;  others  Caligula;  others  M?.homet; 
others  Simon  Magus;  others  infidelity  ;  and 
others,  that  the  devil  himself  is  the  Anti- 
christ.   Most  authors  agree,  however,  that 
it  applies  to  the  church  of  Rome.    Grotins, 
Hammond,  Bossuet,   and    others,    supi^osed 
Rome  pagan    to  be  designed ;    but    Rome 
Christian  seems  more  evident,  for  John  "  saw 
the  beast  vise  up  out  of  the  sea,"  Rev.  xiii. 
1.     Now,  as  heathen  Rome  had  risen  and 
been  established  long  before  his  time,  this 
could  not  refer  t«  the  Roman   empire  then 
subsisting,  but  to  a  form  of  government  after- 
wards to  arise.  As,  therefore,  none  did  arise, 
after  Rome  ivas  broken  to  pieces  by  the  bar- 


ANT 


S2 


ANT 


barians,  but  that  of  the  papal  power,,  it 
tnu6t  be  considered  as  applying  to  that. 
The  descriptions,  also,  of  tiie  bedst'  as  the 
great  apQslacy,  the  man  of  sin,  the  mystery 
qfitiiquity,  and  the  son  of  fierdiiion  will 
apply  only  to  Christian  Koine.  See  Daniel 
vii.  2  Thess.  ii.  and  Rev.  xui.  Besides,  the 
time  allowed  for  the  continuance  of  the 
beast  will  not  apply  to  heathen  Rome  ;  fur 
power  was  given  to  the  beast  for  1  j6U  years, 
whereas  heathen  Rome  did  not  last  400 
years  after  this  prophecy  was  deiive  ed 

Authiirs  have  diffeied  as  to  the  time  when 
Antichrist  arose.  Some  suppose  that  his 
reign  did  not  commence  till  he  became  a 
te'mporal  prince,  in  tiie  year  756,  when  Pe- 
pin wrested  the  exarchate-  of  Ravanna  from 
the  Lombai'ds,  and  made  it  over  to  the 
pope  and  his  successors.  Others  think  that 
it  was  in  727y  when  Rome  and  the  Roman 
dukedom  came  from  the  Greeks  to  the 
Roman  pontiff.  Mede  dates  his  rise  in  the 
year  456;  but  others,  and  I  think  with  the 
■greatest  reason,  place  it  in  the  year  606. 
Now,  it  is  generally  agreed  that  the  reign 
of  Antichrist  is  1260  years;  consequently, 
if  his  rise  is  not  to  be  reckoned  till  lie  was 
possest  of  secular  authority,  then  his  fall 
must  be  when  this  power  is  taken  away. 
According  to  the  first  opinion,  iie  must  have 
possessed  iiis  temporal  power  till  the  year 
2016 ;  according  to  the  second,  lie  must 
have  possessed  it  till  the  year  1987.  If  his 
rise  began,  according  to  Mede,  in  456,  then 
he  must  have  fallen  in  1716.  Now  that 
these  dates  were  wrong,  circumstances  have 
proved  ;  the  first  and  second  being  too  late, 
and  the  third  too  early.  As  these  hypothe- 
sis, therefore,  must  fail  to  the  ground,  it 
remains  for  us  to  consider  why  the  last 
mentioned  is  the  more  piobable.  It  was 
about  the  year  606  that  pope  Boniface  III 
by  flattering  Phocas,  the  emperor  of  Con- 
stantinople, one  of  the  worst  of  tyrants,  pro- 
cured for  himself  the  title  of  Universal  Bi- 
shop. The  bishops  of  Rome  and  Constanti- 
nople had  long  been  struggling  for  this  ho- 
nour ;  at  last  it  was  decided  in  favour  of 
the  bishop  of  Rome ;  and  from  this  time  he 
was  raised  above  all  others,  and  his  supre- 
macy established  by  imperial  authority  :  it 
was  now,  also,  that  the  must  profound  igno- 
rance, debauchery,  and  superstition,  reigned. 
From  this  time  the  popes  exerted  all  their 
power  in  jiromoting  the  idolatrous  worship 
of  images,  saints,  reliques,  and  angels.  The 
church  was  truly  deplorable  ;  all  the  clergy 
were  given  up  to  the  most  flagrant  and  abc>- 
minable  acts  of  >licentionsness.  Places  of 
worship  resembled  the  temples  of  heathens 
more  than  the  ehurches  of  Christians ;  in 
fine,  nothing  could  exceed  the  avarice,  pride, 
and  vanity  of  all  the  bishops,  jiresbyters, 
deacons,  and  even    the  cloistered    monks ! 

'   All  this  fully  answered   the  description    St. 

\  Paul  gave  of  Antichrist,  2  Thess.  ii.  It  is 
necessary  also  to  observe,  that  Uiis  epoch 
agrees  best  with  the  time  when,  according 

!    to  the  prophecy,  he  was  to  be  revealed.  The 


rise  of  Antichrist  was  to  be  preceded  by 
die  dissolution  of  thij  Roman  empire,  the 
istabiishmeiit  of  a  different  form  of  govern- 
iiieiit  in  Italy,  and  the  division  of  the  empire 
into  ten  kin,t;doms  ;  all  these  events  taking 
place,  make  it  very  probable  that  the  year 
606  was  the  time  of  his  rise  Nor  have  the 
events  of  the  last  century  made  it  less  proba- 
ole.  The  power  of  the  pope  was  never  so 
much  shaken  as  within  a  few  years  :  "  his 
dominion  is,  in  a  great  measure,  taken  from 
iiim  ;"  and  every  thing  seems  to  be  going  on 
1,'radually  to  terminate  his  authority ;  so  that, 
by  the  time  this  1260  years  shall  be  con- 
cluded, we  may  suppose  that  Antichrist 
shall  be  finally  destroyed. 

As  to  the  cruelties  of  Antichrist,  the  per- 
secutions that  have  been  carried  on,  and  the 
miseries  to  which  mankind  have  been  sub- 
ject, by  the  power  of  the  beast,  the  reader 
may  consult  the  articles  Inquisition  and 
Persecution.  In  this  we  lutve  to  rej-oice, 
that,  however  various  the  opinions  of  the 
learned  may  be  as  to  the  time  when  Anti- 
christ rose,  it  is  evident  to  all  that  he  v.j  fast 
declining,  and  will  certainly  fall.  Rev.  xviii. 
1,  5.  What  means  the  Almighty  may  far- 
ther use,  the  exact  time  when,  and  the 
manner  how,  all  shall  be  accomplished,  we 
mast  leave  to  him  who  ordereth  all  things 
after  the  counsel  of  his  own  v/ill.  §ee  Bfi. 
J^fcwton  on  the  Profihecirs  ;  Sim/ifion's  Key 
to  ditto  :  Moselei/'s  Sc?:  on  Full  of  Ba- 
bylon ;  Ward's  three  Discourses  on  Pro- 
fihecy.  and  books  under  that  article. 

ANTIDORON,  a  name  given  by  the 
Greeks  to  the  consecrated  bread  ;  out  of 
which  the  middle  part,  marked  with  the 
cross,  wherein  the  consecration  resides,  be- 
ing taken  away  by  the  priest,  the  remainder 
is  distributed  after  mass  to  the  poor. 

ANTINOMJANS,  those  who  maintain 
that  the  law  is  of  no  use  or  obligation  under 
the  Gospel  dispensation,  or  who  hoM  doc- 
trines that  clearly  supersede  the  necessity  of 
good  works.  The  Ap'inomians  took  their 
origin  ft-om  John  Agricola,  about  the  year 
153^,  who  taught  that  the  law  is  no  way 
necessary  under  the  Gospel ;  that  good  works 
do  not  promote  our  salvation,  nor  ill  ones 
hinder  it  ;  that  repentance  is  not  to  be 
preached  from  the  decalogue,  but  only  from 
the  Gospel.  I'his  sect  sprung  up  in  England 
during  the  protectc^rate  of  Cnnnwell,  and 
extended  their  system  of  libertinism  much 
farther  than  Agricola  did  Some  of  them  it 
is  said,  maintained,  that  if  they  should  com- 
mit any  kind  of  sin,  it  would  do  them  no 
hurt,  nor  in  the  least  affect  their  eternal 
state;  and  that  is  oiw^of  the  distinguishing 
characters  of  the  elect  that  they  cannot  do 
any  thing  displeasing  to  God.  It  is  ueces- 
sary,  however,  to  observe  here,  and  candour 
obliges  us  to  confess  that  there  have  been 
others,  who  have  been  styled  Antinomians, 
who  cannot,  strictly  speaking,  be  ranked  with 
these  men:  nevertheless,  the  unguarded  ex- 
pi^ssions  they  have  advanced,  the  bold  por 
sitions  they  liave  laid  down,  and  the  double 


ANT 


23 


ANT 


construction  which  might  so  easily  be  put 
;  upon  many  of  their  sentences,  have  led  sonu- 
to  charge  them  with  Antinomian  principles. 
For  instance;  wlien  they  have  asserted  jus- 
tification to  be  eternal,  without  distinguish- 
JHg  between  the  secret  determination  of  God 
in  eternity  and  the  execution  of  it  in  time ; 
when  they  have  sp;.ken  lightly  of  good 
works,  or  asserted  that  believers  have  no- 
thing to  do  with  the  law  of  Grd,  without 
uiliy  explaining  what  they  mean  ;  when  they 
assert  that  God  is  not  angry  with  his  peo- 
ple for  their  sins,  nor  in  any  sense  punishes 
them  for  them,  without  distinguishing  be- 
tween fatlierly  corrections  and  vindictive 
punishment:  these  things,  whatever  be  the 
private  sentiments  of  those  who  advance 
them,  have  a  tendency  to  injure  the  minds 
of  many.  It  has  been  alleged,  that  the  prin- 
cipal thing  they  have  had  in  view,  was,  to 
counteract  those  legal  doctrines  which  have 
so  much  abounded  among  the  self-righteous; 
but,  granting  this  to  be  true,  there  is  no  oc- 
casion to  run  from  one  extreme  to  another. 
Had  many  of  those  writers  proceeded  with 
more  caution,  been  less  dogmatical,  more 
explicit  in  the  explanation  of  their  senti- 
ments, and  possessed  more  candour  towards 
those  who  differed  from  them,  they  would 
have  been  more  serviceable  to  the  cause  of 
truth  and  religion.  Some  of  the  chief  of 
those  who  have  been  charged  as  favouring 
the  above  sentiments  are.  Crisp,  Richard- 
son, Saltmarsk,  Hussey,  Eaton,  Tonvn,  &c. 
These  have  been  answered  by  Gataker, 
Sedgwick,  Witsius,  Bull,  WiUiams,  Ridg- 
ley,  Beart,  De  Flgury,  &:c.  See  also  Bel- 
lamy's Letters  arid  Dialogues  betiveen  Tfie- 
ron,  Paulinus  and  Aspasio  :  with  his  ^5- 
say  on  the  Nature  and  Glory  of  the  Gos- 
fiel:  Edward's  Crispianism  unmasked. 

ANTIPATHY,  hatred,  aversion,  repug- 
nancy. Hatred  IS  entertained  against  persons, 
aversion  and  a?itipathy  against  persons  or 
things,  and  repugnancy  against  actions  alone. 
Hatred  is  more  voluntary  than  aversion, 
antipathy  or  repugnancy :  the  se  last  have 
greater  affinity  with  the  animal  constitution. 
The  causes  cf  antipathy  are  less  known  than 
those  of  aversion.  Bepugnancy  is  less  per- 
manent than  either  the  one  or  the  other. 
We  hate  a  vicious  character;  we  feel  an 
aversion  to  its  exertions.  We  are  affected 
with  antipathy  tbr  certain  persons  at  first 
sight;  there  are  some  affairs  which  we 
transact  with  rrpugnancy.  Hatred  calum- 
niates, aversion  keeps  us  at  a  distance  from 
certain  persrfis.  Antifmthy  makes  us  de- 
test them  ;  repugnancy  hinders  us  from 
imitating  tlem. 

ANTIP/EDOBAP  TISTS  (from  «v7«, 
"  against,"  and  i^a.i<i  sra/iJ'e?,  *'  child,"  and 
BwATil^a,  "  baptize,")  is  a  distinguishing 
denomination  given  to  those  who  object  to 
the  baptism  of  infants.  See  Baptists, 
Baptisk 

ANTIQUITIES,  a  term  implying  all 
testimonies  or  authentic  accounts  that  have 


come  down  to  us  of  ancient  nations.  As  the 
study  of  antiquity  may  be  useful  both  to  the 
enquiring  Christian,  as  well  as  to  those  who 
are  employed  in.  or  are  candidates  for  the 
Gospel  ministry,  we  shall  here  subjoin  a  list 
of  those  which  are  esteemed  the  mf;st  valua- 
ble.— Fabric'ii  Bibliographia,  Aniiqnaria ; 
i^/icnctr  de  Legibus  Heb  Ritualibus  ;  God- 
wyn^s  J^/osee  and  Aaron  ;  Bingham's  Anti- 
quities of  the  '  hristian  Church;  Jennings* 
Jewish  A7Uifjuities;  Potier^s  and  Hurwood's 
Greek,  and  Kennett's  and  Adams'  Roman 
Antiquities  ;  Preface  to  the  Prussian  Te&~ 
tamtnt,  published  by  L  Enfant  and  Beau- 
sobre  ;  Prideaux  and  Shuci^ford's  Connec- 
tions ;  Jones'  Asiatic  Researches ;  and 
Maurice's  Indian  Antiquities. 

ANTISABBATARIANS,  a  modern  re- 
ligious sect,  who  deny  the  necessity  of  ob- 
serving the  Sabbath  Day.  Their  chief  ar- 
guments are,  1.  That  the  Jewish  Sabbath 
was  only  of  ceremonial,  not  of  moral  obliga- 
tion ;  and,  consequently,  is  abolished  by  the 
coming  of  Christ — 2.  That  no  other  Sab- 
bath was  appointed  to  be  observed  by  Christ 
or  his  apostles. — 3.  That  there  is  not  a  word 
of  Sabbath  breaking  in  all  the  New  Testar 
ment. — 4.  That  no  command  was  given  to 
Adam  or  Noah  to  keep  any  Sabbath  — And, 
5.  That,  therefore,  although  Christians  are 
commanded  "  not  to  forsake  the  assembling 
of  themselves  together,"  they  ought  not  to 
hold  one  day  more  holy  than  another.  See 
article  Sabbath. 

ANTlTACTiE,  a  branch  of  Gnostics, 
who  held  that  God  was  good  and  just,  but 
that  a  creature  had  created  evil ;  and,  con- 
sequently, that  it  is  our  duty  to  oppose  this 
author  of  evil,  in  order  to  avenge  God  of 
his  adversary. 

ANTITRINITARIANS,  those  who  deny 
the  Trinity,  and  teach  that  there  are  not 
three  personsintheGodhead.  See  Trinity. 
ANTITYPE,  a  Greek  word,  properly 
signifying  a  type  or  figure  corresponding  to 
some  other  type. 

The  word  antitype  occurs  twice  in  the 
New  Testament,  via.  in  the  Epistle  to  the 
Hebrews,  chap.  ix.  v.  24.  and  in  the  1  Epis- 
tle of  St.  Peter,  chap.  iii.  v.  21.  where  its 
genuine  import  has  been  much  controverted. 
The  former  says,  that  "  Christ  is  not  en- 
tered into  the  holy  places  made  with  hands, 
which  are  mvtitvtfx,  the  figures  or  antitypes 
of  the  true — now  to  appear  in  the  presence 
of  God.  Now  rvfToq  signifies  the  pattern  by 
which  another  thing  is  made ;  and  as  Mo- 
ses was  obliged  to  make  the  tabernacle,  and 
all  things  in  it,  according  to  the  pattern 
shewn  him  in  the  Mount,  the  tabernacle  so 
formed  was  the  antitype  of  what  was  shewn 
to  Moses  :  any  thing,  therefore,  formed  ac- 
cording to  a  model  or  pattern,  is  an  antitype. 
In  the  latter  passage,  the  apostle,  speaking 
of  Noah's  flood,  and  the  deliverance  only 
of  eight  persons  in  the  ark  from  it,  says 
Q,  Kcct  »)/tt«5  dvTiTvTrov  vvio-al^tt  ^xttti^ia,*  i 
Baptism  being  an  antitype  to  that,  now 


1 


APO 


24 


APO 


saves  us  ;  not  putting  away  the  filth  of  the  ' 
fiesh,  but  the  answer  of  a  good  conscience 
toward  God,  &c.  The  meaning  is,  that 
righteousness,  or  the  answer  of  a  good  con- 
science towards  God,  now  saves  us,  by 
means  of  the  resurrection  of  Christ,  as  for- 
merly righteousness  saved  these  eight  per- 
sons by  means  of  the  ark  during  the  flood. 
The  word  antitype,  therefore,  here  signifies 
a  general  similitude  of  circumstances;  and 
the  particle  &■,  whereunto,  refei's  not  to  the 
immediate  antecedent  v^tcre^,  water,  but  to 
all  that  precedes. 

ANTOSIANDRIANS,  a  sect  of  rigid 
Lutherans  who  opposed  the  doctrine  of  Osi- 
ander  relating  to  justification.  These  are 
otherwise  denominated  Osiandromastiges — 
The  Antosiandrians  deny  tliat  man  is  made 
just,  with  that  justice  wherewith  God  him- 
self is  just  ;  that  is,  they  assert  that  he  is 
not  made  essentially  but  only  imputatively 
just ;  or  that  he  is  not  really  made  just,  but 
only  pronounced  so. 

APATHY,amongtheancientphilosophers, 
implied  an  utter  privation  of  passion,  and 
an  insensibility  of  pain.  The  Avord  is  com- 
pounded of  cc,  pri-v.  and  5ra:5«?,  affection. 
The  Stoics  aiftcted  an  entire  apathy ;  they 
considered  it  as  the  highest  wisdom  to  enjoy 
a  perfect  calmness  or  tranquillity  of  mind, 
incapable  of  being  ruffled  by  either  pleasure 
or  pain.  In  the  first  ages  of  the  church,  the 
Christians  adopted  the  term  apathy  to  ex- 
press a  contempt  of  all  earthly  concerns;  a 
state  of  mortification  such  as  the  Gospel  pre- 
scribes. Clemens  Alexandrinus  in  parti- 
cular, brought  it  exceedingly  in  vogue, 
thinking  hereby  to  draw  such  philosophers 
to  Christianity  who  aspired  after  such  a 
sublime  pitch  of  virtue. 

APELLEANS,  so  called  from  Apelles,  in  j 
the  second  century.  They  affirmed  that 
Christ,  when  he  came  down  from  heaven, 
received  a  body  not  from  the  substance  of 
his  mother,  but  from  the  four  elements, 
vhich  at  his  death  he  rendered  back  to  the 
world,  and  so  ascended  into  heaven  without 
e  body. 

APHTHARTODOCITES,  a  denomina- 
tion in  the  sixth  century ;  so  called  from  the 
Greek  cc(p6xpToi;  incorruptible,  and  ^ox.ew, 
to  judge  ;  because  they  held  that  the  body  of 
Jesus  Christ  was  incorruptible,  and  not 
subject  to  death.  They  were  a  branch  of 
the  Eutychians. 

APOCARl'l'iES,  a  denomination,  in  the 
third  century,  which  sprung  from  the  Mani- 
cheans.    They  held  that  the  soul  of  man 
was  of  the  substance  of  God. 
.        APOCRYPHA,booksnot  admitted  into  the 
!l    canon  of  scripture,  bting  either  spurious,  or 
'(    at  least  not  acknowledged  as  divine.     '1  he 
1/    word    is  Greek,    and   derived    froin    «w«, 
y    "  from,"  and  x/sv^ttw,  "  to  hide  or  conceal" 
j'    They  seem  most  of  them  to  have  been  com- 
posed by  Jews.    None  of  the  writers  of  the 
Nf  w    Testament  mention  tbem  j    neither 


Philo  nor  Josephus  speak  of  them.  The 
Christian  church  was  for  some  ages  a 
stranger  to  them.  Grigen,  Athanasius,  Hi- 
lary, Cyril  of  Jerusalem,  and  all  the  ortho- 
dox writers  who  have  given  catalogues  of 
the  canonical  books  of  scripture,  unani- 
mously concur  in  rejecting  these  out  of  the 
canon.  The  Protestants  acknowledge  such 
books  of  scripture  only  to  be  canonical  as 
were  esteemed  to  be  so  in  the  first  ages  of 
the  church ;  such  as  are  cited  by  the  earli- 
est writers  among  the  Christians  as  c  f  divine 
authority,  and  after  the  most  diligent  en- 
quiry wei-e  received  and  judged  to  be  so  by 
the  council  of  Lacdicea.  They  were  written 
after  the  days  of  Malachi,  in  whom  accord- 
ing to  the  universal  testimony  of  the  Jews, 
the  spirit  of  prophecy  ceased.  Mai.  iv.  4. — 
6.  Not  one  of  the  writers  in  direct  terms 
advances  a  claim  to  inspiration.  They  con- 
tain fables,  lies,  and  contradictions.  1  Mace, 
vi.  4.  16.  2  Mace.  i.  13.  16.  2  Mace,  ix  28. 
The  apocryphal  bocks  are  in  general  be- 
lieved to  be  canonical  by  the  church  of 
Rome;  and  even  by  the  sixth  article  of  the 
church  of  England,  tl.cy  aie  ordered  to  be 
read  for  example  of  lite  and  instruction  of 
manners,  though  it  doth  net  apply  them  to 
establish  any  doctiii.e.  Other  reformed 
churches  do  not  so  much  as  make  even  this 
use  of  them.  See  Fridiaux's  Connection, 
vol.  i.  p.  36 — 42;  Lee's  Dis.  on  Jiidras', 
Dick  on  Inf.furatio7i,  p.  344. 

APOLLINARIANS  were  ancient  here- 
tics, who  denied  the  proper  humanity  of 
Christ,  and  iriaintained  that  the  body  which 
he  assumed  was  endowed  with  a  sensitive 
and  net  a  rational  soul ;  but  that  the  divine 
nature  supplied  the  place  cf  the  intellectual 
principle  in  man.  This  sect  derived  its 
name  from  Apollinaris,  bishop  of  Lardicca. 
Their  dcctiine  was  first  condemned  by  a 
coiuicil  at  Alexandria  in  362,  and  afterwards 
in  a  more  formal  mnnner  by  a  council  at 
Rome  in  375,  and  by  another  council  in  578, 
which  deposed  Apollinaris  from  his  bishop- 
ric. This,  with  other  laws  enacted  ?igairst 
them,  reduced  them  to  a  very  small  num- 
ber;  so  that  at  last  they  dwindled  away, 

APOSTACY,  a  forsaking  or  rejiouncing 
our  religion,  either  by  an  open  declaration 
in  words,  or  a  virtual  declaration  of  it  by 
our  actions  The  primitive  Christian  Church 
distinguished  several  kinds  <f  apostacy;  the 
first,  of  thi  se  who  went  entiiely  from  Chris- 
tianity to  Jydaism ;  the  secono  of  those  who 
complied  so  far  with  the  Jews,  as  to  com- 
municate with  them  in  many  of ':heir  unlaw- 
ful practices,  without  making  a  Vormal  pro- 
fession of  their  religion  ;  thirdly,  of  those 
who  mingled  Judaism  and  Christianity  to- 
gether ;  and,  fourthly,  of  those  who  volun- 
tarily relapsed  into  paganism.  Apostaw 
may  be  farther  considered  as,  1.  Original,  in 
which  we  have  all  participated.  Rom.  iii. 
23 ; — 2.  National,  when  a  kingdonn  relin- 
quishes the  profession  of  Christiarity  ;^-3. 
Personal,    when   an  individual  backslides 


APO 


25 


APP 


from  God,  Heb.  x.  38  ; — 4.  Final,  when  men 
are  given  up  to  judicial  hardness  of  heart, 
as  Judas.  See  Backshutmg. 

APOSTLE,  properly  signifies  a  messen- 
ger or  person  sent  by  another  upon  some 
business.  It  is  particularly  appUed  to  them 
whom  our  Saviour  deputed  to  preach. — 2. 
Api  sle,  in  tlie  Greek  liturgy,  is  used  for  a 
book  containing  the  epistlee  of  St  Paul, 
printed  in  the  order  wherein  they  are  te  bc 
raad  in  churches  through  the  course  of  the 
year. — 3.  The  appellation  Avas  also  given  to 
the  ordinary  travelling  ministers  of  the 
church.  Rom.  xvi.  7.  Phil,  ii  25,  thougli  in 
our  tr^Klation  the  last  is  rendered  messen- 
ger.— iHt  is  likewise  given  to  tliose  persons 
.  who  first  planted  the  Christian  faith  in  any 
place.  Thus  Dionysius  of  Corinth  is  called 
the  Apostle  of  France,  Xavier  the  Apostle 
of  the  Indies.  &c. 

APOSTLES'  CREED.  See  Creed. 

APOSTOLATE,  in  a  general  sense,  is 
ased  for  mission  ;  but  it  more  properly  de- 
notes the  dignity  or  office  of  an  apostle  of 
Christ.  It  is  also  used  in  ancient  writers  for 
the  office  of  a  bishop.  But  as  the  title  afios- 
tolicuH  has  been  appropriated  to  the  pipe*,  so 
that  of  apostolate  became  at  length  rt^t rain- 
ed to  the  sole  dignity  of  the  popedom. 

APOSTOLIC,  apostolical,  something  that 
relates  to  the  apostles,  or  descends  from 
them.  Thus  we  say  the  apostolical  age, 
afiQstolical  doctrine,  a/ioslolical  character, 
constitutions,  ti'aditicns,  &c. 

APOSTOLIC,  in  the  primitive  church, 
was  an  appellation  given  to  all  such  churches 
as  were  founded  by  the  apostles ;  and  even 
to  the  bishops  of  those  churches,  as  b;nng 
the  reputed  successors  of  the  apostles.  These 
were  confined  to  foui',  viz.  Rome,  Alex- 
andria, Antioch  and  Jerusalem.  In  after 
times,  the  other  cliurches  assumed  the  same 
quality,  on  account,  principally  cf  the  con- 
formity of  their  doctrine  with  that  of  the 
churches  which  were  apnstolical  by  founda- 
tion, and  because  all  bishops  heki  themselves  j 
successors  of  the  apostles,  or  acted  in  their 
dioceses,  with  tlie  authority  of  apostles. 

The  first  time  the  term  afiosiolical  is  I'.t- 
tributed  to  bishops,  as  such,  is  in  a  letter  of 
Clovis  to  the  council  of  Orleans,  held  in  511, 
though  that  king  does  not  there  expresslv 
denominate  them  apostolical,  but  (afiostolica 
sede  digTzissiniiJ  highly  worthy  of  the  apos- 
tolical see.  In  585,  Guntram  calls  the 
bishops  met  at  the  council  of  Macon,  aflos- 
tolkal  pontiffs,  afiostolici  ponrificcs. 

In  progress  of  time,  the  bishop  of  Rome 
growing  in  power  above  the  rest,  and  the 
three  patriarchates  of  Alexandria,  Antioch, 
and  Jerusalem,  falling  into  the  hands  of  the 
Saracens,  the  title  afiostoUcal  was  restrained 
to  the  pope  and  his  church  alone  ;  though 
some  of  the  popes,  and  St.  Gregorj-  the 
Great,  not  contented  to  hold  the  title  by  this 
tenure,  began  at  length  to  insist  that  it  be- 
longed to  them  by  another  and  peculiar 
right,  as  being  the  successor  of  St.  Peter. 
The  country  of  Rheims,  in  1049,  declared 

B 


that  the  pope  was  the  sole  apostolical  pri- 
mate of  the  universal  church.  And  hence 
a  great  number  of  apostolicals  ;  apostolical 
see,  apostolical  nuncio,  apostolical  notary, 
apostolical  brief,  apostclieal  chamber,  apos-" 
iciicul  vicar,  &c. 

APOSTOLICAL  CONSTITUTIONS, 
a  collection  of  regulations  attributed  to  the 
apostles,  and  supposed  to  have  been  collect- 
ed by  Sc.  Clement,  wIk  se  name  they  like- 
wise bear.  It  is  the  general  opinion,  how- 
ever, tliat  they  are  spurious,  and  that  St. 
Clement  had  no  hand  in  them.  They  ap- 
peared first  in  the  fourth  centun',  but  have 
been  much  changed  and  corrupted  since- 
There  are  so  many  thiiif^s  in  them  different 
from  and  even  contrary  to  the  genius  and 
design  of  the  New  Testament  writers,  that 
no  wise  man  would  believe,  without  the  most 
convincing  and  irresistible  proof,  that  both 
could  come  from  the  same  liand.  Graie'a 
Answfr  to  IVhiston  ;  Saurin's  Ser,  vol.  ii. 
p.  1S5  ;  Larclner's  Cred.  vol.  iii.  p.  11.  c/i. 
ult.  ;  Doddridge'  Led.  lee.  119. 

APOSTOLfc  FATHERS,  an  appellation 
usually  given  to  the  writers  of  the  first  cen- 
tury, who  employed  tlieir  pens  in  the  cause 
of  Christianity.  Of  these  writere,  Cotelerius, 
and  after  him  Le  Clerc,  have  published  a 
collection  in  two  volumes,  accompanied  both 
with  their  own  annotations,  and  the  remarks 
of  otlier  learned  men.  See  also  the  genuine 
epistles  of  the  apostolic  fathers,  Abp, 
Wake. 

APOSTOLICI,  or  Apostolics,  a  name 
assumed  by  different  sects  on  account  of 
their  pretending  to  imitate  the  practice  of 
the  apostles. 

APOTACTITiE,  an   ancient  sect,  who 
affected  to  follow  th'^  examples  of  the  apos- 
tles, and  renounced  all  their  effects  and  pcs-| 
sessions.     It  does  not  appear  that  they  held." 
any  errors  at   fii-st ;    but    afterwards   they 
taught  that  the  renouncing  of  all  riches  was 
not  only  a  matter  of  c -unsel  and  advice,  but  j 
of  precept  and  necessitv- 

APPLICATION,  is  used  for  the  act 
whereby  our  Saviour  transfers  or  makes  over 
to  us  what  he  had  earned  or  purchased  by. 
his  holy  life  and  death.  Accordingly  it  is  by 
this  application  cf  the  merits  cf  Christ  that 
we  are  to  be  justified  and  entitled  to  grace 
and  gloiy. 

Application  is  also  used  for  that  part  of  a 
sermon  in  which  tiie  preacher  brings  home 
or  applies  the  tnUh  cf  reiigirn  to  the  con- 
sciences ^f  his  hearers.     See  Sermon. 

APPROBATION,  a  state  or  disposition, 
of  the  mind,  wherein  we  put  a  value  upon, 
or  become  pleased  with,  some  person  op 
thing.  Moralists  are  divided  on  the  principle 
of  approbation,  or  the  motive  which  deter- 
mines us  to  approve  or  disapprove.  The' 
Epicureans  ■will  have  it  to  be  only  self-in 
terest :  according  to  them,  tliat  which  de- 
termines any  agent  to  approve  his  own  ac- 
tion, is  its  apparent  tendency  to  lus  private 
happiness ;  and  even  the  approbation  of  ar 
other's  action  flows  from  no  other  caus? 


ARC 


26 


ARI 


an  opinion  of  its  tendency  to  the  happiness  of 
the  approver,  eidier  immediately  or  re- 
motely. Others  resolve  approbation  into  a 
moral  hcnse,  or  a  jirinciple  of  benevolence, 
by  which  ive  are  determined  to  approve 
every  kind  affection  either  in  ourselves  or 
others,  and  all  ]iublicly  useful  actions  wliich 
we  imagine  to  flow  from  such  affections, 
without  any  view  therein  to  our  own  private 
liappiness. 

l)ut  may  we  not  add,  that  a  true  Chris- 
tian's approbation  arises  from  his  perception 
of  the  will  of  God  i*    See  Obligatipn. 

APPROPRIATION, the  annexing  a  bene- 
fice to  the  prcper  and  perpetual  use  of  some 
religious  house.  It  is  a  term  also  ()ft:n  user! 
in  the  religious  world  as  referring  to  that  act 
of  the  mind  by  which  we  apply  the  bles- 
sings of  the  Gospel  to  ourselves.  I'bis  appro- 
bation is  real  when  we  are  enabled  to  be- 
lieve in,  feel,  and  obey  the  truth  ;  but  mere- 
ly nominal  and  delusive  when  there  are  no 
fruits  of  lighteousness  and  true  holiness.  See 
Assurance. 

AQUARIANS,  those  who  consecrated 
water  in  the  eucharist  instead  of  wine.  An- 
other branch  of  them  approved  of  wine  at  the 
sacrament,  when  received  in  the  evening  : 
they  likewise  mixed  water  with  the  Avine. 

ARABICI,  erroneous  Christians,  in  the 
third  centuiy,  who  thought  that  the  soul  and 
iiody  died  together,  and  rose  again.  It  is 
said  that  Origen  convinced  them  of  their 
error,  and  that  they  then  abjured  it. 

ARCHAN(tEL,  according  to  some  divines 
means  an  angel  occupying  the  eighth  rank 
hi  the  celestial  hierarchy  ;  but  others,  not 
without  reason,  reckon  it  a  title  only  appli- 
<^able  to  our  Saviour.  Compare  Jude  9.  Avilh 
Dan.  xii.  1,  1  Thess,  iv.  16. 

ARCHBISHOP,  the  chief  or  metropolitan 
bishop,  who  has  several  sufFiagans  under  him. 
Archbishops  were  not  known  in  the  Eas*  till 
about  the  year  320  ;  and  thoneh  there  Avere 
some  soon  after  this  who  had  the  title,  yet 
'hat  was  onlv  a  j'jcrsonal  honour,  hy  wliich 
the  bishops  of  considerable  cities  were  dis- 
tinguished. It  was  not  till  of  late  that  arch- 
bishops became  metr.  politans,  and  had  suf- 
fraga'is  under  tlicm,  'i'he  ecclesiastical 
^;o\ernment  of  England  is  divided  into  two 
TiroATUces,  \'iz,  Canterliury  and  York.  The 
first  Archl/ihhop  of  Canterbury  was  Austin, 
appointed  by  king  Eth-.  Ibert,  on  his  conver- 
sion to  Christianity,  about  the  year  598.  His 
grace  of  Canterbury  is  the  first  peer  of  Eng- 
land, and  the  next  to  the  royal  family, 
having  precedence  of  all  dukes,  a'ul  all  great 
f  {Beers  of  the  crown.  It  is  his  privilege,  by 
custom  to  crown  the  kings  and  oueens  of 
this  kingdom.  The  archbi.shop  of  York  has 
precedence  of  all  dukes  not  of  the  ilnal 
blood,  and  of  all  olncers  of  state  except  the 
lord  high  chancellor.  The  first  archbishop 
r.f  York  was  Paulinus,  appointed  by  pope 
Gregory  about  the  \-ear  622. 

AiRCHDE.'VCON,  a  priest  invested  with 
authority  or  jurisdiction  over  the  clc  rgy  and 
iaity,  next  to  the  bishop,  either  through  the 


whole  diocese,  or  only  a  part  of  it.  There 
are  sixty  in  England,  wlio  visit  every  twa 
years  in  three,  when  they  enquire  into  the 
reparations  and  moveables  belonging  to 
churches  ;  reform  abuses  ;  suspend  ;  excom- 
municate ;  in  some  places  prove  wills  ;  and 
induct  all  clerks  into  benefices  within  their^ 
respective  jurisdictions. 

ARCHONTICS,  a  sect  about  the  year 
160  or  203.  Among  many  other  tfxtravagant 
notions,  they  held  that  the  world  was  created 
by  archangels  ;  they  also  denied  the  resur- 
rection of  the  bodv. 

ARCH-PRESBYTER,  or  Akch  Priest, 
a  priest  established  in  some  dioceses  with  a 
superiority  over  the  rest.  He  was  ^ciently 
chosen  out  of  the  college  of  presbyters,  at 
the  pleasure  of  the  bishop.  The  avch- 
presbyters  were  much  of  the  same  nature 
with  nur  deans  in  cathedral  churches. 

ARRHABONARII,  a  sect  who  held  that 
the  eucharist  is  neither  the  real  flesh  or 
blood  of  Christ  nor  yet  the  sign  of  them,  but 
only  the  pledge  or  earnest  thereof. 

ARIANS,  followej-s  of  Ariu.s,  a  presbyter 
of  the  church  of  Alexandra,  about  315,  who 
maintained  that  the  Son  of  God  was  totally 
and  essentially  distinct  from  the  Father ; 
that  he  was  the  first  and  noblest  of  those 
beings  whom  God  had  created — the  instru- 
ment, by  whose  subordinate  operation  he 
formed  the  univei'se  ;  and,  therefore,  inferior 
to  the  Father  both  in  nature  and  dignity ; 
also,  that  the  Holy  Ghost  was  not  God,  but 
created  by  the  power  of  the  Son.  The  Arians 
owned  that  the  Son  was  the  Word ;  but 
denied  that  Word  to  have  been  eternal. 
They  held  that  Christ  had  notl'.ing  of  man 
in  him  but  the  flesh,  to  Avhich  the  Xoye^,  or 
Avord,  Avas  joined,  Avhich  Avas  the  same  as  the 
soul  in  us. — The  Arians  were  first  condemn- 
ed and  anathematised  by  a  council  at  Alex- 
andria, in  3-0,  under  Alexander,  bishop  of 
that  city,  Avho  accused  Arius  of  impiety,  and 
caused  him  to  be  expelled  from  the  com- 
munion of  the  church  ;  and  afterwards  by 
380  fathers  in  the  general  council  of  Nice, 
assembled  by  constantine,  in  325.  His  doc- 
trine, hoAVCA'er,  Avas  not  axtinguished  ;  on 
the  contrary,  it  became  the  reigning  religion, 
especiaiiy  in  the  East.  Arius  Avas  recalled 
from  banishment  by  Constantine  in  two  or 
three  years  after  the  council  of  Nice,  and  the 
laws  that  had  been  enacted  against  him 
Avere  re])ealed.  NotAvithstanding  this,  Atha- 
nasiu-s,  then  bislu-pof  Alexandria,  refused  to 
admit  him  and  his  folloAS'crs  to  communion. 
This  so  enrngcd  them,  that,  by  their  interest 
at  court,  they  procured  that  prelate  to  be 
deposed  and  banished  ;  but  the  church  of 
Alexandria  still  refusing  to  admit  Arius  into 
their  communion,  the  emperor  sent  for  him 
to  Constantinople ;  Avhere,  upcin  delivering 
in  a  fresh  confession  of  his  faith  in  terms 
less  offensive,  the  Emperor  commanded  him 
to  be  received  into  their  communion  ;  but 
that  Aery  eveiung,  it  is  said,  Arius  died  as 
his  friends  were  conducting  him  in  triumph 
to  the  great  church  of  Constantinople.  AriuS; 


ARI 


27 


ARK 


I  pressed  by  a'  natural  want,  stopped  aside, 
but  expired  on  the  spot,  his  boweis  pushing 
out.  The  Arian  party,  liowever,  found  a 
protector  in  Coiistantius,  who  succeeded  his 
father  iu  the  East.  They  underwent  vari- 
ous revolutions  and  persecutions  under  suc- 
ceeding emperors  ;  till,  at  length,  'Vheodo- 
sius  the  Great  exerted  every  effort  to  sup- 
press them.  Their  doctrine  was  carried,  in 
the  fifth  century,  into  Africa,  under  the 
Vandals  ;  and  into  Asia  under  the  Goths. — 
Italy,  Gaul,  and  Spain,  were  also  deeply  in- 
fected with  it ;  and  tuwards  the  comnience- 
Tncnt  of  the  sixth  century,  it  was  triumphant 
in  many  parts  of  Asia,  Africa,  and  Europe  : 
but  it  sunk,  almost  at  once,  when  the  Van- 
dals were  driven  out  of  Africa,  and  the 
Goths  out  of  Italy,  by  the  arms  of  Justinian. 
However,  it  revived  again  in  Italy,  under  the 
protection  of  the  Lombards,  in  the  seventh 
centuiy,  and  was  not  extinguished  till  about 
the  end  of  the  eighth.  Arianism  was  again 
revived  in  the  West  by  Servetus,  in  153 i, 
for  which  he  suffered  de;ith.  After  this  the 
doctrine  got  footing  in  Geneva,  and  in  Po- 
land;  but  at  length  degenerated  in  a  great 
measure  into  Socinianism.  Erasmus,  it  is 
thought,  aimed  at  reviving  it,  in  his  com- 
mentaries on  the  New-'I'estament ,  and  the 
learned  Grotius  seems  to  lean  that  way. 
Mr.  Whiston  was  one  of  tlie  first  divines 
who  revived  this  controversy  iu  the  eigh- 
teenth century.  He  was  followed  by  Dr 
Clark,  wlio  was  chiefly  opposed  by  Dr.  Wa- 
terland.  Those  who  hold  the  doctrine  which 
is  usually  called  Low  .Arianism,  say  that 
Christ  pre-existed ;  but  not  as  the  eternal 
Logos  of  the  Father,  or  as  the  Being  by 
whom  he  made  the  worlds,  and  had  inter- 
course with  the  patriarchs,  or  as  having  any 
certain  rank  or  employment  wliatever  in  the 
divine  dispensations  In  modern  times'  the 
term  Arian  is  indiscriminately  applied  to 
those  who  consider  Jesus  simply  subordinate 
to  the  Father.  Some  of  them  believe  Christ 
to  have  been  the  creator  of  the  world  ;  but 
they  all  maintain  that  he  existed  p)-evinusly 
to  his  incarnation,  though  in  his  pre-existent 
state  they  assign  him  diflerent  degrees  uf 
dignity.  Hence  the  terms  High  and  Low 
Ariun.  See  Pre-kxistence.  Senna  of  the 
more  recent  vindicators  of  Arianism  have 
been  H.  Taylor,  in  his  Afinlogy  of  Be7i 
Alordecai  to  his  Friends  for  embracing 
Christianity  ;  Dr.  Harwood,  in  his  Five 
Dissertations ;  Dr  Price,  in  his  Sermons 
on  the  Christian  Doctrine.  See  also  the  4th 
vol,  of  the  Theological  Repository,  p,  153 — 
163,  and  Corinth's  Tract  on  the  Preexist- 
cnce  of  Christ. 

On  the  opposite  side,  Bogiieand  Bennett's 
Hist,  of  Dissenters,  vol.  iii.  Abbadie,  Wa- 
terland,  Gityse,  Hey,  Robinson,  Fveleigh, 
Hawker  on  the  Divinity  of  Christ ,- — Ca- 
lamy,  Taylor,  Gill,  Jones,  Pike  and  Sim/t- 
aon,  on  the  Triniti/. 

ARISTOTELIANS,  the  followers  of  A  rls- 
totle.  They  believed  in  the  eternity  of  the 
world,  and  represented  the  Deity  as  some- 


what similar  to  a  principle  of  power  giving 
motion  to  a  machine ;  and  as  happy  in  the 
contemplation  of  himself,  but  regardless  of 
human  affairs.  They  were  uncertain  as  to 
the  immortality  of  the  soul — As  this  was 
f'rather  a'philoaoijhical  than  religious  sect,  we 
shall  not  enlarge  on  it. 

ARK,  or  Noah's  Ark,  a  floating  vessel 
built  by  Noah  for  the  preservation  ef  his 
family,  and  the  several  species  of  animals, 
during  the  deluge.  Tlie  form  of  the  Ark  was 
an  oblong,  with  a  flat  bottom,  and  a  sloped 
roof,  raised  to  a  cubit  in  the  middle ;  it  had 
neither  sails  nor  rudder;  nor  was  it  sharp  at 
he  ends  for  cutting  the  water  'I'his  form 
was  admirably  calculated  to  make  it  lie 
steady  on  the  water,  without  rolling,  which 
miglit  have  endangered  the  lives  of  the  ani- 
mals within. 

Tlie  length  of  this  ark  was  300  culjits, 
which,  according  to  Dr.  Arbuthnot's  calcula- 
tion, amount  to  a  little  more  thon  547  feet ; 
its  breadth,  50  cubits,  or  91-2  feet;  its 
height,  30  cubits,  or  54-72  feet ;  and  its  solid 
contents  2,730-782  soUd  feet,  suflicient  for  a 
carriage  for  81,062  ton.  It  consisted  of  three 
stories,  each  of  which,  abating  the  thickness 
of  the  floors,  might  be  about  18  feet  high, 
and  no  doubt  was  partitioned  into  a  great 
many  rooms  or  apartments.  This  vessel  was 
doubtless  so  contrived,  as  to  admit  tlie  air 
and  the  light  on  all,  though  the  particular 
construction  of  the  windows  be  not  men- 
tioned. 

ARK  OF  THE  COVENANT,  a  small 
chest  or  cofler,  three  feet  nine  inches  ii< 
length,  two  feet  three  inches  in  breadth,  and 
two  feet  tiii'ce  inches  in  height,  in  which 
were  contained  the  golden  pot  that  had  man- 
na, Aaron's  rod,  and  the  tables  of  tlie  cove- 
nant. The  ark  was  reposited  in  the  holiest 
place  of  the  tabernacle.  It  was  taken  by 
the  Philistines,  and  detained  twenty  (some 
say  forty)  years  at  Kirjahjearim  ;  but,  the 
people  being  afflicted  with  emerods  on  ac- 
cou!itof  it,  returned  it  with  divers  presents. 
It  v/as  afterwards  placed  in  the  temple. 

The  lid  or  covering  of  the  ark  was  called 
the  firo/iiciatory  or  mercy-seat ;  over  which 
two  hgures  were  placed,  called  chirubinis,. 
with  expanded  wings  of  a  peculiar  form. 
Here  tlie  Shechinah  rested  both  in  the  ta-? 
bernacle  and  temple  in  a  visible  cloud  :J 
hence  were  issued  the  Divine  oracles  by  an 
audible  voice  ;  and  the  high  priest  ajipcared 
Ijefore  this  mercy-seat  fince  every  year  on 
the  great  day  of  expiation;  and  the  Jews, 
wherever  they  worshijjped,  turned  their 
faces  towards  the  place  where  the  ark  stood. 

In  the  second  temple  there  was  also  an 
ark,  made  of  the  same  shape  and  dimensions 
with  the  first,  and  put  in  the  same  pbce, 
but  widiout  any  of  its  contents  and  peculiar 
honours.  It  was  used  as  a  representative  of 
the  former  on  the  day  of  expiation,  and  a  re- 
pository of  the  original  copy  of  the  holy 
scrijjtures,  collected  by  Ezra  and  the  men  of 
the  great  synagogue  after  the  captivity  ;  and, 
in  inlitation  of  this,   the  Jews,  to  t^iia  day, 


ARM 


28 


ARM 


have  a  kind  of  ark  in  their  synagogues, 
wherein  their  sacred  books  are  kept. 

ARMENIANS,  the  inhabitants  of  Ar- 
menia, whose  reJigicBi  is  the  Christian,  of  the 
Eutychian  sect;  that  is,  they  hold  but  one 
nature  in  Jesus  Christ.  See  Eutychians. 
They  assert  also  the  procession  of  the  Holy 
Ghofct  from  the  Father  only.  Tliey  believe 
that  Christ  at  his  descent  into  hell  ireed  the 
souls  of  the  damned  from  thence,  and  re- 
prieved them  to  the  end  of  the  world,  when 
they  shall  be  remanded  to  eternal  flames. 
They  believe  that  the  souls  of  the  righteous 
shall  not  be  admitted  to  the  beatific  vision 
till  after  the  resurrection,  notwithstanding 
•which  they  pray  to  departed  saints,  adore 
their  pictures,  and  burn  lamps  before  them. 
The  Armenian  clergy  consist  of  patriarchs, 
archbishops,  doctors,  secular  priests  and 
monks.  The  Armenian  monks  are  of  the 
order  of  St.  Basil ;  and  every  Wednesday 
and  Friday  thef  eat  neither  fish,  nor  eggs, 
nor  oil,  nor  any  thing  made  of  milk  ;  and 
during  Lent  they  live  upon  nothing  but  roots. 
They  have  seven  sacraments ;  baptism,  con- 
iirmatioD,  penance,  the  eucharist,  extreme 
miction,  orders,  and  matrimony. — They  ad- 
mit infants  to  the  communion  at  two  or  three 
months  old.  They  seem  to  place  the  chief 
part  of  their  religion  in  fastings  and  absti- 
rence ;  and,  among  the  clergy,  the  higher 
tlie  degree,  the  lower  they  must  live  ;  inso- 
much that  it  is  said  the  archbishops  live  on 
nothing  but  pulse.  They  consecrate  holy 
■water  but  once  a  year ;  at  which  time  every 
one  fills  a  pot,  and  cames  it  home,  which 
brings  in  a  considerable  revenue  to  the 
church. 

ARMINIANS,  persons  who  follow  the 
doctrines  of  Arminius,  who  was  pastor  at 
Amsterdam,  and  afterwards  professor  of  di- 
vinity at  Ley  den.  Arminius  had  been  edu- 
cated in  the  opinions  of  Calvin  ;  but,  thinking 
the  doctrine  of  that  great  man  with  regard 
to  free  will,  predestination,  and  grace,  too 
severe,  he  began  to  express  his  doubts  con- 
cerning them  in  the  year  1591 ;  and.  upon 
farther  enquiry,  adopted  the  sentiments  of 
those  v/hose  religious  system  extends  the 
love  of  the  Supreme  Being,  and  the  merits 
of  Jesus  Christ  to  all  mankind.  The  Armi- 
nians  are  also  called  Remonstrants,  because 
in  1611,  they  presented  a  remonstrance  to 
the  states-general,  wherein  they  state  tlieir 
grievances,  and  pray  for  relief. 

Thedistinguishingrenc/a  of  the  Arminians 
may  be  comprised  in  the  five  following  arti- 
cles relative  to  the  predestination,  univereal 
redemption,  tiie  corruption  of  man,  conver- 
sion, and  perseverance,  viz 

I.  That  God,  from  all  eternity,  determined 
to  bestow  salvation  on  those  whom  he  fore- 
saw would  persevere  unto  the  end ;  and  to 
inflict  everlasting  punishments  on  thot>e  who 
should  continue  in  their  unbelief,  and  resist 
!ijs  divine  succours ;  so  that  election  was 
conditional,  and  reprobation  in  like  manner, 
;  the  result  of  foreseen  infidelity  and  pei'se- 
'  vering  wickedness. 


II.  That  Jesus  Christ,  by  his  sufferings  and 
death,  made  an  atonement  for  the  sins  of  all 
mankind  in  general,  and  of  eveiy  individual 
in  pai'ticular ;  that,  however,  none  but  those 

,  Y  ho  believe  in  him  can  be  partakers  <rf  di- 
vine benefits. 

III.  That  the  true  faith  cannot  proceed 
from  the  exercise  of  our  natural  faculties  and 
powers,  nor  from  the  force  and  operation  of 
free  will ;  since  man,  in  consequence  of  hi^ 
natural  corruption,  is  incapable  either  of 
thinking  or  doing  any  good  thing;  and  that, 
therefore,  it  is  necessary,  in  order  to  his  con- 
version and  salvation,  that  he  be  regent- rated 
and  renewed  by  the  operation  of  the  Holy 
Ghost,  which  is  the  gift  of  God  through  Je- 
sus Christ. 

IV  That  this  divine  grace  or  energy  of 
the  Holy  (ihost  begins  and  perfects  every 
thing  that  can  be  called  good  in  man,  and, 
consequently,  all  good  works  are  to  be  attri- 
buted to  God  alone  ;  that,  nevertheless,  this 
grace  is  offered  to  all,  and  does  not  force  men 
to  act  against  their  inclinations,  but  may  be 
resisted  and  rendered  ineffectual  by  the  per- 
verse will  of  the  impenitent  sinner.  Some 
modern  Arminians  interpret  this  and  the 
last  article  with  a  greater  latitude. 

V.  'I'hat  God  gives  to  the  truly  faithful 
who  are  regenerated  by  his  grace  the  means 
of  preserving  themselves  in  this  state.  The 
first  Arminians,  indeed,  had  some  doubt  with 
respect  to  the  closing  part  of  this  article  ;  but 
their  followers  uniformly  maintain  "  that  the ' 
regenerate  may  lose  true  justifying  faith,  fall 
from  a  state  of  grace,  and  die  in  their  sins." 

After  the  appointment  of  Arminias  to  the 
theological  chair  at  Leyden,  he  thought  it  his 
duty  to  avow  and  vindicate  the  principles 
which  he  had  embraced ;  and  the  freedom 
with  which  he  published  and  defended  them, 
exposed  him  to  the  resentment  of  those  that 
adhered  to  the  theological  system  of  Geneva, 
which  ihen  prevailed  in  Holland ;  but  his 
principal  opponent  was  Gomer,  his  colleague. 
The  controversi"  which  was  thus  begun  be- 
came more  general  after  the  death  of  Ar- 
minius in  the  year  1609,  and  thi-eatened  to 
involve  the  United  Provinces  in  civil  discord- 
The  Arminian  tenets  gained  ground  under 
the  mild  and  favourable  treatment  of  the  ma- 
gistrates of  Holland,  and  were  adopted  by 
several  persons  of  merit  and  distinction.  The 
Calvinists  or  Gomarists,  as  they  were  now 
called,  appealed  to  a  national  synod;  accord- 
ingly the  synod  of  Dort  was  convened,  by  or- 
der of  the  states  general,  in  1618  ;  and  was 
composed  of  ecclesiastic  deputies  from  the 
United  Provinces,  as  well  as  from  the  re- 
formed Churches  of  England,  Hessia.  Bremen, 
Switzerland,  and  the  Palatinate.  The  prin- 
cipal advocates  in  favour  of  the  Arminians 
was  Episcopius,  who  at  that  time  was  pro- 
fessor of  divinity  at  Leyden.  It  was  first 
proposed  to  discuss  the  principal  subjects  in 
dispute,  that  the  Arminians  should  be  allow- 
ed to  state  and  vindicate  the  grounds  on 
whichlheiropinions  were  founded;  but,  some 
difference  arising  as  to  the  proper  mode  of 


ART 


29 


ASC 


oonducting  the  debate,  the  Arminians  were 
excluded  tVoin  the  assembly,  their  case  was 
iried  in  their  absence,  and  tliey  wei'e  pro- 
nounced guilty  of  pestilential  erroi's,  and  con- 
demned as  corniptors  of  the  true  religion. 
A  curious  account  of  the  proceedings  of  the 
above  synod  may  be  seen  in  a  series  of  let- 
ters written  by  Mr.  John  Hales,  who  was 
present  on  the  occasion. 

In  consequence  of  the  above-mentioned  de- 
cision, the  Arminians  were  censidered  as 
enemies  to  their  country,  and  its  established 
r&ligion,  and  were  much  persecuted.  They 
were  treated  with  great  seventy,  and  de- 
prived of  all  their  posts  and  employments, 
their  ministers  were  silenced,  and  their  con- 
gregations were  supprest.  The  great  Bar- 
neveldt  was  beheaded  on  a  scaffold ;  and  the 
le"arnedGrotius,beingcondemned  to  perpetual 
imprisonment, fled, andtook refuge  in  France. 

After  the  death  of  prince  Maurice,  who 
had  been  a  violent  partisan  in  favoui"  of  the 
Gomarists  in  the  year  1625,  the  Arminian 
exiles  were  restored  to  their  former  reputa- 
tion and  tranquillity  ;  and,  under  the  tolera- 
tion oi  the  state,  they  ereoted  churches  and 
founded  a  college  at  Amsterdam  appointii^ 
Episcopius  the  lirst  theological  proftssor. 
The  Arminian  system  has  very  much  pre- 
vailed in  England  since  tlve  time  of  Arch- 
bishop Laud,  and  its  votaries  in  other  coun- 
tries are  very  numerous.  It  is  generally  sup- 
posed that  a  majority  of  the  clergy  in  both 
the  established  churches  of  Great  Britain 
favour  the  Arminian  system,  notwithstand- 
ing their  articles  are  strictly  Calvinistic. 
The  name  of  Mr.  John  Wesley  hardly  need 
be  mentioned  here.  Every  one  knows  what 
an  advocate  he  was  for  the  tenets  of  Armi- 
nius,  and  the  success  he  met  with.  See  Me- 
thodists. 

Some  of  the  principal  writers  on  the  side 
of  the  Arminians  have  been  Arminius, 
Efiiscofiius.,  Foretius,  Grodus,  Curcellaeus, 
JLimborc/i,  Le  Clerc,  Welstein,  Goodivin, 
W/utby^  Taylor,  Fletcher,  &c. 

Some  of  the  principal  writers  on  the  other 
side  have  been  Polhiil  in  his  Book  on  the 
Decrees  ;  John  Edwards  in  his  Veritas  Re- 
dux ;  Cole  in  his  Sovereignty  of  God  ;  Ed- 
wards on  the  Will  and  Original  Sin  ;  Br. 
Owen  in  his  Disfilay  of  Anyiinianism,  and 
onparticular  Redemfition  ,-  Gill  in  his  Cause 
of  God  and  Truth  ;  and  Tofilady  in  almost 
all  his  works. 

ARNOLDISTS,  the  followers  of  Arnold, 
of  Brescia,  in  the  twelfth  century,  who  was 
a  great  declaimer  against  the  wealth  and 
vices  of  the  clergy.  He  is  also  charged  with 
preaching  against  baptism  .and  the  eucharist. 
He  was  Immt  at  Rome  in  1155,  and  his  ash- 
es cast  into  the  Tiber. 

ARTEMONTES,  a  denomination  in  the 
second  centur>^ ;  so  called  from  Arteraon, 
who  taught  that,  at  the  birth  of  the  man 
Christ,  a  certain  divine  energ}',  or  portion  of 
the  divine  nature,  united  itself  to  him. 

ARTICLE  OF  FAITH,  is  by  some  defin- 
ed a  point  of  Christian  doctrine,  which  we 


are  obliged  to  believe  as  having  been  revealed 
by  God  himself,  and  allowed  and  established 
as  such  by  the  church.  See  Confessions. 

AK  riCLES  OF   THE   CHURCH  OF 
ENGLAND.  See  Church  of  England. 

ARTICLES  LAMBETH.  The  Lambeth 
articles  were  so  called,  because  drawn  up  at 
Lambeth  palace,  under  the  eye  and  with  the 
assistance  of  archbishop  Whitgift,  bishop 
Bancroft,  bishop  Vaughan,  and  other  eminent 
dignitaries  of  the  Church.  That  the  reader 
may  judge  how  Calvanistic  the  clergy  were 
under  the  reign  of  queen  Elizabeth,  we  ihall 
here  insert  them.  "  1.  God  hath  from  eter- 
nity predestinated  certain  persons  to  life,  and 
hath  reprobated  certain  perscnsunto  death. 
2.  The  moving  or  efficient  cause  of  predes- 
tination unto  life  is  not  the  foresight  of  faith, 
or  01  perseverance,  or  of  good  works,  or  of 
any  thing  that  is  in  the  persons  predestina- 
ted ;  but  the  alone  will  of  God's  good  plea- 
sure. 3.  The  predestinati  are  a  pre  deter- 
mined and  certain  number,  which  can  nei- 
ther be  lessened  nor  increased.  4.  Such  as 
are  not  predestinated  to  salvation  shall  inevi- 
tably be  condemned  on  account  of  their  sin.s. 
5.  The  true,  lively,  and  juslifyir.g  faith,  anti 
the  Spirit  of  God  justifyhig  is  not  extinguish- 
ed, doth  not  utterly  fail,  doth  not  vanish  away 
in  the  elect,  either  finally  or  totally.  6.  A 
true  believer,  that  is,  one  who  is  endued  with 
justifying  laith,  is  certified  by  the  full  assu- 
rance of  faith  that  his  sins  are  forgiven, 
and  that  he  shall  be  everlastingly  saved  by 
Christ.  7.  Saving  grace  is  not  allowed,  is  not 
imparted,  is  not  granted  to  all  men,  by  which 
they  may  be  savt  d  if  they  will.  8.  No  man 
is  able  to  come  to  Christ,  unless  it  be  given 
him  ;  and  unless  the  Father  draw  him  ;  and 
all  men  are  not  drawn  by  the  Father,  that 
they  may  come  to  his  Son.  9.  It  is  not  in 
the  will  or  power  of  every  man  to  be  saved." 
What  gave  occasion  to  the  framing  these  ar- 
ticles was  this: — Some  persons  had  distin- 
guished themselves  at  the  univei'sity  of  Cam- 
bridge by  opposing  predestination.  Alarm- 
ed at  the  opinions  that  were  vented  the 
above-mentioned  archbishop,  with  others, 
aim  posed  these  articles,,  to  prevent  the  be- 
lief of  a  contraiy  doctrine.  These,  when 
completed,  were  sent  down  to  Cambridge, 
to  which  the  scholars  were  strictly  enjoined 
to  confgrm. 

ARTOTYRITES,  a  Christian  sect  in  the 
primitive  cbifrch,  who  celebrated  the  eucha- 
rist with  bread  and  cheese.  The  word  is  de- 
rived from  xfT^,  "  bread,"  ar-.d  rvfo^, 
"  cheese."  The  Artotyrites  admitted  wo- 
men to  the  priesthood  and  episcopaoy  ;  and 
Epiphanius  tells  as  that  it  was  a  common 
thing  to  see  seven  girls  at  once  enter  into 
their  church  robed  in  white,  and  holding  a 
torch  in  their  hand;  where  they  wept  and 
bewailed  the  wretchedness  of  human  nature, 
and  the  miseries  of  this  life. 

ASCENSION  OF  CHRIST,  his  visible 
elevation  to  heaven.  The  ascension  of  Jesus 
Christ  was  not  only  presignified  by  many 
scripture  types,  but  also  by  many  retoarka- 


ASS 


30 


ASS 


ble  scripture  prophecies,  Ps.  xlvii.  5.  Ps. 
ex.  1,  Dan.  vii.  13,  14.  iViic.  ii.  13.  Ps.  Ixviii. 
18. 

The  evidences  of  his  ascension  vjcre  nu- 
merous. Tlie  disciples  saw  hiin  ascend,  Acts 
i.  9.  10,  Two  anp;els  testified  that  he  did  as- 
cend. Acts  i.  11.'  Stephen,  Paul,  and  John, 
saw  him  in  his  ascended  state,  Acts  vii.  55, 
56.  Acts  ix.  Rev.  i.  The  mavvellons  des- 
cent of  the  Holy  Ghost  demonstrated  it,  John 
xvi.  7,  14,  Acts  ii.  33.  The  terrible  over- 
throw and  dispersion  of  the  Jewish  nation  is 
a  standing  proof  of  it,  John  viii.  21.  Matt, 
xxvi.  64. 

The  time  of  his  ascension.  It  was  forty 
days  after  his  resurrection.  He  continued  so 
many  days  on  earth,  that  he  might  give  many 
repeated  proofs  of  his  resurrection.  Acts 
i.  3.  that  lie  migHit  instruct  his  followers  in 
every  thing  which  pertained  to  the  abolish- 
ment of  the  Jewi.sh  ceremonies.  Acts  i.  3  ; 
and  that  he  might  open  to  them  the  scrip- 
tures concerning  himself,  and  renew  their 
commission  to  preach  ihe  gospel.  Acts  i.  5, 
6.  Mark  xvi.  15. 

The  manner  of  his  ascension.  It  was  from 
Mount  Olivet  to  heaven.  Acts  i.  12  ;  not  in 
appearance  only,  but  in  reality  and  ttuth  ; 
visibly  and  locally  ;  a  real  motion  of  his  hu- 
man nature  ;  sudden,  swift,  glorious,  and  in 
a  triumphant  manner.  He  was  parted  from 
his  disciples  while  he  was  solemnly  blessing 
them  ;  and  multitudes  of  angels  attended 
him  with  shouts  of  praise.  Ps.  Ixviii.  17. 
xlvii.  5,  6. 

The  ejects  or  ends  of  Christ's  ascension 
luere,  1.  To  fulfil  the  prophecies  and  types 
concerning  it.  2.  To  take  upon  him  more 
openly  the  exercise  of  his  kingly  office.  3. 
'I'o  receive  gifts  for  men  txith  ordinary  ami 
extraordinary,  Ps.  Ixviii.  18.  4.  To  open  the 
way  into  heaven  for  his  people,  Heb.  x.  19, 
20.  5.  To  assure  the  saints  of  their  ascen- 
sion also,  John  xiv.  1,  2. 

ASCETIC,  one  who  retires  from  the 
world  for  the  purpose  of  devotion  and  morti- 
fication. When  the  monks  came  in  fashion, 
this  title  was  bestowed  upon  them,  especial- 
ly such  as  lived  in  solitude.  It  was  also  the 
title  of  several  books  of  spiritual  exercises, 
as  the  ^iscetics,  or  devout  exercises,  of  St. 
Basil,  £cc. 

ASCODROGITES,  a  denominatien  which 
arose  about  the  year  181.  They  brought 
into  their  churches  bags  or  skins  filled  with 
new  wine,  to  represent  the  new  bottles  filled 
with  new  wine,  mentioned  by  Christ.  They 
danced  round  these  bags  or  skins,  and,  it  is 
said,  intoxicated  themselves  with  the  wine. 

ASCOODRUTES,  a  sect,  in  the  second 
century,  who  rejected  the  use  of  all  symbols 
and  sacraments  on  this  principle,  that  incor- 
poreal things  cannot  be  conimunicatod  by 
thitigs  corporeal,  nor  divine  mysteries  by 
anv  thing  visible. 

ASSEMBLIES  OF  THE  CLERGY  are 
called  convocations,  synods,  councils.  The 
annual  meeting  of  tlie  church  of  Scotland  is 
called  a  general  assembly.    In  this  assembly 


his  majesty  is  represented  by  his  commis- 
sioner, who  dissolves  one  meeting  and  calls 
another  in  the  name  of  the  king,  while  the 
moderator  does  the  same  in  the  name  of  Je- 
sus Christ.  See  Convocation,  Presby- 
terians. 

ASSENT,  that  act  of  the  mind  whereby 
it  takes  or  acknowledges  any  proposition  to 
be  true  or  false.  There  are  three  degrees 
of  assent :.— conjecture,  opinion,  and  belitf. 
iojijecture  is  but  a  slight  and  weak  inclina- 
tion to  assent  to  the  thing  proposed,  by  rea- 
son of  tlie  weighty  objections  that  lie  against 
it.  Ofiinion  is  a  more  (steady  and  fixed 
assent,  when  a  man  is  almost  certain,  though 
yet  with  some  fear  of  the  contrary  remains 
with  him.  Belief  is  a  more  full  and  assui'ed 
assent  to  the  truth.  See  Bflikf- 

ASSURANCE  is  the  firm  persuasion  we 
have  of  the  certainty  of  any  thing,  or  a  cer- 
tain expt  ctation  of  something  future. 

Assurance  of  the  understanding  is  a 
well-grounded  knowledge  of  divine  things 
founded  on  tiod's  word.  Col.  ii.  2.  Assurance 
of  Faith  does  not  relate  to  our  personal  in- 
terest in  Christ,  but  consists  in  a  firm  belief 
of  the  revelation  that  God  has  given  us  of 
Christ  in  his  word,  with  an  entire  depen- 
dance  on  him,  Heb.  x.  22. — Assura7ice  of 
hope  is  a  firm  expectation  that  God  will 
grant  us  the  complete  enjoyment  of  what  he 
has  promised,  Heb.  vi.  11. 

The  doctrine  of  assurance,  i.  e.  the  belief 
that  Ave  have  an  interest  in  the  divine  favour, 
has  afforded  matter  for  dispute  among  di- 
vines. Some  have  asserted  that  it  is  not  to 
be  obtained  in  the  present  statfc\  allowing 
that  persons  may  be  in  a  hojieful  way  to 
salvation,  but  that  they  have  no  real  or  abso- 
lute assurance  of  it :  but  this  is  clearly  refu- 
ted by  fact  as  well  as  by  scrij)ture.  That 
it  is  to  be  obtained  is  evident,  for  we  have 
reason  tn  believe  many  pereons  liave  actually 
obtained  it,  Job  xix.  25.  Ps  xvii.  15  2  Tim. 
i.  12.  The  scriptures  exhort  us  to  obtain  it, 
2  Cor.  xiii.  5.  Heb.  vi.  11.  1  Thes.  v,  21. 
The  Holy  Spirit  is  said  to  bear  witness  of  it, 
Rom.  viii.  16.  The  exercises  of  the  Christian 
graces  is  considered  as  a  proof  of  it.  I  John 
iii.  14.  1  John  ii.  3.  We  must,  however, 
guard  agamtt  presumption ;  for  a  mere  per- 
suasion that  Christ  is  ours,  is  no  proof  that 
he  is  "SO.  We  must  have  evidence  before  we 
can  have  genuine  assurance.  It  is  neces- 
sary to  observe  also,  that  it  is  not  a  duty  im- 
posed upon  all  mankind,  so  that  every  one, 
m  whatsoever  state  he  may  be,  ought  to  be 
fully  persuaded  of  his  salvation.  "  We  do 
not  affirm,"  says  Saurin,  "that  (Miristians 
of  whose  sincerity  there  tnay  be  .some  doubt 
have  a  right  to  assurance  :  that  backsliders, 
as  such,  ought  to  persuade  themselves  that 
they  shall  be  saved;  nor  do  we  say  that 
Christians  who  have  arrived  to  the  highest 
degree  of  holiness  can  be  persuaded  of  the 
certainty  of  their  salvation  in  every  period 
of  their  fives;  noi",  if  Itjft  to  their  own  efforts, 
can  they  enjoy  it:  but  believers  supported 
by  the  Divine  aid,  v/ho  walk  in  all  good  con- 


AST 


31 


A  I'  H 


science  before  him,  tliese  only  have  ground 
to  expect  this  privilege." 

Some  divines  have  maintained  that  assu- 
rance is  included  in  the  very  essence  of 
faith,  so  that  a  man  cannot  have  faith  with- 
out assurance;  but  we  nmst  distinguish  be- 
tween assurance  and  justifying  faith.  The 
apcjstle,  indued,  speaks  of  thqpfull  assurance 
of  faith ;  but  then  this  is  a  full  and  firm  per- 
suasion of  what  the  Gospel  reveals ;  whereas 
the  assurance  we  are  speaking  of  relates  to 
our  personal  interest  in  Christ,  and  is  an 
effect  of  this  faith,  and  not  faith  itself.  Faith 
in  Christ  certainly  includes  some  idea  of  as- 
suiance  ;  for,  e.xccpt  we  be  assured  that  he 
is  the  Saviour,  we  shall  never  go  to  or  vely 
upon  him  as  such :  but  faith  in  Christ  does 
not  imply  an  assurance  of  our  interest  in 
him ;  f(H-  tliere  may  be  faith  long  befoi-e  the 
assurance  of  personal  interest  commences. 
The  confounding  of  these  ideas  has  been  the 
cause  of  presumption  on  the  one  hand,  and 
despair  on  the  other.  When  men  have  been 
taught  that  faith  consisted  in  believing  that 
Christ  died  for  them,  and  been  assured  thai, 
if  they  can  only  believe  so,  all  is  well ;  and 
that  then  they  are  immediately  pardoned 
and  justified,  the  consequence  has  been,  that 
the  ixjld  and  self-conceited  have  soon  wrought 
themselves  up  to  such  a  persuasion,  without 
any  ground  for  it,  to  their  own  deception ; 
whilst  the  dejected,  humble,  and  poor  in 
spirit,  not  being  able  to  work  themselves  to 
such  a  pitch  of  coniidence,  have  concluded 
that  they  have  not  the  faith  of  God's  elect, 
and  must  inevitably  be  lost. 

The  means  to  attain  assurance  are  not 
those  of  an  extraordinary  kind,  as  some  peo- 
ple imagine;  such  as  visions,  dreams,  voices, 
Jxc. ;  but  such  as  are  ordinary;  self-exami- 
nation, humble  and  constant  prayer,  consult- 
ing the  saci-ed  oracles.  Christian  communi- 
cation, attendance  on  the  divine  ordinances, 
and  perseverance  in  the  path  of  duty;  with- 
out which  all  our  assurance  is  but  presump- 
tion, and  our  profession  but  hypocrisy. 

Assurance  maybe  lost  for  a  season  through 
Iwdily  diseases  which  depress  the  spirits,  un- 
watcli fulness,  falling  into  sin,  manifold  temp- 
tations, worldly  cares,  and  neglect  of  private 
duty.  He,  therefoi'e,  v/ho  v/ould  wish  to  en- 
joy this  privilege,  let  him  cultivate  commu- 
nion with  God,  exercise  a  watchful  spirit 
against  his  spiritual  enemies,  and  give  him- 
self unieservedly  to  Him  whose  he  is,  and 
whom  he  professes  to  serve.  See  Sauri?rs 
'Ser.  vol.  iii.  ser.  10.  Eng.  ed.;  Cane's  Str- 
7tions,  ser.  13;  Lambert's  Ser.  en  John  i\-. 
35;  Hervey's  Theron  av.d  j^ifiusio,  dia- 
logue 17;  Honvc's  Wor'i,  vol.  i.  p.  342 
348 ;  Brooks,  Burgess,  Roberts,  Baxter, 
Polliill,  and  Davi/e  on  Assurance ;  Hora 
Sol.,  vol.  ii.  p.  26y; 

ASSURITANS,  a  branch  of  theDonatists, 
'vho  held  that  the  Son  was  inferior  to  the 
Father,  and  the  Holy  Ghost  to  the  Son.    See 

DoNATISTS. 

ASTONISHMENT,  a  kind  or  degree  of 
wonder  introduced  by  surprise.    This  emo- 


tion always  relates  to  things  of  the  highest 
importance ;  to  things  which  appear  too 
vast  and  extensive  for  the  grasp  of  intellect, 
rather  than  to  any  thing  of  an  intricate  na- 
ture. The  body  marks  in  a  striking  manner 
the  singuli:r  state  of  the  mind  under  this 
emotion.  '1  he  eyes  are  firmly  fixe-d,  with- 
out being  directed  to  any  particular  object ; 
the  character  of  countenance,  which  was 
formed  by  the  habitual  influence  of  some 
predominant  affection,  isf^r  a  time  effaced; 
and  a  suspension  of  every  other  expression, 
a  certain  vacuity,  strongly  notes  this  state 
of  mind. 

ATHANASIANS,  those  who  profess  the 
sentiments  held  in  the  Alhanasian  Creed. 
See  Creed. 

ATHEIST,  one  who  denies  the  existence 
of  God: — this  is  called  speculative  atheism: 
Professing  to  believe  in  God,  and  yet  acting 
contrary  to  this  belief,  's  called  practical 
atheism.  Absurd  and  irrational  as  atheism 
is,  it  has  had  its  votaries  and  martyrs  In 
the  seventeenth  century,  Spinosa,  a  foreigner, 
was  its  noted  defender.  Luciho  Vanini,  a 
native  of  Naples,  also  publicly  taught  athe- 
ism in  France;  and,  being  convicted  of  it  at 
Tolouse,  was  condemned  and  executed  in 
1619.  It  has  been  questioned,  however, 
whether  any  man  ever  seriously  adopted 
such  a  principle.  The  pretensions  to  it  have 
been  generally  founded  on  pride  or  affecta- 
tion. The  open  avowal  of  atheism  by  seve- 
ral of  the  leading  members  of  the  French 
convention  seems  to  have  been  an  extraor- 
dinary moral  phenomenon.  This,  however, 
as  we  have  seen,  was  too  vague  and  uncom- 
fortable a  principle  to  last  long.  Archbishop 
Tillotson  justly  observes,  that  speculative 
atheism  is  unreasonable  upon  five  accounts. 
1.  Because  it  gives  no  tolerable  account  of 
the  existence  of  the  world. — 2.  It  does  not 
give  any  reasonable  account  of  the  universal 
consent  of  mankind  in  this  apprehension, 
that  there  is  a  God. — 3.  It  requires  more 
evidence  for  things  than  they  are  capable 
of  giving. — 4.  The  Atheist  pretends  to  know 
that  which  no  m.an  can  know. — 5.  Atlieism 
contradicts  itself.  Under  the  first  of  these 
he  thus  argues. — "  I  appeal  to  any  man  of 
reason  whether  any  thing  can  be  more 
unreasonable  than  obstinately  to  impute  an 
effect  to  chance,  which  carries  in  the  very 
face  of  it  all  the  arguments  and  characters 
of  a  wise  design  and  contrivance.  Was 
ever  any  considerable  work,  in  which  there 
v/as  required  a  great  variety  of  parts,  and  a 
regular  and  orderly  disposition  of  those  parts, 
done  by  chance  ■'  Will  chance  fit  means  to 
enc:s,  and  that  in  ten  thousand  instances,  and 
not  fail  in  any  oner  How  often  might  a  man, 
after  he  had  jumbled  a  set  of  letters  in  a 
bag,  fling  them  out  upon  the  ground  before 
they  would  fall  into  an  exact  poem  ;  yea,  or 
so  much  as  make  a  good  disccurie  in  prose  .' 
And  may  not  a  little  book  be  as  easily  made 
by  chance  as  the  great  volume  of  the  world  * 
How  long  might  a  man  be  in  sprinkling  co- 
lours upon   canva-^3  with  a  careless  hand, 


ATO 


32 


ATO 


before  they  would  happen  to  make  the  ex- 
act picture  of  a  man  ?  And  is  a  man  easier 
made  by  chance  than  his  picture  ?  How 
long  might  twenty  thousand  blind  men,  who 
should  be  sent  out  from  several  remote  parts 
of  England,  wander  up  and  down  before 
they  would  all  meet  upon  Salisbury  plain, 
and  fall  into  rank  and  file  in  the  exact  order 
of  an  army  ?  And,  yet,  this  is  much  more 
easy  to  be  imagined  than  how  the  innume- 
rable blind  parts  of  mutter  should  rendez- 
vous themselves  into  a  world  A  man  tliat 
sees  Henry  the  Seventh's  chapel  at  West- 
minster might  with  as  good  reason  maintain 
(yea,  with  much  better,  considering  the  vast 
difference  tetwixt  that  Uttle  structure  and 
the  huge  fabric  of  the  world)  that  it  v/as  ne- 
ver contrived  or  built  by  any  means,  but 
that  the  stones  did  by  chance  grow  ia.to 
those  curious  figures  into  which  they  seem 
to  have  been  cut  and  graven;  and  that  upon 
a  time  (as  tales  usually  begin)  the  raattrials 
of  that  building,  the  stone,  mortar,  timber, 
iron,  lead,  and  glass,  happily  met  together, 
and  very  fortunately  ragged  themselves  into 
that  dehcate  order  in  which  we  see  them 
new,  so  close  compacted,  that  it  must  be  a 
very  great  chance  that  i»rts  them  again. 
What  would  the  world  think  of  a  man  tliat 
should  advance  such  an  opinion  as  this,  and 
■write  a  book  for  it  ?  If  they  would  do  him 
right,  they  ought  to  look  upon  him  as  mad; 
but  yet  with  a  little  more  reason  than  any 
man  can  have  to  say,  that  the  world  was 
made  by  chance,  or  that  the  first  men  grew 
up  out  of  the  earth  as  plants  do  now.  For, 
can  any  tJiing  be  more  ridiculous,  and  against 
all  reason,  than  to  ascribe  the  production  of 
men  to  the  first  fruitfulness  of  the  earth, 
without  so  much  as  one  instance  and  expe- 
riment, in  any  age  or  histoiy,  to  countenance 
90  monstrous  a  supposition?  The  thing  is,  at 
first  sight,  so  gross  and  palpable,  that  no 
discourse  about  it  can  make  it  more  appa- 
rent. And  yet,  these  ^ameful  beggars  of 
principles  give  this  precarious  account  of  the 
original  of  things  ;  assume  to  themselves  to 
be  the  men  of  reason,  the  great  wits  of  the 
world,  the  only  cautious  and  wary  persons 
that  hate  to  be  imposed  upon,  that  must 
have  convincing  evidence  for  every  thing, 
and  can  admit  of  nothing  without  a  clear 
demonstration  of  it."  See  Existence  of 
God. 

Some  of  the  principal  writers  on  the  ex- 
istence of  a  Deity  have  been  Afewton,  Boyle, 
Cheyne,  Locke,  Wieuwetityt,  Derham, 
Bentlctj,  Bay,  Citdworth,  Samuel  and  John 
Clarke,  Abernetky,  Balguy,  Baxter,  Fene- 
lon,  &c.  &c.  Tillotson's  sermon  on  the  sub- 
ject, as  quoted  above,  has  been  considered 
as  one  of  the  best  in  the  English  language. 
See  ser.  i.  vol.  1. 

ATONEMENT  is  the  satisfying  Divine 
Justice  by  Jesus  Christ  giving  himself  a  ran- 
som for  us,  undergoing  the  penalty  due  to 
our  sins,  and  thereby  releasirig  us  from  that 
punishment  which  God  might  justly  inflict 
upon  us,  Rom.  v.  11.    Tlie  Hebrew  wor4 


signifies  covering,  and  intimates  that  our 
offences  are,  by  a  proper  atonement,  cover- 
ed from  the  avenging  justice  of  God.  In 
order  to  understand  the  rtianner  wherein 
Christ  becomes  an  atonenrit-nt,  "  we  should," 
says  Dr.  Watts,  "consider  the  foUowing 
propositions,  1.  The  great  God  having  made 
man,  appointed  to  govern  him  by  a  wise 
and  righteous  law,  'wherein  glory  and  ho- 
nour, life  and  immortality,  ate  the  designed 
rewards  for  perfect  obedience  ;  but  tribula- 
tion and  wrath,  pain  and  death,  are  the  ap- 
piinted  recompense  to  those  who  violate 
this  law,  Gen.  iii.  Rom.  ii.  6.  16.  Rom.  i.  32. 
— 2.  All  mankind  have  broken  this  law, 
Romans  iii,  23.  Rom.  v.  12 — 3.  God,  in  his 
infinite  wisdom,  did  not  think  fit  to  pardon 
sinful  man,  without  some  compensation  for 
his  broken  law ;  for,  1.  If  the  great  Ruler 
of  the  world  had  pardoned  the  sins  of  men 
without  any  satisfaction,  ther  his  laws  might 
have  seemed  not  v/ortli  the  vindicating. — 2. 
Men  would  have  been  tempted  to  persist  in 
the  rebellion,  and  to  repeat  their  old  offences. 
— 3.  His  forms  of  government  among  his 
creatures  might  have  appeared  as  a  matter 
of  small  importance. — 4.  God  had  a  mind  to 
niake  a  very  illustrious  display  bcAh  of  his 
justice  and  of  his  grace  among  mankind; 
on  these  accounts  he  would  not  pardon  sin 
without  a  sati.sfaction. — 5.  Man,  sinful  man, 
is  not  able  to  make  any  satisfaction  to  God 
for  his  own  sins,  neither  by  his  labours,  nor 
by  his  sufferings,  Eph.  ii.  1.  8.  9.-6.  Thought 
man  be  incapable  to  satisfy  for  his  own  vio- 
lation of  the  law,  yet  God  would  not  suffer 
all  mankind  to  perl-sh — 7.  Because  God  in- 
tended to  make  a  full  display  ef  the  terrors 
of  his  justice,  and  his  divine  resentment  for 
the  violation  of  his  law,  therefore  he  ap- 
pointed his  own  Son  to  satisfy  for  the  breach 
of  it,  by  becoming  a  proper  sacrifice  of  ex- 
piation or  atonement,  Gal.  iii.  10.  13 — 8. 
The  Son  of  God  being  immortal,  could  n<  c 
sustain  all  these  penalties  of  the  law  which 
man  had  broken  without  taking  the  mortal 
nature  of  man  upon  him,  without  assuming 
flesh  and  blood,  Heb.  ii.  13.  14  -9.  The  Di- 
vine Being  having  received  such  ample  satis- 
faction for  sin  by  the  sufferings  of  his  own 
Son,  can  honourably  forgive  his  creature 
man,  who  was  the  ti-ansgressor,  Rom.  iii.  25, 
26.  Now  that  this  doctrijie  is  true,  nvill  afi- 
fiear  if  we  consider,  1.  That  an  atonement 
for  sin,  or  an  eft\;ctual  method  to  answer 
the  demands  of  an  offended  God,  is  the  first 
great  blessing  guilty  man  stood  in  need  of, 
Mic.  vi.  6,  7. — 2.  1  lie  very  first  discoveries 
of  grace  which  were  made  to  man  after  his 
fall  implied  in  them  something  of  an  atone- 
ment iuv  sin,  and  pointed  to  tlie  propitiation 
Christ  has  now  made.  Gen.  iii.  15.— 3.  The 
train  of  ceremonies  which  were  appointed 
by  God  in  the  Jewish  Church  are  plain  sig- 
nifications of  such  an  atonement,  2  Cor.  iii. 
Col.  ii.  7,  8,  9.  Heb.  x. — 4.  Some  of  the  pro- 
phecies confirm  and  explain  the  first  pro- 
mise, and  shew  that  Christ  was  to  die  as  an 
atoning  sacrifice  for  the  sins  of  men,  Dan. 


ATT 


33 


AUG 


ix.  24—26.  Is.  liii.— 5.  Our  Saviom*  himself 
taught  us  the  doctrine  of  the  atonement  for 
sin  by  his  death,  Matt.  xx.  28.  John  vi.  51. 
Luke  xxii.  19  — 6.  The  terrors  of  soul,  the 
consternation  and  inward  agonies  which  our 
blessed  Loi-d  sustained  a  little  before  his 
death, wereasufficientproofthat  he  endured 
punishments  in  his  soul  which  were  due  to 
sin,  Mark  xiv.  33.  Heb.  v.  7 . — 7.  This  doc- 
trine is  declared,  and  confirmed,  and  ex- 
plained at  large,  by  ..he  apostles  in  their 
writings,  1  Cor.  xv.  3.  Eph.  i.  7.  1  John  ii.  2 
&c.  &c. — 8.  This  was  the  doctrine  that  was 
witnessed  to  the  world  l:>y  the  amazing  gifts 
of  thi  Holy  Ghost,  which  attended  the  Gos- 
pel. [See  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles.]  The 
inferences  and  uses  to  be  derived  from  this 
doctrine  are  these :  1.  How  vain  are  all  the 
labours  and  pretences  of  mankind  to  seek  or 
hope  for  any  better  religion  than  that  which 
is  contained  in  the  Gospel  of  Christ.  It  is 
here  alone  that  we  can  find  the  solid  and 
rational  princiijle  of  reconciliation  to  an 
offended  God,  Heb.  iv.  14. — 2.  How  strange 
and  unreasonable  is  the  doctrine  of  the  Po- 
pish church,  who,  while  they  profess  to  be- 
lieve tht'  religion  of  Ciirist,  yet  introduce 
many  other  metliods  of  atonement  for  sin, 
besides  the  .sufferings  of  the  Son  of  God. 
[See  above.] — 3.  Here  is  a  solid  foundation, 
on  which  the  greatest  of  sinners  may  hope 
for  acceptance  with  God,  1  Tim  i.  15. — 4. 
This  doctrine  should  be  used  as  a  powerful 
motive  to  excite  repentance.  Acts  v.  31. — 
5.  We  should  use  this  atonement  of  Christ 
as  our  constant  way  of  access  to  God  in  all 
our  prayers,  Heb.  x.  19.  22. — 6.  Also  as  a 
divine  guard  against  sin,  Rom.  vi.  1,2.  1 
Pet.  i.  15.  19. — 7.  As  an  argument  of  pre- 
vailing force  to  he  used  in  prayer,  Rom.  viii. 
52 — 8.  As  a  spring  of  love  to  God,  and  to 
his  Son  Jesus  Christ,  1  John  iv.  10. — 9.  As 
a  strong  persuasive  to  that  love  and  pity 
which  we  should  shew  on  all  occasions  to 
our  fellow  creatures,  1  Joim  iv.  11. — 10.  It 
should  excite  patience  and  holy  joy  under 
afflictions  and  earthly  sorrows,  Rom.  v.  1.  to 
3. — 11  We  should  consider  it  as  an  invita- 
tion to  the  Lord's  supper,  where  Christ  is 
set  forth  to  us  in  the  memorials  of  his  pro- 
pitiation.— 12.  As  a  most  effectual  defence 
against  the  terrors  of  dying,  and  as  our  joy- 
ful hope  of  a  blessed  resurrection,  1  Cor. 
XV.  50 — 13.  Lastly,  as  a  divine  allurem.ent 
to  the  upper  world."  See  IVatts'  Ser.,  ser. 
34,  35,  36,  37 ;  Evans  on  the  Atonement ; 
Dr.  Owen  oji  the  Satiffaction  of  Chriet ; 
West's  Scrifiture  Doctrine  of  the  Atone- 
ment ;  Hervey's  Theron  and  Aspasia,  dial. 
3 ;  Dr.  Magee's  Discourses  on  the  Atone- 
ment ;  Jerram's  Letters  on  ditto. 

,/VTTRIBUTES  OF  GOD  are  the  seve- 
ral qualities  or  perfections  of  the  Divine 
nature.  Some  distinguish  them  into  the 
negative,  and  positive  or  affirmative.  The 
negative  are  such  as  remove  from  him 
whatever  is  imperfect  in  creatures :  such 
are  infinity,  immutabihty,  immortality,  &c. 
The  positive  ftre  such  as  assert  some  per- 

E       . 


faction  in  God  which  is  in  and  of  himself, 
and  which  in  the  creatiu'es,  in  any  mea- 
sure, is  from  him.  This  distinction  is  now 
mostly  discarded.  Some  distinguish  them 
into  absolute  and  relative :  absolute  ones  are 
such  as  agree  with  the  essence  of  God ;  as 
Jehovah,  Jah,  c<c :  relative  ones  are  such. 
as  agree  with  him  in  time,  with  some  re- 
spect to  his  creatures,  as  Creator,  Governor, 
Preserver  Redeemer,  &c.  But  the  more 
commonly  received  distinction  of  the  attri- 
butes of  God,  is  into  communicable  and  in- 
communicable ones.  The  communicable 
ones  are  those  of  which  there  is  *ome  re- 
semblance in  men ;  as  goodness,  holiness, 
wisdom,  Sec:  the  incommunicable  ones  are 
such  as  there  is  no  appearance  or  shadow  of 
in  men;  as  independence,  immutability,  im- 
mensity and  eternity.  See  those  different 
articles  in  this  work ;  and  Hates,  Charnock^ 
Abcrnctliy,  and  Saurin  on  the  Divine  Per- 
fections. 

ATTRITION.  The  casuists  of  the  church 
of  Rome  have  made  a  distinction  between  a 
perfect  and  an  imperfect  conzriit/ow.  The  lat- 
ter they  call  attrition ;  whicli  is  the  lowest  de- 
gree of  repentance,  or  a  sorrow  for  sin  prising 
from  a  sense  of  shame,  or  any  temporal  in- 
convenience attending  tlie  commission  of  it,  or 
merely  from  fear  of  the  punishment  due  to 
it,  without  any  resolution  to  sJn  no  more :  ia 
consequence  of  which  doctrine,  they  teach 
that,  after  a  wicked  and  flagitious  course  of 
life,  a  man  may  be  reconciled  to  God.  and 
his  sins  forgiven  on  his  death-bed,  by  con- 
fessing them  to  the  priest  with  this  imper- 
fect degree  of  sorrow  and  repentance.  This 
distinction  wa.s  settled  by  the  council  of  Trent. 
It  might,  however,  be  easily  shewn  that  the 
mere  sorrow  for  ein  because  of  its  conse- 
quences and  not  on  account  of  its  evil  nature, 
is  no  more  acceptable  to  God,  than  hypo- 
crisy itself  can  te. 

AVARICE  is  an  immediate  love  to  and 
desire  after  riches,  attended  vvith  extreme 
diffidence  of  future  events,  making  a  peraon 
rob  himself  of  the  necessary  comforts  of  life, 
for  fear  of  diminishing  his  riches.  See 
CovETousNKss  and  Miser. 

AVERSION,  hatred  or  dislike— Dr. 
Watts  and  others  oppose  aversion  to  desire. 
When  we  look,  say  they,  upon  an  object  as 
good,  it  excites  desire  ;  but  when  we  look 
upon  an  object  as  evil,  it  awakens  what  Ave 
call  aver-jion  or  avoidance.  But  Lord  Kaims 
observ'es,  that  averson  is  q^posed  to  affec- 
tion, and  not  to  desire.  We  have  an  aff"ec- 
tion  to  one  person  :  we  have  an  aversion  to 
another :  the  former  disposes  us  to  do  good, 
the  latter  to  do  ill. 

AUDIENTRS,  an  order  of  catechumens 
in   the  primitive  Christian  church.    They 
were  so  called  from  their  being  admitted  to  J 
hear  sermons  and  the  scriptures  read  in  the  1 
church  ;  but  they  were  not  allowed  to  be  ' 
present  at  the  pravers. 

AUG;3BURGH;  or  AUGUSTAN,  CON- 
FESSION, a  celebrated  ccnfession  of  faith 
drawn  up  by  Luther  and  Melancthon  en  be- 


BAG 


34 


BAP 


half  of  themselves  and  other  ancient  re- 
formers, and  presented  in  1550  to  the  empe- 
ror Charles  V.  at  the  diet  of  Augusta,  or 
Augsburgh,  in  the  name  of  the  evangelic 
body.  This  confession  contains  twenty-eight 
chapters,  of  which  the  greatest  part  is  em- 
ployed in  representing  witli  perspicuity  and 
truth  the  religious  opinions  of  the  protest- 
nnts,  and  tlie  rest  in  pointing  out  the  erroi's 
and  abusers  that  occasioned  their  separation 
from  the  church  of  Rome.  The  leading 
doctrines  of  this  confession  ai'e,  the  true  and 
essential  divinity  of  the  Son  of  God  ;  his 
substitution,  and  vicarious  sacrifice;  and  the 
necessity,  freedom,  and  efficacy  of  Divine 
grace.  A  civil  war  followed  tliis  diet  that 
lasted  upwards  of  twenty  years,  but  which 
only  spread  the  new  opinions,  instead  of  ex- 
tirpating: them. 

AUGUSTINS,  a  religious  order,  who  ob- 
served tlie  rule  of  St.  Augustin,  prescribed 
them  by  pope  Alexander  IV.  in  1256.    This 


rule  was,  to  have  all  things  in  common  ;  the 
rich  who  enter  among  them  to  sell  their 
possessions,  and  give  them  to  the  poor ;  to 
employ  the  first  part  of  the  morning  in  la- 
bouring with  their  hands,  and  the  rest  in 
reading  :  when  they  go  abroad,  to  go  always 
two  in  company ;  never  to  eat  but  in  their 
monastery,  &c. 

AUSTERITY,  a  state  of  rigid  mortifica-' 
tion.  It  is  distinguished  from  severity  and 
rigour  thus  Austerity  relates  to  the  manner 
of  living ;  scDtrity  to  the  manner  of  think- 
ing ;  rigour  to  the  manner  of  punishing  To 
austerity  is  opposed  effeminacy;  to  severity, 
relaxation  ;  to  rigour,  clemency.  A  hermit 
is  austere  in  his  life  ;  a  casuist  severe  in  his 
applicatic  n  of  religion  or  law ;  a  judge  rigor- 
ous in  his  sentences. 

AUTOCEPHALI  BISHOPS.  This  de- 
nomination was  given  to  such  bishops  in  the 
primitive  church  as  were  exempted  from 
the  jurisdiction  of  others. 


B, 


BACKBITING.  See  Detraction  and 
Slander. 

B.\CKSLIDING,  the  act  of  turning  from 
the  path  of  duty.  It  may  be  considered  as 
partial  when  applied  to  true  believers,  who 
do  not  backslide  with  the  whole  bent  of  their 
■will ;  as  voluntary,  when  applied  to  those 
who,  after  professing  to  know  the  truth,  wil- 
fully turn  from  it,  and  live  in  the  practice  of 
sin ;  as ^nal,  when  the  mind  is  given  up  to 
judicial  hardness,  as  in  the  case  of  Judas 
Partial  backsliding  must  be  distinguished 
from  hypocrisy,  as  the  former  may  exist 
where  there  are  gracious  intentions  on  the 
•whole;  but  the  latter  is  a  studied  profession 
pf  appearing  to  lie  wliat  we  are  not. 

The  causes  of  backsliding  are — the  cares 
of  the  world  ;  improper  connexion  ;  inatten- 
tion to  secret  or  closet  duties ;  self-cojiceit 
and  dependence  ;  indolence  ;  listening  to  and 
parlying  with  temptations.  A  backsliclmg 
state  is  manifested  by  indifft-rence  to  prayer 
nnd  self  examination  ;  trifling  or  unprofitable 
conversation  ;  neglect  of  jjublic  ordinances  ; 
shunning  the  people  of  God  ;  associating  with 
the  world  ;  thinking  lightly  of  sin  ;  neglect  of 
the  Bible;  and  often  by  gross  imnwrality. 
The  consequences  of  this  awful  state  are — 
loss  of  character ;  loss  of  cotvfort ;  loss  of 
1/sefulncss  ;  and  «s  long  as  any  remain  in 
this  state,  a  loss  of  a  Tjell-grounded  hope  of 
future  happiness.  To  avoid  this  state,  or 
a'ecover  from  it,  we  should  beware  of  the 
first  appearance  of  sin  ;  be  much  in  prayer  ; 
attend  the  ordinances ;  and  unite  with  the 
people  of  God.  VVe  should  consider  the 
awfiil  instances  of  apostacy,  as  Saul,  Judas, 
Demas,  Sec;  the  manv  warnings  we  have  of 
it,  Matt.  xxiv.  13-  Heb  x.  38  Luke  ix.  62  ; 
how  it  grieves  the  Holy  Spirit ;  and  how 
wretched  it  makes  us:  alxive  all  things,  our 
dcpendance  should  be  on  God,  that  we  may 


always  be  directed  by  his  Spirit,  and  kept 
by  his  powei*.    See  Apostacy. 

BANGORIAN  CONTROVERSY,  so 
called  from  Bangor,  or  the  bishop  thereof 
Bishoh  Hoadley,  the  bishop  of  that  diocese, 
preaching  before  George  I.  asserted  the 
supreme  authority  of  Christ,  as  king  in  his 
own  kingdom  ;  and  that  he  had  not  dele- 
gated his  power,  like  temporal  lawgivers 
during  their  absence  from  their  kingdom,  to 
any  persons,  as  his  \icegerents  or  deputies. 
This  important  sermon  may  be  seen  reprint- 
ed in  the  Liverpool  Theological  Repository, 
vol.  5.  p.  301.  In  1717,  he  also  published  his 
PreseTvative,  in  which  he  advanced  some 
positions  contrary  to  temporal  and  spiritual 
tyranny,  and  in  behalf  of  the  civil  and  reli- 
gious liberties  of  mankind :  upon  which  he 
was  violently  opposed,  accused,  and  perse- 
cuted, by  the  advocates  for  church  power: 
but  he  was  defended  and  supported  by  the 
c'wW  powers,  and  his  abilities  and  meekness 
gainerl  him  the  plaudits  of  many. 

BANIANS,  a  religious  sect  in  the  empire 
of  the  Mogul,  who  believe  a  Metempsy- 
chosis; and  will  therefore  eat  no  living 
creature,  nor  kill  even  noxious  animals,  but 
endeavour  to  release  them  wlien  in  the 
hands  of  others.  The  name  Banian  is  some- 
times extended  to  all  the  idolaters  of  India, 
as  cimtradistinguished  from  the  Mahome- 
tans. 

BAPTISM,  the  ceremony  of  washing,  or 
the  application  of  water  to  a  person,  in  the 
name  of  the  Father,  the  Son,  and  the  Holy 
Ghost,  by  which  he  is  initiated  into  the  visi- 
ble church.  Baptism  exhibits  to  us  the  bless- 
ings of  pardon,  salvation  through  Jesus  Christ, 
union  to  and  communion  with  him,  the  out- 
pouring of  the  Spirit,  regeneration,  and 
sanctification.  From  baptism  results  the 
obligation  of  repentance,  leve  to  Christ,  and 


BAP 


BAP 


perpetual  devotedness  to  his  praise.  Bap- 
tism does  not  constitute  a  visible  subject, 
but  only  recognizes  one.  Ministers  only 
have  a  right  to  administer  it  :  and  have  a 
negative  voice  in  opposition  to  all  claims.  It 
is  an  ordinance  binding  on  all  who  have  been 
given  up  to  God  in  it ;  and  to  be  perpetu- 
ated to  the  end  of  the  world.  It  is  not,  how- 
ever, essential  to  salvation ;  for  mere  par- 
ticipation of  sacraments  cannot  qualify  men 
for  heaven  :  many  have  real  grace,  conse- 
quently in  a  salvable  state,  before  they  were 
baptized  :  besides,  to  suppose  it  essential,  is 
to  put  it  in  the  place  of  tliat  which  it  sig- 
nifies. 

Baptism  has  been  supposed  by  many  learn- 
ed parsons  to  have  had  its  origin  from  the 
Jewish  church  ;  in  which  they  maintain,  it 
was  the  practice,  long  before  Christ's  time, 
to  baptize  proselytes  or  converts  to  their 
faith,  as  pai-c  of  the  ceremony  of  their  ad- 
mission. "  It  is  strange  to  me,"  says  Dr. 
Doddridge,  "  that  any  should  doubt  of  this, 
when  it  is  plain,  from  express  passages  in 
the  Jewish  law,  that  no  Jew  who  had  lived 
like  a  Gentile  for  one  day  could  be  restored 
to  the  communion  of  this  church  without  it. 
Compare  Num.  xix.  19,  and  20  and  many 
other  precepts  relating  to  ceremonial  pollu- 
tions, in  which  may  be  seen,  that  the  Jews 
were  rendered  incapable  of  appearing  before 
God  in  the  tabernacle  or  temple,  till  they 
were  washed  either  by  bathing  or  sprink- 
ling." Others,  however,  insist  that  the  Jew- 
ish proselyte  baptism  is  not  by  far  so  ancient ; 
and  that  John  the  Baptist  was  the  first  ad- 
ministrator of  baptism  among  the  Jews. 

The  baptism  of  John,  and  that  of  our 
Saviour  and  his  ajiostles,  have  been  supposed 
to  have  been  the  same  :  because  they  agree, 
it  is  said,  in  their  subjects,  form,  and  end. 
But  it  must  be  observed,  that  though  there 
be  an  agreement  in  some  particulars,  yet 
there  is  not  in  all.  The  immediate  insti- 
tutor  of  John's  baptism  was  God  the  Father, 
John  i.  33;  but  the  immediate  institutor  of 
the  Christian  baptism  was  Christ,  Matthew 
xxviii.  19.  JoJxn's  baptism  was  a  prepara- 
tory rite,  referring  the  subjects  to  Christ, 
who  was  about  to  confer  on  them  spiritual 
blessings,  Matt.  iii.  11.  John's  baptism  was 
confined  to  the  Jews  ;  but  the  Christian  was 
common  to  Jews  and  Gentiles,  Matt.  iii.  5.  7. 
Matt,  xxviii.  19.  It  does  not  appear  that 
John  had  any  formula  of  administration  ;  but 
the  Christian  baptism  has,  viz.  "  In  the 
name,"  6cc.  The  baptism  of  John  was  the 
concluding  scene  of  the  legal  dispensation, 
and,  in  fact,  part  of  it ;  and  to  be  consider- 
ed as  one  of  those  "  divers  washings"  among 
the  Jews  ;  for  he  did  not  attempt  to  make 
any  alteration  in  the  Jewish  religion,  noi* 
did  the  persons  he  baptized  cease  to  be 
members  of  the  Jewish  church  on  the  ac- 
count of  their  baptism  ;  but  Christian  bap- 
tism is  the  regular  entrance  into,  and  is  a 
part  of  the  evangelical  dispensation,  Gal.  iii. 
'27.  It  dfoes  not  appear  from  the  inspired 
narrative  (however  probable  from  inferen- 


tial reasoning)  that  any  but  John  himself  was 
engaged  as  operator  in  his  baptism  ; 
whereas  Christ  himself  baptized  none  ;  but 
his  disciples,  by  his  authority,  and  in  his 
name,  Jolin  iv.  2. 

Baptism  has  been  the  subject  of  long  and 
sharp  controversy,  both  a«  it  I'espects  the 
subject  and  the  mode.  To  state  all  that  has 
been  said  on  both  sides,  would  be  impossi- 
ble in  a  work  of  this  kind.  An  abstract, 
however,  of  the  chief  arguments  I  think  it 
my  duty  to  present  to  the  reader,  in  order 
that  he  may  judge  for  himself. 

As  to  the  stihject. 

The  ANTIPtEDOBAPTISTS  hold  that 
believing  adults  only  are  proper  subjects, 
because  Christ's  commission  to  baptize  ap- 
pears to  them  to  restrict  this  ordinance  to 
such  only  as  are  taught,  or  made  disciples ; 
and  that,  consequently,  infants,  who  cannot 
be  thus  taught,  are  to  be  excluded.  It  does 
imt  appear,  say  they,  that  the  apostle's,  in 
executing  Christ's  commission,  ever  baptized, 
any  but  those  who  were  first  instructed  in  the 
Christian  faith,  and  professed  their  belief  of 
it.  They  contend  that  infants  can  receive 
no  benefit  from  it,  and  are  not  capable  of 
faith  and  repentance,  which  are  to  be  con- 
sidered as  pre-requisites. 

As  to  the  mode. 

They  observe  that  the  meaning  of  the 
word  BccTrlt^o)  signifies  immersion  or  dipping^ 
only  ;  that  John  baptized  in  Jordan  ;  that  he 
chose  a  place  where  there  was  jnztch  water  ; 
that  Jesus  came  up  out  oj" the  water;  that 
Philip  and  the  Eunuch  went  down  both  into 
the  watei-.  That  the  terms  washing,  purify- 
ing, burying  in  baptism,  so  often  mentioned 
in  scripture,  allude  to  this  mode  ;  that  im- 
mersion only  was  the  practice  of  the  apos- 
tles and  the  first  Christians  ;  and  that  it  was 
only  laid  aside  from  the  love  of  novelty,  and 
the  coldness  of  oi'.r  climate.  These  positions, 
they  think,  are  so  clear  from  scripture,  and 
the  history  of  the  church,  that  they  stand  in 
need  of  but  little  argument  to  support  them. 
Farther,  they  do  al&o  insist  that  ali.  positive 
institutions  depend  entirely  upon  the  will 
and  declaration  of  the  institutor,  and  that, 
therefore,  reasoning  by  analogy  from  previ- 
ous abrogated  rites,  is  to  be  rejected,  and  the 
express  command  of  Christ  respecting  bap- 
tism ought  to  be  our  rule. 

P/EDOBAPTISTS. 

The  P^edobaptists,  however,  are  of  a  diSe- 
rent  opinion.  As  to  the  subject,  they  beheve 
that  qualified  adults  who  h-ave  not  been  bap- 
tized before,  are  certainly  proper  sjubjccts  ; 
but,  then,  they  think  also  that  infantk  are  not 
to  be  excluded.  They  believe  that,  as  the 
Abraham ic  and  the  Christian  covenants  are 
the  same.  Gen.  xvii.  7.  Heb.  viii.  12  :  that 
as  children  were  admitted  under  the  former ; 
and  that  as  baptism  is  now  a  seal  sign,  w 


BAP 


36 


BAP 


confirmation  of  this  covenant,  infants  have 
as  great  a  right  to  it  as  the  children  had  a 
right  to  the  seal  of  circumcision  under  the 
law,  Acts  ii.  39.  Rom.  iv.  11.  That  if  chil- 
dren are  not  to  be  baptized  because  there  is 
no  positive  command  for  it,  for  the  same 
reason  women  should  not  come  to  the  Lord's 
supper :  we  should  not  keep  the  first  day  of 
the  week,  nor  attend  public  worship,  for 
none  of  these  are  expressly  commanded; 
that  if  infant  baptism  had  lieen  a  human  in- 
vention, how  would  it  have  been  so  univer- 
sal in  the  first  300  years,  and  yet  no  re- 
cord left  when  it  was  introduced,  nor  any 
dispute  or  controversy  about  it  ?  Sume  bring 
it  to  tiiese  two  ideas:  1.  That  God  did  con- 
stitute in  his  church  the  membership  of 
infants,  and  admitted  them  to  it  by  a  reli- 
gious ordinance.  Gen.  xvii.  Gal.  iii.  14.  17. — 
2.  That  this  right  of  infants  to  church  mem- 
bership was  never  taken  away.  This  being 
the  case,  infants  must  be  I'eceived,  because 
God  has  instituted  it :  and  since  infants 
must  be  received,  it  must  be  either  without 
baptism  or  with  it:  but  none  must  be  receiv- 
ed without  baptism,  therefore  infants  must 
of  necessity  be  baptized.  Hence,  it  is  clear, 
that,  under  the  Gospel,  infants,  are  still  con- 
tinued exactly  in  the  same  relation  to  God 
and  his  church,  in  which  they  wei'e  ori- 
ginally placed  under  the  former  dispen- 
sation. 

That  infants  are  to  be  received  into  the 
churcii,  and  as  such  baptized,  is  also  inferred 
from  the  following  passages  of  Scripture : 
Gen.  xvii.  Is  xliv  3.  Matt.  xix.  13.  Luke 
ix.  47,  48.  Mark  ix.  14.  Actsii.  38,  39.  Rom. 
Xi.  17.  21.  1  Cor.  vii.  14. 

Though  thex'e  are  no  express  examples  in 
the  New  Testament  of  Christ  and  his  apos- 
tles baptizing  infants,  yet  this  is  no  proof 
that  they  were  excluded.  Jesus  Christ  ac- 
tually blessed  little  children  ;  and  it  v/ould 
be  hard  to  believe  that  such  received  his 
blessings,  and  yet  were  not  to  be  members  of 
the  Gospel  church.  If  Christ  received  them, 
and  would  have  us  receive  them  in  his  name, 
how  can  it  be  reconciled  to  keep  them  out 
of  the  visible  church  ?  Besides,  if  children 
■were  not  to  be  baptized  it  would  have 
been  expressly  forbidden.  None  of  the  Jews 
had  any  apprehension  of  the  rejection  of  in- 
fants, which  they  must  have  had,  if  infants 
had  been  rejected.  As  whole  households 
■were  baptized,  it  is  prol^able  there  were 
children  among  them.  From  the  year  400 
to  1150,  no  society  of  men,  in  all  that  period 
of  750  years,  ever  pretended  to  say  it  was 
unlawful  to  baptize  infants  ;  and  still  nearer 
the  time  of"  our  Saviour  there  appears  to 
have  been  scarcely  any  one  that  so  much  as 
advised  the  delay  of  infant  baptism.  Irenxus, 
■who  lived  in  the  second  century,  and  was 
"Well  acquainted  witii  Polycarp,  who  was 
John's  disciple,  declares  expressly  that  the 
church  learned  from  the  apostles  to  baptize 
children.  Origen,  in  the  third  ceniury,  af- 
firmed that  the  custom  of  baptizing  infants 
was  received  from  Christ  anU,  his  apostles 


Cyprian,  and  a  council  of  ministers  (held 
about  the  year  254)  no  less  than  sixty-six 
in  number,  unanimously  agreed  that  children 
might  be  baptized  as  soon  as  they  were  born. 
Ambrose  who  wrote  about  274  years  from  the 
apostles,  declare  that  the  baptism  of  infants 
had  been  the  practice  of  the  apostles  them- 
selves, and  of  the  church,  till  that  time.  The 
catholic  church  eveiy  where  declared,  says 
Chrysostom,  in  the  fifth  century,  that  infants 
should  be  baptized  ;  and  Augustin  affirmed 
that  he  never  heard  nor  read  of  any  Chris-* 
tian,  catholic,  or  sectarian,  but  who  always 
held  that  infants  were  to  be  baptized.  They 
farther  believe,  that  there  needed  no  men- 
tion in  the  Nev/  Testament  of  receiving  in- 
fants into  the  church,  as  it  had  been  once 
appointed  and  never  repealed.  The  dictates 
of  nature,  also,  in  parental  feelings ;  the  ver- 
dict of  reason  in  favour  of  privileges:  the; 
evidence  in  favour  of  children  being  sharers 
of  the  seals  of  grace,  in  common  with  their 
parents,  for  the  space  of  4000  years ;  and. 
especially  the  language  of  prophecy,  in  re- 
ference to  the  children  of  the  Gospel  church, 
made  it  very  probable  that  they  were  not  to 
be  rejecied.  So  far  from  confining  it  to 
adults,  it  must  be  remembered  that  there 
is  not  a  single  instance  recorded  in  the  New 
Testament  in  which  the  descendantsof  Chris- 
tian parents  were  baptized  in  adult  years. 

'J'hat  infants  are  not  proper  subjects  for 
baptism,  because  they  cannot  profess  faith 
and  repentance,  they  deny.  This  objection 
falls  with  as  much  weight  upon  the  institu- 
tion of  circumcision  as  infant  baptism ;  since 
they  are  as  capable,  or  are  as  fit  subjects  for 
the  one  as  the  other.  It  is  generally  acknow- 
ledged, that,  if  infants  die  (and  a  gre^tpart 
of  the  human  race  do  die  in  infancy,)  they 
are  saved  ;  if  this  be  the  case,  then,  why  re- 
fuse them  the  sign  in  infancy,  if  they  are 
capable  of  enjoying  the  thing  signified  .* 
"  Why,"  says  Dr.  Owen,  "  is  it  the  will  of 
God  that  unbelievers  should  not  be  baptized  ? 
It  is  because,  not  granting  them  the  grace, 
he  will"  not  grant  them  the  sign.  If  God, 
therefore,  denies  the  sign  to  the  infant  seed 
of  believers,  it  must  be  because  he  denies 
them  the  grace  of  it ;  and  then  all  the  chil- 
dren of  believing  parents  (upon  these  prin- 
ciples) dying  in  their  infancy,  must,  without 
hope,  be  eternally  damned.  I  do  not  say  that 
all  must  be  so  who  are  not  baptized ;  but  all 
must  be  so  wliom  God  would  not  have  bap- 
tized" Something  is  said  of  baptism,  it  is 
observed,  that  cannot  agree  to  infants:  faith 
goes  before  ba])tism  ,-  and,  as  none  but  adults 
are  capable  of  believing,  so  no  others  are 
capable  of  baptism  ;  but  it  is  replied,  if  in- 
fants  must  not  be  baptized  because  something 
is  said  of  baptism  that  does  not  agree  to  in- 
fants, Mark  xvi.  16,  then  infants  must  not 
be  saved,  because  something  is  said  of  salva- 
tion that  does  not  agree  to  infants,  Mark  xvi. 
16.  As  none  but  adults  are  capable  of  be- 
lieving, so,  by  the  argument  of  the  Baptists, 
none  but  adults  are  capable  of  salvation ;  for 
he  that  believeth  not  shall  be  damned.    But 


BAP  3 

Christ,  it  is  said,  set  an  example  of  adult 
haptism.  True;  but  he  was  baptized  in 
honour  to  John's  ministry,  and  to  conform 
Iiimself  to  what  he  appointed  to  his  follow- 
ers ;  for  which  last  reason  he  drank  of  the 
sacramental  cup:  but  this  is  rather  an  argu- 
ment for  the  Pffidobaptists  than  against 
them;  since  it  plainly  shews,  as  Doddridge 
observes,  that  baptism  may  be  administered 
to  those  wiio  are  not  capable  of  all  the  pur- 
poses for  which  it  was  designed  ;  since  Jesus 
Christ,  not  being  a  sinner,  could  not  be  capa- 
ble of  that  faith  and  repentance  which  are 
said  to  be  necessary  to  this  ordinance. 

^a  to  the  mode. 

They  believe  that  the  word  B«x7«  signi- 
fies to  dip  or  to  plunge ;  but  that  the  term 
BaTli^a),  which  isonly  aderivativeot  B«7r7», 
and  consequently  must  be  somewhat  less  in 
its  signification,  should  be  invariably  used  in 
the  New  Testament  to  express  plunging,  is 
not  so  clear.  It  is  therefore  doubted  whether 
dipping  be  the  only  meaning,  and  whether 
Christ  absolutely  enjoined  immersion,   and 
that  it  is  his  positive  will   that  no  odier 
should   be    used.      As    the   word  BxTrlt^a 
is  used  for  the  various  ablutions  among  the 
Jews,  such  as  sprinkling,  pouring,  &c.  Heb. 
1x.  10;  for  the  custom  of  wasiung  before 
meals,  and  the  washing  of  household  furni- 
ture, pots,  8cc. ;   it  is  evident  from  hence 
that  it  does  not  express  the  manner  of  doing, 
Avhether  by  immersion  or  aflFusion,  but  only 
the  thing  done ;  that  is,  washing,  or  the  ap- 
plication of  water  in  one  form  or  other.  Dr. 
Owen  observes,  that  it  no  where  signifies  to 
difi,  but  as  denoting  a  mode  of  and  in  order 
to  washing  or  cleansing ;  and,  according  to 
others,  the  mode  of  use  is  only  the  ceremo- 
nial part  of  a  positive  institute  ;  just  as  in 
the  supper  of  the  Lord,  the  time  of  the  day, 
the  number  and  pwsture  of  communicants, 
the  quality  and  quantity  of  bread  and  wine, 
are  circumstances  not  accounted  essential  by 
any  party  of  Christians.     As  to  the  Hebrew 
•word  T-abal,  it  is  considered  as  a  generic 
term  ;  that  its  radical,  primary,  and  proper 
meaning  is,  to  tinge,  to  dye,  to  wet,  or  the 
like ;  which  primaiy  design  is  effected  by 
different  modes  of  application   If  in  baptism 
also  there  is  an  expressive  emblem  of  the 
descending  inliuence  of  the  Spirit,  pouring 
must  be    the   mode  of  administration ;  for 
that  is  the  Scriptural  term  most  commonly 
and  properly  used  for  the  communication  of 
divine  influences.    There  is  no  object  what- 
ever in  all  the  New  Testament  so  frequent- 
ly and  so  explicitly  signified  by  baptism  as 
these  divine  influences.  Matt.  iii.  li.  Mark 
i.  8.  10.  Luke  lii.  16  to  22.  John  i.  22.  Acts 
i.  5.  Acts  ii.  38,  39.   Acts  viii.  12.  17.   Acts 
xi.  15,  16.    The  term    sprinkling,    also,   is 
made  use  of  in  reference  to  the  act  of  puri- 
fying. Is.  lii.  15.  Heb.  ix.  13,  14.  Ezek.  xxxvi. 
25.  and  therefore  cannot  be  inapplicable  to 
baptismal  purification.     But  it  is  observed 
that  John  baptized  m  Jordan:  to  this  it  is 


BAP 

replied,  to  infer  always  a  plunging  of  the 
whole  body  in  water  from  this  word,  would, 
in  many  instances,  be  false  and  absurd :  the 
same  Greek  preposition  £v  is  u*d  when  it  is 
said  they  should  be  baptized  iviti\  lire; 
which  fev.'  will  as.5irt  that  they  should  be 
plunged  into  it.  The  apostle  speaking  of 
Christ,  says,  he  came  not  (ev)  by  water  only, 
but  (ev)  ijy  water  and  blncd.  There  the 
same  word  ty  is  translated  bij,  and  with  jus- 
tice and  propiicty,  for  we  knew  no  good 
sense  in  which  we  could  say  he  canie  in. 
water.  H  has  b'.e;)  remarked  thai  £»  is 
more  than  a  hundred  times,  in  the  New  Tes- 
tament, rendered  ''at"  and  in  a  hundred 
and  fifty  others  it  is  translated  vAth.  If  it 
be  rendered  so  here,  "  John  baptized  at 
Jordan,"  or  with  the  water  al  Jordan,  there 
is  no  proof  from  thence  that  he  plunged  his 
disciples  in  it. 

It  is  urged  that  John's  choosing  a  place 
where  there  was  muLh  water  is  a  certain 
proof  of  immersion.  To  wiiich  it  is  answer- 
ed, that  as  there  went  nut  to  him  Jerusalem, 
and  all  Judea,  and  all  the  region  round 
about  Jordan,  that  by  choc.sing  a  place 
where  there  were  many  streams  or  rivulets, 
it  would  be  much  more  expeditiously  per- , 
formed  by  pouring;  and  that  it  seems  in 
the  nature  of  things  highly  improbable  that 
John  should  have  "baptized  this  vast  multi- 
tude by  immersion,  to  say  nothing  of  the  in- 
decency of  both  sexes  being  baptized  to- 
gether. 

Jesus,  it  is  said,  came  up  out  q/" the  water; 
but  this  is  said  to  be  no  proof  of  his  being 
immersed,  as  the  Greek  term  »i^«  ofteii 
signifies /rom;  for  instance,  "  Who  hath 
wanied  you  to  ^ecfrom,  not  out  of,  the 
wrath  to  come,"  with  many  others  which 
might  be  mentioned. 

Again  :  it  is  said  that  Philip  and  the  eu- 
nuch went  down  both  into  the  water.  To 
this  it  is  answered,  that  here  is  no  proof  of 
immersion  ;  for  if  the  expression  of  their 
going  down  into  the  water  necessarily  in- 
cludes dipping,  then  Philip  was  dipped  as 
well  as  the  Eunuch.  The  preposition  (sjs) 
translated  into,  often  signifies  no  more  than 
to  or  unto.  See  Matt.  xv.  24.  Rom.  x  10. 
Acts  xxviii.  14,  Matt.  xvii.  27.  Matt  iii.  II. 
So  that,  from  all  these  circumstances,  it 
cannot  be  concluded  that  there  was  a  single 
person  of  all  the  baptized  who  went  into  the 
water  ankle  deep.  As  to  the  apostle's  ex- 
pression, buried  witli  him  in  baptism,  "they 
think  it  has  no  force ;  and  that  it  does  not 
allude  to  any  custom  of  dipping,  any  more 
than  our  baptismal  crucifixion  and  death 
has  any  such  reference.  It  is  not  the  sign 
but  the  thing  signified  that  is  here  alluded 
to.  As  Christ  was  buried  and  rose  again  to 
a  heavenly  life,  so  we  by  baptism  signify 
that  we  are  cut  oft'  from  tlie  life  of  sin,  that 
we  may  rise  again  to  a  new  life  of  faith  and 
love." 

To  conclude  this  article,  it  is  observed 
against  the  mode  of  immersion,  that,  as  it 


BAP 


;8 


BAP 


carries  with  it  too  much  of  the  appearance 
of  a  burdensome  rite  for  the  Gospel  dispen- 
sation; that  as  it  is  too  indecent  for  so  so- 
lemn an  ordinance;  as  it  has  a  tendency  to 
agitate  the  spirits,  often  rendering  the  sub- 
ject unfit  for  the  exercise  of  proper  ilioughts 
and  affections,  and  indeed  utterly  incapable 
of  them  ,  as  in  many  cases  the  immersion 
of  the  body  would  in  all  probability  be  in- 
stant death  ;  as  in  other  situations  it  would 
be  impracticable  for  want  of  a  sufficient 
quantity  of  water,  it  cannot  be  considered 
:is  ni.C'..ssary  to  the  ordinance  of  baptism. 

See  Gale,  Robinson,  S:tnne[t,  Gill  and 
Pooth,  on  Aniijixdobafitism  ,•  and  ]VaLl, 
Henry,  Hradbury,  Bosltvick,  Towffood, 
^'iddington,  IVilliams,  Jidnvurds,  Miller, 
JLvans,  Sec  on  the  other  side. 

BAPTISM  OF  THE  DEAD,  a  custom 
which  anciently  prevailed  among  some  peo- 
ple in  Africa,  of  giving  baptism  to  the  dead. 
The  third  council  of  Carthage  speaks  of  it 
as  a  thing  that  ignorant  Christians  were 
fond  of:  Gregory  Nazianzen  also  takes  no- 
tice of  the  same  superstitious  opinion.  I'he 
jjractice  seems  to  be  grounded  on  a  vain 
idea,  that,  when  men  had  neglected  to  re- 
ceive baptism  in  their  life-time,  some  com- 
pensation might  be  made  for  this  default  by 
receiving  it  after  death.'  I 

BAPTISIM  FOR  THE  DEAD,  a  prac- 1 
tice  formerly  in  use,  when  a  person  dying! 
without  baptism,  another  was  baptized  in  I 
his  stead ;  thus  supposing  that  God  would  I 
accept  the  baptism  of  the  proxy,  as  though  I 
it  had  been  administered  to  the  principal,  j 
Chrysostom  says,  this  was  practised  among 
the  Marcionites  with  a  great  deal  of  ridicu- 
lous ceremony,  which  he  thus  describes  — 
After  any  catechumen  was  dead,  they  hid  a 
living  man  under  the  bed  of  the  deceased ; 
then,  coming  to  the  dead  man,  they  asked 
him  whether  he  would  receive  biptism; 
and  he  making  no  answer,  the  other  answer- 
ed for  him,  and  said  he  would  be  baptized 
in  his  stead ;  and  so  they  baptized  the  living 
for  the  dead.  If  it  can  be  proved  (as  some 
think  it  can)  that  this  practice  was  as  early 
as  ^he  days  of  tlie  apostle  Paul,  it  might 
probably  form  a  solution  of  those  remarkable 
words  in  1  Cor.  xv.  29:  •'  If  the  dead  rise 
not  at  all,  what  shall  they  do  who  are  bap- 
tized for  the  dead?"  The  allusion  of  the 
apostle  to  this  practice,  however,  is  rejected 
by  some,  and  especially  by  Dr.  Doddridge, 
who  thinks  it  too  early :  he  thus  paraphrases 
the  passage.  "  Such  are  our  views  and 
hopes  as  Christians ;  else,  if  it  were  not  so, 
what  should  they  do  who  are  baptized  in 
token  of  their  embracing  the  Christian  faith, 
in  the  room  of  the  dead,  who  are  just  fallen 
in  the  cause  of  Christ,  but  are  yet  support- 
ed by  a  succession  of  new  converts,  who  im- 
mediately offer  themselves  to  fill  up  their 
places,  as  ranks  of  soldiers  that  advance  to 
the  combat  in  the  rooms  of  their  companions 
who  have  just  been  slain  in  their  sight  ?" 

Jmv  baptism  we  find  to  have  been  per- 
mitted by  both  the  common  prfiyer  books  of 


king  Edward  and  queen  Elizabeth,  when  an 
infant  was  in  immediate  danger  of  death, 
and  a  lawful  minister  could  not  be  had. 
This  was  founded  on  a  mistaken  notion  of 
the  impossibility  of  salvation  without  the 
sacrament  of  baptism ;  but  afterwards,  when 
they  came  to  have  clearer  nwtions  of  the 
sacraments,  it  was  unanimously  resolved,  in 
a  convocation  held  hi  1575,  that  even  private 
baptism  in  a  case  of  necessity  was  only  to 
be  administered  by  a  lawful  minister. 

BAPTISM  METAPHORICAL  In  scrip- 
ture the  term  baptism  is  used  as  referring  to 
the  work  of  the  Spirit  on  the  heart.  Matt, 
iii.  11  also  to  the  sufferings  of  Christ,  Matt. 
XX.  22.  and  to  so  much  of  the  Gospel  as 
John  the  Baptist  taught  his  disciples,  Acts 
xviii.  25. 

BAPTISTS,  a  denomination  of  Christians 
who  maintain  that  baptism  is  to  be  adminis- 
tered by  immersion,  and  not  by  sprinkling. 
See  Baptism. 

Although  there  were  several  Baptists 
among  the  Albigenses,  Waldenses,  and  the 
followers  of  Wickliffe,  it  does  not  appear 
that  they  were  formed  into  any  stability 
until  the  time  of  Menno,  about  the  year 
15;>6.  See  Anabaptists  and  Menno- 
NiTJEs.  About  1644  they  began  to  make  a 
considerable  figure  in  England,  and  spread 
themselves  into  several  separate  congrega- 
tions. They  separated  from  the  Independents 
about  the  year  1638,  and  set  up  for  them- 
selves under  the  pastoral  care  of  Mr.  Jesse ; 
and,  having  renounced  their  former  baptism, 
they  sent  over  one  of  their  number  to  he 
immersed  by  one  of  the  Dutch  Anabaptists 
of  Amsterdam,  that  he  might  be  qualified  to 
baptize  his  friends  in  England  after  the  same 
manner. 

The  Baptists  subsist  under  two  denomina- 
tions, viz  the  fiarticular  or  Calvinistical, 
and  the  general  or  Arininian.  Their  modes 
of  church  government  and  worship  are  the 
same  as  the  IiKlependents;  in  tlie  exercise 
of  whicli  they  are  protected,  in  common 
with  other  dissenters,  by  the  act  of  tolera- 
tion. Some  of  both  denominations  allow  of 
mixed  communion ;  by  which  it  is  under- 
stood that  those  who  have  not  been  baptized 
by  immersion,  on  the  profession  of  their 
faith,  may  sit  down  at  the  Lord's  table  with 
those  who  have  been  thus  baptized.  Others, 
however,  disallow  it,  supposing  that  such 
have  not  been  actually  baptized  at  all.  See 
Free  Communion.  ^ 

Some  of  them  observe  the  seventh  day  of 
the  week  as  the  Salibath,  apprehending  the 
law  that  enjoined  it  not  to  have  been  repeal- 
ed Dy  Christ. 

Some  of  the  general  Baptists  have,  it  is 
said,  gone  into  Socinianism  or  Arianism;  on 
account  of  which,  several  of  their  ministers 
and  churches  who  disapprove  of  these  prin- 
ciples, have  within  the  last  forty  years  form- 
ed themselves  into  a  distinct  connection, 
called  the  New  Association.  The  churches 
in  this  union  keep  uj)  a  friendly  acquaintance 
in  some  outward  things  with  those  from 


BAR 


39 


BAS 


whom  they  have  separated  ;  but  in  things 
more  efesential  disclaim  any  connection  with 
lliem,  particularly  as  to  changinR  ministei's, 
and  the  admibsion  ©f  members  The  general 
Baptists  have,  in  some  of  their  churches, 
tliree  distinct  orders  separately  ordained, 
vi/, — messenRers,  eldere,  and  deacons 
Their  general  assembly  is  held  annually  in 
Worship  Street,  L«ondon,  on  the  Tuesday  in 
the  Whitsun  week. 

The  Baptists  have  two  exhibitions  for 
students  to  be  educated  at  one  of  the  univer- 
sities of  Scotland,  given  them  by  Dr.  Ward, 
of  Gresham  College.  There  is  likewise  an^ 
academy  at  Bristol  for  students,  generally 
known  by  the  name  of  the  Bristol  Education 
Society.  The  Baptists  in  America  and  in 
the  East  and  West  Indies  are  chiefly  Cal- 
vinists,  and  hold  occasional  fellowship  with 
the  particular  Baptist  churclies  in  England. 
Those  in  Scotland  having  imbibed  a  ton- 
siderable  part  of  the  principles  of  Mestirs. 
Glass  and  Sandeman,  have  no  communion 
with  the  other.  They  have  liberally  con- 
tributed, however,  towards  the  translation 
of  the  scriptures  into  the  Bengalee  language, 
Avhich  some  of  the  Baptist  brethren  are  now 
accomplishing  in  tJie  East.  See  Rififion's 
Baptist  Register,  vol.  i.  p  172 — 175;  Adams' 
View  of  Religions,  article  tiafitists  ;  Evans'' 
Sketch  of  Religious  Uenominations. 

BAPTISTRY,  the  place  in  which  the 
ceremony  of  baptism  is  performed.  In  the 
ancient  church,  it  is  said,  it  was  generally  a 
building  separate,  and  distinct  from  the 
church.  It  consisted  of  an  ante-room,  where 
the  adult  persons  to  be  baptized  made  their 
confession  of  faith ;  and  an  inner  room, 
where  the  ceremony  of  baptism  was  per-, 
formed.  Thus  it  continued  to  the  sixth 
century,  when  the  baptisteries  began  to  be 
taken  into  the  church. 

BARDESANISTS,  a  sect  so  denominated 
from  their  leader  Bardesanes,  a  Syrian,  of 
Edessa,  in  Mesopotamia,  who  lived  in  the 
second  century.  They  believed  that  the 
actions  of  men  depended  altogether  on  fate, 
and  that  God  hin.self  is  subject  to  neces- 
sity.— They  denied  the  resurrection  of  the 
body,  and  the  incarnation  and  death  of  our 
Saviour. 

BARLAAMITES,  the  followers  of  Bar- 
laam,  in  the  fourteenth  century,  who  was  a 
very  zealous  champion  in  behalf  of  the 
Greek  against  the  Latin  church.  It  is  said 
that  he  adopted  the  sentiments  and  precepts 
of  the  stoics,  with  respect  to  the  obligations 
of  morality  and  the  duties  of  life  ;  and  di- 
gested them  into  a  work  of  his,  which  is 
known  by  the  title  of  Ethica  ex  Stoicis. 

BARNABAS,  EPISTLES  OF,  an  apo- 
cryphal work  ascriljed  to  St.  Barnabas.  It 
was  first  published  in  Greek,  from  a  copy  of 
father  Hugh  Menaed,  a  monk.  Vossius 
published  it,  in  1656,  with  the  epistles  of 
Ignatius. — The  Gospel  of  Barnabas  is  an- 
other apocryphal  work  ascribed  to  Barna- 
feas,  wherein  the  history  of  Jesus  Christ  is  \ 


given  in  a  different  manner  from  that  of 
the  evangelist. 

BARN  A  BITES,  a  religious  order,  found- 
ed in  the  sixteenth  century,  by  three  Italian 
gentlemen,  who  had  been  advised  bj'  a 
tamous  preacher  of  those  days  to  read  care- 
fully the  epjsllcs  of  St,  Paul.  Htnce  they 
were  called  cltrfrs  tf  St.  Paid ;  and  liarna- 
bites,  because  they  performed  their  first  ex- 
ercises in  a  church  of  St.  Barnabas  ut  Milan. 
Their  habit  is  black  ;  and  their  office  is  to 
instruct,  catechise,  and  serve  in  mission. 

BARTHOLOM?:W'S  DAY,  St  (tlie  24th 
August)  is  a  day  <listinguished  in  history,  as 
the  anniversary  of  the  horrid  and  atrocious 
sacrifice  of  human  blood  called  the  Parisian 
Massacre.     Se*r  Pkrsecut<on. 

BARTHOLOMITES,  a  religious  order 
founded  at  Geneva  in  1307 ;  but,  the  monks 
leading  irregular  lives,  it  was  suppressed  in 
1650,  and  their  effects  confiscated.  In  the 
church  of  the  monastery  of  this  order  at 
Geneva  is  preserved  the  image,  which,  it  is 
pretended,  Christ  sent  to  king  Abgarus. 

BASILIAN  MONKS,  religious,  of  the 
order  of  St.  Basil,  in  the  fourth  century,  who, 
having  retired  into  a  desert  in  the  province 
of  Pontus,  founded  a  monastery,  and  drew 
up  rules,  to  the  amount  of  some  hundreds, 
for  his  disciples  This  new  society  s(X)n 
spread  all  over  the  East ;  nor  was  it  long  be- 
fore it  passed  into  the  West.  Some  pretend 
that  St.  Basil  saw  himself  the  spiritual  fa- 
ther of  more  than  90,000  monks  in  the  East 
only ;  but  this  order,  which  flourished  for 
more  than  three  centuries,  was  considerably 
diminished  by  heresy,  schism,  and  change 
of  empire.  The  historians  of  this  order 
say  that  it  has  produced  14  popes,  185  bish- 
ops, 3010  abbots,  and  11,0S5  martyrs,  be- 
sides an  infinite  number  of  confessors  and 
virgins.  Thisorder  likewise  Ixaasts  of  several 
emperors,  kings  and  princes,  who  have  em- 
braced its  rule. 

BASILIDIANS,  a  denomination,  in  the 
second  century,  from  Basilides,  chief  of  the 
Egyptian  Gnostics.  '  He  acknowledged  the 
existence  of  one  Supreme  God,  perfect  in 
goodness  aiwi  wisdom,  who  produced  from 
his  own  substance  seven  beings,  or  aions,  of 
a  most  excellent  nature.  Two  of  these  aions, 
called  Dynamis  and  Sophiz,  (i.e.  power  and 
•wisdo7n,)  engendered  the  angels  of  the  high- 
est order.  These  angels  formed  a  heaven  for 
their  habitation,  and  brought  forth  other 
angelic  beings  of  a  nature  somewhat  inferior 
to  their  own.  Many  other  generations  of  an- 
gels folloAved  these.  New  heavens  were  also 
created,  until  the  number  of  angelic  orders, 
and  of  their  respective  heavens,  amounted 
to  three  hundred  and  sixty-five,  and  thus 
equalled  the  days  of  the  year.  All  these  are 
under  the  empire  of  an  omnipotent  Lord, 
whom  Basihdes  called  jibraxas. 

The  inhabitants  of  the  lowest  heavens, 
which  touched  upon  tlie  borders  of  the  eter- 
nal, malignant,  and  self-animated  matter, 
coacejved  the  design  of  forming  a  wofld 


BAT 


40 


B  AX 


from  that  confused  mass,  and  of  creating  an 
order  of  beings  to  people  it.  This  design 
was  carried  into  execution,  and  was  ap- 
proved by  the  supreme  God,  who  to  the 
animal  life,  with  which  only  the  inhabitants 
of  this  new  world  were  at  first  endowed, 
added  a  reasonable  soiil,  giving  at  the  same 
time  to  the  angels  the  empire  over  them. 

These  angelic  beings,  advanced  to  the 
government  of  the  world  which  they  had 
created,  fell  by  degrees  from  their  original 
purity,  and  soon  manifested  the  fatal  marks  j 
of  their  depravity  and  corruption.  They  not! 
only  endeavcfted  to  efface  iii  the  minds  of  j 
men  their  knowledge  of  the  Supreme  Being.. 
that  they  might  be  worshipped  in  his  stead,  | 
but  also  began  to  war  against  each  other,  I 
with  an  ambitious  view  to  enlarge  every  one 
the  bounds  of  his  respective  dominion.  The 
most  arrogant  and  turbulent  of  all  these  an- 
gelic spirits  was  that  which  presided  over 
the  Jew, sh  nation. — Hence  the  Supreme  God, 
behelding  with  compassion  the  miserable 
state  of  rational  beings,  who  groaned  under 
the  contest  of  these  jarring  powers,  sent 
from  heaven  hi.*-  son  JVus,  or  Christ,  tlie 
chief  of  the  aions,  that,  joined  in  a  substantial 
union  with  the  man  Jesus,  he  might  restore 
the  knowledge  of  the  Supreme  Gi)d,  destroy 
the  empire  of  those  angelic  natures  which 
presided  over  the  world,  and  particularly 
that  of  the  arrogant  leader  of  the  Jewish 
people.  The  God  of  the  Jews,  alarmed  at 
this,  sent  forth  his  minister  to  seize  the  man 
Jesus,  and  put  him  to  death.  They  executed 
his  commands  :  but  their  cruelty  could  not 
extend  to  Christ,  against  whom  their  efforts 
were  vain.  Those  souls  who  obey  the  pre- 
cepts of  the  Son  of  God,  shall,  after  the  dis- 
solution of  their  mortal  frame,  ascend  to  the 
Father,  Avhile  their  bodies  return  to  the  cor- 
rupt mass  of  matter  whence  they  were 
formed.  Disobedient  spirits,  on  the  contrary, 
shall  pass  successively  into  other  bodies 

BATANISTS,  or  Assassins  ;  a  famous 
heretical  sect  of  murderers  among  the  Ma- 
hometans, who  settled  in  Persia  about  1090. 
Their  head  and  chief  seems  to  have  been 
Hasson  Sabah,  who  made  fanatical  slaves  of 
his  subjects.  Their  religion  was  a  compound 
of  tliat  of  the  Magi,  the  Jews,  the  Christians, 
and  the  Mahometans.  They  believed  the 
Holy  Ghost  resided  in  their  chief;  that  his 
orders  proceeded  from  God  himself,  and 
were  real  declarations  of  his  will. 

This  chief,  from  his  exalted  residence  on 
Mount  Lebanon,  was  called  the  o/d  man  of 
the  momitain  ;  who,  like  a  vindictive  deity, 
with  the  thunderbolt  in  his  hand,  sent  inevi- 
table death  to  all  quarters,  so  that  even 
kings  trembled  at  his  sangninaiy  power,  i 
His  subjects  would  prostrate  themselves  at 
the  foot  of  his  throne,  requesting  to  die  by 
his  hand,  or  order,  as  a  favour  by  which 
they  were  sure  of  passing  into  paradise. 
•*  Are  your  subjects,"  said  the  old  man  of  the 
mountain  to  the  son-in-law  of  Amoury.  king 
©f  Jerusalem,  as  ready  in  their  submission 
as  mine  I  and  without  staying  for  an  answer, 


made  a  sign  with  his  hand,  when  ten  young 
men  in  white,  who  were  standing  on  an  ad- 
jacent tower,  instantly  threw  themselves 
down.  To  one  of  his  guards  he  said,  "  draw 
your  dagger,  and  plunge  it  into  your  breast," 
which  was  no  sooner  said  than  obeyed.  At 
the  comniand  of  their  chief,  they  made  no 
difficulty  of  stabbing  any  prince,  even  on  his 
throne  ;  and  fur  that  purpose  conformed,  to 
the  dress  and  religion  of  the  country,  that 
they  might  be  less  suspected.  To  animate 
them  on  such  attempts,  the  Scheik  previ- 
ously indulged  them  with  a  foretaste  of  the 
delights  of  paradise.  Delicious  soporific 
drinks  were  given  them  ;  and  while  they  lay 
asleep,  they  were  carried  into  beautiful 
gardens,  where,  awaking  as  it  were  in  para- 
dise, and  inflamed  with  views  of  perpetual 
enjoyments,  they  sallied  forth  to  perform 
assassinations  of  the  blackest  dye. 

It  is  said,  they  once  thouglit  of  embracing 
the  Chrisdan  religion,  and  some  have 
thought  the  Druses  a  remnant  of  this  singu- 
lar race  of  barbarians. 

BATH-KOL  (i  e.  the  daughter  of  a 
voice,)  an  oracle  among  the  JeAvs,  frequent- 
ly mentioned  in  their  hooks,  especially  the 
Talmud.  It  was  a  fantastical  way  of  divina- 
tion invented  by  the  Jews,  though  called  by 
them  a  revelation  from  God's  will,  which 
lie  made  to  his  chosen  people  after  all  ver- 
bal prophecies  had  ceasetl  iii  Israel. 

BAX  rERIANS,  so  called  froir"  the  leam- 
ed  and  pious  Mr.  Richard  Baxter,  who  was 
born  in  the  year  1615.  His  design  was  to 
reconcile  Calvin  and  Arminius  ;  for  this  pur- 
pose he  formed  a  middle  scheme  between 
their  systems.  He  taught  that  God  had 
elected  some,  '\vhom  he  is  determined 'to 
save,  without  any  foresight  of  their  good 
works  ;  and  that  othei'sto  whom  the  Gospel 
is  preached  have  commm  grace,  which  if 
they  improve,  they  shall  obtain  saving  grace, 
according  to  the  doctrine  of  Arminius.  This 
denomination  own,  with  Calvin,  that  the 
merits  of  Christ's  death  are  to  be  applied 
to  believers  only  ;  but  they  also  assert  that 
all  men  are  in  a  state  capable  of  salvation. 

Mr.  Baxter  maintains  that  there  may  be 
a  certainty  of  perseverance  here,  and  yet 
he  cannot  tell  whether  a  man  may  not  have 
so  weak  a  degree  of  saving  grace  as  to 
lose  it  again. 

In  order  to  prove  that  the  death  of  Christ 
has  put  all  in  a  state  capable  of  salvation, 
the  following  arguments  are  alledged  by  this 
learned  author.  1.  It  was  the  nature  of  all 
mankind  which  Christ  assumed  at  his  in- 
carnation, and  the  sins  of  all  mankind  AverQ 
the  occasion  of  his  suffering. — 2.  It  was  to 
Adam,  as  the  commoii  father  of  lapsed 
mankind,  that  God  made  the  promise  (Gen. 
iii.  15.)  The  conditional  new  covenant  does 
equally  give  Christ,  pardon,  and  life,  to  all 
mankind,  on  cwidition  of  acceptance.  The 
conditional  grant  is  universal :  Whosoever 
b'lievtth  shall  be  saved — ".  It  is  not  to  the 
elect  only,  but  to  all  mankind,  that  Christ 
has  command^  his  ministers  to  proclaim 


BEG 


41 


BEH 


his  Gospel,  and  offer  the  benefits  of  his  pro- 
curing 

There  are,  Mr.  Baxter  allows,  certain 
fruits  of  Christ's  death  which  are  proper  to 
the  elect  only  :  1  Grace  eventually  worketh 
in  them  true  faith,  repentance,  conversion, 
and  union  with  Christ,  as  his  living  mem- 
btrs  — 2.  The  actual  forgiveness  of  sins  as  to 
the  spiritual  and  eternal  punishment. — 3.  Our 
reconciliation  witli  God,  and  adoption  and 
right  to  the  heavenly  inheritance. — 4.  The 
Spirit  of  Christ  to  dwell  in  us,  and  sanctify 
us,  by  a  habit  of  divine  love,  Rom.  viii.  9  — 
13.  Gal.  v.  6. — 5  Employment  in  holyj  ac- 
ceptable sernce,  and  access  in  prayer,  with  a 
promise  of  being  heard  through  Christ,  Heb 
ii.  5.  6.  John  xiv  13. — 6.  VVell  gi'ounded 
hopes  of  salvation,  peace  of  conscience,  and 
spiritual  communion  with  the  church  mysti- 
cal in  heaven  and  earth,  Rom.  v.  12.  Heb. 
xii.  22  — 7.  A  special  interest  in  Christ,  and 
intercession  with  the  Father,  Uom.  viii.  3  2, 
33. — 8  Resurrection  unto  life,  and  justifica- 
tion in  judgment  ;  glorification  of  the  soul 
at  death,  and  of  the  body  at  the  resurrection, 
Phil.  iii.  20,  21.  2  Cor.  v.  1,  2,  3. 

Christ  has  made  a  conditional  deed  of  gift 
of  these  benefits  to  all  mankind  ,  but  the 
elect  only  accept  and  possess  them.  Hence 
he  infers  that  though  Christ  never  absolutely 
intended  or  decreed  that  his  death  should 
eventually  put  all  men  in  possession  of  those 
benefits,  yet  he  did  intend  and  decree  that 
all  men  should  have  a  conditional  gift  of  them 
by  his  death. 

Baxter,  it  is  said,  wrote  120  books,  and 
had  60  written  ag<.inst  him.  20,000  of  his 
Call  to  the  unconverted  were  sold  in  one 
year.  He  tokl  a  friend,  that  six  brothers 
■were  converted  by  reiniing  that  Call.  The 
eminent  Mr.  Elliot  of  New-England,  trans- 
lated this  tract  into  the  Indian  tongue.  A 
young  Indian  prince  was  so  taken  with  it, 
that  he  read  it  with  tears  and  died  with  it 
in  his  hand.  Calamy's  Life  of  Baxter ; 
Baxter's  Catholic  'I'htology,  p.  51. — 53; 
Baxter^s  lind  of  Doctrmat  (.'ontrouersy, 
p.  154,  155. 

BEATIFICATION,  in  tlie  Romish 
church,  the  act  whereby  the  pope  declares 
a  person  happy  after  death.  See  Canoni- 
zation. 

BEATITUDE  imports  the  highest  degree 
of  happiness  human  nature  can  arrive  to: 
the  fruition  of  God  in  a  future  life  to  all 
eternity.  It  is  also  used  in  speaking  of  tl^e 
theses  contained  in  Christ's  sermon  on  the 
Mount,  whereby  he  pronounces  the  several 
characters  there  mentioned  blessed. 

BEGH.'VKDS,  or  Beguards,  a  sect  that 
arose  in  Germany  in  the  thirteenth  century, 
and  took  St.  Begghe  for  their  patroness. 
They  employed  themselves  in  making  linen 
cloth,  each  supporting  himself  by  his  labour, 
and  were  united  only  by  the  bonds  of  charity, 
without  having  any  particular  rule ;  but 
which  pope  Nicholas  IV.  had  confirmed  that 
of  the  third  order  of  .St.  Francis  in  1289, 
they  embraced  it  tlie  year  foUov/ing. 

F 


BEGUINES,  a  congregation  of  nuns  found- 
ed either  by  St.    Begghe  or  by  Lambert  le 
Begue.  They  were  established,  first  at  Liege, 
and  afterwards  at  Neville,  in  1 ,07;  and  froH^ 
diis  last  settlement  sprang  the  great  number 
of  Beguinages  which  are  spread  over  aU 
Flanders,  and  which  have  passed  from  Flan- 
ders into  Germany.    In  the  latter  country 
some  of  them  fell  into  extravagant  errors, 
persuading  themselves  that  it  was  possible 
in  tlie  present  life  to  arrive  at  the  highest 
perfection,  even  to  impecability,  and  a  clear 
view  of  God;  in  short  to  so  eminent  a  de- 
gree of  contemplation,  that  thei-e  was  no  ne- 
cessity, after  this,  to  submit  to  the  laws  of 
mortal   men,  civil  or  ecclesiastical.    The 
council  of  Vienna,  in  1113,  condemned  these 
errors;  permitting, nevertheless,  those  among 
them  who  continued  in  the  true  faith  to  live 
in  charity  and  penitence,  either  with  or  with- 
out vows.     There  still  subsists,  or  at  least 
subsisted  till  lately,   many  communities  of 
them  in  Flanders.    What  changes  the  late 
revolutions  may  have  effected  upon  these 
nurseries  of  superstition  Ave  have  yet  to  learn. 
BEHMENiSTS,  a  name  given  to  those 
mystics  who  adopt  the  explications  of  tlie 
mysteries  of  nature  and  grace,   as  given  by 
Jacob  Behmen.    This  writer  was  bnrn  in  the 
year  1575,  at  O'd  Seidenburgh,  near  Gorlitz, 
in  Upper  Lusatia :  he  was  a  shoe-maker  by 
trade.  He  isdescribod  as  havingbeen thought- 
ful and  religious  from  his  youth  up,  tfaking  pe- 
culiar pleasure  in  frequenting  public  worship. 
At  length,  seriously  considering  within  himself 
that  speech  of  cau'  Saviour,  My  Father  luhic/i 
is  in   heaven  iinll  give   the  Holy  Sfiinl  to 
them    thai   ask  him,  he   was   thereby  iho. 
roughly  awakened  in  himself,  and  set  for- 
ward to  desire   that  promised  Comfmter; 
and,  continuing  in  that  earnestness,  he  was 
at  last,  to  use  his  own  expressicm,  "  suiTOund- 
ed  with  a  divine  light  for  seven  days,  and 
stood  in  the  highest  contemplation  and  king- 
dom of  jeys!"     After  this,  about  the  year 
1600,  he  was  again  surrounded  by  the  divine 
light,   and  replenished   with  the   heavenly 
knowledge  ;  insomuch  as,  going  abroad  into 
the  fields,  and  viewing  the  herbs  and  grass, 
byhis  inward  light  he  saw  into  their  essences, 
use,  and  properties,  which  were  discovered 
to  him  by  their  lineaments,  figures,  and  sig- 
natures    In  the  year  16 '0,  he  had  a  third 
special  illumination,    wherein  still   farther 
mysteries  were  revealed  to  him.     It  was  not 
till  the  year  1612  that  Behmen  committed 
these  revelations  to  writing     His  first  trea- 
tise is  entitled  Aurora,  which  was  seized  on 
and  withheld  from  him  by  the  senate  of  Gor- 
litz (who  i^ersecuted  him  at  the  instigationj 
of  the  primate  of  that  place)  befrre  it  was! 
finished,  and  he  never  aft-jrwards  proceeded^ 
with  it  farther  than  by  adding. s(  me  expla- 
natoiy  notes.    The   next  production  of  his 
Den    is    called    The   Three  Princijiles.    In 
this  work  he  more  fully  illustrates  the  sub- 
jects treated  of  in  the  "former,  and  supplies 
what  is  wanting  in  that  work.    The  contentaj 
of  tliese  two  treatises  may  be  divided  asi 


BE  II 


42 


BEN 


folloAV  !  1.  How  all  things  came  from  a  work- 
ing will  of  the  holy  triune  incomprehensible 
God,  maiiiff  sting  himself  as  Father,  Son,  and 
Holy  Spirit,  through  an  outward  perceptible 
working  triune  power  of  fire,  light,  and  spi- 
rit, in  the  kingdom  of  heaven. — 2.  How  and 
what  angels  and  men  were  in  their  creation; 
that  they  are  in  and  from  God,  his  real  off- 
spring; that  their  life  begun  in  and  from  this 
divine  fire  which  is  the  Father  of  light,  ge- 
nerating a  birth  of  light  in  their  souls ;  from 
both  wliichproceeds  the  Holy  Spirit,  or  breath 
of  divine  love  in  the  triune  creature,  as  it 
does  in  the  triune  Creator. — S.  How  some 
angels,  and  all  men,  are  fallen  from  God. 
and  their  first  state  of  a  divine  triune  life  in 
him  ;  what  they  are  in  their  fallen  state,  and 
tlie  difference  between  the  fall  of  angels  and 
that  of  man. — 4.  How  tlie  earth,  stars,  and 
elements,  were  created  in  consequence  of  the 
fallen  angels. — 5.  Whence  there  is  gmid  and 
evil  in  all  this  temporal  world,  in  all  its  crea- 
tures, animate  and  inanimate  ;  and  what  is 
meant  by  the  curse  that  dwells  every  where 
in  it. — 6.  Of  the  kingdom  of  Christ;  how  it 
is  set  in  opposition  to  and  fights  and  strives 
«igainst  the  kingdom  of  hell. — 7.  How  man 
through  faith  in  Christ,  is  able  to  overcome 
the  kingdom  of  hell,  and  triumph  over  it  in 
the  divnne  power,  and  thereby  obtain  eternal 
salvation;  also  how,  through  working  in  the 
hellish  quantity  or  principle,  he  casts  him- 
self into  perdition — S.  How  and  why  sin  and 
misery,  wrath  and  death,  shall  only  reign  for 
a  time,  till  the  love,  the  wisdom,  and  the 
power  of  God  shall  in  a  suijernatural  way 
(the  mystery  of  God  made  man)  triumph 
over  sin,  misery,  and  death  ;  and  make  fal- 
len man  rise  to  the  glory  of  angels,  and  this 
material  system  shake  off  its  curse,  and  en- 
ter into  an  everlasting  union  with  that  hea- 
ven from  whence  it  fell. 

Tlie  year  after  he  wrote  his  Three  Prin- 
ci'/i!cs,  by  which  are  to  be  understood — the 
dark  world,  or  hell,  in  which  the  devils 
live — the  light  world,  or  heaven,  in  which 
the  angels  live — the  exteriml  arid  visible 
world,  which  has  proceeded  from  the  inter- 
nal and  spiritual  worlds,  in  which  man,  as  to 
his  bodilv  life.  Uves  ;  Kehmen  produced  iiis 
Thrcifoid  Life  of  Mail,  according  to  the 
Three  Princijiles.  In  this  work  he  treats 
more  largely  of  the  state  of  man  in  this 
■world:  1.  That  he  has  that  immortal  spark 

''of  life  which  is  common  to  angels  and  de- 
vils.— 2.  That  divine  life  of  thj  light  and 
spirit  of  God,  which  makes  the  essential  dif- 
ference between  an  angel  and  a  devil,  the 
Jast  having  extinguished  this  divine  life  in 

'  himself;  but  that  man  can  only  attain  unto 
this  heavenly  life  of  the  second  principle 
through  the  new-  birth  in  Clirist  Jesus. — 3. 
The  life  of  the  third  principle,  or  of  this 
external  and  visible  world.  Thus  the  life  t)f 
the  first  and  third  principles  is  common  to 
all  men  ;  but  the  life  of  the  second  principle 
only  to  a  true  Christian,  or  child  of  God. 

Behmen  wrote  several  other  treatises,  be- 
sides the  three  already  enumerated;  but  these 


three  being,  as  it  were,  the  basis  of  all  lus 
other  writings,  it  was  thought  proper  to  no- 
tice them  particularly.  His  conceptions  are 
often  clothed  under  allegorical  symbols;  and 
in  his  latter  works  he  has  frequently  adopt- 
ed chemical  and  Latin  phrases  to  express  his 
ideas,  which  phrases  he  borrowed  from  con- 
versation with  learned  men,  the  education 
he  had  received  being  too  illiterate  to  fur- 
nish him  with  them  :  but  as  to  the  matter 
contained  in  his  writings,  he  disclaimed  hav- 
ing borrowed  it  either  from  men  or  books. 
He  died  in  the  year  1624.  His  last  words 
were,  "  Now  I  go  hence  into  Paradise." 

Some  of  Beh  men's  principles  were  adopted 

by  the  late  ingenious  and  pious  William  Law, 

who  has  clothed  them  in  a   more  modern 

i  dress,  and  in  a  less  obscure  style.  See  Beh- 

7nen's  Works;  Okelifs  Memoirs  of  is ehmen. 

BELIEF,  in  its  general  and  natural  sense, 
denotes  a  persuasion  or  an  assent  of  the 
mind  to  the  truth  of  any  proposition.  In  this 
sense  bclit^f  has  no  relation  to  any  particular 
kind  of  means  or  arguments,  but  may  be 
produced  by  any  means  whatever :  thus  we 
are  said  to  believe  our  senses,  to  believe  our 
reason,  to  believe  a  witness.  Belief,  in  its 
more  restrained  sense,  denotes  that  kind  of 
assent  which  is  grounded  only  on  the  autho- 
rity or  testimony  of  some  person.  In  this 
sense  belief  stands  opposed  toknowledge  and 
science.  We  do  not  say  that  we  belieue 
snow  is  white,  but  we  know  it  to  be  so.  But 
when  a  thing  is  propounded  to  us,  of  which 
we  ourselves  have  no  knowledge,  bat  which 
appears  to  us  to  be  true  from  the  testimony 
given  to  it  by  another,  this  is  what  we  call 
belief.     See  Faith. 

BELIEVERS,  an  appellation  given.toward 
t/he  close  of  the  first  century,  to  those  Chris- 
tians who  had  been  admitted  into  the  church 
by  baptism,  and  instructed  in  all  the  myste- 
ries of  religion.  They  wei-e  thus  called  in 
contradistinction  to  the  catechumens  who  had 
not  been  baptized,  and  were  debarred  from 
those  privileges.  Among  us  it  is  often  used 
synonymously  with  Christian.  See  Chris- 
tian. 

BENEDICTINES,  an  order  of  monks 
who  pnU'essed  to  lolfow  the  rules  of  St.  Be- 
nedict. They  were  obliged  to  perform  their 
devotions,  seven  times  in  twenty-four  hours. 
They  were  obliged  always  to  go  two  and  two 
together.  Every  day  in  Lent  they  fasted  till 
six  in  the  evening,  and  abated  of  their  usual 
time  in  sleeping,  eating,  Sec — Every  monk 
had  two  coats,  to  cowls,  a  table-book,  a 
knife,  a  needle,  and  a  handkerchief;  and  the 
furniture  of  his  bed  was  a  mat,  a  blanket, 
a  rug,  and  a  pillow  The  time  when  this 
order  came  into  England  is  well  known,  for 
to  it  the  English  owe  their  conversion  from 
idolatry.  They  founded  the  metro])olitaa 
church  of  Canterbury,  and  all  the  cathedrals 
that  v/ere  afterwards  erected.  The  order 
has  produced  a  vast  number  of  eminent 
men.-^TheirAlcuinus  founded  the  universi- 
ty of  Paris  ;  their  Dionysius  Exiguus  per- 
fected the  ecciesiastieal  computation  >  their 


BEN 

Guido  invented  the  scale  of  music ;  and  their 

Sylvester  the  organ. 

BENEDICTION,  in  a  general  sense  the 
act  of  blessing,  or  giving  praise  to  God,  or 
I  returning  thanks  for  his  favours.  The  Jews, 
it  is  said,  are  obiigjed  to  rehearse  a  hundred 
benedictions  jjer  day,  of  which  eighty  are  to 
be  spoken  in  the  morning.  It  was  usual  to 
give  a  benediction  to  travellers  on  their 
taking  leave ;  a  practice  which  is  still  pre- 
served among  tiie  monks.  Benedictions 
were  likewise  given  among  the  ancient 
Jews  as  well  as  Christians,  by  imposition  of 
hands.  And  when  at  length  the  primitive 
simplicity  of  the  Christian  worship  began 
to  give  tvay  to  ceremony,  they  added  the 
sign  of  the  cross,  which  was  made  with  the 
same  hand  as  before,  only  elevated  or  ex- 
tended. Hence  benediction  in  the  modem 
Romish  church,  is  used,  in  a  more  particu- 
lar manner,  to  denote  the  sign  of  the  cross 
made  by  a  bishop  or  prelate  as  conferring 
some  grace  on  tlie  people. 

Benediction  is  als)  used  for  an  ecclesias- 
tical ceremony,  whereby  a  thing  is  i-endered 
sacred  or  venerable.  In  this  sense  benedic- 
tion differs  from  consecration,  as  in  tlie  lat- 
ter, unction  is  appUed,  which  is  not  in  the 
former:  thus  the  clialice  is  consecrated,  and 
the  pix  blessed ;  as  ihe  former,  not  the  lat- 
ter is  anointed,  though  in  the  common  usage 
these  two  words  are  applied  promiscuously 
The  spirit  of  piety,  or  ratber  of  superstition, 
has  introduced  into  the  Romish  church  bene- 
dictions for  almost  every  thing;  we  read  cf 
forms  of  benedictions  for  wax  candles,  for 
boughs,  for  ashes,  for  church  vessels,  for 
ornaments,  for  flags,  or  ensigns,  arms,  first 
fruits,  houses,  ships,  paschal  eggs,  cilicium, 
or  the  hair  cloth  of  penitents,  church-yards, 
&c.  In  general,  these  benedictions  are  per- 
formed by  aspei'sions  of  holy  water,  signs  of 
the  cross,  and  prayers  suitable  to  the  nature 
of  the  ceremony.  The  forms  of  these  bene- 
dictions are  found  in  the  Roman  pontifical, 
in  the  Roman  missal,  in  tlie  book  of  eccle- 
siastical ceremonies,  printed  in  Pope  Leo 
X's  time,  and  in  the  rituals  and  ceremonies 
of  the  different  churches,  which  are  found 
collected  in  father  Martene's  work  on  the 
rites  and  discipline  of  the  church. 

BENEFICENCE,  the  practice  of  doing 
good;  active  goodness. — Next  to  justice,  the 
most  prominent  virtue  in  the  system  of  mo- 
rality, is  beneficence.  Power  makes  us  to 
be  feared,  riches  to  be  flattered,  learning  to 
be  admired;  but  beneficence  renders  us 
amiable  and  useful  in  the  scale  of  society. 
Some  qualifications  are  solitary,  and  centre 
mostly  in  ourselves  ;  but  this  is  social,  diffu- 
sive, and  kind.  The  objects  of  our  benefi- 
cence are  all  those  who  are  in  the  sphere  of 
our  influence  and  action,  without  respect  to 
party  or  sect.  Toward  superiors,  benefi- 
cence expresseth  itself  in  respect,  honour, 
submission,  and  service;  toward  inferiors, 
in  liberality,  condescensiwi,  protection,  and 
■support;  toward  equals,  in  aJl  the  offices  of 


4S 


BEN 


love  their  cases  require,  and  which  they 
have  ability  for.  It  includes  all  the  kind 
exertions  on  the  behalf  of  the  poor,  the 
sick,  the  fatherless,  the  widow,  the  dis- 
tressed, Sec.  and  especially  those  "  who  are 
of  the  household  of  faith,'*  Gal.  vi.  10.  The 
means  of  beneficence  are — communication 
of  temporal  supplies.  Gal.  vi.  6;  prayer,' 
James  v.  16;  sympathy,  Rom.  xii.  15;  ap- 
propriate advice  and  conversation.  Col.  iii. 
16. — Obligations  to  beneficence  arise  from 
the  law  of  nature,  Acts,  xvii  26  ;  the  law  of 
revelauon,  Heb.  xiii.  16;  the  relations  we 
stand  in  to  each  other.  Gal.  vi.  1,  2 ;  the 
example  of  Christ  and  illustrious  characters, 
Acts  X.  38 ;  the  resemblance  we  herein  bear 
to  the  best  of  Beings,  Acts  xiv.  If;  and  the 
pleasure  we  receive  and  give  in  so  noble 
an  employ.  See  Benevolence,  Charity, 
Love. 

BENEVOLENCE,  the  love  of  mankind 
in  general,  accompanied  with  a  desire  to 
promote  their  happiness.  It  is  distinguished 
from  beneficence,  that  being  the  practice ; 
benevolence  the  desire  of  doing  good.  Bene- 
volence must  be  universal,  reaciiing  to 
every  man  without  exception;  but  benefi- 
cence cannot  be  so  universal,  for  it  is  neces- 
sarily confined  by  several  considerations ; 
such  as  our  knowledge  of  objects,  and  their 
different  circumstances,  as  well  as  cur 
own  abilities  and  opportunities  of  exercising 
them.  Benevolence  or  good  will  to  others 
does  not  imply  that  we  are  to  neglect  our 
own  interests.  Our  salvation,  health,  pros- 
perity, and  reput..tion,  should  all  be  objects 
of  concern  :  nor  will  this  clash  with  the 
affection  we  may  bear  to  others;  on  the 
contrary,  experiencing  the  importance  of 
these  blessings  ourselves,  we  shall  be  anxious 
for  othets  to  possess  them  also.  The  duties 
of  benevolence  include  those  we  owe  to  men, 
purely  on  the  ground  of  their  being  of  the 
same  species  with  ourselves;  such  as  sym- 
pathy, relief.  8cc. ;  those  we  owe  to  our 
countiy,  desiring  its  honour,  safety,  prospe- 
rity;  those  we  ewe  to  the  cliurch  of  God,  as 
love,  zeal,  8cc. ;  those  we  owe  to  families  and 
individuals,  as  affection,  care,  provision,  jus- 
tice,  forbearance,  &.c.  Benevolence  mani- 
fests itself  by  being  pleased  with  the  share 
of  good  every  crtature  enjoys;  in  a  dispo- 
sition to  increase  it ;  in  feeling  an  uneasiness 
at  their  sufferings  ;  and  in  the  abhorrence  of 
cruelty  under  ever>'  disguise  or  pretext.  The 
desire  of  doing  good  unconnected  with  any 
idea  of  advantage  to  ourselves  is  called 
disinterested  benevolence,  though  some  doubt 
whether,  strictly  speaking,  there  be  any 
such  thing ;  as  benevolence  is  always  attend- 
ed with  a  pleasure  to  ourselves,  which  forms 
a  kind  of  mental  interest.  So  far,  however^ 
as  we  are  able  to  prefer  the  good  of  others 
to  our  own,  and  sacrifice  our  own  comfort 
for  the  welfare  of  any  about  us,  so  far  it  mav 
be  said  to  be  disinterested.  See  Hiitcheson 
on  the  Passions,  p.  13 — 26  ;  Dcddridge^t 
Led.  65  ;  lieattie^e  Elements  of  Moral  Sci^  n 


BEK 


T?^ 


BER 


tnccy  vol.  i.  p.  244—249;  Broton's  Second 
Mssay  on  Shaftesbury's  Characteristics ; 
and  articles  Love  and  Self-love. 

BERE  ANS,  a  sect  of  protestant  dissenters 
from  the  church  of  Scotlarid,  who  take  their 
title  from  and  profess  to  follow  the  example 
of  the  ancient  Bereans,  in  building  their  sys- 
tem of  faith  and  practice  upon  the  scrip- 
tures alone,  v^ithout  regard  to  any  human 
authority  whatever. 

As  to  the  origin  of  this  sect,  we  find  that 
the  Bereans  first  assembled  as  a  separate 
society  of  Christians,  in  the  city  of  Edin- 
burgh, in  the  autumn  of  1773,  and  soon  after 
in  the  parish  of  Fettercairn.  The  opponents 
of  the  Berean  doctrines  allege  that  this  new 
system  of  faith  would  never  have  been  heard 
of,  had  not  Mr.  Bai-clay,  the  founder  of  it, 
been  disappointed  of  a  settlement  in  the 
church  of  Scotland.  But  the  Bereans  in  an- 
swer to  this  charge  appeal  not  only  to  Mr. 
Barclay's  doctrine,  uniformly  preached  in 
the  church  of  Fettercairn,  and  many  other 
places  in  that  neighbourhood,  for  fourteen 
years  before  that  benefice  became  vacant, 
but  likewise  to  two  different  treatises,  con- 
taining the  same  doctrines,  published  by  him 
about  ten  or  twelve  years  before  that  period. 
They  admit,  indeed,  that  previous  to  May 
1773,  wlien  the  general  assembly,  by  sus- 
taining the  king's  presentation  in  favour  of 
Mr.  Fc<ote,  excluded  Mr.  Barclay  from  suc- 
ceeding to  the  church  of  Fettercairn  (not- 
■tvithstanding  the  almost  unanimous  desire  of 
the  parishioners,)  the  Bereans  had  not  left 
the  established  church,  rr  attempted  to  erect 
themselves  into  a  distit.ct  socitty;  but  they 
add,  that  this  was  by  no  nieai,s  ecessary  on 
^htir  part,  until  by  the  assembly's  decision 
they  were  in  danger  of  bting  not  only  de- 
prived of  his  instructions,  but  of  being  scat- 
tered as  sheep  without  a  shipherd.  And 
they  add,  that  it  was  Mr  Barclay's  open 
and  public  avowal,  both  from  the  ])ulpit  and 
the  press,  of  those  p-  ci'iar  sentiments  wliich 
now  di.itinguish  tne  Bereans,  tliat  was  the 
first  and  principal,  if  n^t  the  only  cause  of 
ihe  oppositi  n  set  on  foot  against  his  settle- 
ment in  Fettercairn. 

The  B -reans  agree  with  tr^e  great  majo- 
rity of  Christians  nsptcting  the  ci-ictrine  <>i 
the  Trinity,  which  they  hold  as  a  fundamen- 
tal article;  and  they  also  agrte  in  a  great 
measure  with  the  prof-ssed  pri;'ci;;!es  of 
both  our   established    churches    respecting 

{jredesti nation  and  election,  rh-uyh  ihey  al- 
ege  that  these  doctrines  are  nnt  consistently 
taught  in  either  church.  But  t'jfy  differ 
from  the  majority  of  all  sects  of  C!)rist!aiis 
in  various  other  important  particulars,  such 
as,  1.  Respecting  oiir  knowledge  of  the  Deity 
UpKin  this  Subject  they  say,  the  majority  of 
professed  Christians  stumble  at  the  very 
threshhold  of  revelation  ;  and.  by  admitting 
the  doctrine  of  natural  religion,  natural  con- 
science, natural  nfitici-^,  &c.  not  founded 
upon  revelation,  or  derived  from  it  by  tradi- 
tion, they  give  up  the  cause  of  Christianity 
at  once  to  the  infidels ;  who  may  justly  ar- 


gue, as  Mr.  Paine  in  fact  does  in  his  Age  of 
Reason,  that  there  is  no  occasion  for  any 
revelation  or  word  of  God,  if  man  can  dis- 
cover his  nature  and  perfection  from  his 
works  alone.  But  this  the  Bereans  argue  is 
beyond  the  natural  powers  of  human  rea- 
son; and  therefore  our  knowledge  of  God  is 
from  revelation  alone,  and  that  without  reve- 
lation man  would  never  have  entertained 
an  idea  of  his  existence. — 2.  With  regard  to 
faith  in  Christ,  and  assurance  of  salvation 
through  his  merits,  they  differ  from  alivost 
all  other  sects  whatsoever  These  they 
reckon  inseparable,  or  rather  tlie  same,  be- 
cause (.say  they)  "  God  hath  expressly  de- 
clared, he  that  believeth  shall  be  saved  ; 
and  therefore  it  is  not  only  absurd  but  im- 
pious, and  in  a  manner  calling  God  a  liar, 
for  a  man  to  say,  I  believe  the  Gospel,  but 
have  doubts,  nevertheless,  of  my  own  salva- 
tion." With  regard  to  the  various  distinc- 
tions and  definitions  that  have  been  given  of 
diffii'tnt  kinds  of  faith,  they  argue  that  there 
is  nothing  incomprehensible  or  obscure  in 
the  meanmg  of  this  word  as  used  in  scrip- 
ture ;  but  that  as  faith,  when  applied  to  hu- 
man testimony,  signifies  neither  more  nor 
less  than  the  mere  simple  behef  of  that  tes- 
timony as  true,  upon  die  authority  of  the 
testifier,  so,  Avhen  applied  to  the  testimony 
of  God,  it  signifies  precisely  "  the  belief  of 
his  testimony,  and  resting  upon  his  veracity 
alone,  without  any  kind  of  collateral  sup- 
port from  concuiTence  of  any  other  evidence 
or  testimony  whatever."  And  they  insist 
that,  as  this  faith  is  the  gift  of  God  alone, 
so  the  person  to  whom  it  is  given  is  as  con- 
scious of  pobsessing  it  as  the  being  to  whom 
God  gives  life  is  of  being  alive ;  and  there- 
fotx;  he  entertains  no  doubts  either  of  his 
faith  or  his  consequent  salvation  through  the 
merits  of  Christ,  Avho  died  and  rose  again 
for  that  purpose.  In  a  Avord,  they  argue 
that  the  Gospel  would  not  be  what  it  is  held 
forth  to  be,  glad  tidings  of  great  joy,  if  it 
did  not  bring  full  jiersonal  asscirance  rf  eter- 
nal salvation  to  the  believer;  which  assu- 
rance, they  insist,  is  the  present  infallible 
privilege  and  portion  of  every  individual  be- 
liever (f  the  Gospel. — 3.  Consistently  with 
the  above  definition  rf  faith,  they  say  that 
the  sin  against  the  Holy  Ghost,  which  has 
alarmed  and  puzzled  so  many  in  all  ages,  is 
nothing  else  but  unbelief;  and  that  the  ex- 
pression— "it  shall  not  be  firgiven  neither 
in  this  world  nor  that  which  is  to  come," 
means  only  that  a  person  dying  in  infidelity 
would  not  be  forgiven  neither  under  the 
former  dispensati  >n  by  Moses  (the  th^vt  pre- 
acnt  dispensation,  kingdom,  or  government 
of  God,)  nor  under  the  Gospel  dispensation, 
which,  in  resptct  of  the  Mosaic,  was  a  kind 
of  future  world  or  kingdom  to  come  — 4.  The 
Bereans  interpret  a  great  part  of  the  Old 
Testament  prophecies,  and  in  particular  the 
whole  of  the  Psalms,  excepting  such  as  are 
merely  historical  or  laudatory,  to  be  typical 
orprophetica'  of  Jesus  Christ,  his  sufferings, 
atonement,  mediation,  and  kingdom:    and 


BER 


4,5 


BIB 


they  esteem  it  a  gross  perversion  ©f  these 
psalms  and  prophecits  to  apply  tlitni  to  the 
experiences  of  private  Christians.  In  proof 
of  tl>is,  they  not  only  urge  the  words  of  the 
apostle,  that  no  prophecy  is  of  any  private 
interpretation,  but  they  insist  that  the  whwle 
of  the  quotations  from  the  ancient  prophe- 
cies in  the  New  Testament,  and  particularly 
those  from  the  Psalms,  are  expressly  appli- 
etl  to  Christ  In  this  opinion  many  other 
classes  of  protcstants  agree  with  them. — 
5.  Of  the  absolute  all  superintending  sove- 
I'eignty  of  the  Almighty,  the  Bereans  enter- 
tain the  highest  idea,  as  well  as  of  the  unin- 
terrupted exertion  thereof  over  all  his  works, 
in  heaven,  earth,  and  hell,  however  un- 
searchable by  his  creatures  A  God  without 
election,  they  argue,  or  choice  in  all  his 
works,  is  a  God  without  existence,  a  mere 
idol,  a  non-entity.  And  to  deny  God's  elec- 
tion, purpose,  and  express  will  in  all  his 
works  is  to  make  him  inferior  to  ourselves. 
As  to  their  practice  and  discipline,  they 
consider  infant  baptism  as  a  divine  ordi- 
nance, instituted  in  the  room  of  circumcision, 
and  think  it  absurd  to  suppose  that  infants, 
■who  all  agree  are  admiseibie  to  the  kingdom 
of  God  in  heaven,  should,  nevertheless,  be 
incapable  of  being  admitted  into  his  visible 
church  on  earth  They  commemorate  the 
Lord's  supper  generally  once  a  month  ;  but 
as  the  words  of  the  institution  fix  no  parti 
cular  period,  they  sometimes  ceki^rate  it 
oftener,  and  sometimes  at  more  distant  pe- 
riods, as  it  may  suit  their  general  conve- 
nience. They  meet  every  Lord's  day  for 
the  purpose  of  preaching,  praying,  and  ex- 
horting to  love  and  good  wurks.  Vv  ith  re- 
gard to  admission  and  exclusion  of  mem 
hers,  their  method  is  very  simple  :  when 
any  person,  after  hearing  the  Berean  doc- 
trines, professes  his  belief  and  assurance  of 
the  truths  of  the  Gospel,  and  desires  to  l)e 
admitted  into  their  communion,  he  is  cheer- 
fully received  upon  his  profession,  'wliatever 
may  have  been  his  former  manner  of  life. 
But  if  such  a  one  should  afterwards  draw 
hack  from  his  good  profession  or  practice, 
they  first  admonish  him,  and  if  that  has  no 
effect,  they  leave  him  to  himself.  They  do 
not  think  that  they  have  any  power  to  de- 
liver a  backsliding  brother  to  Satan  ;  that 
text,  and  other  similar  passages,  such  as, 
*'  whatsoever  ye  shall  bind  on  earth  shall 
be  bound  in  heaven,"  &c.  they  consider  as 
restricted  to  the  apostles,  and  to  the  inspir- 
ed testimony  alone,  and  not  to  be  extended 
to  any  church  on  earth,  or  any  number  of 
churches  or  of  Christians,  whether  decided 
by  a  majority  of  votes,  or  by  unanimous 
voices.  Neither  do  they  think  themselves! 
authorized,  as  a  Christian  church,  to  en- 1 
quire  into  each  others  political  opiniens,  any  j 
more  than  to  examine  into  each  others  no- ' 
tions  of  philosophy  They  both  recommend  j 
and  practice,  as  Christian  duties,  submission 
to  lawful  authority;  but  they  do  not  think 
that  a  man  by  becoming  a  Christian,  or 
joining  their  society,  is  untlor  any  obligation 


Ijy  the  rules  of  the  Gospel  to  renounce  his 
right  of  private  judgment  upon  matters  of 
public  or  private  ii.ip(;rtarce.  Upon  all  such 
subjects  they  allow  each  other  to  think  and 
act  as  each  may  see  it  his  duty :  and  they 
require  nothing  more  of  the  members  than 
a  uniform  and  steady  profession  of  the  apos- 
tolic faith,  and  a  suitable  walk  and  conver- 
sation. 

It  is  said  that  their  doctrine  has  found 
converts  in  various  places  ot  Scotland,  Eng- 
land, and  America;  and  that  thty  have 
congregations  in  Edingburgh,  Glasgow,  Pais- 
ley, Stirling,  CriefF,  Dundee,  Arbroath, 
Montrose,  Fettercairn,  Aberdeen,  and  other 
towns  in  Scotland,  as  well  as  in  London,  and 
various  places  in  England. 

For  farther  particulars  of  the  doctrines  of 
this  sect,  see  the  works  of  Messrs.  Barclay, 
J^icol,  Brooksbank,  and  M^Rae.  See  also 
Mr.  A.  McLean's  Treatise  07i  the  Commis- 
sion, first  edition,  p.  88,  in  which  Mr.  Bar- 
clay's notion  of  assurance  is  combated, 

BERENGARIANS,  a  denomination,  in 
the  eleventh  century,  which  adhered  to  the 
opinions  of  Berengarius,  who  asserted  that 
the  bread  and  wine  in  the  Lord's  supper  are 
not  reall>  and  essentially,  but  figuratively 
changed  into  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ. 
His  followers  were  divided  in  opinion  as  to 
the  eucharist.  Some  allowed  tliem  to  be 
changed  in  effect ;  others  admitted  a  change 
in  part;  and  othei-s  an  entire  change,  with 
this  restriction,  that,  to  those  who  commu- 
nicated unworthily,  the  elements  were 
changed  back  again. 

BERYLLIANS,  so  called  from  BeryUus, 
an  Arabian,  bishop  of  Bozrah,  who  flourished 
in  the  third  century.  He  taught  that  Christ 
did  not  exist  before  Mary  ;  but  that  a  spirit 
issuing  from  God  himself,  and  therefore 
superior  to  all  human  souls,  as  being  a  por- 
tion of  the  divine  nature,  was  united  to  him 
at  the  time  of  his  birth. 

BETHLEHEMITES,  a  sect  called  also 
Star-bearers,  because  they  were  distinguish- 
ed  by  a  red  star  having  five   rays,  which  j 
they  wore  on  their  breasts,  in  memory  of  the 
star  which  appeared  to  the  wise  men.  Seve- 
ral authors  have  mentioned  this  order,  but ' 
none  of  them  have  told  us  their  origin,  nor 
where  their  convents  were  situated  ;  if  we  i 
except  Matthew  Paris,  who  says,  tliat,  in 
1257,  they  obtained  a  settlement  in  England, 
which  was  at  Cambridge,  in  Trumpington- 
street. 

BIBLE,  tile  name  applied  by  Christians, 
by  way  of  eminence,  to  the  collection  of 
sacred  writings,  rr  the  holy  scriptures  of 
the  Old  and  Is^ew  Testaments.  i 

I.  Bible,  ancieyit  Divisions  and  Order  of. 
After  tlie  return  of  the  Jews  from  the  Baby- 
lonish captivity,  Ezra  collected  as  rnany 
copies  as  he  could  of  the  sacred  writings, 
and  out  of  them  all  prepared  a  correct  edi- 
tion, arranging  the  several  books  in  their 
proper  order.  These  booksi  he  divided  into 
three  parts,  i.  The  law.  ii  The  prophets. 
III.  The  Hagiographia,  i.  e.  the  holy  writ 


BIB 


46 


BIB 


ings.  I.  The  law,  contains— 1.  Genesis; — 
2.  Exodus;— 3.  Leviticus; — 4,  Numbers; — 
5.  Deuteronomy,  ii.  The  writings  of  the 
prophets  are — 1.  Joshua ; — 2.  Judges,  wiih 
Ruth  ; — 3.  Samuel ; — 4.  Kings  ; — 5.  Isaiah  ; 
— 6.  Jeremiah,  with  his  Lamentations ; — 7. 
Ezekiel ; — 8.  Daniel ; — 9.  The  twelve  mi- 
nor prophets; — 10.  Job;— 11.  Ezra; — 12. 
Nehemiah  ; — 13.  Esther,  iii.  The  Hagio- 
graphia  consists  of — 1.  The  Psalms  ; — 2  The 
Proverbs; — 3.  Ecclesiastes ; — 4.  The  Song 
of  Solomon.  This  division  was  made  for  the 
sake  of  reducing  the  number  of  the  sacred 
books  to  the  number  of  the  letters  in  their 
alphabet,  which  amount  to  twenty-two.  Af- 
terwards the  Jews  reckoned  twenty-four 
books  in  their  cannon  of  scripture  ;  in  dispos- 
ing of  which  the  law  stood  as  in  the  former 
division,  and  the  prophets  were  distributed 
into  former  and  latter  :  the  former  prophets 
are  Joshua,  Judges,  Samuel,  and  Kings  ;  the 
latter  prophets  are  Isaiah,  Jeremiah,  Eze- 
kiel, and  the  twelve  minor  prophets.  And 
the  Hagiographia  consists  of  tiie  Psalms, 
the  Proverbs,  Job,  the  Song  of  Solomon,  Ruth, 
the  Lamentations,  Ecclesiastes,  Esther, 
Daniel,  Ezra,  the  Chronicles.  Under  the 
name  of  Ezra  they  comprehend  Nehemiah  : 
this  order  hath  not  always  been  cbserve'J, 
but  the  variations  from  it  are  of  no  momeia. 
Tbe  five  books  of  the  law  are  divided  into 
forty-five  sections.  This  division  many  of 
the  Jews  hold  to  have  been  appointed  by 
Moses  himself ;  but  ot'ners  with  more  pro- 
bability, ascribe  it  to  Ezra.  The  design  of 
this  division  was,  that  one  of  these  sections 
might  be  read  in  their  synagogues  every 
sabbath  day  :  : he  number  was  fifty-four,  be- 
cause in  tlieir  intercalated  years,  a  month 
being  then  added,  there  were  fifty-four  sab- 
baths :  in  other  years  they  reduced  them  to 
fifty  two,  by  twice  joining  together  two  short 
sections.  Till  the  persecution  of  Anticchus 
Epiphanes,  they  read  only  the  law ;  but,  the 
reading  of  it  being  then  prohibited,  they 
8ul)stituted  in  the  room  of  it  fifty-four  sec- 
tions out  of  the  prophets ;  and  when  the 
reading  of  the  law  was  restored  by  the 
Maccabees,  the  section  which  was  read  eve- 
ry sabbath  out  of  the  law  served  for  their 
first  lesson,  and  the  section  out  of  the  pro- 
phets for  their  second.  These  sections  were 
divided  into  verses ;  of  which  division,  if  Ezra 
was  not  the  author,  it  was  introduced  not 
long  after  him,  and  seems  to  have  been  de- 
signed for  the  use  of  the  Targumists,  or 
Chaldee  interpreters  ;  for  after  the  return  of 
the  Jews  froni  the  Babylonish  captivity,  when 
the  Hebrew  language  ceased  to  be  their 
mother  tongue,  and  the  Chaldee  grew  into 
use  instead  of  it,  the  custom  was,  that  the 
law  should  be  first  read  in  the  original  He- 
brew, and  then  interpreted  to  the  people  in 
the  Chaldee  language ;  for  which  purpose 
these  shfirter  sections  were  very  convenient. 
II  Bible,  History  of.  It  is  thought  that 
Ezra  published  the  scriptures  in  the  Chaldee 
character,  for,  that  language  being  generally 
used  among  the  Jews,  he  thought  proper  to 


change  the  old  Hebrew  character  for  it, 
which  hath  shice  that  time  been  retained 
only  by  the  Samaritans,  amonjr  whom  it  is 
preserved  to  this  day.  Prideaux  is  of  opinion 
tliat  Ezra  made  additions  in  several  parts  of 
the  Bible,  where  any  thing  appeared  neces- 
sary for  illustrating,  connecting,  or  com- 
pleting the  work ;  in  which  he  appears  to 
have  been  assisted  by  the  same  Spirit  in 
which  they  were  first  written  Among  such 
additions  are  to  be  reckoned  the  last  chap- 
ter of  Deuteronomy,  wherein  Moses  seems 
to  give  an  account  of  his  own  death  and 
burial,  and  the  succession  of  Joshua  after  him. 
To  the  same  cause,  our  learned  author 
thinks,  are  to  be  attributed  many  other  in- 
terpolations in  the  Bible,  which  created  dif- 
ficulties and  objections  to  the  authenticity  of 
the  sacred  text,  no  ways  to  be  solved  without 
allowing  them.  Ezra  changed  the  names 
of  several  places  which  were  grown  obsolete, 
and,  instead  of  them,  put  their  new  names 
by  which  they  were  then  called  in  the  text. 
Thus  it  is  that  Abraham  is  said  to  have 
pursued  the  kings  who  carried  Lot  away 
captive  as  far  as  Dan ;  whereas  that  place 
in  Moses's  time  was  called  Laish,  the  name 
Dan  being  unknown  till  the  Danites,  long 
after  the  death  of  Moses,  possessed,  them- 
selves of  it.  The  Jewish  canon  of  scripture 
was  then  settled  by  Ezra,  yet  not  so  but  that 
several  variations  have  been  made  in  it. 
Maiachi,  for  instance,  could  not  be  put  in 
the  Bible  by  him,  since  that  prophet  is  allow- 
ed to  have  lived  after  Ezra ;  nor  could  Ne- 
hemiah be  there,  since  that  book  mentit-ns 
(chap.  xii.  v,  22.)  Jaddua  as  high  priest,  and 
Darius  Coddamannus  as  king  of  Persia,  who 
Avere  at  lea^t  a  hundred  years  later  than 
Ezra.  It  may  be  added,  that,  in  the  first 
book  of  Chixjnicles,  the  genealogy  of  the 
sons  of  Zei-ubbal)el  is  carried  down  for  sa 
many  generations  as  must  necessarily  bring 
it  to  the  time  of  Alexander ;  and  conse- 
quently this  book,  or  at  least  this  part  of  it, 
could  not  be  in  the  canon  in  Bzra  s  days.  It 
is  probable  the  two  books  of  Chronicles,  Ezra, 
Nehemi.^.h,  Esther,  and  Maiachi,  were  adop- 
ted into  the  Bible  in  the  time  of  Simon  the 
Just,  the  last  of  the  men  of  the  great  syna- 
gogue. The  Jews,  at  first,  were  very  re- 
served in  communicating  their  scriptures  to 
strangers ;  despising  and  shunning  tlie  Gen- 
tiles, they  would  not  disckee  to  them  any  of 
the  treasures  concealed  in  the  Bible.  We 
may  add,  that  tlie  people  bordering  on  the 
Jews,  as  the  Egyptians,  Phoenicians,  Arabs, 
&c.  were  not  very  curious  to  know  the  laws 
or  histor}'^  of  a  people,  whom  in  their  turn 
they  hated  and  despised.  Their  first  ac- 
quaintance with  these  books  was  not  till  after 
the  several  captivities  of  the  Jews,  when  the 
singularity  of  the  Hebrew  laws  and  cere- 
monies induced  several  to  desire  a  more  par- 
ticular knowledge  of  them.  Josephus  seems 
surprised  to  find  such  slight  footsteps  of  the 
scripture  history  interspersed  in  the  Egyp- 
tian, Chaldean,  Phoenician,  and  Grecian  hi&. 
tory ;  and  accounts  for  it  hence,  that  the 


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47 


BIB 


!  sacred  books  were  not  as  yet  translated  into 
'  Greek  or,other  languai^es,  and  consequently 
not  known  to  the  writers  of  those  natiens. 
The  first  version  of  the  Bible  was  tliat  of  the 
Septuagint  into  Greek,  by  order  of  that  pa- 
tron of    hterature,   Ptolemy  Philadelphus ; 
I  though  some  maintain   that  the  whole  was 
i  not  then  translated,  but  only  the  Pentateuch; 
between  which  and  the  other  books  in  the 
Septuagint  version,  the  critics  find  a  great 
diversity  in  point  of  style  and  expression,  as 
well  as  of  accuracy. 

III.  Bible,  modern  Divisions  of.  The 
division  of  the  scriptures  into  chapters,  as 
we  at  present  have  them,  is  of  modern  date. 
Some  attribute  it  to  Stephen  Langton,  arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury,  in  the  reigns  of  John 
and  H'-nry  III.  But  the  true  author  of  the 
invention  was  Hugo  de  Sancto  Caro,  com- 
monly called  Hugo  Cardinahs,  because  he 
was  the  first  Dominican  that  ever  was  raised 
to  the  degree  of  cardinal.  This  Hugo  flour- 
ished about  A.  D.  1J40 :  he  wrote  a  com- 
ment on  the  scriptures,  and  projected  the 
first  concordance,  which  is  that  uf  the  vulgar 
Latin  Bible.  The  aim  of  this  work  being 
for  the  more  easy  finding  out  any  \^ord  or 
passage  in  the  scriptures,  he  found  it  neces- 
sary to  divide  the  book  into  sections,  and  the 
sections  into  sui)divisions  ;  for  till  that  time 
the  vulgar  Latin  Bibles  were  without  any 
division  at  all.  These  sections  are  the  chap- 
ters into  which  the  Bible  hath  ever  since 
been  divided :  but  the  subdivision  of  the 
chapters  was  not  then  into  verses,  as  it  is 
now.  Hugo's  methcd  of  subdividing  them 
was  by  the  letters  A,  B,  C,  D,  E,  F,  G, 
placed  in  the  margin,  at  an  equal  distance 
from  each  other,  acccnling  to  the  length  of 
the  chapters.  Tlie  subdivision  of  the  chap- 
ters into  verses,  as  they  nov/  stand  in  cur 
Bibles,  had  its  original  from  a  famous  Jew- 
ish Rabbi  named  Mordecai  Nathan,  about 
1445.  This  rabbi,  in  imitation  of  Hugo  Car- 
dinalis,  drew  up  a  concordance  to  the  He- 
brew Bible,  for  the  use  of  the  Jews.  But 
though  he  followed  Hugo  in  his  division  of 
the  books  into  chapters,  he  refined  upon  his 
inventions  as  to  the  subdivision,  and  contriv- 
ed that  by  ver.ses  :  this  being  found  to  be  a 
much  more  convenient  method,  it  has  been 
ever  since  followed.  And  thus,  as  the  Jews 
borrowed  the  division  of  the  books  of  tlie^ 
lioly  scriptures  into  chapters  from  the  Chris- 
tians, in  like  manner  the  Ciiristians  borrow- 
ed that  of  the  chapters  into  verses  from  die 
Jews.  The  present  order  of  the  several 
books  is  almost  the  same  (the  Apocrypha 
excepted)  as  that  made  by  the  council  of 
Trent. 

IV.  Bible,  rejected  Books  of.  The  apo- 
cryphal books  of  the  Old  Testament,  accord- 
ing to  the  Romanists,  are  the  book  of  Enocli 
(see  Jude  14.)  the  third  and  fourth  books  of 
Esdras,  the  third  and  fourth  books  of  Mac- 
cabees, the  prayrr  of  Manasse,  the  Testa- 
ment of  the  twelve  Patriarchs,  the  psalter 
of  Solomon,  and  some  other  pieces  of  this 
nature.    The  apocryphal  books  of  the  New 


Testament  are  the  epistle  of  St.  Barnabas, 
the  pretended  epistle  of  St.  Paul  to  the  Lao- 
diceans,  several  spurious  gospels,  Acts  of  the 
Apostles,  and  Revelations;  the  book  of  Her- 
mas,  entitled  the  Shepherd ;  Jesus  Christ's 
letter  to  Abgarus  ;  the  epistles  of  St.  Paul  to 
Seneca,  and  several  other  pieces  of  the  like 
nature  ;  as  may  be  seeH  in  the  collection  of 
the  apocryphal  writings  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment made  by  Fabricius.  Protestants,  while 
they  agree  with  the  Roman  Catholics  in  re- 
jecting all  those  as  uncanonical,  have  also 
justly  rejected  the  books  of  Tobit,  Judith, 
Wisdom,  Ecclesiasticus,  Baruch,  and  1st 
and  2d  Maccatees. 

V.  Bible,  Translations  of.  We  have 
already  mentioned  the  first  translation  of 
the  Old  Testament  by  the  LXX.  (§  2.)  Both 
Old  and  New  Testaments  were  afterwards 
translated  into  Latin  by  the  primitive  Chris- 
tians; and  while  the  Roman  empire  sub- 
sisted in  Eurcroe,  the  reading  of  the  scrip- 
tures in  the  Latin  tongue,  which  was  the 
universal  language  of  that  empire,  prevailed 
every  where ;  but  since  the  face  of  aflFairs  in 
Europe  has  been  changed,  and  so  many  dif- 
ferent monarchies  erected  upon  the  ruins  of 
the  Roman  empire,  the  Latin  tongue  has  by 
degrees  grown  into  disuse;  whence  has  arisen 
a  necessity  of  translating  the  Bible  into  the 
respective  languages  of  each  people;  and 
this  has  produced  as  many  different  versions 
of  the  scriptures  in  the  modern  languages  as 
there  are  different  nations  professing  the 
Christian  religion.  Of  the  principal  of  these, 
as  well  as  of  those  other  ancient  translations, 
and  the  earliest  and  the  most  elegant  print- 
ed editions,  we  shall  now  take  notice  in  their 
order. 

1.  Bible,  .^irmenian.  There  is  a  very 
ancient  Armenian  version  of  the  whole  Bible 
done  from  the  Greek  of  the  LXX,  by  some 
of  their  doctors,  about  the  time  of  Chr}'sos- 
tom.  This  was  first  printed  entire,  1664, 
by  one  of  their  bishops  at  Amsterdam,  in 
quarto,  with  the  New  Testament  in  octava 

2.  Bible,  Bohemian.  The  Bohemians 
have  a  Bible  ti-anslated  by  eight  of  their 
doctors,  whom  they  had  sent  to  the  schools 
of  Wirtemberg  and  Basil  on  purpose  to 
study  the  original  languages ;  it  was  printed 
in  Moravia  in  15o9. 

3.  Bible,  Croatian.  A  translation  of  the 
New  Testament  into  the  Croatian  language 
was  published  by  Faber  Creim,  and  others, 
in  1562  and  1563. 

4.  Bible,  Gaelic.  A  few  years  ago,  a 
version  of  the  Bible  in  the  Gaelic  or  Erse 
language  was  published  at  Edinburgh,  where 
the  Gospel  is  preached  regularly  in  that 
language  in  two  chapels,  for  the  benefit  of 
the  natives  of  the  Highlands. 

5.  Bible,  Georgian.  The  inhabitants  of 
Georgia,  in  Asia,  have  long  had  a  transla- 
tion of  the  Bible  in  their  ancient  language  ; 
but  that  language  having  now  become  almost 
obsolete,  and  the  Georgians  in  general  being 
ver\'  ignorant,  few  of  them  can  eitlier  read 
or  understand  it. 


BIB 


48 


BIB 


6.  Bible,  Gothic  It  is  generally  said  that 
Ulphiias,  a  Gothic  bishop,  who  lived  in  the 
fourth  century,  made  a  version  of  the  whole 
Bible,  except  the  book,  of  Kings,  for  the  use 
of  his  countr}'men  ;  that  book  he  omitted, 
because  of  the  frequent  mention  of  the  wars 
therein,  as  fearing  to  inspire  too  much  ol  the 
military  genius  into  that  people  We  have 
nothing  remaining  of  this  version  but  the 
four  Evangelists,  printed  in  quarto,  at  Dort, 
in  1665,  from  a  very  ancient  manuscript. 

7.  Bible,  Grison.  A  translation  of  the 
Bible  into  the  language  of  the  Grisons,  in 
Italy,  was  completed  by  Coir,  and  published 
in  1720. 

8.  Bible,  Icelandic.    The  inhabitants  of 
Iceland  have  a  version  of  the  Bible  in  thei 
language,  which  was  translated  by  Thorlak, 
and  published  in  1584. 

9.  Bible,  Indian.  A  translation  of  the 
Bible  into  the  North  America  Indian  lan- 
guage, by  Elliot,  was  published  in  quarto,  at 
Cambridge,  in  1685. 

10.  Bible,  Irish.  About  the  middle  of 
the  sixteenth  century,  Bedell,  Bishop  of 
Kilmore,  set  on  foot  a  translation  ot  the  Old 
Testament  into  the  Irish  1,'nguage,  the  New 
Testament  and  the  Liturgy  having  been 
before  translated  into  that  language:  the 
bishop  appointed  one  King  to  execute  this 
work,  who,  not  understanding  the  oriental 
languages,  was  obliged  to  translate  it  from 
the  English.  This  work  was  received  by 
Bedell,  who,  after  having  compared  the  Irish 
■with  the  English  translation,  compared  the 
latt-r  with  the  Hebrew,  the  LXX,  and  the 
Italian  version  of  Diodati.  When  it  was 
finished,  the  bishop  would  have  been  him- 
self at  the  charge  of  the  impression ;  but  his 
design  was  stopped,  upon  advice  given  to 
the  lord  lieutenant  and  the  archbishop  of 
Canterbury  that  it  would  seem  a  shameful 
thing  for  a  nation  to  publish  a  Bible  trans- 
lated by  such  a  despicable  hand  as  King : 
however,  the  manuscript  was  not  lost,  for  it 
■went  to  press  in  1685,  and  was  afterwards 
published 

11.  Br"BLE,  King  James's.    See  No.  24, 

12.  Bible,  Matabrian.  In  1711,  Messrs. 
Ziegenbald  and  Grindler,  two  Danish  mis- 
sionaries, published  a  translation  of  the  New 
Testament  in  the  Malabrian  language,  after 
which  they  proceeded  to  translate  the  Old 
Testament. 

13.  Bible,  Malayan.  About  1670,  Sir 
Robert  Bo^le  piocured  a  translation  of  the 
New  Testament  into  the  Malayan  language, 
which  he  printed,  and  sent  the  whole  im- 
pression to  the  East  Indies. 

14.  Bible,  Rhe?nish     See  No.  23. 

15.  Bible,  Samaritan.  At  the  head  of 
the  oriental  versicms  of  the  Bible  must  be 
placed  the  Samaritan,  as  being  the  most  an- 
cient of  all  (though  neither  its  age  nor  author 
have  been  yet  ascertained,)  and  admitting  nc 
mc^re  for  the  holy  scrijjtures  but  the  five 
books  of  Moses.  This  translation  is  made 
from  the  Samaritan  Hebrew  text,  which  is 
a  Kttle  different  frcm  the  Hebrew  text  ot 


the  Jews:  this  version  has  never  been  printed 
alone,  nor  any  where  but  in  the  Polyglots  of 
London  and  Paris 

16.  Bible,  Swedish  In  1534,  Olaus  and 
Laurence  pubiishid  a  Swedish  Biijle  from 
the  German  version  of  Martin  Luther :  it 
was  revised  in  1617  by  order  ot  king  Gus- 
tavus  Adolphus,  and  was  afterwards  alniost 
uiiiversally  received. 

.7.  Bible,  dnglo  Saxon. — If  we  enquire 
;nto  the  version-  of  the  Bible  of  our  own 
country,  we  shall  find  that  Ade^m,  bishop  of 
bherburn,  who  lived  in  709,  made  an  Eng- 
lish Saxon  version  of  ihe  Psalms ;  and  that 
Kdfrid,  or  Ecbert,  bishop  of  Lindisfeme,  who 
lived  about  730,  translated  several  of  the 
books  of  scripture  into  the  same  language. 
It  is  said,  likewise,  that  venerable  Bede, 
who  died  in  785,  translated  the  whde  Bible 
into  Saxon. — But  Cuthbert,  Bede's  disciple, 
in  the  enumeration  of  his  master's  works, 
speaks  only  of  his  translation  of  the  Gospel, 
and  says  nothing  of  th^  rest  of  tlie  Bible. 
Some  say  that  king  Alfred,  who  lived  about 
890,  translated  a  great  part  of  the  scriptures. 
We  find  an  old  version  in  the  Anglo  Saxon 
of  several  books  of  the  Bible,  made  by  Elfric, 
abbot  of  Malmesbury  :  it  was  published  at 
Oxford  in  1699.  There  is  an  old  Anglo 
Saxon  version  of  the  four  Gospels,  published 
by  Matthew  Parker,  archbishop,  of  Canter- 
bury,in  1571,  the  author  whereof  is  unknown. 
Mr.  Mill  (bserves,  that  this  version  was 
made  from  a  Latin  copy  of  the  old  Vulgate. 
The  whole  scripture  is  said  by  some  to  have 
been  translated  into  the  Anglo  Saxon  by 
Bede,  about  701,  though  others  contend  he 
only  translated  the  Gospels.  We  have  cer- 
tain books  or  parts  rf  the  Bible  by  several 
other  translators ;  as,  first,  the  Psalms,  by 
.\delm,  bishop  of  Sherbum,  cotemporary 
with  Bede,  though  by  others  this  version  is 
attributed  to  king  Alfred,  who  lived  two 
hundred  years  latt  r.  Another  version  of  the 
Psalms,  in  Anglo  Saxon,  was  published  by 
Spelman  in  1640 — 2.  The  evangelists,  still 
extant,  done  from  the  ancient  Vulgate,  before 
it  was  revised  by  St  Jerome,  by  an  author 
unknown,  and  published  by  Matthew  Parker 
in  1571.  An  old  Saxon  version  of  several 
books  of  the  Bible  made  by  Elfric,  bbot  of 
Malmesbury,  several  fragments  of  which 
were  published  by  Will.  Lilly,  1638  ;  the 
i-^enuine  copy  by  Edm  Thwaites,  in  1699,  at 
Oxford. 

18.  Bibles,  Arabic.  In  1516,  Aug.  Justi- 
nian, bish  p  of  N  bio,  printed  at  Genoa  an 
Arabic  version  of  the  Psalter,  with  the 
Hebrew  text  and  Chaldee  paraphrase,  add- 
ing Latin  interpretations :  there  are  also 
\rabic  versions  of  the  whole  scripture  in 
the  Polyglots  of  London  and  Paris:  and  we 
'lave  an  edition  of  the  old  Testament  entire, 
printed  at  IJome.  in  1671,  bv  order  of  the 
congregation  de  fxrofwgandajidc ;  but  ii  is  of 
:'tile  est(-<MTi,  as  having  b-en  ;dt  t'ciI  :igree- 
•ibly  to  thf  Vulgate  f'ition.  The  Arabic 
jibles  among  us  if  not  the  same  with  th'se 
used  with  Uie  Christians  in  the  East.   Some 


BIB 


49 


BIB 


learned  men  take  the  Arabic  version  of  the 
Old  lestanient  printed  in  the  Polyglots  to 
be  that  of  Saadias',  who  lived  ab(jut  A.  D. 
900:  their  reason  is,  that  Abtn  Ezra,  a  great 
antagonist  of  Saadias,  quotes  some  passages 
of  his  version,  which  are  the  same  with 
those  in  the  Arabic  version  of  the  Polyglots ; 
yet  others  are  of  opinion  that  Saadias'  ver- 
sion is  not  extant.  In  1622,  Erpenius  print- 
ed an  Arabic  Pentateuch,  called  also  the 
Pentateuch  of  Mauritania,  as  being  made 
by  the  Jews  of  Barbary,  and  for  tlieir  use. 
'I'his  version  is  very  litei'al,  and  esteemed 
very  exact.  The  four  evangelists  have  also 
been  published  in  Arabic,  with  r  Latin  ver- 
sion, at  Home,  in  1591,  folio.  These  have 
been  since  reprfnted  in  the  Polyglots  of  Lon- 
don and  Paris,  with  some  little  alteration 
of  Gabriel  Sionita.  Erpenius  published  an 
Arabic  New  Testament  entii-e,  as  he  found 
it  in  his  manuscript  copy,  at  Leyden,  1616. 
There  are  some  other  Arabic  ver»iops  of  la- 
ter date  mentioned  by  Walton  in  his  Pro- 
legomena, particularly  a  version  of  the 
Psalms,  preserved  at  Sion  College,  London, 
and  another  of  the  prophets  at  Oxford ; 
neither  of  which  have  been  published.  Pro- 
posals were  issued  for  printing  a  new  edition 
of  the  Arabic  Bible,  by  Mr.  Carlyle,  chan- 
cellor of  the  diocese  of  Carlisle,  and  profes- 
sor of  Arabic  in  the  university  of  Cambridge; 
but  I  am  sorry  to  add  that  he  has  been  call- 
ed away  by  death,  without  tinishirg  it. 

19.  Bibles,  Clialdee,  are  only  theglosses 
or  expositions  made  by  the  Jews  at  the  time 
when  they  spoke  the  Chaldee  tongue:  these 
they  call  by  the  name  of  targumim,  or  pa- 
raphrases, as  not  being  any  strict  version  of 
the  scripture.  They  have  been  inserted  en- 
tire in  the  large  Plebrew  Bibles  of  Venice 
and  Basil ;  but  are  read  more  commndious- 
ly  in  the  Polyglots,  being  there  attended 
with  a  Latin  translation. 

20.  Bibles,  Cofiiic  There  are  several 
manuscript  copies  of  the  Coptic  Bible  in 
some  of  the  great  libraries,  espt-cially  in 
that  of  the  late  French  king.  Dr.  Wilkins 
published  the  Coptic  New  Testament,  in 
quarto,  in  1716 ;  and  the  Pentateuch  also, 
in  quarto,  in  1731,  with  Latin  translations. 

He  reckons  these  vt-rsions  to  have  been 
made  in  the  end  of  the  sec-ond  or  the  begin- 
ning of  the  third  cevttury. 

21.  Biblfs,  Dcniish.  The  first  Danish 
Bible  was  published  by  Peter  Palladus,  Ola- 
us  Clirysostom,  John  Synningius,  and  John 
Maccai)n;iis,  in  15o0,  in  which  tliev  follov.-ed 
Luther's  first  German  version.  There  are 
two  oth.er  versions,  the  one  by  John  Paul 
Reseiiius,  bishop  of  Zealand,  in  l(i0.5  ;  the 
other  of  the  New  Testament  only,  by  John 
Michel,  in  1524. 

22.  Bibles,  Dutch.    See  No.  26. 

23.  BiBLF.s,  East  Indian.  See  No.  12, 
13,  44. 

24.  BiSLEs,  English.  The  first  English 
Bible  we  read  of  was  that  traoshued  by  J. 
Wicklitfe,  about  the  year  1360,  but  never 
printed,    though    there  are  manuscript  co- 

\\ 


pies  of  it  in  several  of  the  public  libraries. 
A  transla.ion,  however,  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment by  VVickliffe  was  printtd  bj  Mr.  Lew- 
is, about  1751.  J.  de  Trensa,  who  died, 
about  1  )98,  is  also  said  to  have  translated 
the  whole  Bible  ;  but  whether  any  copies  of 
it  are  remaining  does  not  ajjpear.  The  first 
printed  Bible  in  our  language  was  that  trans- 
lated by  W.  Tindal,  assisted  by  Miles  Cc- 
verdale,  printed  abroad  in  15i6;  but  most 
of  the  copies  were  bought  up  and  burnt  by 
bi»!iop  Tunstal  and  Sir  Thomas  Moore.  It 
only  contained  the  New  Testament,  and  was 
revised  and  republished  by  the  same  person 
in  1530.  The  prologues  and  prefaces  added 
to  it,  reflect  on  the  bishops  and  clergy  ;  but 
this  edition  was  also  suppressed,  and  the  co- 
pies burnt.  In  1532,  Tindal  and  his  asso- 
ciates finished  the  whole  Bible,  except  the 
Apocrypha,  and  printed  it  abroad;  but,  while 
he  was  afterwards  preparing  a  second  edi- 
tion, he  was  taken  up  and  burnt  for  heresy 
in  Flanders.  On  Tindal's  death,  his  work 
was  caried  (;n  by  Coverdalc,  and  John  Ro- 
gers, superiiitendant  of  an  English  church 
in  Germany,  and  the  first  martyr,  in  -the 
reign  of  queen  Mary,  who  translated  the 
Apocrypha,  and  revised  Tindal's  translation, 
Cf  mparing  it  with  the  Hebrew,  Greek,  La- 
tin, and  German,  and  adding  prefaces  aiid 
notes  from  Luther's  Bible.  He  dedicated 
the  whole  to  Henry  VllI,  in  1537,  under  the 
borrowed  name  of  Thomas  Matthews  ; 
whence  this  has  been  usually  called  Mat- 
thew's Bible.  It  was  printed  at  Hamburgh, 
and  license  obtained  for  publishing  it  in  Eng- 
land, by  the  favour  of  Archbishop  Cranmer, 
and  the  bishops  Latimer  and  Shaxton.  Tlie 
first  Bible  printed  by  authority  in  England, and 
publicly  set  upinchurcht  s,  was  thesameTin- 
dal's  version,  ivvised  and  compared  with  the 
Hebrew,  and  in  many  places  amended  by  Miles 
Coverdale,  afttrw;irds  bisht  p  of  Exeter;  and 
examined  after  him  by  archbisiiop  Cranmer, 
who  added  a  preface  to  it ;  v/hence  this  was 
called  Crannier's  Bible.  It  was  printed  by 
Grafton,  of  the  largest  volume,  and  publish- 
ed in  1510;  and,  by  a  r.;yal  proclamation, 
every  parish  was  obliged  to  set  one  of  the 
copies  in  their  church,  u!;der  the  penalty  of 
forty  shillings  a  month  ;  yet,  two  years  af- 
ter, the  popish  bishops  obrained  its  suppres-. 
sion  b\"  the  king.  It  was  restored  under  Ed- 
ward VI.  suppressed  again  under  queen  Ma- 
ry's reign,  and  restored  again  in  the  first 
year  of  queen  Elizabeth,  and  a  new  edition 
of  it  given  in  1562  .S(:me  English  exiles  at 
(I'.neva,  in  queen  Mar)  's  reign,  viz.  Cover- 
dale,  G'sodman,  Giibie,  Sampson,  f^'^-le,  Wit- 
tmj'ham,  and  Kn<  x,  made  a  new  transla- 
tion, printed  there  in  1560,  the  New  Testa- 
m'-nt  having  ijeen  printed  in  1557;  hence 
caPcd  the  Geneva  Bible,  containing  the 
variations  (if  re-adlnsrs,  marginal  f^nnotation:--, 
fee.  on  :u.rount  (f  which  it  w.hs  much  valu- 
ed by  the  puritan  partv  in  tliat  and  the  fol- 
k'wing  reiirns.  A!)p.  Parker  resolved  on  a 
new  translation  for  the  public  use  of  the 
church:  and  engaged  ti'.c  bishops,  and  o'chei 


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50 


BIB 


learned  men,  to  take  each  a  share  or  portion: 
these,  being  afterwards  joined  together  and 
printed,  with  short  annotations,  in  1568,  in 
large  folio,  made  what  was  afterwards  call- 
ed the  Great  English  Bible,  and  common 
ly  the  Bishops'  Bible.  In  1589,  it  was  also 
published  in  octavo,  in  a  small  but  fine  black 
letter;  and  here  the  chapters  "^ere  divided 
into  verses,  but  without  any  breaks  for  them, 
in  which  the  method  of  the  Geneva  Bib!e 
was  followed,  which  was  the  first  English 
Bible  where  any  distinction  of  verses  *vas 
made.  It  was  afterwards  printed  in  large 
folio,  with  corrections,  and  several  prole- 
gomena, in  1572 :  this  is  called  Matthew 
Parker's  Bible.  Tlie  initial  letters  of  each 
translator's  name  were  put  at  the  end  of  his 
part;  e.  gJ'.  at  the  end  of  the  Pentateuch. 
W  E.  for  William  Exon  ;  that  is,  Willi  :m, 
bishop  of  Exeter,  whose  allotment  ended 
there :  at  tb.e  end  of  Samuel,  R.  M  for 
Richard  IN'Ienevensis;  or,  bishop  of  St  Da- 
vid's, to  whom  the  second  allotment  fell : 
and  the  like  of  the  rest.  The  archbishfip 
oversaw,  directed,  examined,  and  finished 
the  whole  This  translation  was  used  in  the 
churches  for  forty  years,  though  the  Geneva 
Bible  was  more  read  in  private  houses,  be- 
ing printed  above  twenty  times  in  as  many 
years.  King  James  bore  it  an  inveterate  ha- 
tred, on  account  of  the  notes,  which,  at  the 
Hampton  Court  conference,  he  charged  as 
partial,  untrue,  seditious,  &c.  The  Bishop's 
Bible,  too,  had  its  faults.  The  king  frankly 
owned  that  he  had  seen  no  good  translation 
of  the  Bible  in  English  ;  but  he  thought  that 
of  Geneva  the  worst  of  all.  After  the  trans- 
lation of  the  Bibl«  by  the  bishops,  two  other 
private  versions  had  been  made  of  the  New 
Testament;  the  first  by  Laurence  Thomp- 
son, from  Beza's  Latin  edition,  with  the 
notes  of  Beza,  published  in  1582,  in  quarto, 
and  afterwards  in  1589,  varying  very  httle 
from  the  Geneva  Bible ;  the  second  by  the 
Papists  at  Rheims,  in  1584,  called  the  Rhe- 
niish  Bible,  or  Rhemish  translation.  These, 
finding  it  impossible  to  keep  the  people  frf)m 
having  the  scriptures  in  their  vulgar  tongue, 
resolved  to  give  a  version  of  their  own,  as  fa- 
vourable to  their  cause  as  might  be  It  was 
[)rinted  on  a  lai-ge  paper,  with  a  fair  letterand 
margin  :  one  comyilaint  against  it  was,  its  re- 
taining a  multitude  of  Hebrew  and  Greek 
wDi'ds  translated,  for  waiit,  as  the  editors 
i.'rpress  it,  <.f  proper  and  adecjuate  terms  in 
th';  Engl'sh  to  render  them  by  ;  as  the  words 
azymen,  tunikr,  holocaust ,  fir ffiuce,  fmsche, 
l'cc:  however,  many  of  thecui)ies  were  seiz- 
ed by  the  queen's  searcliers,  and  confiscat- 
<'d  ;  and  Thomas  Cai'twright  was  solicited 
b)'  secretary  Wullingham  to  refute  it;  but, 
ai  er  a  good  j)rogTess  made  therein,  arch- 
bishop Whitiii't  ])rohib!t('d  his  further  pro- 
ceetiinir,  as  judging  it  iinpropei-  that  the 
doctrii!'.'  of  the  church' of  England  should  be 
committed  to  the  defence  of  a  puritan;  nnd 
■<-.])] J 'in ted  Dr.  Fulke  in  his  i)lace,  who  re- 
futed the  Rhemists  with  pieat  spirit  t'.wI 
■.•^arning.    Cartwright's  refutation  was  also 


afterwards  published  in  1618,  under  arch- 
bishop Abbot.    About  thirty  years  after  their 
New  Testament,  the  Rrman  catholics  pub- 
lished a  translation  of  the  Old  at  Dcuay, 
1609  and  1610,  from  the  Vulgate,  with  an- 
{  notations,  so  that  the  English  Roman  catho- 
I  lies  have  now  the  wh.ole  Bible  in  their  mo- 
!  ther  tongue  ;   though,    it  is  to   be  (observed, 
they  are  forbidden  to  read  it  without  a  li- 
cense from  their  superiors.     '1  he  last  Eng- 
'  lish  Bible  was  that  which  proceeded  tn  m 
;  the  Hampton  Court  conference,    in  1603  ; 
I  where,  many  exceptions  being  made  to  the 
;  Bishops'  Bible,  kirg  James  gave  order  for 
,  a  new  one ;  not,  as  the  preface  expresses 
it,  for  a  ti-anslation  altogether  new,  nor  yet 
;  to  make  a  good  one  better ;  or,  of  many 
I  good  ones,  one  i)est.     Fifty-four  learned  meii 
j  were  appointed  to  this  office  by- the  king, 
I  as  appears  by  his  letter  to  the  archbishop, 
•dated  1604;  which  being  three  years  before 
the  translation  was  entered  upon,  it  is  pro- 
bable seven   of  them  were   either  dead,  or 
had  declined  the  task ;  *since  Fuller's  list  of 
the  translators  makes  but  foity -seven,  who, 
being  ranged  under  sis  divisions,  entered  cu 
their  province  in  160r.     It  was  published  in 
1613,    with   a   dedication   to  James,  and   a 
learned  prt-face  ;    and  is  commonly  called 
king  James'  Bible.  After  this,  all  the  other 
versions  dropped,  and  fell  into  disuse,  ex- 
cept the  epistles  and  gospels  in  the  Common 
PrayevBot^k,  which  were  still  continued  ac- 
cording to  the  bishops'  translation  till  the  al- 
teration  of  the   liturgy,  in    1661,   and  the 
psalms  and  hymns,  which   are   to  this  day 
continued  as  in  the  old  version.     The  judi- 
cious Selden,  in  his  Table-talk  ;  speaking  of 
the  Bible,  says,   "  The  English   translation 
of  the  Bible  is  the  best  translation  in  the 
world,  and  renders  the  sense  of  the  origi- 
nal best;  taking  in  for  the  English  translation 
the  Bishops'  Bible,    as  well  as  king  James*. 
The   translators  in  king  James'  time  took 
an   excellent  way.    That  part  of  the  Bible 
was  given  to  him  who  was  most  excellent  in 
such  a  tongue  (as  the  Apocrypha  to  Andrew 
Downs:)  and  then  they  met  together,  and 
one  read  the  translation,  the  rest  holding  in 
their  hands  some  Bible,  either  of  the  K  arn- 
ed  tongues,   or  French,  Spanish,  or  Italian, 
&c.      If  they  found  any  fault,  they  spoke; 
if  not,  he  read  on."     [King  James'  Bible  is 
that  nfiw  read  by  authority  in  all  the  church- 
es in   Britain.]     Nc-twithstanding,  however, 
the  excellency  of  this  translation,  it  must  be 
acknowledged  that  our  increasing  acquaint- 
ance with  oriental  customs  and  manners,  and 
the   changes   our   language   has   undorgone 
since  king  James'  time,  are  very  powerful 
arguments  for  a  new  translation,  or  at  least 
a  correction   (^f  the   old  one.     Theie  have 
been   various  English  Bibles  with   marguial 
i-eferenccs  by  Caiine,  Hayes,  Barker,  Scat- 
tergood.  Field,  Teniiiscn.   Lloyd,  Blayney, 
Wilson,  ccc;    but  the  best  we  ha\e,   per- 
haps, of  this  kind,  are  Brown's  and  .'^cott's. 
25.  P.iBi.Ks     F.t!::'f:ic.     Tiie   Ethiopians 
have  also  trRr.s!r.'L:d  the  rib';e  into  their  Ian- 


BIB 


51 


BIB 


guaee.  Th^re  have  been  printed  separately 
the  Psalms,  Canticles,  some  chapters  of  Ge- 
nesis, Ruth,  J.ii-1,  Jonah,  Zcplianiah,  Mala- 
chi,  and  the  New  Testament,  all  which 
have  since  been  reprinted  in  the  Polyglot 
of  London.  As  to  the  Ethiopic  New  Tes- 
ta.mnt,  which  was  first  printed  at  Rome  in 
15  i8,  it  is  a  very  inaccurate  work,  and  is 
reprinted  in  the  English  Polyglot  with  all 
its  faults. 

26.  Bibles,  Flemish  The  Flemish  Bi- 
bles of  tlie  Romanists  are  very  numerous, 
and  for  the  most  part  have  no  author's  name 
prefixed  to  them,  tiU  that  of  Nicholas  Vinck, 
printed  at  Louvain  in  1548.  The  Flemish 
versions  made  use  of  by  the  Calvinists  till 
1637  werCv  copied  principally  from  that  of 
Luther  But  the  synod  of  Dort  having,  in 
1618,  appointed  a  new  translation  ot  the 
Bible  into  Flemish,  deputies  were  named 
for  the  work,  which  was  not  Hnisiied  till  1637 

27.  Bibles,  French.  The  oldest  French 
Bible  we  hear  of  is  the  version  of  Peter  de 
Vaux,  chief  of  the  Waidenses,  who  lived 
about  the  year  1160.  Raoul  de  Preste  trans- 
lated the  Bible  int^  French  in  the  reign  of 
King  Charles  V.  of  France,  about  A.  D.  1383. 
Besides  these,  there  are  several  old  French 
translations  of  particular  parts  of  the  Scrip- 
ture. The  doctors  of  Louvain  published  the 
Bible  in  French  at  Louvain,  by  order  of  the 
emperor  Charles  V.  in  1550  There  is  a 
version  by  Isaac  le  Maitre  de  Sacy,  published 
in  1672,  with  explanations  of  the  literal  and 
spiritual  mi^aning  of  the  text;  which  was 
received  with  wonderful  applause,  and  has 
often  been  reprinted.  Of  the  New  Testa- 
ments in  French,  which  have  been  printed 
separately,  one  of  the  most  remarkable  is 
that  of  F.  Amelotte,  of  the  Oratory,  compo- 
sed by  the  direction  of  some  French  pre- 
lates, and  printed  with  annotations  in  1666, 
1667,  and  1670.  The  author  pretends  he 
had  searclied  all  the  libraries  in  Europe,  and 
collected  the  oldest  manuscripts ;  but,  in  ex- 
amining his  work,  it  appears  that  he  has 
produced  no  considerable  various  readings 
which  had  not  before  been  taken  notice  of 
either  in  the  London  Polyglot,  or  elsewhere. 
The  New  Testament  of  Mons,  printed  in 
1665,  with  the  arclibishop  of  Cambray's  per- 
mission, and  the  king  of  Spain's  license, 
made  great  noise  in  the  world.  It  was  con- 
demned by  pope  Clement  IX.  in  1668;  by 
pope  Innocent  XI.  in  1669;  and  in  several 
bishoprics  of  France  at  several  times.  The 
New  Testament,  published  at  Trevoux,  in 
1702,  by  M.  Simon,  with  litei-al  and  critical 
annotations  upon  difficult  passages,  was  con- 
demned bv  the  bishops  of  Paris  and  Meaux 
in  1702.  F.  Bihours,  a  Jestiii,  with  tlu-  as- 
sistance of  F.  F.  Michael  Tellier  and  Peter 
Beroier,  Jesuits,  likewise  pub'ished  a  trans- 
lation of  the  New  Testament  in  1697;  hut 
this  translation  is  for  the  mnst  paft  harsh 
and  obscure,  which  was  owinij  to  tlie  authors' 
adhering  too  strictly  to  the  Latin  text.  There 
are  likewise  French  translations  publislied  by 
Protestant  authors:  onebv  Robert  FetcrOlive- 


tan,  printed  in  1535,  and  often  reprinted  with 
the  correctness  of  John  Calvin  and  others; 
another  by  Sebastian  Castalio,  remarkable 
for  particular  ways  of  expression  never  used 
l)y  good  judges  of  the  lan,quage.  John  Dio- 
dati  likewise  published  a  French  Bible  at 
Geneva  in  1644;  but  some  find  fault  with 
his  method,  in  that  he  rather  paraphrases 
the  text  than  translates  it.  Faber  Stapalensis 
translated  the  New  Testament  into  French, 
which  was  n  vised  and  accommodated  to  the 
use  of  the  reformed  churches  in  Piedmont, 
and  printed  in  1534.  Lastly,  John  le  C-lerc 
published  a  New  Testament  in  French  at 
Amsterdam,  in  1703,  with  annotations  taken 
chiefly  from  Grotius  and  Hammond  ;  but 
the  use  of  this  version  was  prohibited  by 
order  of  the  stat>es-general,  as  tending  to  re* 
vive  the  errors  of  Sabejlius  and  Socinus. 

28.  Bibles,  German.  The  first  and  most 
ancient  translation  of  the  Bible  in  the  Ger- 
man language  is  that  of  Ulphilas,  bisho])  of 
the  Goths,  in  the  year  360.  An  imperfect 
manuscript  of  this  version  was  found  in  the 
abljey  of  Verden,  near  Cologne,  written  in 
letters  of  silver,  for  which  reason  it  is  called 
Codex  Argenteus;  and  it  was  published  by 
Francis  Junius  in  i665.  The  oldest  Ger- 
man printed  Bible  extant  is  that  of  Nurem- 
burg,  in  1447 ;  but  who  was  the  author  of  it 
is  uncertain.  JohnEmzer,  chaplain  to  George 
duke  of  Saxony,  published  a  version  of  the 
New  Testament  in  opposition  to  Luther  — 
There  is  a  German  Bible  of  John  Ekeus,  in 
1537,  with  Emzer's  New  Testament  added 
to  it;  and  one  by  Ulemburgius  of  Westphalia, 
procured  by  Ferdinand  duke  of  Bavaria,  and 
printed  in  1630.  Martin  Luther  havitig  cm- 
ployed  eleven  years  in  translating  the  Old 
and  New  Testaments,  published  the  Penta- 
teuch and  the  New  Testament  in  1522,  the 
historical  books  and  the  Psalms  in  1524,  the 
books  of  Solomon  in  1527,  Isaiah  in  1529,  the 
Prophets  in  1531,  and  the  odier  books  in 
1530.  The  learned  agree  that  his  language 
is  pure,  and  the  version  clear  and  free  from 
intricacies.  It  was  revised  by  several  persons 
of  quality,  who  were  masters  of  all  the  deli- 
cacies of  the  (ierman  language.  The  Ger- 
man Bibles  which  have  been  printed  at  Sax- 
ony, Switzerland,  and  elsewhere,  are,  for  the 
most  part,  the  same  as  that  of  Luther,  with 
little  variation.  In  1604,  John  Piscator  pub- 
lished a  version  of  the  Bible  in  German,  taken 
from  that  of  Junius  and  Tremellias;  but  his 
term  of  expression  is  purely  Latin,  and  not 
at  all  agreeable  to  the  g:enius  of  the  Cierman 
language.  The  Anabaptists  have  a  German 
Bible  piinted  at  Worms  in  1529  John  Crel- 
lius  published  his  version  of  the  Nev/  Testa- 
ment at  Racovia  in  1630,  ^nd  Felbinger  his 
}|at  Amsterdam  in  1660. 
|!  _  29.  Bibles,  Grrek.  There  are  many  edi- 
jjtians  of  t!ie  Bible  in  Greek,  but  they  ni.ay  be 
jiall  reduced  to  three  or  four  principal  ones; 
ij  viz  that  of  C.iniplutum,  or  Alcala  de  He- 
'nares;^  that  .of  Vpuice,  that  of  I{(/me,  an  i 
ijthat  if  Oxford  The  first  was  pu!)!ished  in 
'  1515  by  cardinalXimenes,  and  inserted  in  the 


BIB 


52 


BIB 


Polyglot  Bible,  usually  called  the  Compluten- 
sian  Bible:  tins  edition  is  not  just,  the  Greek 
of  the  LXX  being  altered  in  many  places  ac- 
cording to  tile  Hebrew  text.  It  has, however, 
been  repi  jiited  in  the  Ptilyglot  Bible  of  Ant- 
werp, in  that  of  Pans,  and  in  tlie  quarto  Bible 
commonly  called  Vatabius'  Bible.     The  se- 
confl  Greek  Biiile  is  that  of  Venice,  printed 
by  Al!us  ill  1518.     Here  the  Greek,  text  of 
the  Scptuagint  is  reprhited  just  as  it  stood  in 
the  manuscript,  full  of  faults  of  the  copyists, 
but  easily  amended.     This  edition  was  re- 
printed  at  Stratsburg  in    1526,  at  Basil   in 
1545,  at  Frankfort  in  1597,  and  other  places, 
with  some  alterations,    to    bring  it  nearer 
the  Hebrew.     The  most  commodious  is  that 
of  Frankfort,  there  being  added  to  this  little 
■■scholia.,  which  shew  the  diSerent  interpreta- 
tions  of  the  Old  Greek   translators.     The 
author  of  this  collection  has  not  added  his 
name,  but  it  is  commonly  ascribed  to  Junius. 
The  third  Gi'eek  Bible  is  that  of  Rome,  or 
ttie  Vatican,   in  1587,   with  Greek  scholia, 
collected  from  the  manuscripts  in  the  Roman 
libraries  by  Peter  IVIoiin.     It  was  first  set  on 
foot  by  cardinal  Montalbo,  afterwards  pope 
Sixtus  V.     This  fine  edition  has  been  re- 
printed at  Paris  in  1628,  by  J  Morin,  priest 
of  the  Oratory,   who  has  added  the  Latin 
translation,  which  in  the  Roman  was  printed 
separately  with  scholia.    The  Greek  edition 
of  Rome  has  been  printed  in  the  Polyglot  Bi- 
ble of  London,  to  which  are  added  at  the 
bottom  the  various  readings  of  the  Alexan- 
drian manuscript.     This  has  been  also  re- 
printed in  Englaiid,  in  4to  and  12mo,   with 
some  alterations.    It  was  again  published  at 
Franeker,  in  1709,  by  Bos.  who  has  added 
all  the  various  nadiigs  he  could  find.    The 
fourth  Greek  Bible   is  that  done  from  the 
Alexandrian  manuscript,  begun  at  Oxford 
by  Grabe  in  1707.     In  this  the  Alexandrian 
manuscript  is  not  printed  such  as  it  is,  but 
such  as  it  was  thought  it  should  be,  i.  e.  it  is 
altei'ed  wherever  there  appeared  to  be  any 
fault  of  the  copyists,  or  any  word  inserted 
from  any  particular  dialect :  this  some  think 
an  excellence,  but  others  a  fault,  urging  that 
the  manuscript  should  have  been  given  aijso 
lutely  and  entirely  of  itself,  and  ail  conjec- 
tures  as  to  the  readings  should  have  been 
thrown  into  the  notes.    We  may  have  many 
editions  of  the  Greek  Testament  by  Eras- 
mus, Stephens,  Beza  ;  that  in  the  Complu- 
tensian  Polygl(!t,  the  Elzevu-s.  &c. ;  and  with 
various  readings  by  Mill,   bengelius.   Wet- 
stein,  &c.     Those  of   VVetstein  and  Gries- 
bach,  are  thought  by  some  to  exceed  all  the 
rest. 

SO.  Bibles,  Hehrenv,  are  either  manu- 
script or  printed.  The  best  manuscript  Bi- 
bles are  those  copied  by  the  Jews  of  Sj^ain  : 
those  copied  by  the  Jews  of  Germany  are 
less  exact,  but  more  common.  The  two 
kinds  are  easily  distinguished  from  each 
other;  the  f(^rmer  being  in  beautiful  charac- 
ters, like  the  Hebrew  Bibles  of  B'lmlxrg, 
Stevens,  and  Plantin  ;  the  latter  in  rjiarac- 
ters  like  those  of  Munster  and  Grvi)hius. 


F.  Simon  observes,  that  the  oldest  manu- 
script Hebrew  Bibles  are  not  above  six  qy 
seven  hundred  years  old ;    nor  does  rabbi 
Menaham,    who  quotes  a  vast  number  of 
them,  pretend  that  any  one  of  them  exceeds 
600  years.     Dr.  Kennicott,  in  his  Disseitatio 
Generalis,  prefixed  to  his  Hebrew  Bible,  p. 
21,  observes,  that  the  most  ancient  manu- 
scripts were  written  between  the  years  900 
and   1100;  but  though  those  that  are  the 
most  ancient  are  not  more  than  800  or  900 
ye^ars  old,  they  were  transcribed  from  others 
of  a  much  more  ancient  date.     The  manu- 
script ijreserved  in  the  Bodleian  Library  is 
not  less  than  800  years  old.     Another  manu- 
script not   less  ancient  is  preserved  in  the 
Cxsarian   Library    at    Vienna.    The    most 
ancient  printed  Hebrew  Bibles  are  those  pub- 
lished by   the  Jews  of  Italy,  especially  of 
Pesaro  and  Bresse.     Those  of  Portugal  also 
printed  some  parts  of  the  Bible  at  Lisbon 
before  their  expulsion.     This   may  be   ob- 
served in  general,  that  the  best  Hebrew  Bi- 
bles are  those  printed  under  the  inspection 
of  the  Jews  ;  there  being  so  many  minutze  to 
be  observed  in  the  Hebrew  language,  that  it 
is  scarcely  possible  for  any  other  to  succeed 
in  it.     In  the  beginning  of  the  16th  century, 
Dan  Bomberg  printed  several  Hebrew  Bi- 
bles in  folio  and  quai'to  at  Venice,   most  of 
v/hich  were  esteemed  both  by  the  Jews  and 
Christians:  the  first  in  1517^  which  is  the 
least  exact,  and  generally  goes  by  the  name 
of  Felix  Pratensis.  the  person  who  revised 
it:    this  edition  contains  the  Hebrew   text, 
the  Targum,  and  the  commentaries  of  seve- 
ral rabbins.     In  1528,  Bomberg  printed  the 
folio  Bible  of  rabbi  Benchajim,  with  his  pre- 
face, the  masoretical  divisions,  a  preface  of 
Aben  Ezra,   a  double  masora,  and  sevei'al 
various   readings.     The    third  edition    was 
printed,  in  1618,  the  same  with  the  second, 
but  much  more  correct.    From  the  former 
editions,  Buxtorf,  the  father,  printed  his  rab- 
binical   Hebrew    Bible  at   Basil,  in    1618 ; 
which,  though  there  are  many  faults  in  it, 
is  more  correct  than  any  of  the  former.    In 
1623,  appeared  at  \'enice  a  new  edition  of 
the  rabbinical  Bible,  by  Leo  of  Modena,  a 
rabhin  of  that  city,  who  pretended  to  have 
corrected  a   great  number  of  faults  in  the 
former  edition  ;  but,  besides  that,  it  is  much 
inferior  to  the  other  Hebrew  Bibles  of  Ve- 
nice, with  regard  to  paper  and  print:  it  has 
passed  through  tlie  hands  of  the  inquisitors, 
who  have  altered  many  passages  in  the  com- 
mentaries of  the  rabbins.     (.)f  Hebrew  Bi- 
bles ill  quarto,  that  of  R.  Stevens  is  esteeo)- 
ed  for  the  beauty  of  the  characters;  but  it 
is  very  incorrict.   Phuitin  also  printed  seve- 
ral beautiful   Hebrew    Bibles  at  Antwerp; 
one   in   eight  columns,    with    a  preface  by 
Arias  Moiitanus,  in  1571,  which  far  exceeds 
the  Coniplutensian,  in  jiaper,  print,  and  con- 
tents :    this    is  ralU'd  the  Royal  Bib!e,    be- 
cause it  was  j)iiiit(.d  at  the  expense  of  Phi- 
lip 11.  king  of  Spain :    another  at  Geneva, 
1619,  Ix'sides  many  more  of  different  sizes, 
with  and   without  points.    Manassch  Ben 


6TB 


BIB 


Israel,  a  learned  Portuguese  Jew,  published 
two  editioiii  ot  the  Hebrew  Bible  at  Amster- 
dam ;  one  in  quarto,  in  1635  ;  the  other  in 
octavo,  in  1639  ;  the  first  has  two  columns, 
and  for  that  reason  is  more  commodious  for 
the  reader,  la  16,9,  R.  Jac,  Lombroso  pub- 
lished a  new  edition  in  quarto  at  Venice, 
with  small  literal  notes  at  the  bottom  of  each 
pagf,  wliere  he  explains  the  Hebrew  worus 
by  Spanish  words.  Ttiis  Bible  is  much  es- 
teemed by  the  Jews  at  CouStautinople  ;  hi 
the  text  they  have  distinguished  between 
words  were  tie  point  camels  is  to  be  read 
witii  a  cameta  katufih ;  that  is,  by  o,  and 
not  an  a.  Of  all  the  editions  of  the  Hebrew 
Bible  in  octavo,  the  most  beautiful  and  cor- 
rect are  the  two  of  J.  Athias,  a  Jew,  of  Am- 
sterdam. The  first,  of  1661,  is  the  best  pa- 
per; but  that  of  1667  is  the  most  exact. 
That,  however,  published  since  at  Amster- 
dam, by  Vander  Honght,  in  1705,  is  prefer- 
able to  both.  After  Athias,  three  Hebrai- 
zing Protestar.ts  engaged  in  revising  and 
publishing  the  Hebi'ew  Bible,  viz.  Clodius, 
Jablonski,  and  Opitius.  Clodius'  edition  was 
published  at  Frankfort,  in  1677,  in  quarto : 
at  the  bottom  of  the  pages  it  has  the  vari- 
ous readings  of  the  former  editions  ;  but  the 
author  does  not  appear  sufficiently  versed  in 
the  accenting,  especially  in  the  poetical 
books  ;  besides,  as  it  was  not  published  under 
his  eye,  many  faults  have  crept  in.  That 
of  Jablonski,  in  1699,  in  quarto,  at  Berlin,  is 
very  beautiful  as  to  letter  and  print ;  but, 
though  the  edrtor  pretends  he  made  use  of 
the  editions  of  Athias  and  Clodius,  some 
critics  find  it  scarcely  in  any  thing  diflferent 
from  the  quarto  edition  of  Bomberg.  That 
of  Opitius  is  also  in  quarto,  at  Keil,  in  1709  : 
the  character  is  large  and  good,  but  the  pa- 
per bad :  it  is  done  with  a  great  deal  of 
care  ;  but  the  editor  made  use  of  no  manu- 
scripts but  those  of  the  German  libraries, 
neglecting  the  French  ones,  which  is  an 
omissioii  common  to  all  the  three.  They  have 
this  advantage,  however,  that,  besides  the 
divisions  used  by  the  Jews,  both  general  and 
particular,  \\\\.o' f^araakes  and  pesitkim,  they 
have  also  those  of  the  Christians,  or  of  the 
Latin  Bibles,  into  chapters  and  verses;  the 
keri  ketib,  or  various  readings,  Latin  sum- 
maries, &c.  which  made  them  of  consider- 
able use  with  respect  to  the  Latin  editions 
and  the  concordances.  The  littte  Bible  of 
R.  Stevens,  in  16rao,  is  veiy  much  prized 
for  the  beauty  of  the  character.  Care,  how- 
ever, must  be  taken,  there  being  another 
edition  of  Geneva  exceedingly  like  it,  ex- 
cepting that  the  print  is  worse,  and  the 
text  less  correct.  To  these  may  Ije  added 
sjme  other  Hebrew  Bibles  without  pomts,  m 
8vo  and  24mo,  which  are  much  co\eted  by 
the  Jews  ;  not  that  they  are  more  exact,  but 
more  portable  than  the  rest,  and  are  used  in 
their  synagogues  and  schools.  Of  these 
there  are  two  beautiful  editions;  the  one  of 
Plantin,  in  8vo,  with  two  columns,  and  the 
other  in  24mn,  reprinted  by  Raphalengius,  at 
Leyden,  in  1610.     There  is  also  an  edition 


of  them  by  Laurens,  at  Amsterdam,  in  1631, 
in  a  larger  character  ;  and  another  in  12mOt 
at  Frankfort,  in  1694,  full  of  faults,  with  a 
preface  ( f  Mr.  Leusden  at  the  head  of  it. 
Houbigant  published  an  elegant  edition  of  the 
Hebrew  Bible  at  Paris,  in  1753,  in  4  vols, 
folio :  tlie  text  is  that  of  Vander  Hooght, 
without  points:  to  which  he  has  added 
marginal  notes,  supplying  the  variations  of 
the  Samaritan  copy.  Dr.  Kennicott,  after  al- 
most twenty  years'  laborious  collation  of 
near  600  copies,  manuscripts  and  printed, 
either  of  the  whole  or  particular  parts  of 
the  Bible,  published  the  Hebrew  Bible,  in  2 
vols.  foUo  :  the  text  is  that  of  Everard  Van- 
der Hooght,  alreadv  mentioned,  differing 
from  it  only  in  the  disposition  of  the  poetical 
parts,  which  Dr  Kennicott  has  pririted  in 
hemistichs,  into  which  they  naturally  divide 
themselves  ;  however,  the  words  follow  one 
another  in  the  same  order  as  they  do  in  the 
edition  of  Vander  Hooght.  This  edition  is 
printed  on  an  excellent  type  :  the  Samaritan 
text,  according  to  the  copy  in  the  L  indon 
Polyglot,  is  exhibited  in  a  c>jlumn  parallel 
with  the  Hebrew  text ;  those  parts  ot  it  only 
being  introduced  in  which  it  differs  from  the 
Hebrew.  The  numerous  variations,  bc-th  of 
the  Samaritan  manuscript  from  the  printed 
copy  of  the  Samaritan  texts,  and  of  the  He- 
brew manuscripts  from  the  printed  text  of 
Vander  Hcoght,  are  placed  separately  at  the 
bottom  c€  the  page,  and  marked  with  num- 
bers referring  to  the  copies  from  which  they 
are  taken.  Four  quarto  volumes  of  various 
readings  have  also  been  published  by  De 
Rossi,  of  Parma,  fi-om  more  than  400  manu- 
scripts (some  of  which  are  said  to  be  of  the 
seventh  or  eighth  centitry,)  as  well  as  from 
a  considerable  number  of  rare  and  unnoticed 
editions.  An  edition  of  Reineccius'  Hebrew 
Bible,  with  readings  from  Kennicott  and  De 
Rossi,  has  been  published  by  Dodderlein, 
and  will  be  found  a  useful  work  to  the  He- 
brew student. 

31.  Bibles,  Italian.  The  first  Itahan 
Bible  published  by  the  Romanists  is  that  of 
Nicholas  Malerme,  a  Benedictine  monk, 
printed  at  Venice  in  1471.  It  v.- as  translated 
from  the  Vulgate.  The  version  of  Anthony 
Brucioli,  published  at  Venice  in  1532,  was 
prohibited  by  the  council  of  Trent.  The 
Calvhiists  likewise  have  their  Italian  Bibles. 
There  is  one  of  John  Ditxlati  in  1607  and 
16+1  ;  and  another  of  Maximus  Theophilus, 
in  1551,  dedicated  to  Francis  de  Medicis, 
duke  of  Tuscany.  The  Jews  of  Italy  have 
no  entire  version  of  the  Bible  in  Italian ; 
the  Inqui-sition  constantly  refusing  to  allow 
them  the  liberty  of  printing  one. 

32.  Bibles,  Latin,  however  numerous, 
may  be  all  reduced  to  three  classes  ;  the  an- 
cient Vulgate,  called  also  Itaiica,  translated 
from  the  Greek  Septuagii^.t ;  the  modern  Vul- 
gate, the  greatest  part  of  which  is  done  from 
the  Hebrew  text ;  and  the  new  Latin  trans- 
latiorrs,  done  also  from,  the  Hebrew  text,  in 
the  sixteeinh  eentniy.  We  have  nothing  re- 
maining of  the  ancient  Vulgate,  used  in  the 


BIB 


54 


BIB 


primitive  times  in  the  western  churches,  but 
the  Psalms,  Wisdom,  and  Ecclesiastes  No- 
bilius  has  endeavoured  to  retrieve  it  from 
the  works  of  the  ancient  Latin  fathers  ;  but 
it  was  impossible  to  do  it  exactly,  because 
most  of  the  fathers  did  not  keep  close  to  n 
in  their  citations.  As  to  the  modern  Vul- 
gate, there  are  a  vast  number  of  editions 
very  diiTerent  from  each  other.  Cardinal 
XuTienes  has  inserted  one  in  the  Bible  of 
Complutum,  corrected  and  altered  in  many 
places.  R.  Stevens,  and  the  doctors  of  Lou- 
vain,  have  taken  great  pains  in  correcting 
the  modern  Vulgate.  The  bt^st  edition  of 
Stevens'  Latin  Bible  is  that  of  1540,  reprint- 
ed 1545,  in  which  are  added  on  the  margin 
the  various  readings  of  several  Latin  manu- 
scripts which  he  had  consulted.  'I'he  doc- 
tors of  Louvain  revised  the  modern  Vulgate 
after  R.  Stevens,  and  added  the  various 
readings  of  several  Latin  manuscripts.  The 
best  of  the  Louvain  editions  are  those  in 
■which  are  added  the  critical  notes  of  Francis 
Lucas,  of  Bruges.  All  these  reformations  of 
the  Latin  Bible  were  made  before  the  time 
of  Pope  Sixtus  V,  and  Clement  VIII. ;  since 
which  people  have  not  presumed  to  make 
any  alterations,  excepting  in  comments  and 
separate  notes.  The  correction  of  Clement 
VIII.  in  1592  is  now  the  standard  throughout 
all  the  Romish  churches  :  that  pontiff  made 
two  reformations;  but  it  is  the  first  of  them 
that  is  followed.  From  this  the  Bibles  of 
Planlin  were  done,  and  from  those  of  Plan- 
tin  all  the  rest ;  so  that  the  common  Kbles 
have  none  of  the  after-corrections  of  the 
same  Clement  VIII.  It  is  a  heavy  charge 
that  lies  on  the  editions  of  pope  Clement, 
viz.  that  they  have  some  new  texts  added, 
and  many  old  ones  altered,  to  countenance 
and  confirm  what  they  call  the  Catholic  diC 
trine.  There  are  a  great  number  (.f  Latin 
Bibles  of  the  third  class,  compreb.ending  the 
versions  from  the  originals  of  the  sacred 
boftks  made  within  these  200  years  The 
first  is  that  of  Santes  Pagninus,  a  Domiiii- 
can,  under  tlie  patronage  of  Leo  X.  printed 
at  Lyons,  in  quarto,  in  1527,  much  esteemed 
by  the  Jews.  This  the  author  improved  in 
a  second  edition.  In  1542  there  was  a  beau- 
tiful edition  of  the  same  at  Lyons,  in  folio, 
with  scholia  published  under  the  name  of 
Michael  Villanovanus,  i.  e.  Michael  Serve- 
tus,  author  of  the  scholia.  Those  of  Zurich 
have  likewise  published  an  edition  of  Pag- 
ninus' Bible  in  quarto  ;  and  R.  Stephens  re- 
printed it  in  folio,  with  the  Vulgate,  in  1557, 
pretending  to  give  it  more  correct  than  in 
the  former  editions.  There  is  also  another 
edition  of  1586  in  four  columns,  under  the 
name  of  Vatablus ;  and  we  find  it  again  in 
the  Hamburg  edition  nf  the  Hiijle,  in  four 
language.s.  In  the  number  of  Latin  Bibles 
is  also  usually  ranked  the  version  of  the 
same  Pagninu';,  corrected,  or  rather  render- 
ed literal,  by  Arias  Montanus  ;  which  cor- 
rection being  approved  of  by  the  doctors  of 
Louvain,  &c.  was  inserted  in  the  Polvglot 
Bible  of  Philip  II.  and  since  in  that  of  Lon- 


don. There  have  been  various  editions  of 
this  in  folio,  quarto,  and  octavo  ,  to  which 
have  been  added  the  Hebrew  text  of  the 
Old  Testament,  and  the  Greek  of  the  New- 
i'he  best  of  them  all  is  the  first,  which  is 
in  folio,  157 i.  Since  the  reformation,  there 
liave  been  several  Latin  versions  of  the  Bi- 
ble from  the  originals  by  Protestants.  The 
most  esteemed  ai-e  those  of  Munsler,  Leo 
Juda,  Castalio,  and  Trevnellius  ;  the  three 
last  of  which  have  been  reprinted  various 
times.  Munster  published  his  version  at 
Basil  in  1534,  which  he  afterwards  revised ; 
he  published  a  correct  edition  in  1546  Cas- 
talio's  fine  Latin  pleases  most  people  ,  Ixit 
there  are  some  who  think  it  affected:  the 
best  edition  is  that  in  1573  Leo  Judas  ver- 
sion, altered  a  little  by  the  divines  of  Sala- 
manca, was  adfled  to  the  ancient  Latin  edi- 
tion, as  published  by  R  Stevens,  with  notes, 
under  the  name  of  Vatablus'  Bible,  in  1545. 
It  was  condemned  by  the  Parisian  divines, 
but  printed,  with  some  alterations,  by  the 
Spanish  divines  of  Salamanca.  Those  of 
Junius,  Tremeliius,  aud  Beza,  are  considera- 
bly exact,  and  have  undergone  a  great 
number  of  editions  We  may  add  a  fourth 
class  of  Latin  Bibles,  comprehending  the 
Vulgate  edition,  corrected  from  the  origi- 
nals The  Bible  of  Isidorus  Clarus  is  of  this 
number:  that  author,  not  contented  with 
restoring  the  ancient  Latin  copy,  has  cor- 
rected the  translator  in  a  great  number  of 
places  which  he  thought  ill  rendered.  Some 
Protestants  have  followed  the  same  method  ; 
and,  among  others,  Andrew  and  Luke  C-.u- 
ander,  who  have  each  published  a  new  edi- 
tion of  the  Vulgate,  corrected  from  the  ori- 
ginals. 

33.  Bibles,  Muscovite.  See  Nos.  38 
and  39. 

34.  Bibles,  Oriental.  See  Nos.  12,  13, 
15.  19,  20.  23.  35.  41,  42. 

35.  Bibles.  P«-s?an.  Some  of  the  fathers 
seem  to  say  that  all  the  scripture  was  for- 
merly translated  into  the  language  of  the 
Persians  ;  but  we  have  nothing  now  remain- 
ing of  the  ancient  version,  which  was  cer- 
tainly dfme  from  the  Septuagint.  The  Per- 
sian Pentateuch,  printed  in  the  London  Po- 
lyglot, is  without  doubt  the  work  of  rabbi 
Jacob,  a  Persian  Jew.  It  was  published  by 
the  Jews  at  Constantinople  in  1551.  In  the 
same  Polyglot  we  have  likewise  the  four 
evangelists  in  Persian,  with  a  Latin  transla- 
tion ;  but  this  ajjpears  very  modern,  incor- 
rect, and  of  little   use.      Walton   says,  this 

i|  version  was  written  above  fi'ur  hundred 
years  ago.  Another  version  of  the  Gospels 
"was  published  at  Cambridge  by  Wheloc,  in 
the  seventeenth  century  There  are  also 
two  Persian  versions  of  the  Psalms  made 
from  the  vulgar  Latin. 

36.  Bibles.  Polish,  The  first  Polish  ver- 
sion of  the  Bible,  it  is  said,  was  that  com- 
posed by  Hadewich,  wife  of  Jagellon,  duke 
of  Lithuania,  who  embraced  Christianity  in 
the  vear  1390.  In  1599  there  was  a  Polish 
tianslation  of  the  Bible  published  at  Cracow. 


BIB 


55 


BID 


which  was  the  work  of  several  divines  of 
tli;tt  nation,  and  in  which  James  VVicck,  a 
J'  suit,  had  a  principal  share.  Tlie  Prctes- 
tu'ts,  in  1596,  published  a  Polish  Bible  from 
Luiht  r's  German  version,  and  dedicated  it 
tu  IJladislaas,  fourtii  king  of  Poland. 

37   Bibles.  Polyglot.     See  Nos.  29.  31. 

3H.  Bibles,  Ruaaian ;  or, 

39.  Bibles,  Sdavonian.  The  Russians 
or  Masc'.vites  published  the  Bible  in  their 
language  in  1581.  It  was  translated  from 
the  Greek  by  St.  Cyril,  the  apostle  of  the 
Slavonians;  but  this  old  version  being  too 
ol)scure,  hrnest  Gliik,  who  had  been  carried 

Srisoner  to  M«CwW  after  the  taking  of 
farva,  underiouk  a  new  translation  of  the 
Bible  into  Sciavonian  ;  who  dying  in  1705, 
the  Czar  Peier  appointed  some  particular 
divines  to  tinisli  the  translation  ;  but  whether 
it  was  ever  printed  we  cannot  say. 

40.  Bibles,  Spaninh-  The  first  Spanish 
Bible  that  we  hear  of,  is  that  mentioned  by 
Cyprian  de  Vaiera,  which  he  says  was  pub- 
lished about  1500.  The  epistles  and  Gosptls 
were  published  in  that  language  by  Ambrose 
de  Mmitesian  in  1512 ;  the  whnle  Bible  by 
Cassiodon-  de  Reyna,  a  Calvinist,  in  1569  ; 
and  the  New  Testament,  dedicated  to  the 
emperor  Charles  V.  by  Francis  Enzina, 
otherwise  cr.lled  Driander,  in  1543.  The 
first  Bible  which  was  printed  in  Spani.sh  for 
tlie  use  of  the  Jews  was  that  printed  at  Fer- 
rara  in  1553,  in  Gothic  characters,  and  de- 
dicated to  Hercules  D'Este,  duke  of  Fenara. 
This  version  is  very  ancient,  and  was  pro- 
bably in  use  among  the  Jews  of  Spain  before 
Ferdinand  and  Isabella  expelled  them  out  of 
their  dominions  in  1492  After  very  violent 
opposition  from  the  catholic  clergy,  the 
court  of  Spain  ordered  Spanish  Bibles  to  be 
printed  by  royal  authority  in  1796,  and  put 
into  the  hands  of  people  of  all  ranks,  as  well 
as  to  be  used  in  public  worship. 

41.  Bibles,  Syriac.  There  are  extant 
two  versions  of  the  Old  Testament  in  the 
Syriac  language  ;  one  from  the  Septuagint, 
which  is  ancient,  and  made  probably  about 
the  time  of  Cnnstantine  ;  the  other  called 
aniiqua  et  sim/ilex  made  from  the  Hebrew, 
as  bjjme  suppose,  about  tlie  time  of  the  apos- 
tles. This  version  is  printed  in  the  Poly- 
glots of  London  and  Paris.  In  1562,  VVed- 
manstadius  printed  the  whole  New  Testa- 
ment in  Syriac,  at  Vienna,  in  a  beautiful 
character:  and  since  his  time  there  have 
been  several  other  editions.  Gabriel  Sionita 
jnililished  a  bf-antiful  Syriac  edition  of  the 
Psalms-at  Paris  in  1526,  with  a  Latin  inter- 
pretation. There  is  a  Syriac  ccpy  of  the 
Bible  written  in  the  Estrangdo  character, 
and  was  brought  from  tlie  Christians  of 
Travancore,  being  a  present  from  Mar  l)io 
nvsiiis,  tlie  resident  bishop  at  Cadenatte  to 
Dr.  Buchanan.  The  size  is  large  folio  in 
parchment.:  the  piges  are  written  in  three 
colnmns,  each  column  containing  60  lines. 
It  is  SI  L^, posed  to  have  been  written  about 
the  7tli  century.    Br,  White,  it  is  said,  has 


for  some  time  been  engaged  in  reprinting  the 
Syriac  Old  Testament 

42.  Bibles,  Turkiah.  In  1666  a  Turkish 
New  Testament  was  printed  in  London  to 
be  dispersed  in  the  East.  In  17i!l,  it  is  said, 
the  Grand  Seignior  ordered  an  impression  of 
Bibles  at  Con;-,tantinople,  that  they  might  be 
Contrasted  with  .Mahomet's  oracle,  the  Alco- 
ran. The  modern  Greeks  in  Turkey  have  also 
a  translation  of  the  Bible  in  their  language. 

43.  Bibles,  Welch.  There  was  a  Welch 
translation  of  the  Bible  made  from  the  ori- 
ginal in  the  time  of  queen  Elizabeth,  in  con- 
sequence of  a  bill  brought  into  the  house  of 
commons  for  this  purpose  in  1563 :  it  was 
printed  in  folio  in  1588.  Another  version, 
which  is  the  standard  translation  for  that  lan- 
guage, was  printed  in  1620:  it  is  called  Par- 
ry^s  Bible.  An  impression  of  this  was  printed 
in  1690,  called  Bishop  Llyod's  Bible':  these 
were  in  folio.  The  first  octavo  impression  of 
the  Welch  Bible  Avas  made  in  1630. 

44.  BiBL'Es,  Bengalee.  It  is  with  pleasure 
we  add  to  all  the  above  accounts,  that  a 
translation  of  the  New  Testament  into  the 
Shanscrit,  and  the  last  volume  of  the  Ben- 
galee Bible  are  now  completed,  by  the  mis- 
sionaries resident  in  tliat  part. 

Much  has  been  done  by  the  British  and 
Foreign  Bible  Society,  in  printing  new  edi- 
tions of  the  scriptui'es  in  various  languages. 
The  reader  will  find  much  pleasing  infor- 
mation on  the  subject,  in  the  Annual  Reports 
of  that  Society. 

See  Lee  Long's  Bibliotheca  Sacra;  Wol- 
Jii  Bibliotheca  Hebrcsa,  vol  ii.  p.  338;  John- 
son''!, Historical  Account  of  English  Trans- 
lations of  the  Bible  ;  Lewis'  Hist,  of  the 
Translations  of  the  Bible  into  English ; 
A'eivcome's  l/istorical  Vieiv  of  English 
Translation  ;  Butler's  Horx  Biblicx  ;  and 
the  article  Bible  in  the  Encyclofiadia 
Britannica  and  Perthensis. 

BI  BLIOM  ANC  Y,  a  kind  of  divination  per- 
formed by  means  of  the  Bible.  It  consist- 
ed in  taking  passages  of  scripture  at  hazard, 
and  drawing  indications  thence  concerning 
things  future.  It  was  much  used  at  the  con- 
secration of  bishops.  F.  J.  Da\  idius,  a  Jesuit, 
has  published  a  bibliomancy  under  the  bor- 
rowed name  of  VeridicusChristianus.  It  has 
been  affirmed  that  some  well-meaning  people 
practise  a  kind  of  bibliomancy  with  respect 
to  the  future  state  of  their  souls  ;  and,  when 
they  have  happened  to  fix  on  a  text  of  an  aw- 
ful nature,  it  has  almost  driven  them  to  de- 
spair. It  certainly  is  not  the  way  to  know  the 
mind  of  God  by  choosing  detached  parts  of 
scrijjture,  or  by  drawing  a  card  on  which  a 
passage  maybe  written,  the  sense  of  which 
is  to  be  gathered  onlv  from  the  context. 

BIDDELIANS,  so  called  from  John  Bid- 
die,  who  in  the  year  1644  formed  an  inde- 
j)endent  congregation  in  London.  He  taught 
that  Jesus  Christ,  to  the  intent  that  he  might 
he  our  brother,  and  have  a  fellow-feeling  of 
our  infirmities,  and  so  become  the  more  ready 
to  help  U3,  hath  no  otl\er  than  a  human  na^ 


BIG 


56 


BLA 


ture ;  and  therefore  in  this  very  natnre  is  not 
only  a  person,  since  none  but  a  human  per- 
son can  be  our  brother,  but  also  our  Lord  and 
God. 

Biddle,  as  well  as  Socinus  and  other  Unita- 
rians before  and  since,  made  no  scruple  of 
calling  Christ  God,  though  he  believed  him 
to  be  a  human  creature  only  on  account  of 
the  divine  sovereignty  with  which  he  was 
invested. 

BIDDING  PRAYER.  It  was  part  of  the 
office  of  the  deacons  in  the  primitive  church 
to  he  monitors  and  directors  of  the  people  in 
their  public  devotions  in  the  church.  To  this 
end  they  made  use  of  certain  known  forms 
of  woi'ds,  to  give  notice  when  each  part  of  the 
service  began.    Agreeable  to  this  ancient 

gractice  is  the  form  "  Let  us  pray,"  repeated 
efore  several  of  the  prayers  in  the  English 
lituTgy.  Bishop  Burnet,  in  his  History  of  the 
Reformation,  vol.  ii.  p.  20.  has  preserved  the 

orm  as  it  was  in  use  before  the  reformation, 
which  was  this : — After  the  preacher  had 
named  and  opened  his  text,  he  called  on  the 
people  to  go  to  their  prayers,  telling  them 
what  they  were  to  pray  for  :  Ye  shall  pray, 
says  he,  for  the  king,  the  pope,  &c.  After 
which,  all  the  people  said  their  beads  in  a 
general  silence,  and  the  minister  kneeled 
down  likewise,  and  said  his:  they  were  to  say 
a.  fiaternoster,  eve  viaria,  &c  and  then  the 
sermon  proceeded. 

BIGOTRYconsists  in  being  obstinately  and 
perversely  attached  to  our  own  opinions ;  or, 
as  some  have  defined  it,  "  a  tenacious  ad- 
herence to  a  system  adopted  without  inves- 
tigation, and  defended  without  argument,  ac- 
companied with  a  malignant  intolerant  spirit 
tow^ards  all  who  differ."  It  must  be  distin- 
guished from  love  to  iruih,  which  irifliiences 
a  man  to  embrace  it  wherever  he  fi;ids  it ; 
and  from  true  zeal,  which  is  an  ardour  of 
mind  exciting  its  possessor  to  defend  and  pro- 
pagate the  principles  he  maintains.  Bigutry 
is  a  kind  of  prejudice  combined  with  a  cer- 
tain degree  of  malignity.  It  is  thus  exem- 
plified and  distinguished  by  a  gensible  writer 
"  When  Jesus  preached,  j)re;judice  cried. 
Can  any  good  thing  come  out  of  Nazareth? 
Crucify  Iiim,  crucify  him,  said  bigotry.  Why? 
what  evil  hath  he  done  ?  replied  candour." 
Bigotry  is  mostly  prevalent  witli  those  who 
are  ignorant ;  who  have  taken  up  principles 
Avitbout  due  examination  ;  ami  who  are  natu- 
rally of  a  morose  an<l  contracted  disposition. 
It  is  often  manifested  more  in  unimportant 
sentiments,  or  the  ciit^umstantials  of  religion 
than  the  essentials  of  it.  Simple  bigotry  is  the 
spirit  of  persecution  without  the  power;  per- 
secution is  bigotry  armed  with  power,  and 
carrying  its  will  into  act.  As  it  is  the  effect 
of  ignorance,  so  it  is  the  luirse  of  it,  tjecause 
it  prechides  free  enquiiy,  and  is  an*-nemy  to 
truth  :  it  cuts  also  the  very  sinews  of  charity, 
and  destroys  moderation  and  mutual  gcod 
will.  If  we  consider  the  different  makes  of 
men's  minds,  our  own  ignorance,  the  liberty 
that  all  men  have  to  think  for  themselves,  the 
admirable  example  our  Lord  has  set  us  of  a 


contrary  spirit,  and  the  baneful  effects  of  this 
disposition,  we  must  at  once  be  convinced  of 
its  impropriety.  How  contradictory  is  it  to 
sound  reason,  and  how  inimical  to  the  peace- 
tjil  religion  we  profess  to  maintain  as  Chris- 
tians I — See  Persecution,  and  books  under 
that  article. 

BIOGRAPHY,  Religious,  or  the  lives  of 
illustrious  and  pious  men,  are  well  worthy  of 
perusing  The  advantages  of  religious  biogra- 
phy are  too  well  known  to  need  a  recital  in 
this  place.  We  shall  only,  therefore,  point 
out  some  of  the  best  pieces,  which  the  reader 
may  peruse  at  his  leisure. 

Hunter's  Sacred  Biography  ;  Robinson's  • 
Scripture  Lharacters  ;  Hunter^ s  History  of 
Christ  ;  J.  Taylor's  Life  of  Christ ;  Cave's 
Lives  of  the  Apostles  ;  Caves  Lives  of  the 
Fathers ;  Fox's  Lives  of  the  Martyrs ; 
Melchior  Adams'  Lives ;  Fuller's  and 
Clark's  Lives  ,•  Gilpin's  Lives  of  Wickliffe^ 
Cranmer,  Latimer,  isfc.;  Walton's  Lives  by 
Zouch  ;  Baxter's  JVarrative  of  the  most  re- 
markable  Passages  of  his  Life  and  Times, 
by  Silvester;  Fulmer's,  Nonconformist  Me- 
morial ;  Lives  of  P.  and  M.  Henry  ;  Life 
of  Haly burton  ;  OriQ?i's  Memoirs  of  Dod- 
dridge ;  Gillies'  Life  of  Whitfield;  Dod- 
dridge's Life  of  Gardiner  ;  Life  of  Wesley 
by  Hampson  ;  Coke,  More,  and  Whitehead; 
Middleton's  tiiographia  Evangelica ;  Ed- 
wards' Life  of  D,  Brainerd  ;  Gibbon's  Life 
of  Watts  ;  Brown's  Life  of  Hervexj  ;  Faiv- 
cett's  Life  of  Heyivood  ;  Brown's  Lives  in 
his  Student  and  Pastor ;  Burnet's  Life  of 
Rochester  ;  Hay  ley's  Life  of  iowper;  lien- 
son's  Life  of  Fletcher  ;  Jay's  Life  of  Win- 
ter ;  Cecil's  Life  of  j^ewton  ;  Priestley's 
Char't:-^'  Biography,  with  a  Hook  describing 
it  ]2mo;  Haweis'  Life  of  Romaine ;  Ful- 
ler\i  Lfe  of  Peurce. 

BISHOP,  a  prelate  consecrated  for  the 
spiritual  government  of  a  diocese.  The  word 
comes  from  the  Saxon  bishop,  and  that  from 
the  Greek  {sr/sxe^e?,  an  overseer,  or  in- 
spector It  is  a  long  time  since  bishops  have 
been  distinguished  from  mere  priests,  or 
presbyters ;  but  whether  that  distinction  be 
of  divine  'r  human  right;  whether  it  was 
settled  in  the  apostolic  age,  or  introduced 
since,  is  much  controverted.  Churciimen 
in  general  plead  for  the  divine  right ;  while 
the  Dissenters  suppose  that  the  word  no 
where  signifies  more  than  a  pastor  or  pres- 
byter; the  VQVY  same  jjersons  being  called 
bishops  and  elders,  or  presbyters,  Acts  xx. 
\7  28.  1  Pet.  V.  1.  3.  Tit.  i.  5.  7.  Phil.  i. 
1.  See  Episcopacy.  All  the  bishops  of 
England  are  peers  of  the  reahn,  excejjt  the 
bis!"u>p  (if  Man  ;  and  as  such  sit  and  vote  in 
ihe  house  of  lords.  Besides  two  archbishops, 
there  are  twenty-four  bishops  in  England, 
exclusive  of  the  bishnp  of  Sodcr  and  Man, 
The  bishops  of  London.  Durham,  and  V\in- 
chester,  take  the  precedence  of  the  other  , 
bishops,  who  rank  after  tin  m  acrnvding  to 
their  seniority  of  consecration.  See  Epis- 
copacy. 
BLASPHEMY,  from  B>.«?<Pr«u«,  .iccoid- 


BOH 


57 


BOU 


.ording  to  Dr.  Campbell,  properly  denotes 

tlumny,  detraction,  reproachful  or  abusive 
liuiguage,  against  whomsoever  it  be  vented, 
It  is%i  scripture  applied  to  reproaches  not 
aimed  against  God  only  but  man  also,  Rom. 
iii.  8.  Rom.  xiv.  16.  1  Pet.  iv.  4.  Gr.  It  is, 
however,  a\ore  peculiarly  restrained  to  evil 
or  reproachful  words  offered  to  God.  Ac- 
•  nnling  to  Lindwood,  blasphemy  is  an  injury 
«  ftered  to  God,  by  denying  that  which  is 
due  and  belonging  to  him,  or  attributing  to 
I  nn  what  is  not  agreeable  to  his  nature. 
"  Three  things,"  says  a  divine,  "  are  essen- 
tial to  this  crime ;  1,  God  must  be  the 
object. — 2  The  words  spoken  or  written,  in- 
dependent of  consequences  which  others 
may  derive  from  them,  must  be  injurious  in 
their  nature. — And,  3.  He  who  commits  the 
crime  must  do  it  knowingly.  This  is  real 
blasphemy ;  but  there  is  a  relative  blas- 
phemy, as  when  a  man  may  be  guilty  igno- 
Kintly^  by  propagating  opinions  which  dis- 
iionour  God,  the  tendency  of  which  he  does 
not  perceive.  A  man  may  be  guilty  of  this 
constructively;  for  if  he  speak  freely  against 
received  errors,  it  will  be  construed  into 
blaspiiemy."  By  the  English  laws,  blas- 
phemies of  God,  as  denying  his  being  or  pro- 
vidence, and  all  contumelious  reproaches  of 
Jesus  Christ,  &c.  are  oftences  by  the  com- 
mon law,  and  punishable  by  fine,  imprison- 
ment, and  pillory ;  and  by  the  statute  law, 
he  that  denies  one  of  tae  persons  in  the  Tri- 
nity, or  asserts  that  there  are  more  than 
one  God,  or  denies  Christianity  to  be  true, 
for  the  first  offence  is  rendered  incapable  of 
any  office ;  for  the  second,  adjudged  in- 
capable of  suing,  being  executor  or  guar- 
dian, receiving  any  gift  or  legacy,  and  to  be 
imprisoned  for  years  According  to  the  law 
of  Scotland,  blasphemy  is  punished  with 
death  :  these  laws,  however,  in  the  present 
age,  are  not  enforced  ;  the  legislature  think- 
ing, perhaps,  that  spiritual  offences  should 
be  left  to  be  punished  by  the  Deity  rather 
than  by  human  statutes.  CamfibeWs  FreL 
Di&s.,  vol.  i.  p.  395;  Robinson^s  Script. 
Plea,  p.  58. 

BL\SPHEMY  AGAINST  THE  HOLY 
GHOST     See  Unpardonable  Sin. 

BODY  OF  DIVINITY  See  Theology. 

BOGOMILI,  or  BocARMiTiE,  a  sect  of 
heretics  which  arose  about  the  year  1179. 
They  held  that  the  use  of  churches,  of  the 
sacrament  of  the  Lord's  supper,  and  all 
prayer  except  the  Lord's  prayer,  ought  to 
be  abolished;  that  the  baptism  of  Catholics 
is  imperfect;  that  the  persons  of  the  Trinity 
are  unequal,  and  th.at  they  often  made  them- 
selves visible  to  those  of  tluir  sect. 

BOHEMIAN  BRETHREN,  a  sect  of 
Christian  reformers  which  sprung  up  in 
Bohemia  in  the  year  1467.  They  treated 
the  pope  and  cardinals  as  antichrist,  and  the 
church  of  Rome  as  the  whore  spoken  of  in 
the  Revelations.  They  rejected  the  sacra- 
ments of  the  Romish  church,  and  chose  lay- 
men for  their  minibters.  They  held  the 
scripturee  to  be  the  onlv  rule  of  faith,  and 

H 


rejected  the  popish  ceremonies  in  the.  cele- 
bration of  the  mass ;  nor  did  they  make  use 
of  any  other  prayer  than  the  Lord's  prayer. 
They  consecrated  leavened  bread  They 
allowed  no  adoration  but  of  Jesus.  Christ  in 
the  communion.  Ihey  rqbaptized  all  such 
as  joined  themselves  to  their  congregation. 
They  abhorred  the  worship  of  saints  and 
images,  prayers  for  the  dead,  celibacies, 
vows,  and  fasts  ;  and  kept  none  of  the  fe.s- 
tivals  but  Christmas,  Easter,  and  Whit- 
suntide. 

In  1503  they  were  accused  by  the  Catho- 
lics to  king  Ladislaus  II,  who  ])ublished  an 
edict  against  them,  forbidding  them  to  hold 
any  meetings,  either  privately  or  publicly. 
When  Luther  declared  himself  against  the 
church  of  Rome,  tlie  Bohemian  Brethren 
endeavoured  to  join  his  party.  At  first,  that 
reformer  shewed  a  giieat  aversion  to  them  ; 
but,  the  Bohemians  sending  their  dtputieF  to 
him  in  1565,  with  a  full  account  of  their 
doctrines,  he  acknowledged  iJsat  they  were 
a  society  of  Christians  whose  doctrine  came 
nearest  to  the  purity  of  the  Gospel.  This 
sect  published  another  confession  of  faith  '\\\ 
1535,  in  which  they  renounced  anabaptism, 
which  they  at  first  practised :  upon  which  -a. 
union  was  concluded  with  the  Lutherans, 
and  afterwards  with  the  Zuinglians,  whose 
opinions  from  thenceforth  they  continued  to 
follow. 

BOOK  OF  SPORTS.    See  Sports. 

BORRELLISl'S,  a  Christian  sect  in  Hoi- ' 
land,  so  named  from  their  founder  Borrel,  a 
man  of  gi-eat  learning  in  the  Hebrew,  Greek, 
and  Latin  tongues.  They  reject  the  use  of 
the  sacrament,  public  prayer,  and  all  other 
external  acts  of  worship.  They  assert  that 
all  the  Christian  churches  of  the  world  have 
degenerated  from  the  jjure  ajjostclic  drc- 
trines,  because  they  have  suffered  the  word 
of  God,  Avhich  is  infallible,  to  be  expounded, 
or  rather  corrupted,  by  doctors  who  are  fal- 
lible. They  lead  a  very  austere  life,  and 
employ  a  great  part  of  their  eoods  in  alms. 

BOURIGNONISTS,  the  followers  of  An- 
toinette Bourignon,  a  lady  in  France,  who 
pretended  to  particular  inspiiations.  Slie 
was  born  at  Lisle  in  I6i6.  At  her  birth  she 
was  so  deformed,  that  it  was  debated  some 
days  in  the  family  whether  it  was  not  pro- 
per to  stifle  her  as  a  monster  ;  but  her  de- 
formity diminishing,  she  was  spared ;  and 
afterwards  obtained  such  a  det^ree  of  beauty, 
that  she  had  her  admirers.  From  her  cl;ild- 
hood  to  her  old  age  she  had  an  extraor- 
dinary turn  of  mind.  She  set  up  for  a  re- 
former, and  published  a  great  number  of 
books  filled  with  very  singular  notions  ;  th.e 
most  remarkable  of  which  are  entitled.  The 
Light  of  the  IVcrld,  and  The  Testimony  of 
Truth.  In  her  confession  of  faiih,  she  pro- 
fesses her  belief  in  the  scriptures,  the  divinity 
and  atonement  of  Christ.  She  believed  also 
that  man  is  jjerfectly  free  to  resist  or  re- 
ceive divine  grace  ;  that  God  is  ever  un- 
changeable love  towards  all  his  creatines,  and 
dots  not  inflict  any  arbitrary  punishment ; 


BRE 


53 


BRO 


mit  th'at  the  evil  they  sufFci*  are  the  natural 
consequence  of  sin ;  that  religion  consists 
not  in  outward  forms  of  worship  nor  systems 
of  faith,  but  in  an  entire  resignation  to  the 
■'vill  of  G>d.  She  hekl  many  extravagant 
notions,  among  which  it  is  said,  she  asserted 
that  Adam,  before  the  fall,  possessed  the 
principle  of  both  sexes;  that  in  an  extacy, 
God  represented  Adam  to  her  mind  in  his 
original  state  ;  as  also  the  beauty  of  the  first 
world,  and  how  he  had  drawn  from  it  the 
chaos;  and  that  every  thing  was  bright, 
transparent,  and  darted  forth  life  and  in- 
effable glory,  with  a  number  of  other  wild 
ideas.  She  dressed  like  an  hermit,  oand 
travelled  through  France,  Holland,  England, 
and  Scotland,  She  died  at  Faneker,  in  the 
province  of  Frise,  October  SO,  1680.  Her 
works  have  been  printed  in  18  vols.  8vo. 

BOYLE  S  LECTURES,  a  course  of  eijht 
sermons,  preached  annually  ;  set  on  foot  by 
the  honourable  R.  Boyle,  by  a  codicil  annexed 
to  his  will,  i"  1691,  whose  design,  as  ex- 
pressed by  the  institutor,  is  to  prove  the 
truth  of  the  Christian  religion  against  infidels, 
without  descending  to  any  controversies 
among  Christians,  and  to  answer  new  diffi- 
culties,' scruples,  &c.  For  the  support  of 
this  lecture  he  assigned  the  rent  of  his  house 
in  Crooked  Lane  to  some  learned  divine 
■within  the  bills  of  mortality,  to  be  elected 
for  a  term  not  exceeding  three  years.  But 
the  fund  proving  precarious,  the  salary  was 
ill  paid;  to  remedy  which  inconvenience, 
archbishop  Tennison  procured  a  yearly  sti- 
pend of  501  for  ever,  to  be  paid  qiiarterly, 
charged  on  a  farm  in  the  parish  of  Brill,  in 
the  county  of  Bucks.  To  this  appointment 
we  are  indebted  for  many  excellent  de- 
fences of  nntnral  and  revealed  religion. 

BRANDENBURG,  Confession  of  A 
formulaiy  or  confession  of  faith,  drawn  up  in 
the  city 'of  Brandenburg  by  order  of  the 
elector,  with  a  view  to  reconcile  the  tenets 
of  Luther  with  those  of  Calvin,  and  to  put 
an  end  to  the  disputes  occasioned  by  the  con- 
fession  of  Augsburgh.     See   Augsburgh 

COXFF.^SiriV 

BRETHREN  AND  SISTERS  OF  THE 
FREE  SPIRIT,  an  appellation  assumed  by 
a  sect  which  sprung  up  towards  the  close  of 
the  thirteenth  century,  and  gained  many 
adherents  in  Italy,  France,  and  Germany. 
They  took  their  denomination  from  the 
words  of  St.  Paul,  Rom.  viii.  2.  14.  and 
inaintained  that  the  true  children  of  God 
■were  invested  with  perfect  freedom  from 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  law.  They  held  that 
all  things  flowed  by  emanation  from  God ; 
that  rational  souls  were  portions  of  the  Deity; 
that  the  universe  was  God  ;  and  that  by  the 
powei-  of  contemplation  they  were  united  to 
the  Deitv,  and  acquired  hereby  a  glorious 
and  sublime  liberty,  both  from  the  sinful  lusts  ^ 
and  the  common  instincts  of  nature,  with  a 
variety  of  other  enthusiastic  notions.  Many 
edicts  were  published  against  them  ;  but 
they  continued  till  about  the  middle  of  the 
fifteenth  century. 


BRETHREN  AND  CLERKS  OF  THE 
COMMON  LIFE,  a  denomination  assumed 
by  a  religious  fraternity  towards  the  ejid  of 
the  fifteenth  century.  They  lived  und*i-  the 
rule  of  St.  Augustin,  and  were  said  to  be 
eminently  useful  in  promoting  the  cause  of 
reUe;ion  and  learning. 

BRETHREN  WHITE,  were  the  follow- 
ers cf  a  priest  from  the  Alps  about  the  be- 
ginning of  the  fifteenth  century.  They  and 
their  leader  were  arrayed  in  white  garments. 
Their  leader  carried'  about  a  cross  like  a 
standard.  His  apparent  sanctity  and  devotion 
drew  together  a  number  of  followers.  This 
deluded  enthusiast  practised  many  acts  of 
mortification  and  penance,  and  endeavoured 
to  persuade  the  Europeans  to  renew  the 
holy  war.  Boniface  IX.  ordered  him  to  be 
apprehended,  and  committed  to  the  flames; 
upon  which  his  followers  dispersed. 

BRETHREN    UNITED.      See   Mora. 

VIANS. 

BREVIARY,  the  hook  containing  the  daily 
service  of  the  church  of  Rome. 

BRIDGETINS.orBniGiTTiNs.an  order 
denominated  from  St.  Bridgit,  or  Birgit,  a 
Swedish  lady,  in  the  fourteenth  century. 
Their  rule  is  nearly  that  of  Augustin.  The 
Brigittins  profess  great  mortification, poverty, 
and  self-denial ;  and  they  are  not  to  possess 
any  thing  they  can  call  their  own,  not  so 
much  as  an  halfpenny ;  nor  even  to  touch 
money  on  any  account.  This  order  spread 
much  through  Sweden  Germany,  and  the 
Netherlands.  In  England  we  read  of  but 
one  monasteiy  of  Brigittins,  and  this  built  by 
Henry  V,  in' 1415,  opposite  to  Richmond, 
now  called  Sion  House ;  the  ancient  inhabit- 
ants of  which,  since  the  dissolution,  are  set- 
tled at  Lisbon. 

BRIEFS  (apostolical)  are  letters  which 
the  pope  despatches  to  princes  and  other 
magistrates  concerning  any  public  affair. 

BROTHERS,  Lay,  among  the  Romanists, 
are  illiterate  persons,  who  devote  themselves 
in  some  convent  to  the  service  of  the  reli- 
gious. 

BKOWNISTS,  a  sect  that  arose  among 
die  puritans  towards  the  close  of  the  six- 
teenth century ;  so  named  from  their  leader, 
Robert  BroAvn.  He  was  educated  at  Cam- 
bridge, and  was  a  man  of  good  parts  and 
some  learning.  He  began  to  inveigh  openly 
against  the  ceremonies  of  the  church,  at 
Norwich,  in  1580 ;  but,  being  much  opposed 
by  the  bishops,  he  with  his  congregation  left 
England,  and  settled  at  Middleburgh,  in 
Zealand,  where  they  obtained  leave  to  wor- 
ship God  in  their  own  way,  and  form  a 
church  according  to  thtir  own  model.  They 
soon,  however,  began  to  differ  among  them- 
selves ;  so  that  Brown,  growing  weary  of  his 
office,  returned  to  England  in  1589,  re- 
nounced his  principles  of  separation,  and 
was  jireferred  to  the  rectory  of  a  church  in 
Northamptonshire.  He  died  in  prison  in 
1630  The  revolt  of  BroAvn  was  attended 
with  the  dissolution  of  the  church  at  Middle- 
burgh ;  but  the  seeds  of  Brownism  which  he 


BRO 


59 


BUR 


had  sown  in  England  were  so  far  from  be- 
ing destroyed,  that  Sir  Walter  Raleigh,  in  a 
speech  in  1592,  comi>utes  no  less  than  20,000 
of  this  Sect. 

The  articles  of  their/aith  seem  to  be  nearly 
tlie  same  as  those  of  the  church  of  England. 
The  occasion  of  their  separation  was  not, 
therefore,  any  fault  they  found  with  the  faith, 
but  only  with  the  discipline  and  form  of 
government  of  the  churches  of  England. 
They  equally  charged  corruption  on  the 
episcopal  and  presbyterian  forms ;  nor  would 
they  join  witii  any  other  reformed  church, 
because  they  were  not  assured  of  the  sanc- 
tity and  regeneration  of  the  members  that 
composed  it.  They  condemned  the  solemn 
celebration  of  marriages  in  the  church, 
maintaining  that  matrimony  being  a  political 
contract,  the  confirmation'  thereof  ought  to 
come  from  the  civil  magistrate ;  an  opinion 
in  which  they  are  not  singular.  They 
would  not  allow  the  children  of  such  as  were 
jjot  members  of  the  church  to  be  baptized. 
They  rejected  all  forms  of  prayer,  and  held 
that  the  Lord's  prayer  was  not  to  be  recited 
as  a  prayer,  being  only  given  for  a  rule  or 
model  whereon  all  our  pi-ayers  are  to  be 
formed.  Their  form  of  church  government 
■was  nearly  as  follows.  When  a  church  was 
fo  be  gathered,  such  as  desired  to  be  mem- 
bers of  it  made  a  confession  of  their  faith  in 
the  presence  of  each  other,  and  signed  a 
covenant,  by  which  they  obliged  themselves 
to  walk  together  in  the  order  of  the  Gospel. 
The  whole  power  of  admitting  and  exclud- 
ing members,  with  the  decision  of  all  con- 
tro\'ersies,  was  lodged  in  the  brotherhood. 
Their  church  officers  were  chosen  from 
among  themselves,  and  separated  to  their 
several  offices,  by  fasting,  prayer,  and  impo- 
sition of  hands.  But  they  did  not  allow  the 
priesthood  to  be  any  distinct  order.  As  the 
vote  of  the  brethren  made  a  man  a  minister, 
so  the  same  power  could  discharge  him 
from  his  office,  and  reduce  him  to  a  mere 
layman  again  ;  and  as  they  maintained  the 
bounds  of  a  cliurch  to  be  no  greater  than 
what  could  meet  together  in  one  place,  and 
Join  in  one  communion,  so  the  power  of  these 
officei-s  was  prescribed  within  the  same 
limits — The  minister  of  one  church  could 
not  administer  the  Lord's  supper  to  another, 
nor  baptize  the  children  of  any  but  those  of 
his  own  society.  Any  lay  brother  was  allow- 
ed the  liberty  of  giving  a  word  of  exhor- 
tation to  the  people  ;  and  it  was  usual  for 
some  of  them  after  sermon  to  ask  questions, 
and  reason  upon  the  doctrines  that  had  been 
preached.  In  a  word,  every  church  on  their 
model  is  a  body  corporate,  having  full  power 


ed,  and  some  hanged.  Bixiwn  himself  de- 
clared on  his  death-bed  that  he  had  been  in 
thirty-two  different  prisons,  in  some  of  which 
he  could  not  see  his  hand  at  noon-day.  They 
were  so  much  persecuted,  that  tliey  resolved 
at  last  to  quit  the  country.  Accordingly 
many  retired  and  settled  at  A:i\stci-dam» 
where  they  formed  a  church,  and  chose 
Mr.  Johnson  their  pastor,  and  after  him 
Mr.  Ainsworth,  author  of  the  learned  Com- 
mentary on  the  Pentateuch.  Their  church 
flourished  near  100  years.  Among  tlie 
Brownists,  too,  wer«?  the  famous  John  Robin- 
son, a  part  of  whose  congregation  from 
Leyden,  in  Holland,  made  the  first  perma- 
nent settlement  in  North  America ;  and  the 
laborious  C/anne,  the  author  of  the  marginal 
references  to  the  Bible. 

BUCHANITES,  a  sect  of  enthusiasts  who 
sprung  up  in  the  West  of  Scotland  about 
1783,  and  took  their  name  from  a  Mrs. 
Buchan,  of  (ilasgow,  who  gave  herself  out 
to  be  the  woman  spoken  of  in  the  Reve- 
lations; and  that  all  who  believed  in  her 
should  be  taken  up  to  heaven  without  tasting 
death,  as  the  end  of  the  world  was  near. 
They  never  increased  much  ;  and  the  death 
of  their  leader  within  a  year  or  two  after- 
wards, occasioned  their  dispersion,  by  put- 
ting an  end  to  their  hopes  of  reaching  the 
New  Jerusalem  without  deatii. 

BUDNiEANS,  a  sect  in  Poland,  who 
disclaimed  the  worship  of  Christ,  and  run 
into  man#.wild  hypotheses.  Budnseus,  the 
founder,  was  publicly  excommunicated  ia 
1584,  with  all  his  disciples,  but  afterwards 
he  was  admitted  to  the  communion  of  the 
Socinian  sect. 

BULLS  Popish,  are  letters  called  aj^osto-' 
lie  by  tlie  Canonists,  strengthened  with  a 
leaden  seal,  and  containing  in  them  the  de- 
crees and  commandments  of  the  pope- 

BURGHER  SECEDERS,  a  numerous 
and  respectable  class  of  dissenters  from  the 
church  of  Scotland,  who  Avtre  originally 
connected  with  the  associate  presbytery;  but, 
some  difference  of  sentiment  arising  about 
the  lawfulness  of  taking  the  Burges  oath,  a 
separation  ensued  in  1739;  in  consequence 
of  which,  those  who  pleaded  for  the  affir- 
mati\"e  obtained  the  appellation  of  Burgher, 
and  their  opponents  that  of  Antiburgher  Sp- 
eeders.   See  Seceders. 

BURIAL,  the  interment  of  a  deceased 
person.  The  rites  of  burial  have  been  look- 
ed upon  in  all  countries  as  a:  debt  so  sacred, 
that  such  as  neglected  to  discharge  them  were 
thought  accursed.  Among  the  Jews,  tlie  pri- 
vilege of  burial  was  denied  only  to  self-mur- 
derers, who  were  thrown  out  to  j)utrefy  upon 


to  do  every   thing  in  themselves,    without    tlie  ground.    In  the  Christian  church,  thoui^h 

being  accountable  to  any  class,  synod,  con-     s^ood  men  always  d^ired  the  privilege  of  in 

vocation,    or  other   jurisdiction    whatever,    terment,  yet  they  were  not,  like  the  hea- 


The  reader  will  judge  how  near  the  Inde- 


govemment  See  Independents. — The 
laws  were  executed  with  great  severity  on 
the  Brownists;  thc.'iv  books  were  protubited 
by  queen  Elizabeth,  their  pernors  imprisor- 


pendent  churches  are  allied  to  this  form  of  i  think  it  any  detrinevt  to  tlie  m  If  either  the 


tliens,  so  concerned  for  their  bodies,   a^  to 


barbarity  of  an  enemy,  nr  some  other  acci- 
dent, deprived  them  of  this  privilege.  The 
primitive  cluirch  denied  the  more  solcihn 
rites  of  burial  ofily  tg  uSb.:iptiaed  pcrscns. 


CAB 


60 


C  AL 


rielf-murd*rers,  and  excommunicated  pei*- 
sons,  who  continued  obstinate  and  impenitent 
in  a  ma^iifest  contempt  ot"  the  church's  cen- 
surts  Tlie  place  of  burial  among  the  Jews 
was  never  particularly  determined.  We  find 
they  had  graves  in  the  town  and  country, 
upon  the  liij^hways  or  gardens,  and  upon 
mountains.  Among  the  Greeks,  the  temples 
^vere  made  repositories  for  the  dead,  in  the 
primitive  ages;  yet,  in  the  latter  ages,  the 
Greeks  aswellastheRomansburied  the  dead 
Avithout  the  cities  and  chiefly  by  the  high- 
ways. Among  the  primitive  Christians,  bu- 
rying in  cities  was  not  allowed  for  the  first 
three  hundred  years,  nor  in  churches  for 
many  ages  after  ;  the  dead  bodies  being  first 
deposited  in  the  atrium  or  church-yard,  and 
porches  and  porticos  of  the  church :  heredi- 


tary burj'ing  places  were  forbidden  till  the 
twelfth  century.  See  Funekal  Rites.  As 
to  burying  in  churches,  we  find  a  dift'erence 
of  opinion :  some  have  thought  it  improper 
that  dead  bodies  should  be  inteiTed  in  the 
church.  Sir  Matthew  Hale  used  to  say,  that 
churches  were  for  the  living,  and  church- 
yards for  the  dead.  In  the  famous  bishop 
Hall's  will  we  find  this  passage  :  after  desi- 
ring a  private  funeral,  he  says,  "  I  do  not 
hold  God's  house  a  meet  repository  for  the 
dead  bodies  of  the  greatest  saints."  Mr. 
Hervey,  on  the  contrary,  defends  it,  and 
supposes  that  it  tends  to  render  our  assem- 
blies more  awful ;  and  that,  as  the  bodies  of 
the  saints  are  the  Lord's  property,  they 
should  be  reposed  in  his  house. 


c. 


CABBALA,  a  Hebrew  word,  signifying' 
tradition :  it  is  used  for  a  mysterious  kind  of 
science  pretended  to  have  been  delivered 
by  revelation  to  the  ancient  Jews,  and  trans- 
mitted by  oral  tradition  to  those  of  our  times ; 
serving  for  interpretation  of  the  books  bothj 
of  nature  and  Scripture.  | 

CABBALISTS,  the  Jewish  doctors  who 
profess  the  study  of  the  cabbala.  They  study  j 
principally  the  combination  of  particular 
words,  letters,  and  numbers ;  and  by  this, 
they  say,  they  see  clearly  into  the  sense  of 
Scripture.  In  their  opinion,  there  is  not  I 
a  word,  letter,  number,  or  accent,  in  the 
law,  without  somn  mystery  in  it;  and  they 
even  pretend  to  discover  what  is  future  by 
tliis  vain  siudy. 

Dr.  Smith  has  given  us  the  following  de- 
scription of  the  Cabbalistic  Rabbies. 

'Ihey  have  employed  the  above  methods 
of  interpretation,  which  have  rendei-ed  the 
Scripture  a  convenient  instiument  of  subser- 
viency to  any  purpose  which  they  might 
choose.  Disregarding  the  contiimity  of  sub- 
ject, and  the  harmony  of  parts,  in  any  Scrip- 
tural composition,  they  selected  sentences, 
and  broken  pieces  of  sentences,  and  even  sin- 
gle words  and  detached  letters;  and  these 
th.ey  proposed  to  the  ignorant  and  abused 
multitude  as  the  annunciations  of  truth  and 
authority.  To  ascertain  the  native  sense  of 
the  sacred  writers,  howe\tr  momentous  and 
valuable,  was  no  object  of  their  desire.  At- 
tention  to  the  just  import  of  words,  to  the 
scope  of  argument,  and  to  the  connection  of 
parts,  was  a  labour  from  which  they  were  ut- 
terly averse,  and  wb.ich  they  impiously  despi- 
sed. Instead  of  such  faithful  and  honest  en- 
deavours to  know  the  will  of  God,  they  sti- 
mulated a  sportive  fancy,  a  corrupt  and  often 
absurd  ingenuity,  to  the  invention  of  mean- 
inrs  the  most  remote  from  the  design  of  the 
inspired  writer,  and  the  most  foreign  from 
the  dictates  of  an  unsophisticated  under?.tand- 
j.-.g.    No  part  of  the  Scriptures  was  safe  from 


this  profanation.  The  pl^nest  narrative,  tl^e 
most  solemn  command,  the  most  clear  and 
intei'esting  declaration  of  doctrine,  were  made 
to  bend  beneath  this  irreverent  violence. 
History  the  most  true,  the  most  ancient,  and 
the  most  impoi'tant  in  the  world,  was  con- 
sidered merely  as  the  vehicle  of  mystic  alle- 
gory. The  rule  of  faith,  and  the  standard 
of  indissoluble  duty,  were  made  flexible  and 
weak  as  the  spidei-'s  web,  and  the  command- 
ments of  God  were  rendered  void.  See  Dr. 
Smith's  Sermon  on  the  Ajiostolic  Miiiistry, 
compared  with  the  pretensions  of  spurious 
Religion  and  false  Philosophy. 

CAINITES,  a  sect  who  sprung  up  about 
the  year  130 ;  so  called  because  they  esteem- 
ed Cain  worthy  of  the  greatest  honours.  TV  ey 
honoured  those  who  carry  in  Scripture  the 
most  visible  marks  of  reprobation ;  as  the 
inhabitants  of  Sodom,  Esau,  Korah,  Dathan, 
and  Abii-am.  They  had  in  particular  gi-eat 
veneration  for  Judas,  under  the  pretence  that 
the  death  of  Christ  had  saved  mankind. 

CALIXTINS,  a  branch  of  the  Hussites 
in  Bohemia  and  Moravia,  in  the  fifteenth 
century.  The  principal  point  in  which  they 
differed  from  the  church  of  Rome  was  the 
use  of  the  chalice  (calix)  or  commmiicating 
in  both  kinds :  Calixtins  was  also  a  name 
given  to  those  among  the  Lutherans  who  fol- 
lowed the  opinions  of  George  Calixtus,  a  ce- 
lebrated divine  in  the  seventeenth  century, 
who  endeavoured  to  unite  the  Romish,  Lu- 
theran, and  Calvinistic churches,  inthebonds 
of  charity  and  mutual  benevolence.  He  main- 
tained, 1.  That  the  fundamental  docti'ines  of 
Christianity,  by  which  he  meant  those  ele- 
mentary principles  whence  all  its  truths  flow, 
were  preserved  pure  in  all  their  three  com- 
munions, and  were  contained  in  that  ancient 
form  of  doctrine  that  is  vulgarly  known  by 
the  name  of  the  apostles'  creed — 2.  That 
the  tenets  and  opinions  which  had  I^een  con- 
stantly rfceivcd  by  the  ancient  doctors,  du- 
ring the  first  five  centuries,  were  to  be  con- 


CAL 


61 


CAL 


sidered  as  of  equal  truth  and  authority'  with 
the   express  declarations  and  doctrines  of 
|, Scripture. 

CALL,  CALLING,  generally  denotes 
God's  invitation  to  man  to  participate  the 
.blessing;s  of  salvation:  it  is  termed  efftctual, 
to  distinguish  it  from  that  external  or  com- 
mon call  of  the  light  of  nature,  but  espeAally 
of  the  Gospel,  in  which  men  are  invited  to 
come  to  God,  but  which  has  no  saving  effect 
upoirthe  heart:  thus  it  is  said,  "Many  are 
called,  but  few  chosen."  Matthew  xxii.  14. 
EiFectual  calling  has  been  more  particularly 
defined  to  be  "  the  work  of  God's  Spirit, 
•whereby,  convincing  us  of  our  s;n  and  mise- 
ry, enlightening  our  minds  with  the  know- 
ledge of  Christ,  and  renewing  our  wills,  he 
doth  persuade  and  enable  us  to  embrace  Je- 
sus Christ,  freely  offered  to  us  in  the  Gospel." 
This  may  farther  be  considered  as  a  call 
from  darkness  to  light,  1  Pet.  ii.  9.;  from 
bondage  to  liberty.  Gal  ii.  13 ;  from  the  fel- 
lowship of  the  world  to  the  fellowship  of 
Christ,  1  Cor.  i.  9.;  from  misery  to  happi- 
ness, 1  Cor.  vii.  15.;  from  sin  to  holiness,  1 
Thes.  iv.  7. ;  finally,  from  all  created  good 
to  the  enjoyment  of  eternal  fehcity,  1  Pet.  v. 
10.  It  is  considered  in  the  Scripture  as  an 
holy  calling,  2  Tim.  i.  9. ;  an  high  calling, 
Phil.  iii.  14. ;  an  heavenly  calling,  Heb.  iii. 
1.;  and  without  repentance,  as  God  will 
never  cast  off  any  who  are  once  drawn  to 
him,  Rom.  xi.  29. 

It  has  been  a  matter  of  dispute  whether 
the  Gospel  call  should  be  general,  i.  e. 
preached  to  all  men  indiscriminately.  Some 
suppose  that,  as  the  elect  only  will  be  saved, 
it  is  to  be  preached  only  to  them ;  and, 
therefore,  cannot  invite  all  to  come  to  Christ. 
But  to  this  it  is  answered,  that  an  unknown 
decree  can  be  no  rule  of  action,  Deut.  xxix. 
29.  Prov.  ii.  13 ;  that,  as  we  know  not  who 
are  the  elect,  we  cannot  tell  but  he  may  suc- 
ceed our  endeavours  by  enabling  those  v/ho 
are  addressed  to  comply  with  the  call,  and 
believe  ;  that  it  is  the  Christian  minister's 
commission  to  preach  the  Gospel  to  every 
creature,  Mark  xvi.  15.;  that  the  inspired 
writers  never  confined  themselves  to  preach 
to  saints  only,  but  reasoned  with,  and  per- 
suaded sinners,  2  Cor.  v.  11  : — and,  lastly, 
that  a  general  address  to  men's  consciences 
has  been  greatly  successful  in  promoting 
their  conversion.  Acts  ii.  23,  41.  But  it  has 
been  asked,  if  none  but  the  elect  can  believe, 
and  no  man  has  any  ability  in  himself  to 
comply  with  the  call,  and  as  the  Almighty 
knows  that  none  but  those  to  whom  he  gives 
grace,  can  be  effectually  called,  of  what  use 
is  it  to  insist  on  a  general  and  external  call  ? 
To  this  it  is  answered,  that,  by  the  exter- 
nal call,  gross  enormous  crimes  are  often 
avoided ;  habits  of  vice  have  been  partly 
conquered  ;  and  much  moral  good  at  least 
has  been  produced.  It  is  also  observed,  that 
though  a  man  cannot  convert  himself,  yet 
he  has  a  power  to  do  some  things  that  are 
materially  good,  though  not  good  in  all  those 
circumstances  that  accompany  or  ftow  from 


regeneration ;  such  were  Ahab's  humility,  I 
Kings,  xxi.  29.  Nineveh's  repentance,  Jer. 
iii.  5.  and  Herod's  hearing  of  John,  Mark, 
vi.  20.  On  the  whole,  the  design  of  God  in 
giving  this  common  call  in  the  gospel  is  the 
salvation  of  his  people,  the  restraining  of 
many  from  wicked  practices,  and  the  setting 
forth  of  the  glorious  work  of  Redemption  by 
Jesus  Christ.  See  Gill  and  Ridgeley  s  Body 
of  Div.  Witsius  on  the  Cov.  ;  and  Ben- 
net's  Essay  on  the  Gospel  Dispensation. 

CALVINISTS,  those  who  embrace  the 
doctrine  and  sentiments  of  Calvin,  the  cele- 
brated reformer  of  the  Christian  church  from 
Romish  superstition  and  doctrinal  errors. 
John  Calvin  was  born  at  Nogen,  in  Picardy, 
in  the  year  1509.  He  first  studied  the  civil 
law,  and  was  afterwards  made  professor  of 
divinity  at  Geneva,  in  the  year  1536.  His 
genius,  learning,  eloquence,  and  piety,  ren- 
dered him  respectable  even  in  the  eyes  of 
his  enemies. 

The  name  of  Calvinists  seems  to  have 
been  given  at  first  to  those  who  embraced 
not  merely  the  doctrine,  but  the  church  go- 
vernment and  discipline  established  at  Ge- 
neva, and  to  distinguish  them  from  the  Lu- 
therans. But  since  the  meeting  of  the  synod 
of  Dort,  the  name  has  been  chiefly  applied  to 
those  who  embrace  his  leading  views  of 
the  Gospel  to  distinguish  them  from  the 
Arminians. 

The  leading  principles  taught  by  Calvin 
were  the  same  as  those  of  Augustine.  The 
main  doctrines  by  which  those  who  are  call- 
ed after  his  name  as  distinguished  from  the 
Arminians,  are  reduced  to  five  articles ;  and 
which,  from  their  being  the  principal  points 
discussed  at  the  synod  of  Dort,  have  since 
been  denominated  the  Jive  points.  These 
are  predestination,  particular  redemption^ 
total  depravity,  effectual  cailing,  and  the 
certain  perseverance  of  the  saints. 

The  following  statement  is  taken  princi- 
pally from  the  writings  of  Calvin,  and  the 
decisions  at  Dort,  compressed  in  as  few 
words  as  possible. 

1.  They  maintain  that  God  hath  chosen 
a  certain  number  of  the  fallen  race  of  Adam 
in  Christ,  before  the  foundation  of  the  world, 
unto  eternal  glory,  according  to  his  immuta- 
ble purpose,  and  of  his  free  grace  and  love, 
without  the  least  foresight  of  faith,  good 
works,  or  any  conditions  performed  by  the 
creature ;  and  that  the  rest  of  mankind  he 
was  pleased  to  pass  by,  and  ordain  to  dis- 
honour and  wrath,  for  their  sins,  to  the 
praise  of  his  vindictive  justice. 

In  proof  of  this  they  allege,  among  many 
other  scripture  passages,  the  following,  "  ac- 
cording as  he  hath  chosen  us  in  him  before 
the  foundation  of  the  world,  that  we  should 
be  holy  and  without  blame  before  him  in 
love. — For  he  saith  to  Moses,  I  will  have 
mercy  on  whom  I  will  have  mercy,  and  I 
will  have  compassion  on  whom  I  will  have 
compassion.  So,  then,  it  is  not  of  him  that 
willeth,  nor  of  him  that  runneth,  but  of  God, 
that  sheweth  mercv.    Thou  v/ilt  sa^■,  then. 


CAL 


6S 


CAL 


why  doth  he  yet  find  fault ;  for  vf\io  hath 
resisted  his  will  ?  Nay,  but  O  man  !  who  art 
thou  that  repliest  against  God  ?  Shall  the 
thing  formed  say  to  him  that  formed  it, 
Why  hast  thou  made  me  thus  ?  Hath  not 
the  potter  power  over  the  clay,  of  the  samt; 
lump,  to  make  one  vessel  unto  honour,  and 
another  to  dishonour  ? — Hath  God  cast  away 
his  people  whom  be /ore/cneiv  ?  Wot  ye  not 
what  the  Scripture  saith  of  Elias  ?  Even  so 
at  this  present  time,  also,  there  is  a  remnant 
according  to  the  election  of  ^race.  And  if 
by  grace,  then  it  is  no  more  ot  works.  What 
then  ?  Israel  hath  not  obtained  that  which 
he  seeketh  for,  but  the  election  hath  obtained 
it,  and  tke  rest  arc  blinded. — Whom  he  did 
predestinate,  them  he  also  called. — We  give 
thanks  to  God  gJways  for  you  brethren  be- 
loved of  the  Lord,  Because  God  hath  from 
the  beginning  chosen  you  to  salvation, 
through  sanctification  of  the  Spirit  and  be- 
lief of  the  truth. — As  many  as  Avere  ordain- 
ed to  cteiTial  life,  believed,"  Eph.  i.  4.  Rom. 
ix.  xi.  1 — 6.  viii.  29,  30.  2  Thes.  ii.  13.  Acts 
xiii.  48.  They  think  also  that  the  greater 
part  of  these  passages,  being  found  in  the 
epistolary  writings,  after  the  pouring  out  of 
the  Holy  Spirit,  who  was  promised  to  guide 
the  apostles  into  all  truth,  is  an  argument  in 
favour  of  the  doctrine. 

They  do  not  consider  predestination,  how- 
ever, as  affecting  the  agency  or  accountable- 
ness  of  creatures,  or  as  being  to  them  any 
rule  of  conduct.  On  the  contrary,  they  sup- 
pose them  to  act  as  freely,  and  to  be  as  much 
the  proper  subjects  of  calls,  warnings,  ex- 
hortations, promises,  and  threatcnings,  as  if 
no  decree  existed.  The  connection  in  which 
the  doctrine  is  introduced  by  the  divines  at 
Dort,  is  to  account  for  one  sinner's  believing 
and  being  saved  rather  than  another ;  and 
such,  the  Calvinists  say,  is  the  connection 
which  it  occupies  in  the  Scriptures. 

With  respect  to  the  conditional  predesti- 
nation admitted  by  the  Arminians,  they  say 
that  an  election  uj^on  faith  or  good  works 
foreseen,  is  not  that  of  the  Scriptures  ;  for 
that  election  is  there  made  the  cause  of  faith 
and  holiness,  and  cannot,  for  this  reason,  be 
the  effect  of  them.  With  regard  to  predes- 
tination to  death,  they  say,  if  the  question 
be.  Wherefore  did  God  decree  to  punish 
those  who  are  punished  .'  the  answer  is.  On 
account  of  their  sins.  But  if  it  be,  Where- 
fore did  he  decree  to  punish  them  rather 
than  others  i  there  is  no  other  reason  to  be 
assigned,  but  that  so  it  see?ned  good  in  his 
sight,  Eph.  i.  3,  4.  John  vi,  3r.  Rom.  viii.  29, 
30,  Acts  xiii,  48.  1  Pet.  i.  1  Rom.  ix.  15,  16. 
xi.  5,  6. 

2.  They  maintain  that  though  the  death 
of  Christ  be  a  most  perfect  sacrifice,  and 
satisfaction  for  sins,  of^  infinite  value,  abun- 
dantly sufficient  to  expiate  the  sins  of  the 
whole  world  ;  and  though  on  this  ground  the 
Gospel  is  to  be  preached  to  all  mankind  in- 
discriminately ;  yet  it  was  the  will  oi'  God 
that  Christ,  by  the  blood  of  the  cross,  should 
c-fficsriously  redeem  all  those,  and  those  only 


who  were  from  eternity  elected  to  salvation, 
and  given  to  him  by  the  Father. 

Calvin  does  not  appear  to  have  written  oi^ 
this  subject  as  a  controversy,  but  his  com- 
ments on  Scripture  agree  with  the  above 
statement.  The  following  positions  are  con- 
tained in  the  resolutions  of  the  synod  of  Dort, 
under  this  head  of  doctrine  : — "  The  death  of 
the  Son  of  God  is  the  only  and  roost  perfect 
sacrifice  and  satisfaction  for  sins  of  infinite 
value  and  price,  abundantly  sufficient  to  ex- 
piate the  sins  of  the  whole  world. — The  pro- 
mise of  the  Gospel  is,  that  whosoever  be- 
lieveth  in  Christ  crucified  shall  not  perish, 
but  have  everlasting  life  ;  which  promise  to- 
gether with  the  command  to  repent  and  be- 
lieve, ought  promiscuously  and  indiscrimi- 
nately to  be  published  and  proposed  to  all 
people  and  individuals,  to  whom  God  in  his 
good  pleasure  sends  the  Gospel — Whereas, 
many  who  are  called  by  the  Gospel  do  not 
repent  nor  believe  in  Christ,  but  perish  in 
unbelief ;  this  proceeds  not  from  any  defect 
or  insufficiency  in  the  sacrifice  of  Christ  of- 
fered oti  the  cross,  but  from  tl^eir  own  fault. 
— As  many  as  truly  believe,  and  are  saved 
by  the  death  of  Christ  from  their  sins,  and 
from  destruction,  have  to  ascribe  it  to  the 
mere  favour  of  God,  which  he  owes  to  no 
one,  given  them  in  Christ  from  eternity. —  ; 
For  it  was  the  most  free  counsel,  and  gra- 
cious will  and  intention  of  God  the  Father, 
that  the  quickening  and  saving  efficacy  of 
the  most  precious  death  of  his  Son  should 
exert  itselt  in  all  the  elect,  to  give  unto  them 
only  justifying  faith,  and  by  it  to  conduct 
them  infallibly  to  salvation  ;  that  is,  it  was 
the  will  of  God  that  Christ,  by  the  blood  of 
the  cross,  whereby  he  confirmed  the  new 
covenant,  should  efficaciously  redeem  out  of 
every  people,  tribe,  nation  and  language,  all 
those,  and  those  only,  who  were  from  eter- 
nity elected  to  salvation,  and  given  to  him  by 
the  Father."  These  positions  they  appear 
to  have  considered  as  not  only  a  declaration 
of  the  truth,  but  an  answer  to  the  argu- 
ments of  the  Remonstrants. 

In  proof  of  the  doctrine,  they  allege  among 
others  the  following  Scripture  passages: — 
"  Thou  hast  g;iven  him  power  over  all  flesh, 
that  he  should  gi\'e  etenial  life  to  as  many 
as  thou  hast  given  him — The  good  Shep- 
herd giveth  his  life  for  the  sheep. — I  lay 
do\vn  my  life  for  the  sheep. — He  died  not 
for  that  nation  only,  but  that  he  might  gather 
together  in  one  the  children  of  God  that  are 
scattered  abroad. — He  gave  himsilf  for  us, 
that  he  might  redeem  us  from  all  ijiiqulty, 
,nd  purify  unto  himself  a  peculiar  people, 
zealous  of  good  wor/cs.-Ra  loved  the  church, 
and  gave  himself  for  it,  that  he  might  "sanc- 
tify and  cleanse  it,  and  present  it  to  himself, 
Sec— And  they  sang  anew  song,  saying. 
Thou  art  worthy ;  for  thou  wast  slain,  and 
hast  redeemed  us  to  God  by  thy  blood,  out 
of  evcrv  kindred,  and  tongue,  and  people, 
.ind  nation."  Jolin  xvii.  2.  x.  11,  15.  xi.  .52. 
Tit.  ii.  14.  Eph.  v.  25—27.  Rev.  v.  9.  .^■* 

'I.  Th^v  maintain  that  mankind  are  total- 


CAL. 

V 

ly  depraved,  in  consequence  of  the  fall  of 
the  ftrst  man,  who,  being  their  public  head, 
his  sin  involved  the  corruption  of  all  his 
posterity ;  and  which  corruption  extends 
QVer  the  whole  soul,  and  renders  it  unable 
to  turn  to  God,  or  to  do  any  thing  truly  good, 
and  exposes  it  to  his  righteous  displeasure, 
both  in  this  world  and  that  which  is  to 
come. 

'I'lie  explanation  of  original  sin,  as  given 
by  Calvin,  is  as  follows:  "  Original  sin 
seems  to  be  tlie  inheritable  descending  per- 
vei-seness  and  corruption  of  our  nature,  pour- 
ed abroad  into  all  the  parts  of  the  soul,  which 
first  maketh  us  deserving  of  God's  wrath, 
and  then  also  bringeth  forth  those  works  in 
us,  called,  in  scripture,  the  works  of  the 
fiesh.  These  two  things  are  distinctly  to 
be  noted,  that  is,  that,  being  thus  in  all  parts 
of  our  nature  connipted  and  perverted,  we 
are  now,  even  for  such  corruption  only,  hol- 
den  worthy  of  damnation,  and  stand  convict- 
ed before  God,  to  whom  nothing  is  accepta- 
ble but  righteousness,  innocence,  and  purity. 
And  yet  we  are  not  bound  in  respect  of  an- 
other's fault;  for  where  it  is  said  that  by  the 
sin  of  Adam  we  are  made  subject  to  the 
judgment  of  God,  Rom  v.  18.  it  is  not  so  to 
be  taken,  as  if  we,  innocent  and  undeserving, 
did  bear  the  blame  of  his  fault ;  but  as,  in 
consequence  of  his  offence,  we  are  ultimate- 
ly clothed  with  the  curse,  therefore  it  is  said 
that  he  hath  bound  us.  Nevertheless  from 
him  not  the  punishment  only  came  upon  us, 
but  also  the  infection  distilled  from  him  abid- 
eth  in  us,  to  the  which  the  punishment  is 
justly  due." 

The  resolutions  of  the  divines  at  Dort  on 
this  head,  contain  the  following  positions. 
"  Such  as  man  was  after  the  fall,  such  chil- 
dren did  he  beget — Corruption  by  the  righ- 
teous judgment  of  God  being  derived  from 
Adam  to  his  posterity — not  by  imitation,  but 
by  the  propagp.tion  of  a  vicious  nature. 
VV'herefore  all  men  are  conceived  in  sin,  and 
are  born  the  children  of  wrath,  unfit  for 
every  good  connected  with  salvation,  prone 
to  evil,  dead  in  sins,  and  the  servants  of 
sin ;  and  without  the  Holy  Spirir  regenerat- 
ing them,  they  neither  will  nor  can  return 
to  God,  amend  their  depraved  natures,  nor 
dispose  themsehes  for  its  amendment. 

In  proof  of  this  doctrine,  the  Calvinists 
allege,  among  other  scripture  passages,  the 
following :  "  By  one  man  sin  entered  into  the 
world,  and  death  by  sin  ;  and  so  death  pass- 
ed upon  all  men,  far  that  all  have  sinned. — 
By  one  man's  disobedience  many  were  made 
sinners. — I  was  bom  in  sin,  and  shapen  ^n 
iniquity — God  saw  that  the  wickedness  oi 
man  was  great  upon  the  earth,  and  that 
every  imagination  of  his  heart  was  only 
evil  CMitinually.^-God  looked  down  from 
heaven  upon  the  children  of  men,  to  see  if 
there  were  any  that  did  understand,  that 
did  seek  God.  Every  one  of  them  is  gone 
back ;  they  are  altogether  become  filthy; 
there  is  none  that  doth  good,  no  not  one  — 
And  you  hath  he  quickened  who  were  dead 


63 


CAL 


in  tres/ianses  and  sms.  Wherein  in  time, 
past  ye  walked  according  to  the  course  o| 
this  world  among  whom  also  itfe  ail  had  out 
conversation  in  times  past,  in  the  lust  of  our 
fiefih,  fulfilling  the  desires  of  the  flesh  and 
of  the  mind  ;  and  were  by  nature  the  chil" 
dren  of  ivrath,  even  as  others."  Rom.  v. 
12—19.  Ps.  H.  5.  Gen.  vi.  5.  Ps.  liii.  2,  3. 
Rom.  jii.  Eph.  ii.  1—3. 

4.  They  maintain  that  all  whom  God  hath 
predestinated  unto  life,  he  is  pleased,  in  his 
appointed  time,  effectually  to  Call  by  his  word 
and  Spirit  out  of  that  state  of  sin  and  death 
in  which  they  are  by  nature,  to  grace  an<l 
salvation  by  Jesus  Christ. 

They  admit  that  the  Holy  Spirit,  as  call- 
ing men  by  the  ministry  of  the  Gospel,  ma/ 
be  resisted ;  and  that  where  this  is  the  case, 
"  the  fault  is  not  in  the  Gospel,  nor  in  Christ 
offered  by  the  Gospel,  nor  in  God  calling  by 
the  (iospel,  and  also  conferring  various  gifts 
upon  them  ;  but  in  the  called  themselves. 
They  contend,  however,  that  where  men 
come  at  the  divine  call,  and  are  converted^ 
it  is  not  to  be  ascribed  to  themselves,  as 
though  by  their  own  free  will  they  made 
themselves  to  differ,  but  merely  to  him  who 
delivers  them  from  the  power  of  darkness, 
and  traiislates  them  into  the  kingdom  of  his 
dear  Son,  and  whose  regenerating  influence  is 
certain  and  efficacious." 

In  proof  of  this  doctrine  the  Calvinists  al- 
lege, among  others,  the  following  scripture 
passages :  • '  Whom  he  did  predestinate,  them 
he  also  called ;  and  whom  he  called,  them 
he  also  glorified. — That  ye  may  know  what 
is  the  exceeding  greatness  of  his  power  to 
US-ward  who  believe,  according  to  the  work- 
ing of  his  mighty  power,  which  he  wrought 
in  Christ  when  he  raised  him  from  the  dead. 
— Not  of  works,  lest  any  man  should  boast. 
For  we  are  his  nvorkmanshifi,  created  in 
Christ  Jesus  unto  good  works. — God,  that 
commanded  the  light  to  shine  out  of  dark- 
ness, hath  shined  into  our  hearts,  &c. — I" 
will  take  away  the  stony  heart  out  of  their 
flesh,  and  will  give  them  hearts  of  flesh." 
Rom.  viii  29.  Eph.  i.  19,  20.  ii.  9,  10.  2  Cor. 
iv.  6.    Ezek.  xxxvi.  26. 

5.  Lastly :  They  maintain  that  those  whom 
God  has  effectually  called,  and  sanctified  by 
his  Spirit,  shall  never  finally  fall  from  a  state 
of  grace.  'I'hey  admit  that  true  believers 
may  fall  partially,  and  would  fall  tota'ly  and 
finally  but  for  the  mercy  and  faithfulness  of 
God,  who  keepeth  the  feet  of  his  saints ; 
also,  that  he  who  bestoweth  the  grace  of 
perseverance,  bestoweth  it  by  means  of  read- 
ing and  hearing  the  word,  meditation,  exhor- 
tations, threatenings,  and  promises ;  but  that 
none  of  these  things  imply  the  possibility  of 
a  believer's  falling  from  a  state  of  justifica- 
tion, 

In  proof  of  ■this  doctrine  they  allege  the 
following  among  other  scripture  passages: — 
"  I  will  put  my  fear  in  their  hearts,  and 
they  shall  not  defmrt  from,  mc. — He  that  be- 
lieveth,  and  is  baptized,  shall  be  saved. — 
I  The  water  that  I  shall  give  him  shall  be  in 


CAL 


64 


CAM 


him  a  well  of  water  sfiringing  ii{i  into  ever- 
lasting life. — This  is  the  Father's  will,  that 
of  all  whicji  ke  hath  gi-ven  me  I  should  lose 
nothing. — This  is  Ife  eternal^  to  know  thee, 
the  only  true  God,  and  Jesus  Christ  whom 
thou  hast  sent — Whosocrver  is  born  of  God 
doth  not  commit  sin,  for  his  seed  remai4ieth 
in  him;  and  he  cannot  sin,  because  he  is  born 
of  God. — They  went  out  from  us,  but  they 
were  not  ofus;  for  if  they  had  been  of  us, 
they  would  have  continued \i\\h  us:  but  they 
went  out,  that  they  might  be  made  manifest 
that  they  were  not  all  of  us. — Now  unto  him 
that  is  able  to  keep,  you  from  falling,  and  to 
firesejit  you  faultless  before  the  presence  of 
his  glory  with  exceeding  joy,  to  the  only  wise 
God  our  Saviour,  be  glory  and  majesty,  do- 
minion and  power,  both  now  and  ever,  amen." 
Jer.  xxxii  40  Mark  xvi.  16.  John  iv.  14.  vi. 
40.  xvii.  3.  1  John  iii.  9.  ii.  19.  Jude  24,  25. 

Such  were  the  doctrines  of  the  old  Calvin- 
ists,  and  such  in  substance  are  those  of  the 
present  times.  In  this,  however,  as  in  every 
other  denomination,  there  are  considerable 
shades  of  difference. 

Some  think  Calvin,  though  right  in  the 
main,  yet  carried  things  too  tar ;  these  are 
commonly  known  by  the  name  of  Moderate 
Cahinists.  Others  think  he  did  not  go  far 
enough  ;  and  these  are  known  by  the  name  of 
High  Cah'inists. 

It  is  proper  to  add,  that  the  Calvinistic  sys- 
tem includes  in  it  the  doctrine  of  three  co- 
ordinate persons  in  the  Godhead,  in  one  na- 
ture, and  of  two  natures  in  Jesus  Christ, 
forming  one  person.  Justification  by  faith 
alone,  or  justification  by  the  imputed  righte- 
ousness of  Christ,  forms  also  an  essential  part 
of  this  system.  They  suppose  that  on  the  one 
hand  our  sins  are  imputed  to  Christ,  and  on 
the  other,  that  we  are  justified  by  the  impu- 
tation of  Christ's  righteousness  to  us ;  that 
is,  Christ,  the  innocent,  was  treated  by  God 
as  if  he  were  guilty,  that  we,  the  guilty, 
might,  out  of  regard  to  what  he  did  and  suf- 
fered, be  treated  as  if  we  were  innocent  and  I 
righteous. 

Calvinism  originally  subsisted  in  its  great- 
est purity  in  the  city  of  Geneva ;  from  which 
place  it  was  first  propagated  into  Germany, 
France,  the  United  Provinces,  andBritain.  In 
France  it  was  abolished  by  the  edict  of  Nantz, 
in  1685.  It  has  been  the  prevailing  religion  in 
the  United  Provinces  ever  since  1571.  The 
theological  system  of  Calvin  was  adopted  and 
made  the  public  rule  of  faith  in  England  un- 
der tlie  reign  of  Edward  VI.  The  church  of 
Scotland  also  was  modelled  by  John  Knox, 
agreeably  to  the  doctrine,  rites,  and  form  of 
ecclesiastical  government  <  stablished  at  Ge- 
neva. In  England,  Calvinism  had  been  on  the 
decline  from  the  time  of  queen  Elizabeth 
until  about  sixty  years  ago,  when  it  was  again 
revived,  and  has  been  on  the  increase  ever 
since.  The  major  part  of  the  clergy,  indeed, 
are  not  Calvinists,  though  the  articles  of  the 
church  of  Englaiid  are  Calvinistical.  It  de- 
serves to  be  rL-marked,  however, that  Calvin- 
is.m  is  preached  in  a  considerable  number  of 


the  churches  in  London ;  in  nearly  all  the  dis- 
senting meetings  of  the  Presbyterians,  Bap- 
tists, and  Independents;  and  in  all  the  chapels 
of  Whitfield,  Lady  Huntingdon,  and  ethers  of 
that  class.  In  Scotland  it  continues  also  to 
exist  as  the  established  religion ;  and  with- 
in a  few  years  it  has  much  revived  in  that 
country,  through  the  influence  of  Mr.  Hal- 
dane  and  others ;  but  as  those  among  whom 
this  revival  has  taken  place  are  not  of  the 
established  church,  they  have  been  treated 
with  indifference  by  the  clergy,  and  called 
Halda7iists. 

Calvin  considered  every  church  as  a  sepa- 
rate and  independent  body,  invested  with  the 
power  of  legislation  for  itself  Hr  proposed 
that  it  should  be  governed  by  presbyteiies 
and  synods  composed  of  clergy  andlaity,  with- 
out bishops,  or  any  clerical  subordination  ;  and 
maiotained  that  the  province  of  the  civil  ma- 
gistrate extended  only  to  its  protection  and 
outward  accommodation.  He  acknowledged 
a  real  though  spiritual  presence  of  Christ  in 
the  eucharist;  and  he  confined  the  privilege 
of  communion  to  pious  and  regenerate  be- 
lievers. These  sentiments,  however,  are  not 
imbibed  by  all  who  are  called  Calvinists. 

See  Calvin's  Institutes  :  -Life  of  Calvin  ; 
Brine's  Tracts;  Jonathan  Edwards'  Works; 
Gill's  Cause  of  God  and  Truth  ;  Toplady's 
Historic  Proof  and  Works  at  large;  .Assem- 
bly's Catechism  ;  Fuller's  Calvinistic  and 
Socinian  Systems  contfiared. 

CAMALDOLITES,  an  order  founded  by 
St.  Romuald,  an  Italian  fanatic,  in  the  ele- 
venth century.  The  manner  of  life  he  enjoin- 
ed his  discipTes  to  observe  was  this : — They 
dwelt  in  separate  cells,  and  n>et  together 
only  at  the  time  of  prayer.  Some  of  them, 
during  the  two  Lents  in  the  year,  observed 
an  inviolable  silence,  and  others  for  the  space 
of  a  hundred  days  On  Sundays  and  Thurs- 
days they  fed  on  herbs,  and  the  rest  of  the 
week.  <in'v  on  bread  ai  d  watfr. 

CAMBR^GE  manuscript,  a  copy 
of  the  Gospels  and  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  in 
Greek  and  Latin.  Beza  found  it  in  the  mo- 
nastery of  IreuEUS,  at  Lyons,  in  1562,  and 
gave  it  to  the  university  of  Cambridge  in 
1582.  It  is  a  quarto,  and  written  on  vellum  : 
sixty-six  leaves  of  it  are  much  torn  and  mu- 
tilated ;  and  ten  of  these  are  supplied  by  a 
later  transcriber.  From  this  and  the  Cler- 
mont C'-py  of  St.  Paul's  epistles,  Beza  pub- 
lished his  larger  annotations  in  1582.  See 
Dr.  Kipling's  edition  of  it, 

CAMERONIANS,  a  sect  in  Scotland, 
who  separated  from  the  Presbyterians  in 
1666,  and  continued  long  to  hold  their  reli- 
gious assemblies  in  the  fields.  They  took  their 
name  from  Richard  Cameron,  a  famous  field- 
preacher,  who,  refusing  to  accept  the  indul- 
gence to  tender  consciences,  granted  by  king 
Charles  II.,  thinking  such  an  acceptance  an 
acknowledgment  of  the  king's  supremacy, 
made  a  defection  from  his  brethren,  and  even 
headed  a  rebellion,  in  which  he  was  killed. 
The  Cameronians  adhere  rigidly  to  the  form 
of  government  established  in  1648.  There  are 


CAN 


65 


CAN 


not,  it  is  said,  above  fourteen  or  fifteen  con- 
gregations among  them,  and  these  not 
large. 

CAMERONIANS,  or  Camkronites, 
the  denomination  of  a  party  of  Calvinists  in 
IFrance,  who  asserted  that  the  will  of  man  is 
only  determined  by  the  practical  judgment 
of  the  mind  ;  that  the  cause  of  men's  doing 
good  or  evil  proceeds  from  the  knowledge 
which  G)d  infuses  into  them;  and  that  God 
does  not  move  tlie  will  physically,  but  only 
morally,  in  virtue  of  its  dependance  on  the 
judgment.  They  had  this  name  from  John 
Cameron,  who  was  born  at  Glasgo%y  in  1580, 
and  who  was  professor  there,  and  afterwards 
at  Bourdeaux,  Sedan,  and  Saunnn-.  The 
synod  of  Uort  was  severe  upon  them  ;  yet  it 
seems  the  only  difference  was  this : — The 
synod  had  defined  that  God  not  only  illu- 
rninates  the  understanding,  but  gives  motion 
to  the  will,  by  making  an  internal  change 
therein.  Cameron  only  admitted  the  illu- 
mination whereby  the  mind  is  morally  mov- 
ed ;  and  explained  the  sentiment  of  the  sy- 
nod of  Dort  so  as  to  make  the  two  opinions 
consistent 

CANDOUR  is  a  disposition  to  form  a  fair 
and  impartial  judgment  on  the  opinions  and 
actions  of  others  ;  or  a  temper  of  mind  un- 
soured  by  envy,  unruffled  by  malice,  and  un- 
seduced  by  prejudice  ;  sweet  without  weak- 
ness, and  impartial  without  rigour.  Candour 
is  a  word  which,  in  the  present  day,  is  found 
exceedingly  convenient.  To  the  infidel  it  is 
a  shelter  for  his  scepticism,  to  the  ignorant 
for  his  ignorance,  to  the  lukewai'm  for  his 
indifference,  and  to  the  irreligious  for  their 
error.  *'  True  candour  is  different  from 
that  guarded,  inoffensive  language,  and  that 
studied  openness  of  behaviour,  which  we  so 
frequently  meet  with  among  men  of  the 
world.  It  consists  not  in  fairness  of  speech 
only,  but  in  fairness  of  heart.  It  is  not  blind 
attachment,  external  courresy,  or  a  time- 
serving principle.  Exempt,  on  the  one  hand, 
from  the  dark  jealousy  of  a  suspicious  mind, 
it  is  no  less  removed,  on  the  other,  from 
that  easy  credulity  which  is  imposed  on  by 
every  specious  pretence.  Its  manners  are 
imaffected,  and  its  professions  sincere.  '  It 
conceals  faults,  but  it  does  not  invent  vir- 
tues.' In  fine,  it  is  the  happy  medium  be- 
tween undistinguishing  credulity  and  uni- 
versal suspicion."    See  Liberality. 

CANON,  a  word  used  to  denote  the  au- 
thorized catalogue  of  the  sacred  writings. 
"  The  Grfek  word  x.«vft>v,''  says  Dr.  Owen, 
"  which  gives  rise  to  the  term  ca?ionicu/, 
seems  to  be  derived  from  the  Hebrew  T\2p 
kaneh,  which  in  general  signifies  any  reed 
whatever,  1  Kings  xiv.  15.  Isa.  xliii-  3.  and 
particularly  a  reed  made  into  an  instrument, 
'  wherewith  they  measured  their  buildings, 
containing  six  cubits  in  length,  Ezek.  xl.  7. 
xliii.  16.  and  hetjce  indefinitely  it  is  taken 
for  a  r?{lc  or  measure.  Besides,  it  signifies 
the  beam  and  tongue  of  a  balance,  Isa.  xlvi. 
6  '  'i'hey  wt-iglied  silver  on  the  cane ;'  that 
is,  saith  the  Targum,     '   In  the  balance." 


Tliis  also  is  the  primary  and  proper  signifi- 
cation of  tlie  Greek  word.  Hence  its  meta- 
phorical use,  which  is  most  common,  where- 
in it  signifies  a  moral  rule.  Aristotle  calls 
the  law  Kotvsvat  t^j?  7roA/7£<«?,  the  rule  of  the 
administration  ;  and  hence  it  is  that  the 
written  word  of  God  being  in  itself  abso- 
lutely right.,  and  appointed  to  be  the  rule  of 
faith  and  obedience,  is  eminently  called 
'  canonical.'  " 

The  ancient  canon  of  the  books  of  the 
Old  Testament,  ordinarily  attributed  to 
Ezra,  was  divided  into  the  law,  the  pro- 
phets, and  the  hagiographia,  to  which,  our 
Saviour  refers,  Luke  xxiv.  45.  The  same 
division  is  also  mentioned  by  J'isephus.  This 
is  the  canon  allowed  to  have  been  followed 
by  the  primitive  church  till  the  council  of 
Carthage  ;  and,  according  to  Jerome,  this 
consisted  of  no  more  than  twenty-two  books, 
answering  to  the  number  of  the  Hebrew  al- 
phabet, though  at  present  they  are  classed, 
into  twenty-four  divisions.  That  council  en- 
larged the  canon  very  considerably,  taking 
into  it  the  apocryphal  books ;  which  the 
council  of  Trent  farther  enforced,  enjoining 
them  to  be  received  as  books  of  holy  scrip- 
ture, upon  pain  of  anathema.  The  Roman- 
ists in  defence  of  this  canon  say,  that  it  is 
the  same  with  that  of  the  council  of  Hippo 
held  in  393 ;  and  with  that  of  the  third  coun- 
cil of  Carthage  in  397,  at  which  were  pre- 
sent forty-six  bishops,  and  among  the  rest 
St.  Augustine.  Their  canon  of  the  New 
Testament,  however,  perfectly  agrees  with 
ours.  It  consists  of  books  that  are  well 
known,  some  of  which  have  been  universally 
acknowledged:  such  are  the  four  Gospels,  the 
Acts  of  the  Apostles,  thirteen  epistles  of  St. 
Paul,  first  of  St.  Peter,  and  first  of  St.  John; 
and  others,  concerning  which  doubts  were 
entertained,  but  which  were  afterwards  re- 
ceived as  genuine  ;  such  are  the  epistle  to 
the  Hebrews,  thnt  of  James,  the  second  of 
F(^ter,  the  second  and  third  of  John,  that  of 
Jude,  and  the  Revelation.  These  books  were 
written  at  different  times  ;  and  they  are  au- 
tiienticated  not  by  the  decrees  of  councils, 
or  infallible  authority,  but  by  such  evidence 
as  is  thought  suflicient  in  the  case  of  any 
other  ancient  writings.  They  were  exten- 
sively diffused,  and  read  in  every  Christian 
society  ;  they  were  valued  and  preserved 
with  care  by  the  first  Christians ;  they  were 
cited  by  Christian  writers  of  the  second, 
third,  and  fourth  centuries,  as  Irenscus,  Cle- 
ment, the  Alexandrian,  Tertnllian,  Origen, 
Eusebius,  &c. ;  and  their  genuineness  is 
])rnvt'd  by  the  testimony  of  tiles';  who  were 
contemporary  with  the  apostles  themselves. 
The  four  Gospels,  and  most  of  the  other 
Ijonks  of  the  New  Testament,  were  collected 
cither  by  one  of  the  apostles,  or  some  of 
their  disciples  and  successors,  before  the 
end  of  the  first  century.  The  catalogue  of 
canonical  books  furnished  by  the  more  an- 
cient Christian  wnters^^s  Origen,  about 
;\.  D.  210,  Eusebius  and  Athanasius  in  315, 
Epiphanius  in  370,  Jerome  in  382,  Austin  in 


CAN 


66 


CAR 


394,  and  may  others,  agrees  with  that 
which  is  now  received  among  Christians. 

See  articles  Bible,  Christianity, 
Scriptures;  Blair's  Canon  of  Scrifiture  ; 
Jones'  Canonical  Authority  of  the  Neiv 
Test.  ;  Michaelis'  Lect,  on  the  JVenv  Test.; 
Du  Pin's  Canon  of  Script.,  v.  i. ;  Pri- 
deaux^s  Connections,  v.  i. ;  Dr.  Owen  on 
the  Hebrews,  Introd. 

CANON,  a  person  who  possesses  a"^  pre- 
bend or  revenue  allotted  for  the  performance 
of  divine  service  in  a  cathedral  or  collegiate 
church.  Canons  are  of  no  great  antiquit3^ 
Paschier  observes,  that  the  name  was  not 
known  before  Charlemagne ;  at  least,  the 
first  we  hear  of  are  in  Gregory  de  Tours, 
who  mentions  a  college  of  canons  instituted 
by  Baldwhi  XVI.  archbishop  of  that  city,  in 
the  time  of  Clotharius  I.  The  common 
opinion  attributes  the  institution  of  this  order 
to  Chrodegangus,  bishop  of  Mentz,  about  the 
middle  of  the  eighth  century. 

CANON,  i*i  an  ecclesiastical  sense,  is  a 
rule  either  of  doctrine  or  discipline,  enacted 
especially  by  a  council,  and  confirmed  by 
the  authority  of  the  sovereign.  Canons  are 
properly  decisions  of  matters  of  religion,  or 
regulations  of  the  policy  and  discipline  of  a 
church,  made  by  councils,  either  general,  na- 
tional, or  provisional ;  such  are  the  canons 
of  the  council  of  Nice,  of  Trant,  &c. 

CANONICAL  HOURS  are  certain  sta- 
ted times  of  the  day  consigned  more  espe- 
cially by  the  Romish  church  to  the  offices 
of  prayer  and  devotion ;  such  are  matins, 
lauds,  &c.  In  England,  the  canonical  hours 
are  from  eight  to  twelve  in  the  forenoon  , 
before  or  after  which  marriage  cannot  be 
legally  performed  in  any  church. 

CANONICAL  LETTERS,  in  the  an- 
cient church,  were  testimonials  of  the  or- 
thodox faith  which  the  bishops  and  clergy 
sent  each  other  to  keep  up  the  catholic 
communion,  and  distinguish  orthodox  Chris- 
tians from  heretics. 

CONONICAL  LIFE,  the  rule  of  living 
prescribed  by  the  ancient  clergy  who  lived 
in  Community.  The  canonical  life  was  a 
kind  of  medium  between  the  monastic  and 
clerical  lives. 

CANONICAL  OBEDIENCE,  is  that 
submission  which,  by  the  ecclesiastical  laws, 
the  inferior  clergy  are  to  pay  to  their  bi- 
shops, an<l  the  religious  to  their  superiors- 

CANONIZATION,  a  ceremony  in  the 
Komish  church,  by  which  persons  deceased 
are  ranked  in  the  catalogue  of  the  saints.  It 
succeeds  beatification.  Before  a  beatified 
person  is  canonized,  the  qualifications  of  the 
candidat'^  are  strictly  examined  into,  in  some 
consistories  held  fur  that  pui-pnsc ;  after 
which  one  of  the  consistorial  advocates,  in 
the  presence  of  the  pope  and  cardinals, 
makes  the  panegyric  of  the  person  who  is  tr- 
be  proclaimed  a  saint,  and  gives  a  particuhn 
detail  of  hi.s  Ijife  and  miracles  ;  which  beint 
done,  the  holy  father  decrees  his  canoniza- 
tion, and  appoints  the  day. 

On  the  day  of  canonization,  the  pope  offi 


dates  in  white,  and  their  eminences  are 
dressed  in  the  same  colour.  St.  Peter's 
church  is  hung  with  rich  tapestry,  upon 
which  the  arms  of  the  pope,  and  of  the 
prince  or  state  requiring  the  canonization, 
are  embroidered  in  gold  and  silver.  A  great 
number  of  lights  blaze  all  around  the  church, 
which  is  crowded  with  pious  souls,  who  wait 
with  devout  impatience  till  the  new  saint  has 
made  his  public  entry,  as  it  were,  into  para- 
dise, that  they  may  offer  up  their  petitions 
to  him  without  danger  of  being  rejected. 

The  following  maxim  with  regard  to  ca- 
nonization is  now  observed,  though  it  has 
not  been  followed  abuve  a  century,  viz.  not 
to  enter  into  the  inquiries  prior  t^  canoniza- 
tion till  fifty  years,  at  least,  after  the  death 
of  the  person  to  be  canonized  By  the  cere- 
mony of  canonization  it  appears  that  this 
rite  of  thf  modem  Romans  has  soniething  in 
it  veryhke  the  apotheosis  or  deification  of  the 
ancient  Romans,  and  in  all  probability  takes 
its  rise  from  it ;  at  least,  several  ceremonies 
of  the  same  nature  are  conspicuous  in  both. 

CAPUCHINS,  religious,  of  the  order  of 
St.  Francis.  They  are  clothed  with  brown 
or  grey ;  always  bare-footed  ;  never  go  in  a 
coach,  nor  ever  shave  their  beards.. 

CAPUTIATI,  a  denomination  which  ap- 
peared in  the  twelfth  century,  so  called 
from  a  shigular  kind  f  f  cap  which  distin- 
guished their  party.  They  wore  upon  their 
caps  a  leaden  image  of  the  Virgin  Mary, 
and  declared  publicly  that  their  purpose  Avas 
to  level  all  distinctions,  to  abrogate  *magis- 
tracy,  and  to  remove  all  subordination  among 
mankind,  and  to  restore  that  primitive  liber- 
ty, that  natural  equality,  which  were  the 
inestimable  privilege  of  the  first  mortals. 

CARAITES,  a  Jewish  sect,  which  ad- 
heres closely  to  the  text  and  letter  of  the 
scriptures,  rejecting  the  rabbinical  interpre- 
tations and  the  cabbala.  The  Talmud  ap- 
pearing in  the  beginning  of  the  sixth  cen- 
tury, those  of  the  best  sense  among  the  Jews 
were  disgusted  at  the  ridiculous  fables  with 
which  it  abounded.  But  about  the  year  750, 
Anan,  a  Babylonish  Jew,  declared  openly  for 
the  written  word  of  God  alone,  exclusive  of 
all  tradition ;  and  this  declaration  produced 
a  schism.  Those  wh«  maintained  the  Tal- 
mud being  almost  all  rabbins,  were  ca11«d 
rabbinists ,  and  the  others,  who  rejected  tra- 
ditions, were  called  Caraites,  or  Scripturists, 
from  the  word  cara,  which  in  the  Babylonish 
language  signifies  scripture.    , 

CARDINAL,  one  of  the  chief  governors 
of  the  Romish  church,  by  whom  the  pope 
is  elected  out  of  their  own  number,  which 
contain  six  bishops,  fifty  priests,  and  four- 
teen deacons :  these  constitute  the  sacred 
college,  and  are  chosen  by  the  pope.  See 
Pope. 

CARDINAL  VIKTUES:  justice,  pru- 
dence, temperance,  and  fortitude,  are  called 
■he  four  cardinal  virtues,  as  l)eiiig  the  basis 
'.f  ;dl  the  rest.  See  Justice,  &c. 

CARE,  concern,  or  anxiety  of  mind  aris- 
ing from  the  uncertainty  of  something  fu- 


CAR 


67 


CAS 


ture,  or  the  oppression  of  the  present  cala- 
mity. Caution,  attention  to  a  particular  sub- 
ject ;  regard  and  support,  wheti  followed 
.with  the  particle  of  Frudtnce  signifies  wis- 
dom, applied  to  practice  ;  discretion  is  the 
effect  ot  prudence,  and  means  a  knowledge 
to  govern  or  direct  one's  self:  by  care  we 
understand  need  in  order  to  preservation ; 
caution  implies  a  greater  degree  of  wari- 
ness. 

Care  is  laiuful  when  it  consists  in  a  seri- 
ous thought  and  earnest  endeavour  to  please 
God  ;  to  embrace  his  Son,  obey  his  com- 
mands, submit  to  his  providence,  to  promote 
our  neighbour's  temporal  or  spiritual  advan- 
tage, and  to  gain  the  goods  of  tliis  life  so  far 
as  necessary  for  our  health,  family,  comfort, 
and  usefulness.  It  is  sinful,  when  it  leads 
BS  to  immoderate  concern  about  earthly 
things :  to  be  discontented  with  our  lot,  or 
to  make  use  of  unlawful  means  to  obtain 
worldly  good  ;  or  when  exercised  in  a  way 
of  vain  curiosi^,  John  xxi.  22. 

CARE  OF  THE  SOUL,  a  term  used  for 
religion,  or  that  serious  attention  we  ought 
to  pay  to  our  best  interests.  It  imports  re- 
pentance, faith,  devotion  and  obedience. 
"It  is  considered  as  the  one  thing  needful; 
as  1.  It  is  matter  of  universal  concern.  2. 
Of  the  highest  importance.  3.  Includes  every 
thing  worthy  of  our  regard."  4.  Essential 
to  our  peace  here.  5.  Without  it  we  cannot 
obtain  everlasting  life,  Luke  x  42.  vi.  Jer. 
16.  Heb  xii.  14, 

CARE  OF  GOD.  is  his  attention  to  and 
concern  for  the  promotion  of  the  welfare  of 
his  creatures,  1  Pet.  v.  7.  1.  That  God 
does  manifest  this  care  is  evident  from  the 
biessings  we  enjoy,  the  ordinances  he  has 
instituted,  the  promises  he  has  given,  and 
the  provision  he  has  made,  Ps.  Ixxxiv.  11. 
Matt.  vii.  12. — 2.  This  care  is  entirely  free 
and  unmerited  on  our  part.  Gen.  xxxii.  10. 
Deut.  vii.  6.  Rom.  iii.  23. — 3.  It  is  every  way 
extensive,  reaching  to  all  his  creatures  and 
to  all  cases,  Ps  cxlv. — 4.  It  is  superior  to  all 
human  care  and  attention.  He  cares  for  us 
when  others  cannot ;  when  othei-s  will  not 
care  for  us ;  or  when  we  cannot  or  will  not 
care  for  oui-selves,  Ps.  cxlii.  4,  5.  Jer.  xlix. 
11.  Ps  xli.  3. — 5.  It  is  not  only  great,  but 
perpetual.  Through  all  the  scenes  of  life, 
in  death,  and  for  ever,  Heb.  xiii.  5.  John  xvii. 
9.  See  Providence. 

CARMA'lHiTES;  the  followers  of  a 
noted  impostor  in  the  ninth  century,  who 
endeavoured  to  overthrow  all  the  founda- 
tions of  Miissulmanism.  Carmatli  their  pro- 
phet was  a  person  of  great  austerity  of  life  ; 
and  said  that  God  had  commanded  him  to 
pray  not  Jive  times,  with  the  mussulmans, 
but  Jifiy  times  a  day.  To  comply  with  this, 
they  often  ne.glected  their  business:  they 
ate  many  things  forbid<len  by  the  law  of 
Mahomet,  and  believed  that  angels  were 
their  guides  in  all  their  actions,  and  that  the 
demons  or  ghosts  are  their  enemies. 

CARMELITES,  one  of  the  four  tribes  of 
mendicants,  or  begging  friai-s ;   so  named 


from  Mount  Carmel,  formerly  inhabited  by 
Elias,  Elisha,  and  the  children  of  tlie  pro- 
phets; from  whom  this  order  pretends  to 
descend  in  uninterrupted  succession.  Their 
habit  was  at  first  white  ;  but  pope  Honorius 
IV.  commanded  them  to  change  it  for  that 
of  the  Minims  They  wear  no  linen  shirts, 
but,  instead  of  them,  linsey-woolsey. 

CARPOCRATIANS,  a  branch  ©f  the  an- 
cient Gnostics,  so  called  from  Carpocrates, 
who  in  the  second  century  revived  and  im- 
proved upon  the  errors  of  Simon  Magus, 
Menender,  Saturninus,  and  other  Gnostics. 
See  Gnostics. 

CARTHUSIANS,  a  religious  order  found- 
ed A.  D.    1080,  by  one    Brudo  ;    so    called  * 
from  the  desert    (Jhartreux,  the  place  of, 
their  institution.  Their  rule  is  extremely  se-  * 
vere.  Tney  must  not  go  out  of  their  cells, 
except  to  church,  without  leave  of  their  su- . 
perior;   nor  speak  to  any  person    without  v 
leave.  They  must  not  keep  any  meat  or  drink 
till  next  day  ,  their  beds  are  of  straw  covered 
with  a  felt ;  their  clothing,  two  hair  cloths, 
two  cowls,  two  pair  of  hose,  and  a  cloak  ; 
all  coarse.  In  the  refectory  they  must  keep 
their  eyes  on  the  dish,  their   hands  on  the 
table,    their    attention   to  the  reader,  and 
their  hearts  fixed  on   God.     Women  must 
not  come  into  their  churches. 

CASUALTY,  an  event  that  is  not  fore- 
seen or  intended.  See  Contingency. 

CASUIST,  one  that  studies  and  settles 
cases  of  conscience  It  is  said  that  Escobar 
has  made  a  collection  of  the  opinions  of  all 
the  casuists  before  him.  M.  Le  Feore,  pre- 
ceptor of  Louis  XIII.  called  the  books  of  the 
casuist*  the  art  of  quibbling  with  God ; 
which  does  not  seem  far  from  truth,  by  rea- 
son of  the  multitude  of  distinctions  and  sub- 
tleties they  abound  with.  Mayer  has  pub- 
lished a  bibliotheca  of  casuists,  containing 
an  account  of  all  the  writers  on  cases  of  con- 
science, ranged  under  three  heads  ;  the  first 
comprehending  the  Lutheran,  the  second 
the  Calvinist,  and  the  third  the  Romish  ca- 
suists, 

CASUISTRY,  the  doctrine  and  science 
of  conscience  and  its  cases,  with  the  rules 
and  principles  of  resolving  the  same  ;  drawn 
partly  from  natural  reason  or  equity,  and 
partly  from  the  authority  of  scripture,  the 
canon  law,  councils,  fathers,  &c.  To  casu- 
istry belongs  the  decision  of  all  difficulties 
arising  about  what  a  man  may,  lavvfuUy  do 
or  not  do,  what  is  sin  or  not  sin;  what 
things  a  man  is  obliged  to  do  in  order  to  dis- 
charge his  duty,  and  what  he  may  let  alone 
without  breach  of  it. 

Some  suppose  that  all  books  of  casuistry 
are  as  useless  as  they  are  tiresome.  One 
who  is  really  anxious  to  do  his  dutj'  must  be 
very  weak,  it  is  said,  if  he  cun  imagine  that 
he  has  much  occasion  for  them ;  and  with 
regard  to  any  one  who  is  negligent  of  it,  the 
style  of  those  writings  is  not  such  as  is  likely 
to  awaken  him  to  more  attention.  The  ^ivo- 
lous  accuracy  which  casuists  attempt  to  in- 
troduce kito  subjects  which  do  not  admit  of 


GAT 


68 


CAT 


it,  almost  necessarily  betray  them  into  dan- 
gerous errors;  and  at  the  same  time  render 
their  works  dry  and  disagreeable,  abounding 
in  abstruse  and  metaphysical  distinclions, 
but  incapable  of  exciting  in  the  heart  any 
of  those  emotions  wliich  it  is  the  principal 
use  of  books  of  morality  to  produce. 

On  the  other  hand,  I  think  it  may  be  ob- 
served, that,  though  these  remarks  may  ap- 
ply to  some,  they  cannot  apply  to  all  books 
of  casuistry.  It  must  be  acknowledged  that 
nice  distinctions,  metaphysical  reasonings, 
and  abstruse  terms,  cannot  be  of  much  ser- 
vice to  the  generality,  because  there  are  so 
few  who  can  enter  into  them  ;  yet,  when  we 
consider  how  much  light  is  thrown  up;  n  a 
subject  by  the  force  of  good  reasoning,  by 
viewing  a  case  in  all  its  bearings,  by  proper- 
ly considering  all  the  objections  that  may  be 
made  to  it,  and  by  examining  it  .in  every 
point  of  view;  if  we  consider  also  how  little 
some  men  arc  accustomed  to  think,  and  yet 
at  the  same  time  possess  that  tenderness  of 
conscience  which  makes  them  fearful  of  do- 
ing wrong;  we  must  conclude  that  such 
works  as  these,  when  properly  executed, 
may  certainly  be  of  considerable  advantage 
The  reader  may  consult  Zincs''  Povjcr  and 
Cases  of  CoJiscience  ;  Bisfiofi  Taylor's  Duc- 
lor  Dubitantiiun ;  Dr.  Saunderson''s  De 
Obligatione  Conscientix ;  Pike  and  Haij- 
wan/'s  Cases  ;  and  Saurin's  Christian  ca- 
suistry, in  4th  vol.  of  his  Sermons,  p.  265, 
English  edition. 

CATECHISING,  instructing  by  asking 
questions  and  correcting  the  answers.  Cate- 
chising is  an  e:<cellent  mean  of  informing  the 
mind,  engaging  the  attention,  and  affecting 
the  heart,  and  is  an  important  duty  incum- 
bent on  all  who  have  children  under  their 
care-  Children  should  not  be  suffered  to 
grow  up  without  instruction,  under  the  pre- 
tence, that  the  choice  of  religion  ong!>t  to  be 
perfectly  free,  and  not  biassed  by  the  influ- 
ence and  authority  of  parents,  or  the  power 
of  education.  As  they  have  capacities,  and 
are  more  capable  of  knowledge  by  instruc- 
tion than  by  the  exercise  of  their  own  rea- 
soning powers,  they  should  certainly  be 
taught.  This  agrees  both  with  the  voice  of 
nature  and  the  dictates  of  revelation,  Deui. 
vi.  7,  Prov.  xxii.  6.  Eph.  vi.  4.  I'he  propri- 
ety of  this  being  granted,  it  may  next  be  ob- 
served, that,  in  order  to  facilitate  their 
knowledge,  short  summaries  of  religion  ex- 
tracted from  the  Bible,  in  the  way  of  ques- 
tiCn  and  answer,  may  be  of  considerable  use. 

1.  Her  by,  says  Dr.  Watts,  the  principles  of 
Christianity  are  reduced  into  short  sentences, 
and  easier  to   be  understood   by  ciiildren. — 

2.  Hereby  these  principles  are  not  only 
thrown  into  a  just  and  easy  method,  but 
every  part  is  naturally  introduced  by  a  pro 
per  question  ;  and  the  rehearsal  of  the  an- 
swer is  made  far  easier  to  a  cliild  than  it 
•would  be  if  a  child  were  required  to  re- 
peat the  whole  scheme  of  religion  — 3.  This 
way  of  teaching  hath  somt  thing  familiar  and 
delightful  in  it,  because  it  looks  nkwe  like 


conversation  and  dialogue. — 4.  The  very 
curiosity  of  the  young  mind  is  awakened  by 
the  question  to  know  what  the  answer  will 
be ;  and  the  child  will  take  pleasure  in 
learning  the  answer  by  heart,  to  improve 
its  own  knowledge.  See  next  article. 

CATECHISM,  a  form  of  instruction  by 
means  of  questions  and  answers.  There 
have  been  varicjus  catechisms  published  by 
different  authors,  but  many  of  them  have 
been  but  ill  suited  to  convey  instruction  to 
juvenile  mhids.  Catechisms  for  children 
should  be  so  framed  as  not  to  puzzle  and 
confound,  but  to  let  the  beams  of  divine  light 
into  their  minds  by  degrees.  They  should 
be  accommodated  as  far  as  possible  to  the 
weakness  of  their  understandings  ;  for  mei'e 
learning  sentences  by  rote,  without  compre-'- ' 
bending  the  meaning,  will  be  of  but  little 
use.  In  this  way  they  will  know  nothing 
but  words :  it  will  prove  a  laborious  task, 
and  not  a  pleasure  ;  confirm  them  in  a  bad 
habit  of  dealing  m  sounds  instead  of  ideas ; 
and,  after  all,  perhaps  create  in  them  an 
avei'sion  to  religion  itself.  Dr  Watts  ad- 
vises that  different  catechisms  should  be 
composed  for  different  ages  and  capacities  ; 
the  cjuestions  and  answers  should  be  short, 
plain,  and  easy ;  scholastic  terms,  and  logi- 
cal distinctions,  should  be  avoided  ;  the  most 
practical  points  of  religion  should  be  insert- 
ed ;  and  one  or  more  well  chosen  text  of  scrip- 
ture should  be  added  to  support  almost  every 
answer,  and  to  prove  tlie  several  parts  of 
it  The  doctor  has  admirably  exemplified 
his  own  rules  in  the  catechism  he  has  com- 
posed for  children  at  three  or  four  years 
(Id  ;  that  for  children  at  seven  or  eight ; 
his  assembly's  catechism,  proper  for  youth 
at  twelve  or  fourteen  ;  his  preservative  from 
the  sins  and  follies  of  Childhood  ;  his  cate- 
chism of  scripture  names :  and  his  historical 
catechism  These  are  superior  to  any  I 
know,  and  which  I  cannot  but  ardently 
recommend  to  parents,  and  all  those  who 
have  the  care  and  instruction  of  children. 

CATECHIST,  one  whose  charge  is  to 
instruct  by  questions,  or  to  question  the  un- 
instiucted  concerning  religion. 

The  catechists  of  the  ancient  churches 
were  usually  ministers,  and  distinct  from 
the  l)ishops  and  presbyters  ;  and  had  their 
cattxhuinenn,  or  auditories,  apart.  But  they 
did  not  constitute  any  distinct  older  of  tlie 
clergy,  being  chosen  out  of  any  order.  The 
bishop  hinis'lf  sometimes  performed  the 
office  ;  at  other  times,  prtsbyters,  readers, 
or  deacons.  It  was  his  Imsincss  to  exprse 
the  folly  of  the  jjagan  supei  stition  ;  to  remove 
prejudices,  and  answer  ohjtctions;  to  dis- 
ci.uise  on  behalf  of  the  Christian  doctrines  ; 
and  to  give  instruction  to  those  who  had  net 
sufficient  knowledge  to  qualify  them  for 
bajHism. 

CATECHUMENS,  the  lowest  order  of 
Christians  in  the  primitive  chuich.  They 
had  sinie  title  to  the  common  aanie  of  ('hris- 
tians,  being  a  degree  above  pagans  and  here- 
I  tics,   though  not  consummated  b>  baptism. 


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69 


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rhey  were  admitted  to  the  state  of  cate- 
chumens by  the  iinpositioB  of  hands,   and 
the  sign  of  the  cross.     The  children  of  be- 
lieving parents  were  admitted  catechumens 
as  soon  as  ever  they  were  capable  of  instruc- 
tion ;  but  at  what  age  those  of  heathen  pa- 
rents might  be  admitted  is  not  so  clear.  As 
to  the  time  of  their  continuance  in  this  state, 
Th(;re  were  no  general  rules  fixed  about  it; 
■)  ;t  the  practice  varied  according  to  the  dif- 
■  ence  (if  times  and  places,  and  the  readi- 
s   and   proficiency    of   the  catechumens' 
.r.selves.    There  were  four  orders  or  de-| 
c  s  of  catechumens.     The  first  were  those 
u-ucsed  privately  without  the  chnrch,  and; 
ktpt  at  a  distance,  for  some  time,  from  thej 
(,'iivikge  of  entering  the   church,  to  make] 
tliein  the  more  eager  and  desirous  of  it.  The  i 
iHxt  degree  were  the  audientes^  so  called  i 
tiom  their  being  admitted  to  hear  sermons] 
and  the  scriptures  read  in  the  church,  but^ 
"I  re  not  allowed  to  partake  of  the  prayers.! 
e  third  sort  of  catechumens  were  xXxtgenu 
'entes,  so  called  because  they  received 
'uiposition  of  hands  kneeling.    The  fourth 
<  'vcler  was  tlie  comjietentes  et  electi ;  denot- 
r  the  immediate  candidates  for  baptism, 
^uch  as  were  appointed  to  be  baptized  the 
t   approaching   festival ;    before   which, 
ct  examination  was  made  into  their  pro- 
lency,    under  the  several  stages  of  cate- 
c!ietical  exercises. 

After  examination,  they  were  'exercised 
for  twenty  days  together,  and  were  obliged 
to  fasting  and  confession.  Some  days  before 
baptism  they  went  veiled ;  and  it  was  cus 
tomaiy  to  touch  their  ears,  saying,  Efihatha, 
\.  e.  Be  opened;  as  also  to  anoint  their  eyes 
with  clay  :  both  ceremonies  being  in  imita- 
tion of  our  Saviour's  practice,  and  intended 
to  signify  to  the  catechumens  their  condition 
both  before  and  after  their  admission  into 
the  Christian  church. 

CATHARISTS,  a  sect  that  spread  much 

in  the  Latin  church  in  the  twelfth  century. 

Their  religion  i-esembled  the  doctrine  of  the 

^  Imichxans  and  Gnostics  [see  those  arti- 

s  ]     They  supposed  that  matter  was  the 

jrce  of  evil ;  that  Christ  was  not  clothed 

vith   a  real  body;   that  baptism    and   the 

Lord's  supper  were  useless  institutions;  with 

a  variety  of  other  strange  notions. 

CATHEDRAL,  the  chief  church  of  a 
diocese;  a  church  wherein  is  a  bishop's  see. 
The  word  comes  from  x-xdih^pa,  "chair:" 
the  name  seems  to  have  taken  its  rise  from 
the  manner  of  sitting  in  the  ancient  churches 
or  assemblies  of  private  Christians.  In 
these  the  council,  i.  e.  the  elders  and  priests, 
were  called  Presbyterium ;  at  their  head 
was  the  bishop,  who  held  the  place  of  chair- 
man, Cathredalis  or  Cathredaticus  ;  and  the 
presbyters,  who  sat  on  either  side,  also  called 
by  the  ancient  fathers  ^s&csnores  Efiisco- 
fiorinn.  The  episcopal  authority  did  not  re- 
side in  the  bishop  alone,  but  in  all  the  pres- 
byters, whereof  the  bishop  was  president,  A 
cathedral,  therefore,  originally  was  different 
irom  what  it  is  now ;  the  Christians,  till  the 


time  of  Constantine,  having  no  liberty  to 
build  any  temple.  By  their  churches  thejr 
only  meant  assemblies ;  and  by  cathedrals, 
nothing  more  than  consistories. 

CATHOLIC,  denotes  any  thing  that  is 
universal  or  general.  The  rise  of  heresies 
induced  the  primitive  Christian  church  to 
assume  to  itself  the  appellation  of  catholic,  be- 
ing a  characteristic  to  distinguish  itself  from 
all  sects,  who,  though  they  had  party  names, 
sometimes  sheltered  themselves  under  the 
name  of  Christians.  The  Romish  church 
now  distinguishes  itself  by  catholic  in  opposi- 
tion to  all  who  have  separated  from  her  com- 
munion, and  whom  she  considers  as  heretics 
and  scismatics ;  and  herself  only  as  the  true 
and  Christian  church.  In  the  strict  sense  of 
the  word,  there  is  nocatholic  church  in  being; 
that  is,  no  universal  Christian  communion. 

CELE3TINS,  a  religious  order  in  the 
thirteenth  century ;  so  called  from  their 
founder,  Peter  De  Meuron,  afterwards  raised 
to  the  pontificate  under  the  name  cf  Celes- 
tine  V.  The  Celestins  rose  two  hours  after 
midnight  to  say  matins;  ate  no  flesh,  ex- 
cept when  sick ;  and  often  fasted.  Their 
habit  consisted  of  a  white  gown,  a  capuche, 
a  black  scapulaiy,  and  shirts  of  serge. 

CELIBACY,  the  state  of  unmarried  per- 
sons. Celibate,  or  celibacy,  is  a  word  chiefly 
used  in  speaking  of  the  single  life  of  the 
popish  clergy,  or  the  obligation  they  are 
under  to  abstain  from  marriage.  The  church 
of  Rome  imposes  an  universal  celibacy  on  all 
her  clergy,  fi-om  the  pope  to  the  lowest 
deacon  and  subdeacon.  The  advocates  for 
this  usage  pretend  that  a  vow  of  perpetual 
celibacy  was  required  in  the  ancient  church 
as  a  condition  of  oi'dination,  even  from  the 
earliest  apostolic  ages.  But  the  contrary  is 
evident,  from  numerous  examples  of  bishops 
and  archbishops  who  lived  in  a  state  of 
matrimony,  without  any  prejudice  to  their 
ordination  or  their  function.  Neither  our 
Lord  nor  his  apostles  laid  the  least  restraint 
upon  the  connubial  union  :  on  the  contrary, 
the  scriptures  speak  of  it  as  honourable  in 
all,  without  the  least  restriction  as  to  persons. 
Heb.  xiii.  4.  Matt.  aix.  10.  12.  1  Cor.  vii.  2.  9. 
St.  Paul  even  assigns  forbidding  to  marry  as 
characteristic  of  the  apostacy  of  the  latter 
times.  1  Tim.  iv.  3.  The  fathers,  without 
making  any  distinction  between  clergy  and 
laity,  asserted  the  lawfulness  of  the  marriage 
of  all  Christians.  Marriage  was  not  for- 
bidden to  bishops  in  the  Eastern  church  till 
the  close  of  the  seventh  century.  Celibacy 
was  not  imposed  on  the  Western  clergy  in 
general  till  the  end  of  the  eleventh  century, 
though  attempts  had  been  made  long  before. 
Superstitious  zeal  for  a  sanctimonious  ap- 
pearance in  the  clergy  seems  to  have  pro- 
moted it  first;  and  crafty  policy  armed 
with  power,  no  di^ubt,  rivetted  this  dig  on 
the  sacerdotal  order  in  later  periods  of  the 
church.  Pope  Gregory  VII.  appears  in  this 
business  to  have  had  a  view  to  separate  the 
clergy  as  much  as  possible  from  all  other 
interests,  and  to  bring  them  into  a  total  de- 


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70 


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pendance  upon  his  authority ;  to  the  end 
that  aU  temporal  power  naight  in  a  high  de- 
gree be  subjugated  to  the  papal  jurisdiction. 
Forbidding  to  many,  therefore,  has  evident- 
ly the  mark  of  the  beast  upon  it.  See 
Marriage. 

CEMETERY,  aplace  set  apart  for  the  bu- 
rial of  the  dead  Anciently,  none  were  buried 
in  churches  or  churchyards:  it  was  even  un- 
lawful to  inter  in  cities,  and  the  cemeteries 
were  without  the  walls.  Among  the  primi- 
tive Christians  these  were  held  in  great 
veneration.  It  even  appears  from  Eusebius 
and  TertuUian,  that  in  the  early  ages  they 
assembled  for  divine  worship  in  the  ceme- 
teries. Valerian  seems  to  have  confiscated 
the  cemeteries  and  other  places  of  divine 
worship;  but  ihey  were  restored  again  by 
Gallienus.  As  the  martyrs  were  buried  in 
these  places,  the  Christians  chose  them  for 
building  churches  on,  when  Constantine  esta- 
blisliecl  their  religion ;  and  hence  some  de- 
rive the  rule  whicli  still  obtains  in  the  church 
of  Rome,  never  to  consecrate  an  altar  with- 
out putting  under  it  the  relics  of  some  saint. 

CENSURE,  the  act  of  judging  and  blam- 
ing others  for  their  faults.  Faithfulne&s  in 
reproving  another  diflFers  from  ccnsoTious- 
ness  :  the  former  arises  from  love  to  truth, 
and  respect  for  the  person  ;  the  latter  is  a 
disposition  that  loves  to  find  fault.  However 
just  censure  may  be  where  there  is  blame, 
yet  a  censorious  spirit,  or  rash  judging,  must 
be  avoided.  It  is  usurping  the  authority  and 
judgmeni  of  God.  It  is  uijust,  uncharitable, 
mischievous,  productive  of  unhappiness  to 
ourselves,  and  often  the  cause  of  disorder 
and  confusion  in  sficiety.  See  Rash  Judging. 

CERDONIANS,  a  sect,  in  the  first  cen- 
tury, wlio  espoused  most  of  the  opinions  of 
Simon  Magus  and  the  Manichxans.  They 
asserted  two  principles,  good  and  bad-  The 
first  they  called  the  Father  of  Jesus  ChrLst ; 
the  latter  the  Ci-eator  of  the  world  They 
denied  the  incarnation  and  the  resurrection, 
and  rejected  the  books  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment. 

CEREMONY,  an  assemblage  of  several 
actions,  forms,  and  circumstances,  serving  to 
render  a  thing  magnificent  and  solemn.  Ap- 
plied to  religious  services,  it  signifies  the  ex- 
ternal rites  and  manner  wherein  the  minis- 
ters of  religion  perform  their  sacred  func- 
tions. In  1646,  M  Ponce  published  a  his- 
tory of  ancient  ceremonies,  tracing  the  rise, 
growth,  and  introduction  of  each  rite  into 
the  church,  and  its  gradual  advaiicement  to 
superstition  Many  of  them  were  borrowed 
from  Judaism,  but  more  tVom  Paganism.  Dr. 
Middleton  has  given  a  fine  discourse  on  the 
conformity  between  the  pagan  and  the  popish 
ceremonies,  which  he  exemplifies  in  the  use 
of  incense,  holy  water,  lamps  and  candles 
before  the  shrines  of  saints,  votive  gifts 
round  the  shrines  of  the  deceased,  &:c.  In 
fact,  the  altars,  images,  crosses,  processions, 
miracles,  and  legends,  nay,  even  the  very 
hierarchy,  pontificate,  rehgious  orders,  &c., 
of  the  present  Romans,  he  shews,  are  all 


copied  from  their  heathen  ancestors.  An 
ample  and  magnificent  representation  in 
figures  of  the  religious  ceremonies  and  cO&- 
toms  of  all  nations  in  the  world,  designed  by 
Picart,  is.  added,  with  historical  explanations, 
and  many  curious  dissertations. 

It  has  been  a  question,  whether  we  ought 
to  use  such  rites  and  ceremonies  which  are 
merely  of  human  appointment.  On  one  side 
it  has.  been  observed  that  we  ought  not. 
Christ  alone  is  King  in  his  church:  he  hath 
instituted  such  ordinances  and  forms  of  wor- 
ship as  he  hath  judged  fit  and  necessary ; 
and  to  add  to  them  seems,  at  least,  to  carry 
in  it  an  imputation  on  his  wisdom  and  autho- 
rity, and  hath  this  unanswerable  objection  to 
it,  that  it  opens  the  door  to  a  thousand  inno- 
vations (as  the  history  of  the  church  of  Rome 
hath  sufficiently  shewn,)  which  are  not  only 
indifferent  in  themselves,  but  highly  absurd, 
and  extremely  detrimental  to  religion.  That 
the  cerenumies  were  numerous  under  the 
Old  Testament  dispensation  is  no  argument; 
for,  say  they,  1.  We  respect  Jewidi  cere- 
monies, because  they  were  appointed  of  God ; 
and  we  reject  human  ceremonies,  because 
God  hath  not  appointed  them. — 2.  The  Jew- 
ish ceremonies  were  established  by  the  uni- 
versal consent  of  the  nation ;  human  cere- 
monies are  not  so. — 3.  The  former  were  fit 
and  proper  for  the  purposes  for  which  they 
were  appointed ;  but  the  latter  are  often 
the  contrary — 4.  The  institutor  of  the  Jew- 
ish ceremonies  provided  for  the  expense  of 
it ;  but  no  provision  is  made  by  God  to  sup- 
port human  ceremonies,  or  what  he  has  not 
appointed. 

Tiiese  arguments  seem  verj' powerful ;  but 
on  the  other  side  it  has  been  observed,  that 
the  desire  of  reducing  religious  worship  to 
the  greatest  possible  simplicity,  howe^ver 
rational  it  may  appear  in  itself,  and  abstract- 
edly considered,  will  be  considerably  mode- 
rated in  such  as  bestow  a  moment's  atten- 
tion upon  the  imperfection  and  infirmities  of 
human  nature  in  its  present  state  Mankind, 
generally  speaking,  have  too  little  elevation 
of  mind  to  be  mueli  affected  with  those  forms 
and  mctluxls  of  worship  in  which  there  is 
nothing  striking  to  the  outward  senses.  The 
great  difficulty  here  lies  in  determining  the 
length  whicliit  is  prudent  to  go  in  the  ac- 
commodation of  rehgious  ceremonies  to  hu- 
man infirmity  ;  and  the  grand  point  is,  to 
fix  a  medium  in  which  a  due  regard  may  be 
shewn  to  the  senses  and  imagination,  without 
violating  the  dictates  of  right  reason,  or  tar- 
nishing the  purity  of  true  religion.  It  has 
been  said,  that  the  Romisli  church  has  gone 
too  far  in  it.s  condescension  to  the  infirmities 
of  mankind  ;  and  this  is  what  the  ablest  de- 
fenders of  its  motley  worship  have  alleged  in 
its  behalf  But  this  observation  is  not  just ; 
the  church  of  Rome  has  not  so  much  accom- 
modated itself  to  human  weakness,  as  it  has 
abused  that  weakness,  by  taking  occasion 
from  it  to  establish  an  endless  variety  of 
I'idiculous  ceremonies,  destinictive  of  true 
religion,  and  only  adapted  to  promote  the 


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71 


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Iriche?  and  despotism  of  the  clergy,  and  to 
keep  the  multitude  still  hoodwinked  in  their 
ignorance  and  superstition.  How  far  a  just 
antipathy  to  the  church  puppet-shows  of  the 
Papists  has  unjustly  driven  some  Protestant 
chuiches  into  the  opposite  extreme,  is  a 
matter  that  certainly  deserves  a  serious  con- 
sidt-ration.  See  Dr.  Stennett's  Ser.  on  Con- 
formity to  the  World;  Robinson's  Sermon 
on  ^  eremonies;  Booth's  Essaij  on  the  King- 
dom of  Christ;  Moshdm's  Ecclesiastical 
History  ;  with  Mac  Laine's  J^ote,  vol.  i.  p. 
203,  quarto  edition.  Jonea'  Works,  vol.  4 
p.  267. 

CERINTHIANS,  ancient  heretics,  who 
denied  the  daity  of  Jesus  Christ ;  so  named 
from  Cerinthus.  They  believed  that  he  was 
a  mere  man,  the  son  of  Joseph  and  Mary; 
but  that  in  his  baptism  a  celestial  virtue  de- 
scended on  him  in  the  form  of  a  dove ;  by 
means  whereof  he  was  consecrated  by  the 
Holy  Spirit,  made  Christ,  and  wrought  so 
ninny  miracles  :  that,  as  he  received  it  from 
heaven,  it  quitted  him  after  his  passion,  and 
returned  to  the  place  whence  it  came  ;  so 
that  Jesus,  whom  they  called  a  fiure  man, 
really  died,  and  rose  again  ;  but  that  Christ, 
Avho  was  distinguished  from  Jeeus,  did  not 
suffer  at  all.  It  was  partly  to  refute  this  sect 
that  St.  John  wrote  his  Gospel.  They  re- 
ceived the  Gospel  of  St.  Matthew,  to  coun- 
tenance their  doctrine  of  circumcision  ;  but 
they  omitted  the  genealogy.  They  discarded 
;  the  epistljs  of  St.  Paul,  because  that  apostle 
held  circumcision  abolished. 

CHALDEE  PARAPHRASE,  in  the  rab- 
binical style,  is  called  Targum  There  are 
three  Chaldee  Paraphrases  in  Walton's  Poly- 
glott ;  viz.  1.  of  Onkelos ; — 2.  of  Jonathan, 
son  of  Uzziel ; — 3.  of  Jerusalem.  See  Bible, 
sect.  19.  and  Targum. 

CHALICE,  the  cup  used  to  administer 
the  wine  in  the  sacrament,  and  by  the  Ro- 
man cathoUcs  in  the  mass.  The  use  of  the 
chalice,  or  communicating  in  both  kinds,  is 
by  the  church  of  Rome  denied  to  the  laity, 
who  communicate  only  in  one  kind,  the  cler- 
gy alone  being  allowed  the  privilege  of  com- 
municating in  both  kinds;  in  direct  opposi- 
tion to  our  Saviour's  words — "  Drink  ye  all 
of  it." 

CHANCE,  a  term  we  apply  to  events  to 
denote  that  they  happen  witiiout  any  neces- 
sary or  foreknown  cause.  When  we  say  a 
thing  happens  by  chance,  we  mean  no  more 
than  that  its  cause  is  unknown  to  us,  and  not, 
as  some  vainly  imagine,  that  chance  itself 
can  be  the  cause  of  any  thing.  "  The  case 
of  the  painter,"  says  Chambers,  "  who,  un- 
able to  express  the  foam  at  the  mouth  of  the 
horse  he  had  painted,  threw  his  sponge  in 
despair  at  the  piece,  and  by  chance  did  that 
which  he  could  not  do  before  by  design,  is 
an  eminent  instance  of  what  is  called  chance. 
Yet  it  is  obvious  all  we  here  meim  by  chance, 
is,  that  the  pamter  was  not  aware  of  the 
effect,  or  that  he  did  not  throw  the  sponge 
^vith  such  a  view  :  not  but  that  he  actually 
did  every  thing  necessary  to  produce  the  ef- 


fect; insomuch  that,  considering  the  direc- 
tion wherein  he  threw  the  sponge,  together 
with  its  form  and  specific  giavity,  the  co- 
lours wherewith  it  was  smeared,  and  the 
distance  of  the  hand  from  the  piece,  it  was 
impossible,  on  the  present  system  of  things, 
that  the  efi'ect  should  not  follow." — The 
word,  as  it  is  often  used  by  the  unthinking, 
is  vague  and  indeterminate — a  mere  name 
for  nothiiig 

CHANCELLOR,  a  lay  officer  under  a  bi- 
shop, who  is  judge  of  his  court  In  the  first 
ages  of  the  church  the  bishops  had  those  of- 
ficers who  were  called  church  lawyers,  and 
were  bred  up  in  the  knowledge  of  the  civil 
and  canon  law  :  their  business  was  to  assist 
the  bishop  in  his  diocesi. — We  read  of  no 
chancellors  till  FLmy  the  Second's  time  ; 
but  that  king  requiring  the  attendance  of  the 
bishops  in  his  councils,  it  was  thought  neces- 
sary to  substitute  chancellors  in  their  room 
for  the  despatch  of  business. 

CHANT  is  used  for  the  vocal  music  of 
churches.  In  church  history  Ave  meet  with 
diveis  kinds  of  these;  as,  1.  Chant  ^mbro- 
sian,  established  by  St.  Ambrose  ; — 2.  Chant 
Gregorian,  introduced  by  Pope  Gregory  the 
Great,  who  established  schools  of  chanters, 
and  corrected  the  church  music.  This,  at 
first,  was  called  the  Roman  song ;  afterwards 
the  plain  song ;  as  the  choir  and  people  sing 
in  unison. 

CHAOS,  the  mass  of  matter  supposed  to 
be  in  confusion  before  it  was  divided  by  the 
Almighty  into  its  proper  classes  and  ele- 
ments. It  does  net  appear  who  first  asserted 
the  notion  of  a  chaos.  Moses,  the  earliest 
of  all  writers,  derives  the  origin  of  this  world 
from  a  confusion  of  matter,  dark,  void,  deep, 
without  form,  which  lie  calls  TOHU  BOHU; 
which  is  precisely  the  chaos,  of  the  Greek 
and  barbarian  philosophers.  Moses  goes  no 
farther  than  the  chaos,  nor  tells  us  whence 
it  took  its  origin,  or  whence  its  confused 
state  ;  and  where  Moses  stops,  there  pre- 
cisely do  all  the  rest. 

CHAPEL,  a  place  of  worship. — There 
are  various  kinds  of  chafiels  in  Britair.  1. 
Domestic  chapels,  built  by  noblemen  or  gen- 
tlemen for  private  worship  in  their  fami- 
lies— 2  Free  chapels,  such  as  are  founded 
by  kings  of  England.  They  are  free  from 
all  episcopal  jurisdiction,  and  only  to  be  visi- 
ted by  the  f<  under  and  his  successors,  which 
is  done  by  the  lord  chancellor:  yet  the  king 
may  license  any  subject  to  build  and  endow  a 
chapel,  and  by  letters  patent  exempt  it  from 
the  visitation  of  the  oixiinary — .".  Chapels  in 
universities,  belonging  to  particular  univer- 
sities.— 4  Chapels  of  ease,  built  for  the  ease 
of  one  or  more  parishioners  that  dwell  too 
far  from  the  church,  and  are  served  by  in- 
ferior curates,  provided  for  at  the  charge  of 
the  rector,  or  of  such  as  have  benefit  by  it, 
as  the  composition  or  custom  is — 5.  Pai'o- 
chial  chapels,  which  differ  from  parish 
churches  only  in  name  :  they  are  generally 
small,  and  the  inhabitants  within  the  district 
few.  If  there  be  a  presentation  ad  ecclesiam 


CH  A 


72 


CH  A 


instead  of  capallam,  and  an  admission  and  I 
institution  upon  it,  it  is  no  longer  a  chapel, 
but  a  church  for  tliemselves  and  families. — 
6.  Chapels  which  adjoin  to  and  are  a  part  of 
the  church :    such  were  formerly    built?  by 

honourable  persons  as   buiying   places 7. 

The  places  of  worship  belonging  to  the  Cal- 
vinistic  and  Arminian  Methodists  are  also 
generally  called  chapels,  though  they  are 
licensed  in  no  other  way  than  the  meetings 
of  the  Protestant  Dissenters. 

CHAPLAIN,  a  person  who  performs  di- 
vine service  in  a  chapel,  or  is  retained  in  the 
service  of  some  family  to  perform  divine 
service. 

As  to  the  origin  of  chaplains,  some  say  the 
shrines  of  relics  were  anciently  covered  with 
a  kind  of  tent,  cape,  or  cafiella,  i.  e.  little 
cape  ;  and  that  hence  the  priests  who  had 
the  care  of  them  were  called  chafilains.  In 
time,  these  relics  were  rcposited  in  a  little 
church,  either  contiguous  to  a  larger,  or  se- 
parate from  it ;  and  the  name  cafiella,  which 
was  given  to  the  cover,  was  also  given  to  the 
place  where  it  was  lodged;  and  hence  the 
priest  who  superintended  it  came  to  be  called 
cafidlanus,  or  chaplain. 

According  to  a  statute  of  Henry  VIII.  the 
persons  vested  with  a  power  of  retaining 
chaplains,  together  with  the  number  each  is 
allowed  to  qualify,  are  as  follow  :  an  arch- 
bishop eight ,  a  duke  or  bishop  six ;  marquis 
or  eavl  five ;  viscount  four ;  baron,  knight  of 
the  garter,  or  lord  chancellor,  three ;  a 
duchess,  marshioness,  countess,  baroness,  the 
treasurer  or  comptroller  of  the  king's  house, 
clerk  of  the  closet,  the  king's  secretary,  dean 
of  the  chapel,  almoner,  and  master  of  the 
rolls,  each  of  them  two;  chief  justice  of  the 
king's  bench,  and  ward  of  the  cinque  ports, 
each  one.  All  these  chaplains  may  purchase 
a  license  or  dispensation,  and  take  two  be- 
nefices, with  cure  of  souls.  A  chaplain  must 
be  retained  by  letters  testimonial  under  hand 
and  seal,  for  it  is  not  sufficient  that  he  serve 
as  chaplain  in  the  family. 

In  Eiigl.'ind  there  are  forty-eight  chap- 
lains to  the  king,  who  wait  four  each  month, 
])reach  in  the  chapel,  read  the  service  to  the 
family,  and  to  the  king  in  his  private  ora- 
tory, and  say  grace  in  the  absence  of  the 
clerk  of  the  closet.  While  in  waiting,  they 
have  a  table  and  attendance,  but  no  salary 
In  Scotland,  the  king  has  six  chaplains  with 
a  salary  of  501.  each  ;  three  of  them  having 
In  addition  tlie  deanery  of  the  chapt-l  royal 
divided  between  them,  making  up  above  ICOl. 
to  each.  Tlieir  only  duty  at  present  i:i  to  say 
prayers  at  the  election  of  peers  for  Scotland 
to  sit  in  Parliament. 

C;HAPLET,  a  certain  instniment  of  piety 
made  use  of  Im-  the  p.ipists.  It  is  a  string  of 
beads,  by  whicli  they  measure  or  count  the 
number  of  th»ir  prayers. 

CHAPTEK,  a  community  of  ecclesiastics 
JK'longing  toa  cathedral  or  collegiate  church 
Tlie  chief  or  head  of  the  chapter  is  the  dean  ; 
tlio  body  consists  of  canons  or  prebendaries. 
The  chapter  has  now  no  longer  ^  place  in 


the  administration  of  the  diocese  durii>g  the 
life  of  the  bishop  ;  but  succeeds  to  the  whole 
episcopal  jurisdiction  during  the  vacancy  of 
the  see. 

CHARGE:  1.  a  sermon  preached  by  the 
bishop  to  his  clergy  ; — 2-  Among  the  Dissen- 
ters, it  is  a  sermon  preached  to  a  minister 
at  his  ordination,  generally  .by  some  aged  or 
respectable  preacher. 

CHARITY,  one  of  the  three  grand  theo- 
logical graces,  consisting  in  the  love  of  God 
and  our  neighbour,  or  the  habit  or  disposi- 
tion of  loving  God  with  all  our  heart,  and 
our  neighbour  as  ourselves.  "  Charity'''  says 
an  able  writer,  "  consists  not  in  speculative 
ideas  of  general  benevolence  floating  in  the 
head,  and  leaving  the  heart,  as  speculations 
often  do,  untouched  and  cold ;  neither  is  it 
confined  to  that  indolent  good  nature  which 
makes  us  rest  satisfied  with  being  free  J"rom 
inveterate  malice,  or  ill  will  to  our  fellow 
creatures,  without  prompting  us  to  be  of  ser- 
vice to  any.  True  charity  is  an  active  prin- 
ciple. It  is  not  properly  a  single  virtue  ;  but 
a  disposition  residing  in  the  heart  as  a  foun- 
tain ;  whence  all  the  virtues  of  benignity, 
candour,  forbearance,  generosity,  compas- 
sion, and  liberality  flow  as  so  many  native 
streams  From  general  good-will  to  all,  it 
extends  its  influence,  particularly  to  those 
with  whom  we  stand  in  nearest  connexion, 
and  who  are  directly  within  the  sphere  of 
our  good  offices.  From  the  country  or  com- 
munity to  which  we  belong,  it  descends  to 
the  smaller  associates  of  neighbourhood,  re- 
lations, and  friends;  and  spreads  itself  over 
the  whole  circle  of  social  and  domestic  life. 
I  mean  not  that  it  imports  a  promiscuous  un- 
distinguishing  affection  which  gives  every 
man  an  equal  title  to  our  love.  Charity,  if 
we  should  endeavour  to  carry, it  so  far,  would 
be  rendered  an  impracticable  virtue,  and 
would  resolve  itself  into  mere  words,  with- 
out affecting  the  heart.  True  charity  at- 
tempts not  to  shut  our  eyes  to  the  distinction 
between  good  and  bad  men  ;  nor  to  warm 
our  hearts  equally  to  those  who  befriend  and 
those  who  injure  us  It  reserves  our  esteem 
for  good  men,  and  our  complacency  for  our 
friends.  Towards  our  enemies,  it  inspires 
forgiveness  and  humanity.  It  breathes  uni- 
versal candour  and  liberality  of  sentiment. 
It  forms  gentleness  of  temper,  and  dictates 
affaliility  of  manners.  It  prompts  correspond- 
ing sympathies  with  them  who  rejoice  and 
them  who  weep.  It  teaches  us  to  slight  and 
despise  no  man.  Charity  is  the  comforter 
of  the  afflicted,  the  protector  of  the  oppres- 
sed, the  reconciler  of  differences,  the  inter- 
cessor for  offenders.  It  is  faithfulness  in  the 
friend,  public  spirit  in  the  magistrate,  equity 
and  patience  in  the  judge,  JTioderation  in  the 
sovereign,  and  loyalty  in  the  subject  In  pa- 
rents it  is  care'and  attention;  in  children  it 
is  reverencJ  and  submission.  In  a  word,  it 
is  the  soul  of  social  life.  It  is  the  sun  that 
enlivens  and  cheers  the  abodes  of  men  ;  not 
a  meteor  which  occasionally  glares,  but  a  lu- 
minary,  which  in  its  orderly  and  regular 


CHE 


73 


CHR 


course  dispenses  a  benignant  influence."  See 
Barrow's  IVorks,  vol.  i.  ser.  -2,  7,  28.  liiair's 
Scr.  vol.  iv.  ser.  2;  Scott's  Ser.,  ser.  14;  7W/or- 
*on'«  i'er.,  ser.  158;  Faley's  Mor.  Phil ,  vol.  i. 
p.  231;  and  articles  Benevolence,  Love, 

CHARM,  a  kind  of  spell,  supposed  ijy  the 
ignorant  to  have  an  irresistable  influence,  by 
means  of  the  concurrence  of  some  infernal 
power  botli  on  the  minds,  lives,  and  proper- 
ties of  those  whom  it  has  for  its  object. 

"  Certain  vain  ceremonies,"  says  Di-.  Dod- 
dridge, '*  which  are  commonly  called  charms 
and  seem  to  have  no  efficacy  at  all  for  pro- 
ducing the  effects  proposed  by  them,  are 
to  be  avoided ;  seeing  if  there  be  indeed  any 
real  efficacy  in  tliem,  it  is  generally  probable 
tliev  owe  it  to  some  bad  cause  ;  for  one  can 
hardly  imagine  that  God  should  permit  good 
angels  in  any  extraordinary  manner  to  inter- 
pobe,  or  should  immediately  exert  his  own 
miraculous  power  on  trifling  occasions,  and 
upon  the  performance  of  such  idle  tricks 
as  are  generally  made  the  condition  of  re- 
ceiving such  benefits." 

CHASTITY,  purity  from  fleshly  lust.  In 
men  it  is  tei'med  continence.  See  Conti- 
nence. There  is  a  chastity  of  speech,  be- 
haviour, and  imagination,  as  well  as  of  body, 
(i roves  gives  us  the  following  rules  for  the 
cunversation  of  chastity — 1.  To  keep  our- 
selves fully  employed  in  labours  either  of  the 
body  or  the  mind :  idleness  is  frequently  the 
introduction  to  sensuality. — 2.  To  guard  the 
senses,  and  avoid  every  thing  which  may  be 
an  incentive  to  lust.  Does  the  free  use  of 
some  meats  and  drinks  make  the  body  un- 
gfivernable  ?  Does  reading  certain  books  de- 
bauch the  imagination  and  inflame  the  pas- 
sions.' Do  temptations  often  enter  by  the 
bight.'  Have  public  plays,  dancings,  effemi- 
nate music,  idle  songs,  loose  habits,  and  the 
like,  the  same  effect .'  He  who  resolves  upon 
ciiustity  cannot  be  ignoreuit  what  his  duty  is 
in  all  these  and  such  like  cases — 3.  To  im- 
plore the  Divine  Spirit,  which  is  a  spirit  of 
purity  ;  and  by  the  utmost  regard  to  his  pre- 
tence and  operations  to  endeavour  to  retain 
liim  with  us.  Groves  MoralFhilos.,  p.  2.  sec.  6. 

CHAZINZARIANS,  a  sect  which  arose 
in  Armenia  in  the  seventh  century.  They 
are  so  called  from  the  Armenian  word  cha- 
ZU.1,  which  signifies  a  cross,  because  they 
were  charged  with  adoring  the  cross. 

CHEA'IS  are  deceitful  practices,  in  de- 
frauding, or  endeavouring  to  defraud,  an- 
other of  his  known  right,  by  means  of  some 
aitful  device  contrary  to  honesty.  See  Ho- 
nesty, Justice. 

CHEERFULNESS,  a  disposition  of  mind 
free  from  dejection.  Opposed  to  gloominess. 
If  we  consider  cheerfulness,  says  Addison, 
in  three  lights,  with  regard  to  oui"selves,  to 
those  we  converse  with,  and  to  the  Great 
Author  of  our  being,  it  will  not  a  little  re- 
commend  itself  on  each  of  these  accounts. 

The  man  who  is  possessed  of  this  excellent 
trame  of  mind  is  not  only  easy  in  his  thoughts, 
but  a  perfect  master  of  all  the  powers  and 
faculties  of  his  soul ;  his  imaguiation  is  al- 

•'.ys  clear,  and  his  judgment  undisturbed; 


his  temper  is  even  and  unruffled,  whether  in 
action  or  in  solitude.  He  comes  with  a  re- 
lish to  all  those  goods  which  Nature  has  pro- 
vided for  liim,  tastes  all  the  pleasures  of  the 
creation  which  are  poured  about  him,  and 
does  not  feel  the  full  weight  of  those  evils 
wliich  may  befal  him.  See  Happiness,  Joy. 

CHILDREN,  duiies  of  to  parents.  Dr. 
Doddridge  observes,  "  1.  That  as  children 
have  received  importaiit  favours  from  their 
parents,  gratitude,  and  therefore  virtue,  re- 
quires that  they  should  love  them. — 2  Con- 
sidering the  superiority  of  agt,  and  the  pro- 
bable superiority  of  wisdom,  which  there 
is  on  the  side  of  parents,  and  also  how  n.uch 
the  satisfaction  and  comfort  of  a  parent  de- 
pend on  the  respect  shewn  him  by  his  chil- 
dj-en,  it  is  fit  that  children  should  reverence 
theirparent.s.— 3.  It  is  fit  that,  while  the  pa- 
rents are  living,  and  the  use  of  their  uiider- 
standing  continued,  their  children  should  not 
ordinarily  undertake  any  niatter  of  great  im- 
portance, without  advising  with  them,  or 
without  very  cogent  reasons  pursue  it  con- 
trary to  their  ccnsent — 4.  As  young  people 
need  some  guidance  and  government  in 
their  minority,  and  as  there  is  some  peculiar 
reason  to  trust  the  pi-udence,  care  and  affec- 
tion of  a  parent,  preferable  to  any  other 
person,  it  is  reasonable  that  children,  espe- 
cially while  in  their  minorily,  should  cbev 
their  parents  ;  without  which  neither  the 
order  of  families  nor  the  happiness  li  the 
rising  generation  Cf.uld  be  secured:  never- 
theless, still  supposing  that  the  commands  of 
the  parent  are  not  inconsistent  with  the  will 
of  God.— 5.  Virtue  requires  that,  if  parents 
come  to  want,  children  should  take  care  tu 
furnish  them  with  the  necessaries  of  life, 
and,  so  far  as  their  ability  will  permit,  with 
the  conveniences  of  it."  Doddridge's  Lec- 
tures, p.  241.  vol.  i.  Palexfs  Mor.  Phil.,  n. 
372.  vol.  i.  ^ 

CHOREPISCOPI  (r^j  X«?«-i  f?r/sy.<,^»;, 
bishops  of  the  country.)  In  the  ancient 
church,  when  the  dioceses  became  enlarged 
by  the  v;onversions  of  pagans  in  the  country, 
and  villages  at  a  great  distance  from  the 
city  church,  the  bishops  appointed  them- 
selves certain  assistants,  whom  they  called 
Chorepiscojd,  because  by  their  office  they 
were  bishops  of  the  country.  There  have 
been  great  disputes  among  the  learned  con- 
cerning this  order,  some  thinking  that  the;/ 
were  mere  presbyters;  others  that  there 
were  two  sorts,  some  that  had  received 
episcopal  ordination,  and  some  that  were 
presbyters  only  ;  others  think  that  they  were 
all  bishops. 

CHRISM,  oil  consecrated  by  the  bishcp, 
and  used  in  the  Romish  and  Greek  church- 
es in  the  administration  of  baptism,  confir- 
mation, ordination,  and  extreme  unction. 

CHRIST,  the  Lord  and  Saviour  of  man- 
kind. He  is  called  Christ,  or  Messiah,  be- 
cause he  IS  anointed,  sent,  and  furnished  by 
God  to  execute  his  mediatorial  office.  See 
Jesus  Christ. 

CHRISTIAN,  by  Dr.  Johnson,  is  defined 
**  a  professor  of  the  religion  of  Chrbt;"  but 


CHR 


74> 


CHR 


in  reality  a  Christian  is  more  than  a  pro- 
fessor  of  Christianity.  He  is  one  who  im- 
I)ibes  the  spirit,  participates  the  grace,  and 
is  obedient  to  the  will  of  Christ. 

The  disciple?  and  followers  of  Christ  were 
first  denominated  Christians  at  Antioch, 
A.  D.  42.  The  first  Christians  distinguish- 
ed themselves,  in  the  most  remark a!)le  man- 
ner, by  their  conduct  and  their  virtues.  The 
faithful,  whom  the  preaching  ef  St.  Peter 
had  converted,  hearkened  attentively  to  the 
exhortations  of  the  apostles,  who  failed  not 
carefully  to  instruct  them  as  persons  who 
were  entering  upon  an  entire  new  life.  They 
attended  the  temple  daily,  doing  nothing 
diflferent  from  the  other  Jews,  because  it  was 
yet  not  time  to  separate  fi'om  them.  But 
they  made  a  still  greater  progress  in  virtue  ; 
for  they  sold  all  that  they  possessed,  and 
distributed  theii*  goods  to  the  wants  of  their 
brethren.  The  primitive  Christians  were 
not  only  remarkable  for  the  consistency  of 
their  conduct,  but  were  also  very  enunently 
distinguished  by  the  many  miraculous  gifts 
and  graces  bestowed  by  God  upon  them. 

The  Jews  were  the  first  and  the  most  in- 
veterate enemies  the  Christians  had.     They 
pat  them  to  death  as  often  as  they  had  it  in 
their  power ;  and  when  they  revolted  against 
the  Romans,   in   the   time  of  the  emperor 
Adrian,  Barchochebas,  who  was  at  the  head 
of  diat  revolt,  employed  against  the  Chris- 
tians the  most  rigorous  punishments  to  com- 
pel them  to  blaspheme  and  renounce  Jesus 
Christ.    And  we  find  that  even  in  the  third 
century  they  endeavoured  to  get  into  their 
liands  Christian  women,  in  order  to  scourge 
and  stone  them  in  their  sj'nagogues.    They 
cursed  the  Christians  three  times   a  day  in 
their  synagogues ;  and  their   rabbins  would 
not  suffer  them  to  converse  with  Christians 
upon  any  occasion ;  nor  were  they  contented 
to  hate  and  detest  them,  but  they  despatch- 
ed emissaries  ail  over  the  world  to  defame 
the  Christians,  and  spread  all  sorts  of  calum- 
nies   against    them.     They  accused  them, 
among  other  things,  of  worshipping  the  sun, 
and  the  head  of  an  ass ;    they  reproached 
them  with  idleness,  and  being  a  useless  set 
of  people.  They  charged  them  with  treason, 
and  endeavouring  to  erect  a  new  monarchy 
against  that  of  the  Romans.  They  afF.rmed, 
that,  in  celebratingtheir  mysteries,  they  used 
to  kill  a  child,  and   eat  his  flesh.     They 
accused  them  of  the  most  siiocking  incests, 
and  of  inttmperance  in  their  fer.sts  of  cha- 
rity.   But  the  lives  and   behaviour  of  the 
first  Christians  were  sufficient  to  refute  all 
that  was  said  against  them,  and  evidently 
demonstrated   that   these  accusations  were 
mere  calumny,  and  the  effect  of  inveterate 
mahce.    Pliny  the  Younger,   who  was  go- 
vernor of  Pontus  and  Bithynia  between  the 
years  103  and  105,  gives  a  very  particular 
account  of  the  Christians  in  that  province, 
in  a  letter  which  he  wrote  to  the  emperor 
Trajan,  nf  which  the  following  is  an  extract: 
I  take  the  liberty.  Sir,   to  give  you  an  ac- 
count of  every  difficulty  -which  arises  to  mc: 


1  have  never  been  pi-esent  at  the  examina- 
tion of  the  Christians ;  for  which  reasons  I 
know  not  what  questions  have  been  put  to 
them,  jior  in  what  manner  they  have  been 
punished.  My  behaviour  towards  those  who 
have  been  accused  to  me  has  been  this:  I 
have  interrogated  them,  in  order  to  know 
whether  they  were  really  Christians.  When 
they  have  confessed  it,  I  have  repeated  the 
same  question  two  or  three  times,  threaten- 
ing them  with  death  if  they  did  not  renounce 
this  religion.  Those  who  have  persisted  in 
their  confession  have  been  by  my  order  led 
to  punishment.  I  have  even  met  with  some 
Roman  citizens  guilty  of  this  phrenzy,  whom, 
in  regard  to  their  quality,  I  have  set  apart 
from  the  rest,  in  order  to  send  them  to 
Rome.  These  persons  declare  that  their 
whole  crime,  if  they  are  guilty,  consists  in 
this :  That  on  certain  days  they  assemble 
before  sun-rise,  to  sing  alternately  the  praises 
of  Christ,  as  of  God ;  and  to  oblige  them- 
selves, by  the  performance  of  their  religious 
rites,  not  to  be  guilty  of  theft  or  adultery,  to 
observe  inviolably  their  word,  and  to  be  true 
to  their  trust.  This  disposition  has  obliged 
me  to  endeavour  to  inform  myself  still  far- 
ther of  this  matter,  by  putting  to  the  torture 
two  of  their  women  servants,  whom  they 
called  deaconesses:  but  I  could  learn  no- 
thing more  from  them  than  that  the  super- 
stition of  these  people  is  as  ridiculous  as 
their  attachment  to  it  is  astonishing." 

It  is  easy  to  discover  the  cause  of  the 
many  persecutions  to  which  the  Christians 
were  exposed  during  the  three  first  centu- 
ries. The  purity  of  the  Christian  morality, 
directly  opposite  to  the  corruption  of  the 
pagans,  was  doubtless  one  of  the  most  pow- 
erful motives  of  the  public  aversion.  To 
this  may  be  added  the  many  calumnies  un- 
justly spread  about  concerning  them  by 
their  enemies,  particularly  the  Jews  ;  and 
this  occasioned  so  strong  a  prejudice  against 
them,  that  the  pagans  condemned  them 
without  enquiring  into  their  doctrine,  or  per- 
mitting them  to  defend  themselves.  Be- 
sides, their  worshipping  Jesus  Christ  as  God, 
was  contrary  to  one  of  the  most  ancient  laws 
of  the  Roman  empire,  which  expressly  for- 
bade the  acknowledging  of  any  God  which 
had  not  been  approved  of  by  the  senate. 
But,  notwithstanding  the  violent  opposition 
made  to  the  establishment  of  the  Christian 
religion,  it  gained  ground  daily,  and  very- 
soon  made  surprising  progress  in  the  Roman 
empire.  In  the  third  centuiy  there  were 
Christians  in  the  senate,  in  the  camp,  in  the 
palace ;  in  short,  every  where  but  in  the 
temple  and  the  theatres,  they  filled  the 
towns,  the  country,  the  islands.  Men  and 
women  of  all  ages  and  conditions,  and  even 
those  of  the  first  dignities,  embraced  the 
faith  ;  inson^uch  that  the  pagans  complained 
that  the  revenues  of  their  temple  were  ru- 
ined. They  were  in  such  great  numbers  in 
the  empire,  that  (as  TertuUian  expresses  it,) 
wej'e  they  to  have  retired  into  another  coun- 
try, they  would  have  left  the  Romans  only 


CUR 


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a  fi'ightful  solitude.   For  persecutions  of  the 
Christians,    See  article  Persecution. 

Christians  may  be  considered  as  nominal 
i!id  real.  There  are  vast  numbers  who  are 
xdled  Christians,  not  because  they  possess 
nny  love  for  Christ,  but  because  they  happen 
:o  be  born  in  a  Christian  country,  educated 
JiV  Christian  parents,  and  sometimes  attend 
Christian  worship.  There  are  also  many 
whose  minds  are  well  informed  respecting 
the  Christian  system,  who  prefer  it  to  every 
other,  and  who  make  an  open  profession  of 
it;  and  yet,  after  all,  feel  but  little  of  the 
real  power  of  Christianity.  A  real  Christian 
IS  one  whose  understanding  is  enlightened 
oy  the  influences  of  divine  grace,  who  is  con- 
vinced of  the  depravity  of  his  nature,  who 
.sees  his  own  inabihty  to  help  himself,  who 
is  taught  to  behold  God  as  the  chief  good, 
the  Lord  Jesus  as  the  only  way  to  obtain 
felicity,  and  that  the  Holy  Spirit  is  the 
grand  agent  in  applying  the  blessings  of  the 
Gospel  to  his  soul.  His  heart  is  renovated, 
and  inclined  to  revere,  honour,  worship, 
trust  in,  and  live  to  God.  His  affections  are 
elevated  above  the  world,  and  centre  in  God 
alone.  He  embraces  him  as  his  portion, 
loves  him  supremely,  and  is  zealous  in  the 
defence  and  support  of  his  cause.  His  tem- 
per is  regulated,  his  powers  roused  to  vigo- 
rous action,  his  thoughts  spiritual,  and  his 
general  deportment  amiable  and  uniform. 
In  fine,  the  true  Christian  character  ex- 
ceeds all  others  as  much  as  the  blaze  of  the 
meridian  sun  outshines  the  feeble  light  of 
the  glow-worm. 

CHRISTIANS  OF  ST.  JOHN,  a  sect  of 
Christians  very  numerous  in  Balfara,  and 
the  neighbouring  towns :  they  formerly  in- 
habited along  the  river  Jordan,  where  St. 
John  baptized,  and  it  was  from  thence  they 
had  their  name.  Tiiey  hold  an  anniversary 
feast  of  five  days,  during  which  they  all  go 
to  the  bishop,  who  baptizes  them  with  the 
baptism  of  St.  John.  Their  baptism  is  also 
performed  in  rivers,  and  that  only  on  Sun- 
days :  they  have  no  notion  of  the  third  per- 
son in  the  Trinity  ;  nor  have  thev  anv  cano- 
nical book,  but  abundance  full  of  charms, 
&c.  Their  bishoprics  descend  by  inheritance 
as  our  estates  do,  though  they  have  the  cere- 
mony of  an  election. 

CHRISTIANS  OF  ST.  THOMAS,  a 
sort  of  Christians  in  a  peninsula  of  India  on 
this  side  the  Gulf;  they  inhabit  chiefly  at 
Cranganor,  and  the  neighbouring  country ; 
these  admit  of  no  images,  and  receive  only 
the  cross,  to  which  they  pay  a  great  venera- 
tion. They  affirm  that  the  souls  of  the 
saints  do  not  see  God  till  after  the  day  of 
judgment;  they  acknowledge  but  three 
sacraments,  viz.  baptism,  orders,  and  the 
eucharist ;  they  make  no  use  of  holy  oils  in 
the  administration  of  baptism,  but,  after  the 
ceremony,  anoint  the  infant  with  an  unction 
composed  of  oil  and  walnuts,  without  any 
benediction.    In  the   eucharist  they  conse- 

•  rate  with  little  cakes  made  of  oil  and  salt, 
aiid  instead  of  wine  make  use  of  water   in 

•  -ilch  raisins  have  been  infused. 


In  the  Asiatic  Researches  of  the  Society 
instituted  in  Bengal,  may  be  found  an  en- 
larged account  of  the  Christians  of  St.  Tho- 
mas, which  was  laid  before  that  socif  ty  by 
F.  Wrede,  esq.  See  also  Mont  lily  Maga- 
zine for  1804,  p.  60,  and  Dr.  Kerr's  Report 
to  Lord  Bcntick,  on  the  state  of  the  Clhris- 
tians  inhabiting  the  kingdom  of  Cochin  and 
li-avancni-e.    Jixmnq:  Mag.  1807,  p.  473. 

CHRISTIANITY,  the  religion  vi  Chris- 
tians. 

I.  CiiRiSTiA'Ki'rY,  foundation  of.  INTost, 
if  not  all  (Jhristians,  whatever  their  particu- 
lar tenets  may  be,  acknowledge  the  scrip- 
tures of  the  Old  and  New  'Festaments  as 
the  sole  foundation  of  their  faith  and  prac- 
tice. But  as  these  books,  or  at  least  parti- 
cular passages  in  them,  have  from  the  am- 
I)iguity  of  language  been  variously  interpret- 
ed by  different  commentators,  these  diversi- 
ties liave  given  birth  to  a  multiplicity  of  dif- 
ferent sects.  These,  however,  or  at  ieast 
the  greatest  number  of  them,  appeal  to  the 
scriptures  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments 
as  the  ultimate  standard,  the  only  infallible 
rule  of  faith  and  manners.  If  asked  by  what 
authority  these  books  claim  an  absolute  right 
to  determine  the  consciences  and  under- 
standings of  men  with  regard  to  what  they 
should  believe,  and  what  they  should  do, 
they  answer,  that  all  scripture,  whether  for 
doctrine,  correction  or  reproof,  was  given  by 
immediate  inspiration  from  God.  If  again 
inten-ogated  how  those  books  which  they 
call  scripture  are  authenticated,  they  reply, 
that  the  Old  and  New  Testament,  are  prov- 
ed to  be  the  word  of  God,  by  evidences  both 
external  and  internal.  See  §  2,  an  article 
Revelation. 

II.  Christianity,  evidences  the  truth 
of.  The  external  evidences  of  the  authen- 
ticity and  divine  authority  of  the  scriptures 
have  been  divided  into  direct  and  collateral. 
The  direct  evidences  are  such  as  arise  fi-om 
the  nature,  consistency,  and  probability  of 
the  facts  ;  and  from  the  simplicity,  unifor- 
mity, competency,  and  fidelity  of  the  testi- 
monies by  which  they  are  supported.  Tli^ 
collateral  evidences  are  either  the  same  oc- 
currences supported  by  heathen  testimonies, 
or  others  which  concur  with  and  corrobo- 
rate the  history  of  Christianity.  Its  internal 
evidences  arise  either  from  its  exact  con- 
formity with  the  character  of  God,  from  its 
aptitude  to  the  frame  and  circumstances  of 
man,  or  from  those  supernatural  convictions 
and  assistances  which  are  impressed  rn  the 
mind  by  the  immediate  operation  of  the  Di- 
vine Spirit.  We  shall  here  chiefly  follow 
Dr.  Doddridge,  and  endeavour  to  give  some 
of  the  chief  evidences  which  have  been 
brought  forward,  and  which  every  unpreju- 
diced mind  must  confess  are  unanswerable. 

First  Taking  the  matter  menly  in  theo- 
ry, it  will  appear  highly  probable  that  such 
a  system  as  the  Gospel  should  be,  indeed 
a  divine  revelation. 

1.  The  cas?  of  mankind  is  naturally  such 
as  to  reed  a  divine  revelation,  1  John  v.  19. 
Bom.  i.  Eph.  iv. — 2.  There  is  from  the  light 


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of  nature  considerable  encouragement  to 
hope  tliat  God  would  favour  his  creatures 
with  so  needful  a  blessing  as  a  revelation  ap- 
pears— 3.  We  may  easily  conclude,  that  if 
a  revelation  were  given,  it  would  be  introdu- 
ced and  transmitted  in  such  a  manner  as 
Christianity  is  said  to  have  been — 4.  That 
the  main  doctrines  of  the  Gospel  are  of  such 
a  nature  as  we  migiit  in  general  suppose 
those  of  a  divine  revelation  would  be  ;  ra- 
tional, practical,  and  sublime.  Heb.  xi.  6. 
Mcuk  xii.  20.  1  Tim.  ii.  5.  Matt.  v.  48.  Matt. 
X.  29,  30    Philippians  iv.  8.  Rom.  ii.  6.  13. 

Secondly.  It  is  in  fact,  certain  that 
Christianity  is  indeed,  a  divine  revelation  ; 
for,  I.  The  books  of  the  J\''evj  Testament, 
now  in  our  /ia72ds,  were  written  by  the  first 
preachers  and  Jiublishers  of  Christianity.  In 
proof  of  this,  obsei-ve,  1.  That  it  is  certain 
that  Christianity  is  not  a  new  religion,  but 
that  it  was  maintained  by  great  multitudes 
quickly  after  the  time  in  which  Jesus  is 
said  to  have  appeared — 2.  That  there  was 
certainly  such  a  person  as  Jesus  of  Naza- 
reth, who  was  crucified  at  Jerusalem,  when 
Pontius  Pilate  was  governor  there. — 3.  The 
first  publishers  of  this  religion  wrote  boeks 
which  contained  an  accoufit  of  the  life  and 
doctrine  of  Jesus,  their  master,  and  which 
went  by  the  name  of  those  that  now  make 
up  our  New  Testament. — 4.  That  the  books 
of  the  New  Testament  have  been  preserv- 
ed, in  the  main,  uncorrupted  to  the  present 
time,  in  the  original  language  in  which  they 
%vere  written. — 5.  That  the  translation  of 
them  now  in  our  hands  may  be  depended 
upon  as,  in  all  things  most  material,  agree- 
able to  the  originial.  Now,  II.  From  allow- 
ing t/ie  ^ew  Testament  to  be  genuine,  ac- 
cording to  the  above  proof  it  will  certainly 
follow  that  Christianity  is  a  divine  revela- 
tio?t ;  for,  in  the  1st  place,  it  is  exceedingly 
evident  that  the  writers  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment certainly  knew  whether  the  facts  were 
true  or  false,  Jolm  i.  3.  John  xix.  27,  55. 
Acts  xxvii.  7,  9. — 2.  That  the  character  of 
these  writers,  so  far  as  we  can  judge  by  their 
works,  seems  to  render  them  worthy  ot  re- 
gard, and  leaves  no  room  to  imagine  they 
intended  to  deceive  us.  The  manner  in 
which  they  tell  their  story  is  most  happily 
adapted  to  gain  our  belief  There  is  no  air 
of  declamation  and  harangue  ;  nothing  that 
looks  like  artifice  and  design  ;  no  apoh^gies, 
no  encomiums,  no  characters,  no  reflections, 
no  digressions  ;  but  the  facts  are  recounted 
with  great  simplicity,  just  as  they  seem  to 
have  happened  ;  and  tliose  facts  are  left  to 
speak  for  themselves — Their  integrity  like- 
wise evidently  appears  in  the  freedom  with 
■which  they  mention  those  circumstances 
which  might  have  exposed  their  Master  and 
themselves  to  the  greatest  contempt  aniongst 
prejudiced  and  inconsiderate  men,  such  as 
they  knew  they  must  generally  expect  to 
meet  with.  John  i.  45,  46.  John  vii.  52. 
Luke  ii.  4.  7.  Mark  vi.  3.  Matt.  viii.  20. 
John  vii.  48.  It  is  certain  that  there  are  in 
their  wnth)gs  the  most  genuine   traces  net 


only  of  a  plain  and  honest,  but  a  most  pious 
and  devout,  a  most  benevolent  and  generous 
disposition,  as  every  one  must  acknowledge 
who  reads  their  writings. — 3.  The  apostles 
were  under  no  temptation  to  forge  a  story 
of  this  kind,  or  to  publish  it  to  the  world 
knowing  it  to  be  false. — 4.  Had  they  done 
so,  humanly  speaking,  they  must  quickly 
hare  perished  in  it,  and  their  foolish  cause 
nuist  have  died  with  them,  without  ever 
gaining  any  credit  in  the  world.  Reflect  more 
particularly  on  the  nature  of  those  grand 
facts,  the  death,  resurrection,  and  exaltation 
of  Christ,  which  formed  the  great  founcWi- 
tion  of  the  Christian  scheme,  as  first  exhibit- 
ed by  the  apostles.  The  resurrection  of  a 
dead  man,  and  his  ascension  into  an  abode 
in  the  upper  world,  were  such  strange  things, 
that  a  thousand  objections  would  immediate- 
ly have  been  raised  against  them  ;  and  some 
extraordinary  proof  would  have  been  justly 
required  as  a  balance  to  them.  Consider  the 
manner  in  which  the  apostles  undertook  to 
prove  the  truth  of  their  testimony  to  these 
facts ;  and  it  will  evidently  appear,  that  in- 
stead of  confirming  their  scheme,  it  must 
have  been  sufficient  utterly  to  have  over- 
thrown it,  had  it  been  itself  the  most  proba- 
ble imposture  that  the  wit  of  man  could  ever 
have  contrived.  See  Acts  iii.  ix  xiv.  xix. 
&c.  They  did  not  merely  assert  that  they 
had  seen  miracles  wrought  by  Jesus,  but 
that  he  had  endowed  them  with  a  variety 
of  miraculous  powers;  and  these  they  un- 
dertook to  display  not  in  such  idle  and  use- 
less tricks  as  sleight  of  hand  might  perform, 
but  in  such  solid  and  important  works  as 
appeared  worthy  of  divine  interposition,  and 
entirely  superior  to  human  power.  Nor  were 
these  things  undertaken  in  a  corner,  in  a 
circle  of  friends  or  dependants ;  nor  were 
they  said  to  be  wrought,  as  might  be  sus- 
pected, by  any  confederates  in  the  fraud  ; 
but  they  were  done  often  in  the  most  public 
manner.  Would  impostors  have  made  such 
pretensions  as  these  .-*  or,  if  they  had,  must 
they  not  immediately  have  been  exposed  and 
ruined  ?  Now,  if  the  New  Testament  be  ge- 
nuine, then  it  is  certain  that  the  apostles  pre- 
tend to  have  wrought  miracles  in  the  very 
presence  of  those  to  whom  their  writings 
were  addressed  ;  nay,  more,  they  profess 
likewise  to  have  conferred  those  miraculous 
gifts  in  some  considerable  degrees  on  others, 
even  on  the  very  persons  to  whom  they 
write,  and  they  appeal  to  their  consciences 
as  to  the  truth  of  it.  .\nd  could  there  possi- 
bly be  room  for  delusion  here  ? — 5.  It  is 
likewise  certain  that  the  apostles  did  gain 
early  credit,  and  succeeded  in  a  most  won- 
derful manner.  This  is  abundantly  proved 
by  the  vast  number  of  churches  established 
in  the  early  ages  at  Rome,  Corinth,  Ephe- 
sus,  Colossc,  &c.  &c.  &c — 6.  That,  admitting 
the  facts  which  they  testified  concerning 
Christ  to  be  true,  then  it  was  reasonable  for 
their  contemporaries,  and  is  reasonable  for 
us,  to  receive  the  (iospel  which  they  have 
transmitted  to  us  as  a  divine  revelation.  I'he 


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17 


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great  thing  they  asserted  was,  that  Jesus 
was  Uie  Christ,  and  that  he  was  proved  to 
be  so  by  prophecies  accomplished  in  him, 
and  by  mii-acles  wrought  by  him,  and  by 
otliers  in  his  name.  It  we  attend  to  these, 
I  we  shall  find  them  to  be  no  contemptible  ar- 
iguments;  bwt  must  be  forced  to  acknow- 
i  ledge,  that,  the  premises  being  established, 
the  conclusion  most  easily  and  necessarily 
1  follows ;  and  this  conclusion,  that  Jesus  is 
the  Christ,  taken  in  all  its  extent,  is  an  ab- 
stract of  the  Gcspel  revelation,  and  there- 
fore is  sometimes  put  for  the  whole  of  it. 
Acts  viii.  3".  Acts  xvii.  18.  See  articles 
Miracle  and  Prophecy. — 7.  The  truth 
ctf  the  Gospel  has  also  received  farther  and 
very  considerable  confirmation  from  what 
has  happened  in  the  world  since  it  was  first 
published.  And  here  we  must  desire  everj' 
one  to  consider  what  God  has  been  doing  to 
confirm  the  Gospel  since  its  first  publication, 
and  he  will  find  it  a  farther  evidence  of  its 
Divine  original.  We  might  argue  at  large 
from  its  surprising  propagation  in  the  world ; 
from  the  miraculous  powers  with  which  not 
only  the  apostles,  but  succeeding  preachers 
of  the  Gospel,  and  other  converts,  were  en- 
dowed ;  from  the  accomplishment  of  pro- 
phecies recorded  in  the  rJew  Testament; 
and  from  the  preservation  of  the  Jews  as  a 
distinct  people,  notwithstanding  the  various 
difficulties  and  persecutions  through  which 
they  have  passed.  VV'e  must  not,  however, 
forget  to  mention  the  confirmation  it  re- 
ceives from  the  methods  Avhich  its  enemies 
have  taken  to  destroy  it ;  and  these  have  ge- 
nerally been  either  persecution  or  falsehood, 
or  cavilling  at  some  particulars  in  revelation, 
without  entering  into  the  grand  argument  on 
which  it  is  built,  and  fairly  debating  what  is 
offered  in  its  defence."  The  cause  has  gain- 
ed considerably  by  the  opposition  made  to  it : 
the  more  it  has  been  tried,  the  more  it  has 
been  approved ;  and  we  are  bold  to  say  no 
honest  man,  unfettered  by  prejudice,  can  ex- 
amine this  system  in  all  its  parts,  without 
being  convinced  that  its  origin  is  divine. 

111.  Christianitv,  general  doctrines  of . 
'  It  must  be  obvious,"  says  an  ingenious  au- 
thor, "  to  every  reflccthig  mind,  that,  whe- 
ther we  attempt  to  form  the  idea  of  any  re- 
ligion a  priori,  or  contemplate  those  which 
have  already  been  exhibited,  certain  facts, 
principles,  or  data,  must  be  pre-established ; 
trom  whence  will  result  a  particular  frame 
'f  mind  and  course  of  action  suitable  to  the 
character  and  dignity  of  that  Being  by  whom 
the  religion  is  enjoined,  and  adapted  to  the 
nature  and  situation  of  those  agents,  who  are 
commanded  to  observe  it.  HeHce  Christiani- 
tii  may  be  divided  into  credenda  or  doc- 
trines, and  agenda  or  precepts.  As  the  great 
foundation  of  hisreligion,  therefore,  the  Chris- 
tian believes  the  existence  and  government 
of  one  eternal  and  infinite  Essence,  which 
for  ever  retains  in  itself  the  cause  of  its  own 
existence,  and  inherently  possesses  all  those 
perfections  which  are  compatible  with  its 
nature  :  such  are  its  almighty  power,  omni- 


scient wisdom,  infinite  justice.boundlessgoocl- 
ness,  and  universal  presence.  In  this  indi- 
visible essence  the  Christian  recognises  three 
distinct  substances,  y<  t  distingviished  in  such 
a  manner  as  not  to  be  incompatible  either 
with  essential  unity,  or  eimpiicity  of  buing, 
or  with  their  personal  distinctions ;  each  of 
them  possesses  the  same  nature  and  proper- 
ties to  the  same  extent.  This  infinite  Being 
was  graciously  pleased  to  create  an  universe 
replete  with  intelligences,  who  miglit  enjoy 
his  glory,  participate  his  happiness,  and  imi- 
tate his  perfections.  But  as  these  beings 
were  not  immutable,  but  left  to  the  freedom 
of  their  own  will,  degeneracy  took  place, 
and  that  in  a  rank  of  intelligence  superior 
to  man.  But  guilt  is  never  stationary.  Im- 
patient of  itself,  and  cursed  with  its  own 
feelings,  it  proceeds  from  bad  to  worse,  whilst 
the  poignancy  of  its  torments  increases 
with  the  number  of  its  perpetrations,  buch 
was  the  situation  of  Satan  and  his  apostate 
angels.  They  attempted  to  transfer  their 
turpitude  and  misery  to  man,  and  were, 
alas,  but  too  successful !  Hence  the  hetero- 
geneous and  irreconcilable  pruiciples  which 
operate  in  his  nature ;  hence  that  inexpli- 
cable medley  of  wisdom  and  folly,  of  rec- 
titude and  error,  of  benevolence  and  ma- 
lignity, of  sincerity  and  fraud,  exhibited 
through  his  whole  conduct :  hence  the 
darkness  of  his  understanding,  the  depravity 
of  his  will,  the  pollution  of  his  heart,  the  ir- 
regularity of  his  affections,  and  the  absolute 
subversion  of  his  whole  internal  economy. 
The  seeds  of  perdition  soon  ripened  into 
overt  acts  cf  guilt  and  horror.  All  the  hos- 
tilities of  nature  were  confronted,  and  the 
whole  sublunary  creation  becamea  theatre  of 
disorder  and  mischief.  Here  the  (  hristian, 
once  more  appeals  to  fact  and  experience.  If 
these  things  are  so ;  if  7nan  be  the  vessel  of 
guilt,  and  the  victim  of  misery,  he  demands 
how  this  constitution  of  things  can  be  ac- 
counted for.^  how  can  it  be  supposed  that  a 
being  so  wicked  and  unhappy  should  be  the 
production  of  an  infinitely  good  and  infinitely 
perfect  Creator?  He  therefore  insists  that 
human  nature  must  have  been  dis-arvanged 
and  contaminated  by  seme  violent  shock  ; 
and  that,  of  consequence,  without  the  light 
diffused  over  the  face  of  things  by  Christiani- 
ty, all  nature  must  remain  in  inscrutable  and 
inexplicable  mystery.  Toredress  these  evils, 
to  re-establish  the  empire  of  rectitude  and 
happiness,  to  restore  the  nature  of  man  to 
its  primitive  dignity,  to  satisfy  the  remon- 
strances of  infinite  justice,  to  purify  every 
original  or  contracted  stain,  to  expiate  the 
guilt  and  destroy  the  power  of  vice,  the  eter- 
nal Son  of  God,  from  whom  Christianity 
takes  its  name,  and  to  whcm  it  owes  its  ori- 
gin, descended  from  the  bosom  of  his  Father, 
assumed  the  human  nature,  became  the  re- 
presentative of  man;  endured  a  severe  pro- 
bation in  that  character;  exhibited  a  pattern 
of  perfect  righteousness,  and  at  last  ratified 
his  doctrine,  and  fully  accomplished  all  the 
ends  of  his  mission,  by  a  cruel,  unmerited, 


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and  ignominious  death.  Before  he  left  the 
tt^orkl,  he  delivered  the  doctrines  of  salva- 
tion, and  the  rules  of  human  conduct,  to  his 
apostles,  whom  he  empowered  to  instruct 
the  world  in  all  that  concerned  their  eternal 
felicity,  and  whom  he  invested  with  miracu- 
lous gifts  to  ascertain  the  reality  of  what  they 
taught.  To  them  he  likewise  promised  an- 
other comforter,  even  the  Divine  Spirit,  who 
should  remove  the  darkness,consolethe  woes, 
and  purify  the  stains  of  human  nature.  Hav- 
ing remained  for  a  part  of  three  days  under 
the  power  of  death,  he  rose  again  from  the 
grave;  appeai'ed  to  his  disciples,  and  many 
others  ;  conversed  with  them  for  some  time, 
then  re-ascended  to  heaven ;  from  whence 
■  the  Christian  expects  him,  according  to  his 
promise,  to  appear  as  the  Sovereign  Judge 
of  the  living  and  the  dead,  from  whose 
awards  there  is  no  appeal,  and  by  whose 
sentence  the  destiny  of  the  righteous  and  the 
wicked  shall  be  eternally  fixed.  Soon  after 
his  departure  to  the  right  hand  of  his  Fa- 
ther (where  in  his  human  nature  he  sits  su- 
preme of  all  created  beings,  and  invested 
with  the  absolute  administration  of  heaven 
and  earth,)  the  Spirit  of  grace  and  consola- 
tion descended  on  his  apostles  with  visible 
signatures  of  divine  power  and  ])resence. 
Nor  were  his  salutary  operations  confined  to 
them,  but  extended  to  all  who  did  not  by  ob- 
stinate guilt  repel  his  influences.  These  in- 
deed, were  less  conspicuous  than  at  the  glo- 
rious aera  when  they  were  visibly  exhibited 
in  the  persons  of  the  apostles.  But,  though 
his  energy  be  less  observable,  it  is  by  no 
means  less  effectual  to  all  the  purposes  of 
grace  and  mercy.  The  Christian  is  convin- 
ced that  there  is  and  shall  continue  to  be  a 
society  upon  earth,  who  worship  God  as  re- 
vealed in  Jesus  Christ,  who  believe  his  doc- 
trines, who  observe  his  precepts,  and  who 
shall  be  saved  by  the  merits  of  his  death,  in 
the  use  of  these  external  means  of  salvation 
which  he  hath  appointed.  He  also  believes 
that  the  sacraments  of  baptism  and  the  Lord's 
supper,  the  interpretation  and  application  of 
Scripture,  the  habitual  exercise  of  public 
and  private  d'  votion,  are  obviously  calcula- 
ted to  diffuse  and  promote  the  interest  of 
truth  and  religion,  by  superinducing  the  sal- 
utary habits  of  faith,  love,  and  repentance. 
He  is  firmly  persuaded,  that,  at  the  consum- 
mation of  all  things,  wlien  the  purposes  of 
Providence  in  the  various  revolutions  of  pro- 
gressive nature  are  accomplished,  the  whole 
human  race  shall  once  more  issue  from  their 
graves ;  some  to  immortal  felicity  in  the 
actual  perception  iind  enjoyment  of  their 
Creator's  presence,  and  others  to  everlasting 
shame  and  misery." 

IV.  Christianity,  moralitij  and  sufie- 
riori'y  of.  It  has  been  well  observed,  "that 
the  two  grand  principles  of  action,  according 
to  the  Christian,  are  the  love  of  (iod,  which 
is  the  sovereign  passion  in  every  gracious 
mmd  ;  and  the  love  of  man,  which  regulates 
our  actions  according  to  the  various  relations 
in  which  we  stand,  whether  to  communities 


or  individuals.  This  sacred  connexion  ought 
never  to  be  totally  extinguished  by  any  tem- 
porary injury.  It  ought  to  subsist  in  some  . 
degree  even  amongst  enemies.  It  requires 
that  we  should  pardon  the  offences  of  others, 
as  we  expect  pardon  for  our  own  ;  and  that 
we  should  no  farther  resist  evil  than  is  ne- 
cessary for  the  preservation  of  personal  rights 
and  social  happiness.  It  dictates  every  rela- 
tive and  reciprocal  duty  between  parents  and 
children,  masters  and  servants,  governors  and 
subjects,  friends  and  friends,  men  and  men  : 
nor  does  it  merely  enjoin  the  observation  of 
equity,  but  likewise  inspires  the  most  su- 
blime and  extensive  charity  ;  a  boundless  and 
disinterested  effusion  of  tenderness  for  the 
whole  species,  which  feels  their  distress  and 
operates  for  their  relief  and  improvement.'* 

"  Christianity,"  it  has  also  been  observed 
(and  with  the  greatest  propriety,)  "  is  supe-  A 
rior  to  all  other  religions.  The  disciple  of  1 
Jesus  not  only  contends  that  no  system  of  re- 
ligion has  ever  yet  been  exhibited  so  con- 
sistent with  itself,  so  congruous  to  philosophy 
and  the  common  sense  of  mankind,  as  Chiis- 
tianity :  he  likewise  avers  that  it  is  infinitely 
more  productive  of  real  consolation  than  all 
other  religious  or  philosophical  tenents  which 
have  ever  entered  into  the  soul,  or  been  appli- 
ed to  the  heart  of  man.  For  what  is  death  to 
that  mind  which  considers  eternity  as  the  ca- 
reer of  its  existence.'  What  are  the  frowns 
of  men  to  him  who  claims  an  eternal  world 
as  his  inheritance .'  What  is  the  loss  of  friends 
to  that  heart  which  feels,  with  more  than 
natural  conviction,  that  it  shall  quickly  re- 
join them  in  a  more  tender,  intimate,  and 
permanent  intercourse,  than  any  of  which 
the  present  Hfe  is  susceptible  ?  What  are  the 
vicissitudes  of  extemal  things  to  a  mindwhich 
strongly  and  uniformly  anticipates  a  state  of 
endless  and  immutable  felicity?  What  are 
mortifications,  disappointments  and  insults, 
to  a  spirit  which  is  conscious  of  being  the 
original  offspring  and  adopted  child  of  God; 
which  knows  that  its  omnipotent  Father  will 
in  proper  time  effectually  assert  the  dignity 
and  privileges  of  its  nature  ?  In  a  word,  as 
this  earth  is  but  a  speck  in  the  creation,  as 
time  is  not  an  instant  in  proportion  to  eter- 
nity, such  are  the  hopes  and  prospects  of  the 
Christian  in  comparison  of  every  sublunary 
misfortune  or  difficulty.  It  is  therefore  in 
his  judgment,  the  eternal  wonder  of  angels, 
and  indelible  opprobrium  of  man,  that  a  re- 
ligion so  worthy  of  God,  so  suitable  to  the 
frame  and  circumstances  of  our  nature,  so 
consonant  to  all  the  dictates  of  reason,  so 
friendly  to  the  dignity  and  impi'ovement  of 
intelligent  beings,  so  pregnant  with  genuine 
comfort  and  delight,  should  be  rejected  and 
despised  by  any  of  the  human  race." 

V.  Christianity,  propagation  and  suc- 
cess of.  Despised  as  Christianity  has  been 
by  many,  yet  it  has  had  an  extensive  pro- 
gress throughout  the  world,  and  still  remains 
to  be  pitofessed  by  great  numbers  of  man- 
kind ;  though  it  is  to  be  lamented  many  are 
unacquainted  with  its  genuine  influence.    It 


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was  early  and  rapidly  propagated  through  the 
whole  Roman  empire,  which  then  contained 
almost  the  whole  known  world ;  and  herein 
we  cannot  but  admire  both  the  wisdom  and 
the  power  of  God.  "  Destitute  of  all  human 
advantages,"  says  a  good  writer,  "  protected 
by  no  authority,  assisted  by  no  art ;  not  re- 
commended by  the  reputation  of  its  author, 
not  enforced  by  eloquence  in  its  advocates, 
the  word  of  God  grew  mightily  and  fire- 
■vailed.  Twelve  men,  poor  artless,  and  illi- 
terate, we  behold  triumphing  over  the  fiercest 
and  most  determined  opposition ;  over  the 
tyranny  of  the  magisti-ate,  and  the  subtle- 
ties of  the  philosopher ;  over  the  prejudices 
of  the  Gentile  and  the  bigotry  of  the  Jew. 
They  established  a  reHgion  which  held  forth 
high  and  venerable  mysteries,  such  as  the 
pride  of  man  would  induce  him  to  suspect, 
because  he  could  not  perfectly  comprehend 
them ;  which  preached  doctrines  pure  and 
spiritual,  such  as  corrupt  nature  was  prone 
to  oppose,  because  it  shrunk  from  the  seve- 
rity of  their  discipline ;  which  required  its 
followers  to  renounce  almost  every  opinion 
they  had  embraced  as  sacred,  and  every  in- 
terest they  had  pursued  as  important;  which 
even  exposed  them  to  every  species  of  dan- 
ger and  infamy ;  to  persecution  unmerited 
and  unpitied ;  to  the  gloom  of  a  prison,  and 
to  the  pangs  of  death.  Hopeless  as  this  pros- 
pect might  appear  to  the  view  of  short- 
sighted man,  the  Gospel  yet  emerged  from 
the  obscurity  in  which  it  was  likely  to  be 
overwhelmed  by  the  complicated  distresses 
of  its  friends,  and  the  unrelenting  cruelty  of 
its  foes.  It  succeeded  in  a  peculiar  degree, 
and  in  a  peculiar  manner ;  it  derived  that 
success  from  truth,  and  obtained  it  under 
circumstances  where  falsehood  must  have 
been  detected  and  crushed." 

"  Although,"  says  the  elegant  Porteus, 
•'  Christianity  has  not  always  been  so  well 
understood,  or  so  honestly  practised,  as  it 
ought  to  have  been  ;  although  its  spirit  has 
been  often  mistaken,  and  its  precepts  mis- 
applied, yet,  under  all  these  disadvantages, 
it  has  gradually  produced  a  visible  change 
in  those  points  which  most  materially  concern 
the  peace  and  quiet  of  the  world.  Its  bene- 
ficent spirit  has  spread  itself  through  all  the 
different  relations  and  modifications  of  life, 
and  communicated  its  kindly  influence  to  al- 
most every  public  and  private  concern  of 
mankind.  It  has  insensibly  worked  itself  into 
the  inmost  frame  and  constitution  of  civil 
states.  It  has  given  a  tinge  to  the  complex- 
ion of  their  governments,  to  the  temper  and 
administration  of  their  laws.  It  has  restrmned 
the  spirit  of  the  prince  and  the  madness  of 
the  people.  It  has  softened  the  rigour  of 
despotism,  and  tamed  the  insolence  of  con- 
quest. It  has  in  some  degree  taken  away 
the  edge  of  the  sword,  and  thrown  even 
over  the  horrors  of  war  a  veil  of  mercy.  It 
has  descended  into  families,  has  diminished 
the  pressure  of  private  tyranny ;  improved 
every  domestic  endearment ;  given  tender- 
ness to  the  parent,  humanity  to  the  master, 


respect  to  superiors,  to  inferiors  ease ;  so 
that  mankind  are,  upon  the  whole,  even  in 
a  temporal  view,  under  infinite  obligations  to 
the  mild  and  pacific  temper  of  the  Gospel, 
and  have  reaped  from  it  more  substantial 
worldly  benefits  than  from  any  other  institu- 
tion upon  earth.  As  one  proof  of  this  (among 
many  others,)  consider  only  the  shocking 
carnage  made  in  the  human  species  by  the 
exposure  of  infants,  the  gladiatorial  shows, 
which  sometimes  cost  Europe  twenty  or  thir- 
ty thousand  lives  in  a  month ;  and  the  ex- 
ceedingly cruel  usage  of  slaves,  allowed  and 
practised  by  the  ancienti  pagans.  These  were 
not  the  accidental  and  temporary  excesses  of 
a  sudden  fury,  but  were  legal  and  established, 
and  constant  methods  of  murdering  and  tor- 
menting mankind.  Had  Christianity  done 
nothing  moi-e  than  brought  into  disuse  (as  it 
confessedly  has  done)  the  two  former  of  these 
human  customs,  entirely,  and  the  latter  to  a 
very  great  degree,  it  had  justly  merited  the 
title  of  the  benevolent  religion  :  but  this  is 
far  from  being  all.  Throughout  the  more  en- 
lightened parts  of  Christendom  there  pre- 
vails a  gentleness  of  manners  widely  differ- 
ent from  the  ferocity  of  the  most  civilized  na- 
tions of  antiquity :  and  that  liberality  with 
which  every  species  of  distress  is  relNsved,  is 
a  virtue  peculiar  to  the  Christian  name." 

But  we  may  ask  farther,  what  success  has 
it  had  on  the  mind  of  man,  as  it  respects  his 
eternal  welfare.'  How  many  thousands  have 
felt  its  power,  rejoiced  in  its  benign  isfiuence, 
and  under  its  dictates  been  constrained  to  de- 
vote themselves  to  the  glory  and  praise  of 
God .'  Burdened  with  guilt,  incapable  of  find- 
ing relief  from  human  resources,  the  mind 
has  here  found  peace  unspeakable,  in  behold- 
ing that  sacrifice  which  alone  could  atone  for 
transgression.  Here  the  hard  and  impenitent 
heart  has  been  softened,  the  impetuous  pas- 
sions restrained,  the  ferocious  temper  subdu- 
ed, powerful  prejudices  conquered,  ignorance 
dispelled,  and  the  obstacles  to  real  happiness 
removed.  Here  the  Christian,  looking  round 
on  the  glories  and  blandishments  of  this 
world,  has  been  enabled  with  a  noble  con- 
tempt to  despise  all.  Here  death  itself,  the 
king  of  terrors,  has  lest  its  sting ;  and  the 
soul,  with  an  holy  magnanimity,  has  borne  up 
in  the  agonies  of  a  dying  hour,  and  sweetly 
sung  itself  away  to  everlasting  bliss. 

In  respect  to  its  future  spread,  we  have 
reason  to  believe  that  all  nations  shall  feel  its 
happy  effects.  The  prophecies  are  pregnant) 
with  matter  as  to  this  belief.  It  seems  that 
not  only  a  nation  or  a  country,  but  the  whole 
habitable  globe,  shall  become  the  kingdom  of 
our  Lord  and  of  his  Christ :  and  who  is  there 
that  has  ever  known  the  excellency  of  this 
system;  who  is  there  that  has  ever  experi- 
enced its  happy  efficacy ;  who  is  there  that 
has  ever  been  convinced  of  its  divine  origin, 
its  delightful  nature,  and  peaceful  tendency, 
but  what  must  join  the  benevolent  and  royal 
poet  in  saying,  "  Let  the  whole  earth  be  fiU- 
j  ed  with  its  glory,  amen,  and  amen  ? 

See  article  Christianity  in  Enc.  Brit,; 


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Paley's  Evidences  of  Christia7iity  ;  Lard- 
ner's  and  Mac/cnight's  Credibility  of  the  Gos- 
pel History  ;  Lord  Hailes  on  the  influence 
of  Gibbon's  Jive  causes  ;  Faiucett's  Eviden- 
ces ofChrislianiiy;  Doddridge's  ditto;  FelVs 
and  Hunter's  Lectures  on  ditto ;  Beattie's 
-Evidences  of  the  (Christian  Religion  ;  Soavie 
Jenyyih'  Evidtnces  of  Ditto  ;  IVhite's  Ser- 
mons; /i/?.  Porceus'  Sermons,  vol.i.ser.  12, 
13;  and  his  Essay  on  the  beneficial  effects 
of  Christianity  on  the  (etnfioral  concerns  of 
manAind. 

CHRISTMAS,  the  day  on  which  the  na- 
tivity of  our  blessed  Saviour  is  celebrated. 

The  first  footsteps  we  find  of  the  observa- 
tion of  this  day  are  in  the  second  century, 
about  the  time  of  the  emperor  Commodus. 
The  decretal  epistles,  indeed,  carry  it  up  a 
little  higher,  and  say  that  Telesphorus,  who 
lived  in  the  reign  of  Antonius  Pius,  ordered 
divine  service  to  be  celebrated,  and  an  ange- 
lic hymn  to  be  sung  the  night  before  the  na- 
tivity of  our  Saviour.  That  it  was  kept  before 
the  time  of  Constantine  we  have  a  melan- 
choly proof;  for  whilst  the  persecution  raged 
\inder  Dioclesian,  who  then  kept  his  csurt  at 
Nicomedia,  that  tyrant,  among  other  acts  of 
cruelty,  finding  multitudes  of  Christians  as- 
sembled together  to  celebrate  Christ's  nativi- 
ty, commanded  the  church  doors  where  they 
were  met  to  be  shut,  and  fire  to  be  put  to  it, 
which  soon  reduced  them  and  the  church  to 
ashes.     See  Holyday. 

CHRONOLOGY,  the  science  of  comput- 
ing and  adjusting  the  periods  of  time,  refer- 
ring each  event  to  the  proper  year.  We  have 
not  room  here  to  present  the  reader  with  a 
system  of  chronology  ;  but  should  he  be  de- 
sirous of  studying  this  science,  he  may  con- 
sult the  systems  of  C/wwar,  Calvisius,  Ush- 
er^ Simson,  Bedford,  Marshviaii,  Bluir, 
Playfair,  and  Dr.  Hciles. 

CHURCH.  1.  The  Greek  word  Etv-Asc-za 
denotes  an  assembly  met  about  business, 
whether  lawful  or  unlav.-ful.  Acts  xix.  32, 
39. — 2.  It  is  understood  of  the  collective  body 
of  Christians,  or  all  those  over  the  face  of  the 
earth  who  profess  to  believe  in  Christ,  and 
acknowledge  him  to  be  the  Saviour  of  man- 
kind :  this  is  called  the  visible  church,  Eph. 
iii.  21.  1  Tim.  iii.  15.  Eph.  iv.  11,  12.— 3  By 
the  word  church,  also,  we  are  to  understand 
the  whole  Ijody  of  God's  chosen  peo])le,  in 
every  period  of  time:  this  is  the  invisible 
church.  Those  on  earth  are  also  called  the 
mihtant,  and  those  in  heaven  the  triumphant 
church,  Heb.  xii.  23.  Acts  xx.  28.  Eph.  i.  22. 
Matt.  xvi.  28. — 4.  By  a /janjcw/ar  church  we 
understand  an  assembly  of  Christians  united 
together,  and  meeting  in  one  place  for  the 
solemn  worship  of  God.  To  this  agree  the 
definition  given  by  thecompilers  of  the  thirty- 
nine  articles : — "  A  congregation  of  faithful 
men,  in  which  the  true  word  of  God  is 
preached,  and  the  sacraments  duly  adminis- 
tered according  to  Christ's  ordinances,  in  all 
those  things  that  of  neces.sity  ai^  requisite  to 
the  same."  Actsix.  31.  Gal.  i  2,  22.  1  Cor. 
xiv.  34,  Acts  XX.  17.    Col.  iv,  15.-5.   The 


word  is  now  used  also  to  denote  any  particu- 
lar denomination  of  Christians  distinguished 
by  particular  doctrines,  ceremonies,  &c.:  as 
the  Roraibh  church,  Greek  church,  English 
church,  &c. 

Congregational  church  is  so  called  from 
their  maintaining  that  each  congregation  of 
Christians  which  meet  in  one  place  for  reli- 
gious worship  is  a  complete  church,  and  has 
sufficient  power  to  act  and  perform  every 
thing  relative  to  religious  government  within 
itself,  and  is  in  no  respect  subject  or  account- 
able to  any  other  church.  It  dots  not  appear, 
say  they,  that  the  primitive  churches  were 
national ;  they  were  not  even  provincial;  for, 
though  there  were  many  believers  and  pro- 
fessing Christians  in  Judea,  in  Galilee,  in  Sa- 
maria, in  Macedonia,  in  Galatia,  and  other 
provinces,  yet  we  never  read  of  a  provincial 
church  in  any  of  those  places.  The  particu- 
lar societies  of  Christians  in  these  disti'ictsare 
mentioned  in  the  plural  number,  2  Cor.  viii. 
1.  Gal.  i.  2.  Acts  ix.  31.  According  to  them,  A 
we  find  no  mention  made  of  diocesan  church-  1 
es  in  the  New  Testament.  In  the  days  of  the 
apostles,  bishops  were  so  far  from  presiding 
over  more  churches  than  one,  that  sometimes 
a  plurality  of  bishops  presided  over  the  same 
church.  See  Phil.  i.  1.  Nor  do  we  find  any 
mention  made  of  parochial  churches.  Some 
of  the  inhabitants  of  a  parish  may  be  Infidels, 
Mahometans,  or  Jews  ;  but  Gospel  churches 
consist  of  such  as  make  an  open  profession  of 
their  faith  in  Christ,  and  subjection  to  the 
Gospel,  Rom.  i.  7.  1  Cor.  xiv.  36.  It  seems 
plain,  then,  that  the  primitive  churches  of 
Christ  were  properly  congregational.  The 
first  church  at  Jerusalem  met  together  in  one 
place  at  the  same  time,  Acts  i.  14,  15.  The 
church  of  Antioch  did  the  same.  Acts  xiv. 
27.  The  church  of  Corinth  the  same,  1  Cor. 
xiv.  23.  The  same  did  the  church  at  Troas, 
Acts  XX.  7.  There  was  a  church  at  Cenchrea, 
a  port  of  Corinth,  distinct  from  the  church 
in  that  city,  Rom.  xvi.  He  that  was  a  mem- 
ber of  one  church  was  not  a  member  of  ano- 
ther. The  apostle  Paul,  writing  to  the  Co- 
lossian  society,  says — "  Epaphras,  who  is  one; 
of  you,  saluteth  you,"  (3nl.  iv.  12. 

Such  a  church  is  a  body  distinguished 
from  the  civil  societies  of  the  world  by  the 
spiritual  nature  and  design  of  its  govern- 
ment ;  for,  though  Christ  would  have  order 
Ictpt  in  his  church,  yet  without  any  coer- 
cive force ;  a  thing  inconsistent  with  the 
very  nature  of  such  a  society,  whose  end  is 
instruction ;  and  a  practice  suitable  to  it, 
which  can  never  in  the  nature  of  things  be 
accomplished  by  penal  laws  or  external  co- 
ercion, Isa.  xxxiii.  22.  Matt,  xxiii.  8.  10. 
John  xviii.  36.  Ps.  ii.  6.  2  Cor.  x.  4,  5.  Zech 
iv.  6,  &;c. 

1.  Church  members  are  those  who  com- 
pose or  belong  to  the  church.  As  to  the 
visible  church,  it  may  be  observed  that  real 
saintship  is  not  the  distinguishing  criterion 
of  the  members  of  it.  None,  indeed,  can 
without  it  honestly  offer  themselves  to  church 
fellowship ;  but  they  cannot  be  refused  ad- 


CIIU 


81 


CHU 


mission  for  the  mere  want  of  it;  for  1.  God 
alone  can  judge  the  heart.  Deceivers  can 
cnunterfeit  saintship,  1.  Sam.  xvi.  1.  7. — 2. 
God  himself  admitted  many  members  of  the 
Jewish  cliurch  whose  liearts  were  unsancti- 
tied,  Deut.  xxix.  3,  4.  13.  John  vi.  70. — 3. 
John  the  Ba])tist  and  the  apostles  required  I 
no  more  than  outtvard  apjieararicefs  (A  taith 
and  reijentance  in  order  do  baptism,  Matt.  iii. 
5,  7.  Acts  ii.  28.  viii.  13,  23 — 4.  Many  tliat 
were  admitted  members  in  the  churches  of 
Jndea,  Corinth,  Philippi,  Lao'licea,  SarJis, 
&c.  were  umvgenerated,  Acts  v.  i.  10  viii. 
13.  23.  1  Cor.  V.  11.  i.  15.  1  Cor  Phil.  iii.  18, 
19.  Rev.  iii.  5.  15.  17. — 5.  Chnst  ccmpares 
the  Gospel  chmch  to  a  floor  on  wliich  corn 
and  chaff  are  mingled  together;  to  a  net  in 
which  good  and  bad  are  gathered,  &c.  See 
Matt.  xiii. 

As  to  the  real  church,  1.  The  true  mem- 
bers of  it  are  such  as  are  born  again. — 2. 
They  cime  out  from  the  world,  1  Cor.  vi. 
17. — 3.  They  openly  profess  love  to  Clirist, 
James  ii.  14.  26  Mark  viii.  34,  &c — 4.  They 
walk,  in  all  the  ordinances  of  the  Lord 
blameless.  None  Ijut  such  are  proper  mem- 
bers of  the  true  church  ;  nor  should  any  be 
admitted  to  any  particular  church  without 
some  afipearance  of  these,  at  least. 

2  Church  fellowshifi  is  the  communion 
that  the  members  ei.jov  one  with  another. 

The  end  of  church  ftilowshi/i  is,  1.  The 
maintenance  and  exhibition  of  a  system  of 
sound  principles,  2  Tim.  i.  13.  1  Tim.  vi.  3, 

4.  1  Cor.  viii.  5,  6.  Ileb.  ii.  1.  Eph.  iv.  21.— 

5.  Tne  support  of  the  ordinances  of  the 
Gospel  worship  in  their  purity  and  simpli- 
city, Deut.  xii.  31,  32.  Rom.  xv.  6 — 3.  The 
impartial  exercise  of  church  government 
and  discipline,  Heb.  xii.  15.  Gal.  vi.  1.  2 
Tim.  ii.  24  26.  Tit.  iii.  10.  1  Cor.  v.  James 
jii.  17. — 4.  The  promotion  of  holiness  in  all 
manner  of  conversation,  Phil.  i.  27.  ii.  15,  16. 
2  Pet    iii.  U.  Phil.  iv.  8. 

The  more  particular  duiiea  are,  I.  Earn- 
est studv  to  keep  peace  and  unity,  KyAt.  iv. 
3.  Phil.'ii.  2,  3.  Phil.  in.  15,  16—2.  Bearing 
of  one  another's  burthens.  Gal.  vi.  1,  2. — 3. 
Earnest  endeavours  to  prevent  each  other's 
stumbliiig,  1  Cor.  x.  2,  3.  Heb.  x.  24.  27. 
Rom.  xiv.  13 — 4.  Stedfast  continuance  in 
the  faith  and  worship  of  the  Gospel,  Acts 
ii.  42 — 5.  Praying  for  and  sympathiznjg  with 
each  other,  1  Sam.  xii.  25.  Eph.  vi.  18. 

The  advantages  are,  1.  Peculiar  incite- 
ments to  holiness,  Eccl.  iv.  11. — 2.  There 
are  some  promises  applicable  to  none  but 
tho.se  who  attend  the  ordinances  of  God, 
and  hold  communion  with  the  saints,  Ps. 
xcii.  13.  Is.  XXV.  6  Ps.  cxxxii.  13.  16.  Ps. 
xxxvi.  8.  Jer.  xxxi.  12. — 3.  Such  are  under 
the  watchful  eye  and  care  of  their  Pastor, 
Heb.  xiii.  7. — 4.  Subject  to  the  friendly  re- 
proof or  kind  advice  of  the  saints,  1  Cor.  xii. 
25. — 5.  Their  zeal  and  love  are  animated  by 
reciprocal  conversation,  Mai.  iii.  16.  Prov. 
xx\'ii.  17. — 6.  They  may  restore  each  other 
i^^they  fall,    Eccl.  iv.   10.  Gal.   vi.    1—7. 


More  easily  promote  the  cause,  and  spread 
the  Gospel  elsewhere. 

3.  Church  ordinances  are,  1  Reading  of 
the  scriptures,  Neh.  ix.  3.  Acts  xvii.  11. 
Nth.  viii.  3,  4.  Luke  iv.  16.— 2.  Preaching 
and  expounding,  1  Tim.  iii.  2.  2  Tim.  ii.  24. 
Eph.  iv.  8.  Rom.  x.  15.  Heb  v.  4—3. 
Hearing,  Is.  Iv.  1.  James  i.  21.  1  Pet.  ii.  2. 
1  Tim.  iv.  13. — 4.  Prayer,  Ps.  v.  1,  2.  Ps, 
xcv.  6  Ps.  cxxi  1.  Ps.  xxviii.  2.  Acts  xii. 
12.  i.  14 — 5.  Singing  of  Psalms,  Ps  xlvii.  1. 
to  6  Col.  iii.  16.  1  Cor.  xiv.  15.  Eph  v.  19. 
— 6.  Thanksgiving,  Ps.  1.  14.  Ps.  c  James  v. 
13. — 7.  The  Lord's  supper,  1  Cor  xi.  23, 
?vc    Acis  XX.  7. 

Baptism  is  not  properly  a  church  ordi- 
nance, since  it  ought  to  be  administered 
before  a  person  be  admitted  into  church 
fellowsinp  See  Baptism. 

4.  Church  officers  are  those  appointed  by 
f Christ  for  preaching  the  word,  and  the 
superintendance  of  church  affairs ;  such  are 
bishops  and  deacons,  to  which  some  add, 
eiders.    See  these  articles. 

5.  As  to  church  order  and  discipline^  it 
i'.iay  Ije  observed,  that  every  Christian  so- 
ciety ft  rmed  on  the  congregational  plan  is 
strictl)'  independent  of  all  other  religious  so- 
cieties. No  other  church,  however  nume- 
rous or  respectable;  no  person  or  persons, 
however  eminent  for  authority,  abilities,  or 
influence,  have  any  right  to  assume  arbitrary 
jurisdiction  over  such  a  society.  They  have 
but  one  master,  who  is  Christ.  See  Matt, 
xviii.  15,  19.  Even  the  officers  which  Christ 
has*  appointed  in  his  church  have  no  power 
to  gi^ve  new  laws  to  it ;  but  only,  in  conjunc- 
tion with  the  other  members  of  the  society, 
to  execute  the.  commands  of  Christ.  They 
have  no  dominion  over  any  man's  faith,  nor 
any  compulsi^  power  over  the  consciences 
of  any.  Eveiy  particular  church  has  a  right 
to  judge  of  the  fitness  of  those  who  offer 
themselves  as  members.  Acts  ix.  26.  If  they 
are  found  to  be  jf/oper  persons,  they  must 
then  be  admitted ;  and  tJiL -should  always 
be  followed  with  prayer,  ai'id  with  a  solemn 
exhortation  to  the  persons  received.  If  any 
member  walk  disorderly,  and  continue  to  do 
so,  the  church  is  empowered  to  exclude  him, 
1  Cor.  V.  7.  2  Thes.  iii.  6.  Rom.  xvi.  17. 
which  should  be  done  with  the  greatest  ten- 
derness ;  but  if  evident  signs  of  repentance 
should  be  discovered,  such  must  be  received 
again.  Gal.  vi.  1.  This  and  other  church, 
business  is  generally  done  on  some  day  pre- 
ceding the  sabbath  on  which  the  ordinanca 
is  administered.  < 

See  art.  Excommunication  ;  Dr.  Owen' 
on  the  JVature  of  a  Gospel  Church  and  Use 
Government ;  Watts''  Rational  Foicndation 
of  a  Christian  Church  ;  Turner^  s  Compen- 
dium of  Soc.  Rel  ;  Fawcett's  Constitution: 
and  Order  of  a  Gospel  Church ;  Watts* 
Works,  ser.  53.  vol.  i  Goodwin's  Works, 
vol.  iv. ;  Fuller''s  Remarks  on  the  Discipline 
of  the  primitive  Churches;  and  Bryson*» 
Compendious  View. 


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82 


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CHURCH  OF  ENGLAND,  is  the  church 

established  by  law  in  this  kingdom. 

When  and  by  whom  Christianity  was  first 
introduced  into  Britain  c  miiot  perhaps  be 
exactly  ascertained.  Eusebiu§,  indeed,  posi- 
tively declares  that  it  was  by  the  apostles 
and  then*  disciples.  It  is  also  said  that  num- 
bers of  persons  professed  the  Christian  faitn 
here  about  the  year  150 ;  and  according  to 
Usher,  there  was  in  the  year  182  a  school 
of  learning,  to  provide  the  British  churches 
with  proper  teachers.  Popery,  however,  was 
established  in  Ejigland  by  Austin  the  monk ; 
and  the  errors  of  it  we  find  every  where 
prevalent,  until  WicklifFe  was  raised  up  by 
D.ivine  Providence  to  refute  tliem.  The 
church  of  England  remained  in  subjection 
to  the  pope  until  the  time  of  Henry  VHI. 
Heni'y,  indeed,  in  early  life,  and  during  the 
former  part  of  his  reign,  was  a  bigotted 
papist:  he  burnt  the  famous  Tyndal  (who 
made  one  of  the  first  and  best  translations 
of  the  New  Testament ;)  and  wrote  in  de- 
fence of  the  seven  sacranrjents  against  Luther, 
for  which  the  pope  gave  him  the  title  of 
"  The  Defender  of  the  Faith."  But  falling  out 
with  the  pope  about  his  marriage,  he  took 
the  government  of  ecclesiastical  affairs  into 
his  own  hand ;  and,  having  reformed  many 
abuses,  entitled  himself  supreme  head  of 
the  church.  See  Reformation. 

The  doctrines  of  the  church  of  England, 
which  are  contained  in  the  thirty-nine  arti- 
cles, are  certainly  Calvinistical,  though  this 
hai  been  denied  by  some  modern  writers, 
especially  by  Dr.  Kipling,  in  a  trac^t  entixled 
*•  Fhe  articles  of  the  Church  of  England 
proved  not  to  be  Calvinistic."  These  articles 
were  founded,  for  the  most  p^;^;  upon  a  body 
of  articles  compiled  and  pu\j)isiied  in  the 
xeign  of  Edward  VL  They  were  fiist  passed 
in  the  convocation,  and  confirmed  by  royal 
authority  in  1562.  They  were  afterwards 
ratified  anew  in,,tlie  yeav,,mri,,  and  again  by 
Charles  I.  Tlu^^'aw  requii'es  a  subscription 
to  these  articles  91  all  persons  who  are  ad- 
mitted into  holy  orders.  In  the  coui-se  of 
the  last  century  disputes  arose  among  the 
clergy  respecting  the  propriety  of  subscribing 
to  any  human  formula  of  religious  senti- 
ments. An  application  for  its  removal  was 
made  to  pai-liament,  in  1772,  by  the  petition- 
ing clergy  ;  and  received  tlie  most  public 
discussion  in  the  house  of  commons,  but  re- 
jected in  the  house  of  lords. 

The  government  of  the  church  of  Eng- 
land is  episcopal.  The  king  is  the  supreme 
head.     There  are    two   archbishops,    and 

twenty-four  bishops.  The  benefices  of  the 
ishops  were  converted  by  William  the  Con- 
itjueror  into  temporal  baronies  ;  so  that  every 
prelate  has  a  seat  and  a  vote  in  the  house 
of  peers.  Dr.  Headly,  howevei',  in  a  sermwi 
(preached  from  this  text — "  My  kingdom  is 
«^ot  of  this' world,"  insisted  that  the  clergy 
Jta(J  no  pretensions  to  temporal  jurisdictions ; 
,w(hich  gave  rise  to  vai'ious  publications, 
•tf rmed  by  way  of  eminence,  the  Bangoiian 


Controversy,  because  Hoadley  was  then  bish 
op  of  Bangor.  Dr.  Wake,  archbishop  of 
Canterbury,  formed  a  project  of  peace  and 
union  between  the  English  and  GalUcan 
churches,  founded  upon  this  condition, 
that  each  of  the  two  communities  should  re- 
tain the  greatest  part  of  their  respective  and 
peculiar  doctrines:  but  this  project  came  to 
nothing.  In  the  church  of  England  there 
are  deans,  archdeacons,  rectors,  vicars,  &c. ; 
for  an  account  of  which,  see  the  respective 
articles. 

The  church  of  England  has  a  public  form 
read,  called  a  Liturgy.  It  was  composed  in 
1547,  and  has  undergone  several  alterations, 
the  last  of  which  was  in  1661.  Since  that 
time,  several  attempts  have  been  made  to 
amend  the  litui'gy,  articles,  and  some  other 
things  relating  to  the  internal  government, 
but  without  effect.  There  are  many  excel- 
lencies in  the  liturgy ;  and  in  the  opinion  of 
the  most  impartial  Grotius  (who  was  no 
member  of  this  church,)  "  it  comes  so  iiear 
the  primitive  pattern,  that  none  of  the  re- 
formed churches  can  compare  with  it."  Sec 
Liturgy. 

Tlie  greatest  part  of  the  inhabitants  of 
England  arc:  professedly  members  of  this 
church  ;  but,  perhaps,  very  few  either  of 
her  ministers  or  members  strictly  adhere  to 
the  articles  in  their  true  sense.  I'hose  who 
are  called  methodistic  or  evangelical  preach- 
ers in  the  establishment  are  allowed  to  come 
the  nearest. 

See  Mr.  Overtones  True  Churchman ; 
Bisho/i  Jewel's  ^/lology  for  the  Church  of 
England ;  Abfi  Patterns  treatise  on  Church 
Government  ;  Tucker^s  ditto  ;  Hooker's  Ec- 
clesiastical Polity  ;  Pearson  on  the  Creed ; 
Burnett  on  the  thirty-?jine  Articles  ;  Bisho/i 
Prettyman's  Elements  of  Theology  ;  and 
Mrs.  H.  Moore's  Hints  on  forming  the 
Character  ofayoung  Princess,  vol.  ii.  ch.  37. 
On  the  subject  of  the  first  introduction  of 
Christianity  into  Britain,  see  the  1st  vol.  of 
Henri/'s  History  of  Great  Britain. 

CHURCH  GALLICAN,  denotes  the  ci- 
devant  church  of  France  under  the  govern- 
ment of  its  respective  bishops  and  pastors. 
This  church  always  enjoyed  certain  fran- 
chises and  immunities,  not  as  grants  from 
popes,  but  as  derived  to  her  from  her  first 
original,  and  which  she  took  care  never  to 
relinquish.  These  liberties  depended  upon 
two  maxims;  the  first,  that  the  pope  had 
no  right  to  order  any  thing  in  which  the  tem- 
poralities and  civil  rights  of  the  kingdom 
were  concerned  :  the  second,  that,  notwith- 
standing the  pope's  supremacy  was  admit- 
ted in  cases  purely  spiritual,  yet  in  France 
his  power  was  limited  by  the  decrees  of  an- 
cient councils  received  m  that  realm. 

In  the  established  church  the  Jansenists 
was  very  numerous.  The  bishoprics  antl 
prebends  were  entirely  in  the  gift  of  the 
king ;  and  no  other  catholic  state,  except 
Italy,  had  so  numerous  a  clergy  as  France. 
There  were  in  this  kingdom  eighteen  arch- 


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83 


CHU 


,  bishops,  one  hundred  and  eleven  bishops, 
'  one  hundred  and  sixty-six  tliousand  clergy- 
men, and  thrf  e  thousand  four  hundred  con- 
;  vents,  containing  two  thousand  persons  de- 
I  voted  to  a  monastic  life. 
!  Since  tl>e  repeal  of  the  edict  of  Nantz,  the 
I  Protestants  have  suffered  much  from  perse- 
I  rution.  A  solenm  law,  which  did  much 
honour  to  Lewis  XVI.  late  l:ing  of  France, 
5!;ave  to  his  non-Homan  Catholic  subjects,  as 
they  were  called,  ail  the  civil  advantages 
and  privileges  of  their  Roman  Catholic 
brethren. 

The  above  statement  was  made  previously 
to  the  French  revolution  :  great  alteratioi.s 
have  taken  place  since  that  period.  And  it 
may  be  interesting  to  tiiose  who  have  not  the 
means  of  fuller  information,  to  give  a  sketch 
(jf  the  causes  which  gave  rise  to  those  im- 
portant events. 

It  has  been  asserted,  that  about  the  middle 
of  the  last  century  a  conspiracy  was  formed 
to  overthrow  Christianity,  without  distinc- 
tion of  worship,  wiiether  Protestant  or  Catho- 
lic. Voltaire  ;  De  Alembeit ;  Frederic  II. 
king  of  Prussia  ;  and  Dideiot,  were  at  the 
head  of  this  conspiracy.  Numerous  other 
adepts  and  secondary  agents  were  induced 
to  join  them.  I'hese  pretended  philosophers 
used  every  artifice  that  impiety  could  in- 
vent, by  union  and  secret  correspondence, 
to  attack,  to  debase,  and  annihilate  Christi- 
anity. They  not  only  acted  in  concert, 
sparing  no  political  or  impious  art  to  effect 
the  destruction  of  the  Christian  religion,  but 
they  were  the  instigators  and  conductors  of 
those  secondary  agents  whom  they  had  se- 
duced, and  pursued  their  plan  with  all  the 
ardour  and  constancy  wliich  denotes  the 
ino.st  finished  conspirators. 

The  French  clergy  amounted  to  one  hun- 
dred and  thii  ty  thousand,  the  higher  orders 
of  whom  enjoyed  immense  revenues ;  but 
the  cures,  or  great  body  oi  acting  clergy, 
seldom  possessed  more  than  twenty-eight 
jiounds  sterling  a  year,  and  the  vicars  about 
half  the  sum.  The  clerg)'  as  a  body,  inde- 
pendent of  their  titles,  possessed  a  revenue 
arising  from  their  property  in  land,  amount- 
ing to  five  millions  sterling  annually  ;  at  the 
same  time  they  were  exempt  from  taxation. 
Before  the  levelling  system  had  taken  place, 
the  clergy  signified  to  the  commons  the  in- 
structions of  their  constituents,  to  contribute 
to  the  exigencies  of  the  state  in  equal  pro- 
portion with  the  other  citizens.  Not  con- 
tented with  this  offer,  the  tithes  and  reve- 
nues of  the  clergy  were  taken  away ;  in  lieu 
of  which,  it  was  proposed  to  grant  a  certain 
stipf^nd  to  the  different  ministers  of  religion, 
to  be  payable  by  the  nation.  The  posses- 
sions of  the  church  were  then  considered  as 
national  property  by  a  decree  of  the  consti- 
tuent assembly.  The  religious  orders,  viz 
the  communities  of  monks  and  nuns,  pos- 
sessed immense  landed  estates;  and,  after 
having  abolished  the  orders,  the  assembly 
seized  the  estates  for  the  use  of  the  nation  : 
the  gates  of  the  cloisters  were  now  thrown 


open,  Tlie  next  step  of  the  assembly  was 
to  establish  What  is  called  the  civil  constitU' 
(ion  cf  the  clergy.  This  the  Roman  Catho- 
lics assert,  was  in  diiect  opposition  to  their 
religion.  But  thoug'o  opposed  with  enei*- 
getic  eloquence,  the  decree  passed,  and  was 
soon  after  followed  by  another,  obliging  the 
clergy  to  swear  to  maintain  their  civil  cour 
stitution.  Every  artifice  which  cunning,  and 
every  menace  which  cruelty  could  invent, 
Were  used  to  induce  them  to  take  the  oath; 
great  numbers,  however,  refused.  One  hun- 
dred and  ihirt) -eiglit  bishops  and  arch-  • 
bishops,  sixty-eight  curates  or  vicars,  wtre 
on  this  account  driven  from  their  fees  and 
parishes.  Ihree  hundred  of  the  priests  wei-e 
massacred  in  one  day  in  one  city.  All  the 
other  pastors  who  adhered  to  their  religion 
were  either  .sacrificed,  or  banished  from 
their  country,  seeking  through  a  thousand 
dangers  a  refuge  amung  foreign  nations.  A 
perusal  of  the  hoiTid  massacres  of  the  priests 
I  who  refused  to  take  the  oaths,  and  the  vari- 
ous forms  of  persecution  employe  d  by  those 
who  were  attached  to  the  Catholic  religion, 
must  deeply  wound  the  feelings  of  humanity. 
Those  readers  who  are  desirous  of  farther 
information,  are  referred  to  Abbe  Barruel's 
History  of  the  Clergy, 

Some  think  that  there  was  another  cause 
of  the  revolution,  and  which  may  be  traced 
as  far  back  at  least  as  the  revocation  of  the 
edict  of  Nantz  in  the  seventeenth  century, 
when  the  great  body  of  French  Protestants, 
who  were  men  of  principles,  were  either 
murdered  or  banished,  and  the  rest  in  a 
manner  silenced.  The  effect  of  this  sangiii- 
nary  measure  (say  they)  must  needs  be  the 
general  prevalence  of  infidelity.  Let  the  re- 
ligious part  of  any  nation  be  banished,  and  a 
general  spread  of  irreligion  must  necessarily 
follow  :  such  were  the  effects  in  France. 
Through  the  whole  cf  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tun' infidelity  has  been  the  fashion,  and  that 
not  only  among  the  princes  and  noblesse,  but 
even  among  the  greater  part  of  the  bishops 
and  clergy.  And  as  they  had  united  their 
influence  in  banishing  true  religion,  and 
cherishing  the  monster  which  succeeded  it, 
so  they  have  been  united  in  sustaining  the 
calamitous  effexts  which  that  monster  has 
produced.  However  unprincipled  and  cruel 
the  French  revolutionists  have  been,  and 
however  much  the  sufferers,  as  fellow  crea- 
tures, are  entitled  to  our  pity  ;  yet,  consider- 
ing the  event  as  the  just  retribution  of  God. 
we  are  constrained  to  say,  "  Thou  art  righte- 
ous, oh  I  Lord,  who  art,  and  wast,  and  shall 
be,  because  thou  hast  judged  thus  ;  for  they 
have  shed  the  blood  of  saints  and  prophets, 
and  thou  hast  given  them  blood  to  drink ; 
for  they  are  worthy." 

The  Catholic  religion  is  now  again  esta- 
blished, but  with  a  toleration  of  the  Protest- 
ants, under  some  restriction. — See  the  Con- 
cordat, or  reli:^ious  establishment  of  the 
French  Republic,  ratified  September  10th, 
1801. 

CHURCH  GREEK,  or  EASTERN,  con- 


CIR 


84 


CIR 


prehends  the  churches  of  all  the  countries 
anciently  subject  to  the  Greek  or  Eastern 
empire,  and  through  which  their  languaii,e 
was  carried  ;  that  is,  all  the  space  extended 
from  Greece  to  Mesopotamia  and  Persia, 
and  thence  into  Egypt  This  church  has 
been  divided  from  the  Roman  ever  since  ihe 
time  of  tlie  emperor  Phocas.  See  article 
Greek  Church. 

CKUKCH  HIGH   See  High  Church. 

CMURCH  OF  IRELAND  is  the  same  as 
the  church  of  England,  and  is  governed  by 
four  archbishops  and  eighteen  bishops 

CHURCH  LATIN  or  WESTERN,  com- 

grehends  all  the  cliurches  of  Italy,  Portugal, 
pain,  x\frica,  the  north,  and  all  other  coun- 
tries whither  the  Romans  carried  their  lan- 
guage Great  Britain, i>art  of  the  Netherlands, 
of  Germany,  and  of  the  north  of  Europe, 
have  been  separated  from  it  almost  ever 
since  the  reformation. 

CHURCH  REFORMED,  compreliends 
the  whole  Protestant  churches  in  Europe  and 
America,  wiiether  Lutheran,  Calvinistic,  In- 
dependent, Quaker,  Baptist,  or  of  any  other 
denomination  who  dissent  from  the  church 
of  Rome,  The  term  Reformed,  is  now  how- 
ever, employed  on  the  Continent  of  Europe, 
to  distinguish  tlie  Calvinists  from  the  Lu- 
theraiis. 

CHURCH  ROMAN  CATHOLIC,  claims 
the  title  of  btring  the  mother  cliurch,  and  is 
undoubtedly  the  most  ancient  of  all  the  esta- 
blished churches  in  Christendom,  if  antiquity 
be  held  as  a  proof  of  primitive  purity.  See 
Popery. 

CHURCH  OF  SCOTLAND,  established 
by  law  in  that  kingdom,  is  presbyterian, 
which  has  existed  (with  some  interruptions 
during  the  reign  of  the  Stewarts)  ever  since 
the  time  of  John  Knox,  when  the  voice  of  the 
people  prevailed  against  the  influence  of  the 
crown  in  getting  it  established.  Its  doctrines 
are  Calvinistic.  See  article  Presbyteri- 
ans. 

CHURCHWARDENS,  officers  chosen 
yearly,  either  b\  the  consent  of  the  minister, 
or  of  t!ie  parishioners,  or  of  both.  Their 
business  is  to  look  to  the  church,  church- 
yard, and  to  observe  the  behaviour  of  the 
parishioners;  to  level  a  shilling  forfeiture  on 
all  such  as  do  not  go  to  church  on  Snnda)'s, 
and  to  keep  persons  orderly  in  church- 
time,  &c. 

CHURCH-YARD,  a  piece  of  ground  ad- 
joining to  the  church,  set  apart  for  the  in- 
terment of  the  dead.  In  the  church  of  Rome, 
church-yards  are  consecrated  with  great 
solemnity.  If  a  church-yard  which  has  been 
thus  consecrated  shall  afterwards  hi-  pollut- 
ed by  any  indecent  action,  or  ]nofaned  by 
the  burial  of  an  infidel,  an  heretic,  an  ex- 
communicated or  unbapti  zed  person,  it  must 
be  reconciled  ;  and  the  ceremony  of  the  re- 
conciliation is  performed  with  the  same  so- 
lemnity as  that  of  the  Consecration  !  See 
Consecration. 

CIRCONCELLIONES,  a  species  of  fana- 
tics ;  so  called  because  they  were  continu- 


ally rambling  round  the  houses  in  the  coun- 
try. They  took  their  ri&t:  among  the  Dona- 
tists,  in  the  reign  of  the  e^iperor  Coustan- 
tiue.  it  is  incredible  what  ravages  and 
cruellies  they  Ci  mmiited  in  Africa,  through 
<i  long  series  of  years.  Tliey  were  illiterate 
savage  peasants,  who  understood  only  the 
Punic  language.  Intoxicated  with  a  barba- 
rous zeal,  they  renounced  agriculture,  jjro- 
fessed  continence,  and  asbunied  the  title  of 
"  Viudicutias  of  justice,  and  protectors  of 
the  oppressed."  To  accomplish  then, mis- 
sion, th(  y  enfranchized  slaves,  scouied  the 
roads,  forced  masters  to  alight  from  their 
ciiarii  ts,  and  run  before  their  slaves,  whom 
they  obliged  to  mount  in  their  place  ;  and 
discharged  debtors,  killing  the.  creditors  if 
they  refused  to  cancel  their  bonds.  But  i!.e 
chief  objects  of  their  cruelty  were  the  Ca- 
tholics and  especially  diose  who  had  re- 
nounced Donatisni.  At  tirst  they  used  no 
swords,  because  God  had  forbidden  the  use 
of  one  to  Peter  :  but  they  were  armed  with 
clubs,  which  they  called  the  chibs  of  Israel, 
and  which  they  handled  in  such  a  manner 
as  to  break  a  man's  hones  without  killing 
him  immediately,  so  that  he  languished  a 
long  tune,  and  then  died.  Wiien  they  took 
away  a  man's  life  at  once,  they  looked  upon 
it  as  a  favour.  They  became  less  scrupulous 
aiterwards,  and  made  use  of  all  sorts  of 
arms.  Their  shout  was,  Praise  be  to  God. 
These  words  in  their  mouths  were  the  sig- 
nal of  slaughter,  mc^-e  terrible  than  the 
roaring  of  a  lion.  They  had  invented  an  un- 
heard of  punishment,  which  was  to  cover 
with  hme,  diluted  with  vinegar,  the  eyes  of 
those  unhappy  Avntches  whom  theyjiad 
crushed  with  blows  and  covered  Avith 
wounds,  and  to  abandon  them  in  that  con- 
dition. Never  was  a  stronger  proof  what 
horrors  superstition  can  beget  in  minds  des- 
titute of  knowledge  and  humanity.  These 
brutes,  who  had  made  a  vow  of  chastity, 
gave  themselves  up  to  wine,  and  all  sorts  of 
impurities;  running  about  with  women  and 
young  gills  as  drunk  as  themselves,  whom 
they  called  sacred  virgins,  and  who  often 
carried  proof  of  their  incontinence.  Their 
chief  took  the  name  of  c/iiif  of  the  f^aints. 
After  having  glutted  themselves  with  blood, 
they  turned  their  rage  upon  theni-selves,  and 
soughjf  death  with  the  same  fury  witli  which 
they  gave  it  to  others.  Some  scrambled  up 
to  the  tops  of  rocks,  and  cast  themselves 
down  headlong  in  multitudes  ;  others  burned 
themselves,  or  threw  themselves  into  the 
sea.  Those  who  jnvpostd.  to  acquire  the 
title  of  martyrs  published  it  l(>ng  before  ; 
up<in  whicli  they  were  feasted  and  fattened 
like  oxen  for  the  slaughter;  after  these  pre- 
parations they  set  cut  to  be  deployed.  Some- 
times they  gave  money  to  tluse  whom  they 
met,  and  threatened  to  murder  them  if  they 
did  not  make  them  martyrs.  Tlieodorat 
gives  an  account  of  a  stout  young  man,  who 
meeting  with  a  troop  of  these  fanatics,  con- 
sented to  kill  them,  provided  he  might  bind 
them  first ;  and  having  by  this  means  put  it 


CLE 


CLE 


|,  out  of  their  power  to  defend  themselves, 
'    whipped  them  as  long  as  he  was  able,  and 
then  left  them  tiod  in  that  manner.     Their 
bishfips  pirtended   to  blame   them,   but  in 
-reality  made  use  of  them  to  intimidate  such 
as  might  be  tempted  to  forsake  their  sect; 
tiiey  even  honoured  them  as  saints.     They 
^vtre   not,   however,  able   to   govern  those 
hi!  ious  monsters  ;  and  more  than  once  found 
^IiLinselves  under  a  necessity  of  abandoning 
thc-m,  and  even  of  imploring  the  assistance 
of  the  secular  power  against   them.     The 
Cuunts  Ursacius'and  Taurinus  were  employ- 
ed to  quell   them :    they  destroyed   a  great 
number   of   them,   of  whom   the  Donatists 
^   made  as  taany  mai'tyrs.   Ursacius,  who  was 
!    a  Catholic,  and  a  religiol^s  man,  having  lost 
'    his  life  in  an  engagement  with  the  barba- 
lians,  the  Donatists  did  not  faiLio  triumph 
in  his  death,  as  an  eft'ect  of  the  vengeance 
,    of  heaven.     Afiica  was  the  theatre  of  these 
I   bloody  scenes  during  a  great  part  of  Con- 
I    stantine's  life. 

'  CIS  rERTL\NS,  a  religious  order  found- 
ed by  St.  Robert,  a  Benedictine,  in  the 
eleventh  century.  They  became  so  pow- 
erful, that  tliey  governed  almost  all  Europe 
both  in  spirituals  and  temporals.  Cardinal 
de  Vitri,  descri4)ing  their  observances,  says, 
they  neither  wore  skins  nor  shirts,  nor  ever 
ate  flesh,  excej)t  in  sickness;  and  abst;tined 
from  fish,  eggs,  milk,  and  cheese :  they  lay 
upon  straw  beds  in  tunics  and  cowls ;  they 
rose  at  midnight  to  prayers  ;  they  spent  the 
day  in  labour,  reading,  and  prayer ;  and  in 
all  their  exercises  observed  a  continual  si- 
lence. 

CLEMENCY  denotes  much  the  same  as 
mercy.  It  is  most  generally  lised  in  speak- 
ing of  the  forgiveness  exercised  by  princes. 
It  is  the  result,  indeed,  of  a  disposition 
■which  ought  to  be  cultivated  by  all  ranks, 
though  its  effects  cannot  be  equally  conspi- 
cuous. 

(Jlemency  is  not  only  the  privilege,  the 
honour,  and  the  duty  of  a  prince,  but  it  is 
also  his  security,  and  better  than  all  his 
garrisons,  forts,  and  guards,  to  pre'^erve 
himself  and  his  dominions  in  safety.  That 
prince  is  tiiily  royal  who  masters  himself, 
looks  upon  all  injuries  as  below  him,  and 
governs  by  equity  and  reason,  not  by  passion 
or  caprice.  David,  king  of  Israel,  appears 
in  no  instance  greater  or  more  amiable  than 
in  sparing  the  hfe  of  his  persecutor  Saul, 
when  it  was  in  his  power. 

CLERGY,  (from  the  Greek  word  xXzp^i, 
heritage,)  in  the  general  sense  of  the  word, 
as  used  by  us,  signifies  the  body  of  ecclesi- 
astics of  the  Christian  church,  in  contra- 
diction to  the  laity;  but  strictly  speaking, 
and  according  to  scripture,  it  means  the 
church — "  When  Joshua,"  as  one  observes, 
"  divided  the  Holy  Land  by  lot  among  the 
Israehtes,  it  pleased  God  to  provide  for  a 
thirteenth  part  of  them,  called  Levites,  by 
assigning  them  a  personal  estate  equivalent 
to  that  provision  made  by  real  estate  which 
was  allotted  to  each  of  the  other  twelve 


parts.  In  conformity,  to  the  style  of  the 
transaction,  the  Levites  were  called  God's 
lot,  inhsrilance,  or  clergy.  This  style,  how- 
ever, is  not  always  used  by  the  Old  Testa- 
ment writers  S<'metimes  they  call  all  the 
nation  God's  lor,  Deut.  xxxii.  9.  Ps  Ixxviii, 
71.  Ps  xxviii.  9,  &c.  The  New  Testament 
writers  adopt  this  term,  and  apply  it  to  the 
ivholi;  Christian  church,  1  Pet  v.  3.  Thus 
it  IS  the  church  distinguished  from  the 
world,  and  not  one  part  of  the  church  as 
distinguished  from  another  part."  The  word 
clergy,  however,  among  us,  always  refers  to 
ecclesiastics. 

The  clergy  originally  consisted  of  bishops 
priests,  and  deacons ;  but  hi  the  third  cen- 
tury many  inferior  orders  were  appointed; 
such  as  sub-deacons,  acoluthists,  readers, 
&c.  The  clery)'  of  the  church  of  Rome  arc 
divided  into  regular  and  secular.  The  re- 
gular consists  of  those  monks  or  religious 
who  have  taken  upon  them  holy  orders  of 
the  priesthocxl  in  their  respective  monaste- 
ries. The  secular  clergy  are  those  who  are 
not  of  any  religious  order,  and  have  the 
care  and  direction  of  parishes.  The  Pro- 
testant clergy  are  all  secular.  For  archbi- 
shops, bishcps,  deans,  &c.  Sec,  see  thost 
articles. 

The  clerg\-  have  large  privileges  allowed 
them  by  ouj-  municipal  laws,  and  had  for- 
merly much  greater,  which  were  abridged 
at  the  reformation,  on  account  of  the  ill  1156 
which  the  popish  clergy  had  endeavoured  to 
make  of  them ;  for  the  laws  having  ex- 
empted them  from  almost  every  personal 
duty,  they  attempted  a  total  exemption  from 
every  secuhr  tie.  The  personal  exemp- 
tions, indeed,  for  the  most  part,  continue. 
A  clergyman  cannot  be  compelled  to  seiTe 
en  a  jury,  nor  to  appear  at  a  court  le>et, 
which  almost  every  ether  person  is  obhgecl 
to  do ;  but  if  a  layman  be  summoned  on  a 
jury,  and  tefore  the  trial  takes  orders,- he 
shall  notwithstanding  appear,  and  be  sworn. 
Neither  can  he  be  chosen  to  any  temporal 
office ;  as  baihff',  re«ve,  constable,  or  the 
like,  in  regard  of  his  own  continual  atten- 
dance on  the  sacred  function.  During  his 
attendance  on  divine  service,  he  is  privi- 
leged from  arrests  in  civil  suits.  In  cases 
of  felony  also,  a  clerk  in  orders  shall  have 
the  benefit  of  clergy  without  being  branded 
in  the  hand,  and  may  likewise  have  it  more 
than  once  ;  in  both  which  cases  he  is  distin- 
guished from  a  layman. 

Benpjii  of  Cla-gy  was  a  privilege  where- 
by a  clergyman  claimed  to  be  delivered  to 
his  ordinaiy  to  purge  himself  of  felony,  and 
which  anciently  was  allowed  only  to  those 
who  were  in  orders ;  but,  by  the  statute 
18th  Eliz.,  ever}'  man  to  whom  the  benefit 
r>f  clergj-  is  granted,  though  not  in  orders,  is 
put  to  read  at  the  bar,  after  he  is  found 
guilty,  and  convicted  of  felony,  and  so  burnt 
in  the  hand  ;  and  set  free  for  the  first  time, 
if  the  ordinan'  or  deputy  standing  by  do  say, 
Legit  ut  clericus ;  otherwise  he  shall  suffer 
death.   As  the  clergy  have  their  privileges^ 


CO  c 


86 


COL 


so  they  have  also  their  disabilities,  on  ac- 
count of  their  spiritual  avocations.  Clergy- 
men are  incapable  of  sitting  in  the  house  of 
commons;  and  by  statute  21  Henry  VIII,  c. 
13.  are  not  in  general  allowed  to  take  any 
lands  or  tenements  to  farm,  upon  pain  of 
10/.  per  month,  and  total  avdidance  of  the 
lease ;  nor  upon  like  pain  to  keep  any  tap- 
house or  brewhouse ;  nor  engage  in  any 
trade,  nor  seil  any  merchandize,  under  for- 
feiture of  the  trelile  vahie;  which  prohibi- 
tion is  consonant  to  the  canon  law. 

The  number  of  clergy  in  England  and 
Wales  amount,  according  to  tlie  best  calcu- 
lation, to  18,000.  The  revenues  of  the  clergy 
were  formerly  considerable,  but  since  the 
reformation  they  are  cfjmjiaratively  small, 
at  least  those  of  the  inferior  clergy.  See 
the  Bishofi  of  Landaff's  Vuluaiion  of  the 
Church  and  University  Rcx'enuvs  ;  or.  Cove 
on  the  Revenues  of  the  (  hurch,  1797,  2d 
edition;  Burnett's  Hist,  of  his  ovjn  Tirnes, 
conclusion.    See  article  Minister. 

CLERK :  1.  A  word  originally  used  to  de- 
note a  learned  man,  or  man  of  letters;  but 
now  is  the  common  appellation  by  which 
clergymen  distinguish  themselves  in  signing 
any  deed  or  instrument. — 2.  Also  the  person 
who  reads  the  responses  of  the  congregation 
in  the  church,  or  gives  out  the  hymns  at  a 
meeting, 

COCCEIANS,  a  denomination  which 
arose  in  the  seventeenth  century  ;  so  called 
from  John  Cocceius,  professor  of  divinity  in 
the  university  of  Leyden.  He  represented 
the  whole  history  of  the  Old  Testament  as 
a  mirror,  which  held  forth  an  accurate  view 
of  the  transactions  and  events  that  were  to 
happen  in  the  church  under  the  dispensation 
of  the  New  Testament,  and  unto  the  end  of 
the  world.  He  maintained  that  by  far  the 
greatest  part  of  the  ancient  prciphtcies  fore- 
told Christ's  ministry  and  mediation,  and 
the  rise,  progress,  and  revolutions  of  the 
church,  not  only  under  the  fii^ure  of  persons 
and  transactions,  but  in  a  literal  manner, 
an.d  by  the  very  sense  of  the  words  used  in 
these  predictions ;  and  laid  it  down  as  a 
fundamental  rule  of  interpretation,  that  the 
words  and  phrases  of  scripture  are  to  be 
understood  in  every  sense  of  which  they 
are  susceptible,  or,  in  other  words,  that 
they  signify  in  effect  every  thing  that  they 
can  possibly  signify. 

Cocceius  also  taught,  that  the  covenant 
made  between  God  and  the  Jewish  nation, 
by  the  ministry  of  Moses,  was  of  the  same 
nature  as  the  new  covenant,  obtained  by  the 
mediation  of  Jesus  ('hrist.  In  consequence 
of  this  general  principle,  he  maintained  that 
the  ten  commandments  were  promulgated 
by  Moses,  not  as  a  rule  of  obedience,  but  as 
a  representation  of  the  covenant  of  grace — 
that  when  the  Jews  had  provoked  the  Deity 
by  their  various  transgressions,  particularly 
by  the  worship  of  the  golden  calf,  the  severe 
and  servile  yoke  of  the  ceremonial  law  was 
added  to  the  decalogue,  as  a  punishment  in- 
flicted on  them  by  the  Supreme  Being  in  his 


righteous  displeasure — that  this  yoke,  which 
was  painful  in  itself,  became  doubly  so  en 
account  of  its  typical  signification  ;  since  it 
admonished  the  IsraeHtes  from  day  to  dfiy  of 
the  imperfection  and  uncertainty  of  their 
state,  hlled  them  with  anxiety,  and  was  a 
perpetual  proof  that  they  hao  merited  the 
rightecais  displeasure  of  God,  and  could  not 
expect  before  the  coming  of  the  Messiali  the 
entire  remission  of  their  iniquities — that  in- 
deed good  men,  even  under  the  Mosaic  dih- 
pensation,  were  immediately  alter  death 
made  partakers  of  everlasting  glory  ;  but 
that  they  were,  nevertheless,  during  the 
whole  coarse  of  their  lives,  far  removed 
from  that  firm  hope  and  assurance  of  salva- 
tion, which  rejoice*  the  faith fuJ  tinder  the 
dispensation  of  the  Gospel — and  that  their 
anxiety  flowed  naturally  irom  this  considera- 
tion, that  their  sins,  though  they  remain  un- 
punished, were  not  pardoned ;  because  Christ 
had  not  as  yet  ( ffered  himself  up  a  sacrifice 
to  the  Father,  to  make  an  entire  atonement 
for  them. 

CffiNOBITE,  one  who  lives  in  a  convent, 
or  in  community,  under  a  certain  rule  ;  in 
opposition  to  a  hermit,  who  lives  in  solitude. 
Cassin  makes  this  difference  between  a 
convent  and  a  monastery,  that  the  latter 
may  be  applied  to  the  residence  of  a  single 
religious  or  recluse;  whereas  the  convent 
implies  coenobites,  or  numbers  of  religious 
living  in  common  Fleury  speaks  of  three 
kinds  of  monks  in  Egypt;  unachorets,  who 
live  in  solitude  ;  aenobites,  who  continue  to 
live  in  community  ;  and  sarabaites,  who  are 
a  kind  of  monks-errant,  that  stroll  from 
place  to  place.  He  refers  the  institution  of 
cojnobitcs  to  the  time  of  the  apostles,  and 
makes  it  a  kind  of  imitation  of  the  ordinary 
lives  of  the  faithful  at  Jerusalem;  though 
St.  Pachomius  is  ordinarily  owned  to  be  the 
institutor  of  the  ccrncbite  life,  as  being  the 
first  who  gave  a  rule  to  any  community. 

COLLECT,  a  ^hort  prayer.  In  the  liturgy 
of  the  church  of  England,  and  the  mass  of 
the  Romanists,  it  denotes  a  prayer  accom- 
modated to  any  particular  day,  occasion,  or 
the  like.  In  general,  all  the  prayers  in 
each  office  are  called  collects,  either  becau.'se 
the  priest  speaks  in  the  name  of  the  whole 
assembly,  Avhose  sentiments  and  desires  lie 
sums  up  by  the  word  "  Oremus,"  "  Let  us 
pray,"  or  because  those  prayers  are  offered 
when  the  people  are  assembled  together. 
The  popes  Gelasius  and  Gregory  are  said 
to  Iia\e  been  the  first  who  established  col- 
lects Dr.  Despence,  of  Paris,  wrote  a 
treatise  on  collects,  their  origin,  antiquity, 
Sec. 

COLLEGIANS,  orCoi.LEGiANTS,  ascct 
formed  among  the  Arminians  and  Anabap- 
tists in  Holland,  about  the  beginning  of  the 
seventeenth  century  ;  so  called  because  of 
their  colleges  or  meetings  twice  every  week, 
where  everyone,  females  excepted,  has  the 
same  liberty  of  expounding  the  scripture, 
praying,  &c.  They  are  said  to  be  all  either 
Arians  or  Socinians :  they  never  communi- 


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€  OM 


cate  in  the  college,  but  meet  twice  a  year, 
from  all  parts  of  Holland,  at  Rhinsbergh 
(whence  they  are  also  called  Rhinsberghers,) 
a  village  two  miles  from  Leyden,  where  they 
communicate  together;  achnitting  every  one 
that  presents  himself,  professing  his  faith  in 
the  divinity  of  the  holy  scriptures,  and  reso- 
lution to  live  suitably  to  their  precepts  and 
doctrines,  without  regard  to  his  sect  or  opin- 
ion, riiey  have  no  particular  ministers,  but 
eacli  officiates  as  he  is  disposed.  They  bap- 
tizt;  bv  immersion. 

COMMENTARY,  an  exposition  :  book  of 
annotations  or  remarks.  'L'here  are  some 
people  so  wise  in  their  own  conceit,  and 
think  human  helps  of  so  little  worth,  that 
they  despise  commentaries  on  the  sciptures 
altogether  ;  but  every  student  or  preacher 
whose  business  is  to  explain  the  sacred  ora- 
cles, to  make  known  the  mind  of  God  to 
others,  to  settle  cases  of  conscience,  to 
oppose  the  sophistry  of  sceptics,  and  to 
confound  the  arguments  of  infidels,  would  do 
well  to  avail  himself  of  the  most  judicious, 
clear,  copious,  critical,  and  sound  commen- 
taries on  the  Bible.  Nor  can  I  suppose  that 
commentaries  can  be  useless  to  the  common 
people,  for  though  a  spirit  of  serious  en- 
quiry, with  a  little  good  sense,  will  go  a  great 
way  in  understanding  the  bible,  yet  as  the 
language  is  often  figurative,  as  allusions  are 
made  to  ancient  customs,  and  some  parts  re- 
quire more  investigation  than  many  common 
Christians  have  time  for,  a  plain  exposition 
certainly  must  be  useful.  Expositions  of  the 
Bible,  however,  may  be  made  a  bad  use  of 
He  who  takes  the  ipse  dixit  of  a  commenta 
tor,  without'  ever  examining  whether  the 
meaning  given  comport  with  the  text ;  he 
who  gives  himself  no  trouble  to  investigate 
the  scripture  for  himself,  but  takes  occasion 
to  be  indolent  because  others  have  laboured 
for  him,  surely  does  wrong.  Nor  can  it  be 
said  that  those  preachers  use  them  properly, 
•who,  in  making  their  sermons,  form  their  j 
plans  from  the  commentator  before  they 
have  thought  upon  the  text.  Perhaps  the  best 
way  is  to  follow  our  own  talents  ;  first,  by 
prayer,  study,  and  attention  to  form  our 
scheme,  and  then  to  examine  the  opinions  of 
others  concerning  it.  We  will  here  present 
the  reader  with  a  view  of  some  of  those 
commentaries  which  are  the  most  genei'ally 
approved.  And  1.  in  my  opinion,  //(??2ri/ takes 
the  lead  for  common  utility.  The  sprightly 
notes,  the  just  inferences,  the  briginal 
thoughts,  and  the  warm  applications  to  the 
conscience,  make  this  work  justly  admired. 
It  is  true  that  there  are  some  expressions 
which  do  not  agree  with  the  evangelic  system; 
but,  as  the  late  Mr.  Rayland  observes,  '*  'tis 
impossible  for  a  person  of  piety  and  taste  to 
read  him  without  wishing  to  be  shut  out  from 
all  the  world  to  read  him  through  luithout  one 
7noment^s  interru/ition."  Mr.  Hfnry  did  not 
live  to  complete  this  work.  He  went  as  far 
as  the  end  of  Acts.  Romans  was  done  by  Dr. 
Evans  ;  the  I  Corinthians,  Sam.  JBrown  ;  2 
Corinthians,   Dr.     Mayo ;    Galatians,    Mr. 


Bayes;  Ephesians.Mr.  Boswell;  PhiKppians. 
Mr.  Harris  ;  Colnssians,  Mr.  Hairis  ;  1  and  2 
Tliessalonians,  Mr.  Mayo ;  1  and  2  Timothy, 
Mr.  Atkinson  ;  Titus,  Jtr.  Smith  ;  Philemon, 
Mr.  Mnttcrshead  ;  Hebrews,  Mr.  Tong  ; 
James,  Mr.  Wright  ;  1  Petei-,  Mr.  HHl ;  2 
Peter,  Mr.  Morril ;  1  2  and  3  hhn,  Mr. 
Reynolds  ;  Jude.  Mr.  Billingsley  ;  and  Reve- 
lations by  Mr.  IVing. 

2.  Pooii  Synopsis  Criticorum,  5  folio  vo- 
lumes. This  is  a  valuable  work,  and  ought 
to  be  in  the  possession  of  every  student ;  it  is 
much  esteemed  abroad,  three  eilidons  of  it 
having  been  published  on  the  continent. 

3.  Poole's  Annotations,  a  rich  and  useful 
work.  These  wereprinted  at  London  in  1685, 
in  two  volumes,  folio,  Poole  did  not  complete 
this  work  himself.  Mr.  Jackson,  of  Moulsey. 
is  the  author  of  the  annotations  on  the  o9th 
and  60th  chap,  of  Isaiah  Dr.  Collings  drew 
up  the  notes  on  the  rest  of  Isaiah,  Jeremiah, 
and  Lamentations,  as  also  those  on  tlie  four 
Evangelists,  the  two  epistles  to  the  Corinthi- 
ans, and  that  to  the  Galatians.  Those  to  Ti- 
mothy, Titus,  Philemon,  and  the  Revelations, 
Ezekiel,  and  the  minor  Prophets,  were  done 
by  Mr.  Hurst,  Daniel  by  Mr.  Cooper  ;  the 
Acts  by  Mr.  Vinke  ;  the  epibtle  to  the  Ro- 
mans by  Ml'.  Mayo;  the  Ephesians,  Mr. 
Veale  ;  the  I'hilippians  and  Colossians,  Mr. 
Adams;  the  Hebrews,  Mr  Obadiah  Hughes; 
the  epistle  of  St.  James,  the  two  of  St.  Peter, 
and  that  of  Jude,  by  Mr  Veale  ;  the  three 
epistles  of  St.  John  by  Mr.  Howe. 

4.  Dr.  Gill's  in  9  vols,  folio,  is  an  immense 
work ;  and  though  it  contain  a  good  deal  of 
repetition  and  extraneous  matter,  there  is 
certainly  a  vast  fund  of  information  together 
with  evangelical  sentiment. 

5.  Brown's  Self-interpreting  Bible,  in  2 
vols,  quarto.  Its  ciiief  excellencies  are  the 
marginal  references,  which  are  exceedingly 
useful  to  preachers ;  and  the  close,  plain,  and 
practical  improvement  to  each  chapter. 

6.  Scott's  Exposition  is  truly  excellent.  It 
abounds  with  practical  remarks,  and  the 
last  edition  contains  the  marginal  references. 
The  improvements  are  also  very  useful  for 
families. 

7.  Dr.  Adam  Clarke's  commentary,  with 
critical  notes,  and  marginal  references,  pos- 
sess considerable  merit,  and  will  be  found  a 
valuable  treasure  for  the  Biblical  student. 

On  the  J^'eiv  "Pestament. 

1.  Burkitt  contains  many  ingenious  obser- 
vations, fine  turns,  natural  plans,  and  pun- 
gent addresses  to  the  conscience.  There  are 
some  expressions,  however,  that  grate  upon 
the  ear  of  the  evangelical  Christian. 

2.  Guyse's  Paraphrase  is  deservedly  held 
in  high  estimation  for  sound  doctrine,  fair 
explication,  and  just  sentiment. 

3  Doddrige's  Family  Expositor.  The 
criticisms  in  this  work  render  it  valuable.  It 
must  be  owned  that  the  doctor  laboured  to 
come  as  near  as  possible  to  the  true  sense  of 
the  text. 

4.  Bezx  Annotation es,  in  quibus  ratio  in- 
terpretation's redditur ;  accessit  etiam  J.  Ca- 


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88 


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merarii  in  novum  foedus  commentarius,  fol 
Cantab.  1642,  contains,  besides  the  old  Latin 
version,  Beza's  own  version ;  and  in  the  side 
margin  is  given  a  summary  of  the  passage, 
and  in  tiie  argumentative  parts  the  con- 
nection. 

5.  Wolfii  Curx  Philologies,  &  Critic^e,  in 
Omnes  Libros,  Nov.  Test.  5  vol.  4to.  1759, 
Hamb.  Basil,  1741.  This  is  in  a  great  mea- 
sure a  compilation  after  the  manner  of 
Poole's  Synopsis,  but  interspersed  with  his 
own  critical  animadversions. 

6.  Bengelii  Gnomon  Nov.  Test.  4to.  Tub- 
ings, 1759,  &  Uimx,  1763,  contains  an  in- 
structive preface,  a  perspicuous  analysis  of 
each  book,  with  short  notes.  It  is  a  perfect 
contrast  to  that  of  Wolfius. 

7.  Raphelii  Annotaiiones  in  S.  Scriptu- 
ram,  &c.  is  an  attempt  to  illustrate  the  holy 
scriptures  from  the  classical  Greek  histori- 
ans, Xenophon,  Polybius,  Arrian,  and  Hero- 
dotus. 

8.  Hammond's  Paraphrase  and  Annota- 
tions upon  all  the  books  of  the  Nev,'  Testa- 
ment, folio. 

9.  Whitby's  Paraphrase  and  Com.  on 
New  Test.  2  fol  vol. 

10.  Wesley's  Explanatory  Notes,  4to,  or 
3  vols.  12mo.  Of  diiferent  translations,  see 
article  Bible. 

Commentators  on  Select  Parts. 

1.  Ainsworth  on  the  Pentateuch,  Psalms, 
and  Song  of  Solomon. 

2.  Patrick's  Commentaries  on  the  Histori- 
cal parts  of  the  Holy  Scriptures,  3  vol. 

3.  Lightfoot's  Works,  2  vol.  fol.  contain 
a  chronicle  of  the  times,  and  the  order  of 
the  text  of  the  Old  Testament.  I'he  har- 
mony, chronicle,  and  order  of  the  New  Tes- 
tament ;  the  harmony  of  the  four  Evangel- 
ists ;  a  commentary  on  the  Acts  ;  Hors  He- 
braicx,  &C.  ;  on  the  four  Evangelists,  Acts, 
and  1  Corinthians. 

4.  Chiysostomi  Opera,  8  vol.  folie,  contain 
expositions  of  various  parts. 

5.  Calvini  Opera  Omnia,  9  vol.  contain 
commentaries  on  the  Pentateuch,  Joshua,  ho- 
milies on  Samuel,  sermons  on  Job,  commen- 
taries on  Psalms,  Isaiah,  Evangelists,  Acts. 
Paul's  epistles,  and  the  other  catholic  epis- 
tles ;  and  prxlectiones  on  Jeremiah,  Ezekiel, 
Daniel,  and  the  minor  Prophets. 

6.  Lowth  on  the  Prophets. 

7.  Pocock  on  someof  the  Minor  Prophets. 

8.  Locke  on  Paul's  epistles. 

9.  Hutch  eson  on  the  Smaller  Prophets. 

10.  Newcome  on  Ezekiel  and  Minor  Pro- 
phets. 

11.  Macknight's  Harmony  of  the  Gospel, 
and  Literal  Translation  of  all  the  Apostoli- 
cal Epistles,  with  Commentary  and  Notes. 

12.  Cambell's  Translation  of  the  Gospels, 
with  Notes  and  Dissertations. 

On  Select  Books. 

On  Ruth  :  Macgowan,  Lawson. 

On  Job  :  1.  Caryll,  2  vol.  fol.--2.  Hutchin- 
son, 1669,  fol.— 3.  Peter's  Critical  Disserta- 
tion on  Book  of  Job, — 4.  Chapclloir. 


On  the  Psalms  :  1.  Molleri  Enarr.  Psalm, 
fol.  1619. — 2.  Hammond's  Paraphrase — 3. 
Amesii  Lectiones  in  Omnes  Psalmos,  Oct. 
1636 4.  Dickson 5.  Home's  Commen- 
tary.— On  Select  Psalms  :  1.  Hildershaai's 
152  Lectures  on  Psalm  li. — 2.  Decoetlogon's 
Serra.  on  Psalm  li. — 3.  Greenham  on  Psalm 
cxix. — 4.  Manton  on  Psalm  cxix. — 5.  (3wen 
on  Fsalm  cxxx. — 6.  Luther  rn  the  15  Psalms 
of  Degrees  — 7.  Horton  on  Psalms  iv.  xlii,  li. 
and  Ixiii. 

On  Proverbs :  Dr.  Mayer,  Taylor,  Jo. 
Trapp. 

£.cclesiastes  :  Broughton,  Jermyn. 

Canticles  :  Bp.  Foliot,  Mercier,  Sanchez, 
Bo.ssuet,  Cocceius.  Dr.  James,  Ainsworth, 
Durham,  bishop  Hall,  bishop  Patrick,  Dove, 
Trapp,  Jackson,  Dr.  Collings,  Dr.  Gill,  Dr. 
Percy,  Harmer,  Dr  Durell ;  but  the  most  re- 
cent, and  perhaps  the  best,  is  Williams'  new 
translation,  with  commentary,  &c.  where  the 
reader  will  find  a  Ust  of  other  names  who  have 
translated  and  written  on  parts  of  tliis  book. 

Isaiah  :  Vitringa,  Lowth,  Mc.  CuUoch. 

Jeremiah  :  Blayney. 

Ezekiel  :  Greenhill,  Newcome. 

Daniel :  Willet's  Flexapla,  fol.  Sir  Isaac 
Newton  on  Prophecies  of  Daniel. 

Hosea :  Burroughs,  Bishop  Horsley's 
translation,  with  explanatory  notes. 

Of  the  other  Minor  Prophets,  see  Com- 
jnentaries  on  Select  Parts. 

Gospels  :  See  above,  and  article  Harmo- 
ny. Also  Hildersham  on  John  iv.  fol.  Bur- 
gess on  John  xvii.  Manton  on  John  xvii. 

jlcts :  Mayer,  Trapp. 

Romans  :  Wilson,  Parr. 

Galatians  :  Luther,  Ferguson,  Perkins. 

Jifihesians :  Ferguson,  (Toodwin. 

Colossians  :  Byfield,  Davf  nant,  Elton. 

Tiius  :  Dr.  Thomas  Taylor. 

Hebrews :  Dr.  Owen. 

James  :  Manton. 

1  Peter  :  Leightnn,  and  N.  Byfield  on 
the  three  first  cha])ters. 

2.  Peter  :  Adam. 

John  :  Hardy  en  1  Epistle,  and  Hawkins 
on  the  three  Epistles  of  John. 

Jude  :  Jenkin.R,  Manton,  Otes. 

Revelation  :  Mede,  Daubuz,  Brightman, 
Peganius,  Waple,  Robertson.  Vitringa,  Pyle, 
Goodwin,  Lowman,  Sir  Isaac  Newton,  Dur- 
ham, Cradock,  Dr.  H.  Moore,  bishop  New- 
ton, Dr.  Bryce  Johnston. 

As  this  article  may  be  consulted  for  the 
purpose  of  obtaining  information  as  to  th^ 
best  helps  for  understanding  the  scriptures, 
we  may  add  to  the  above : — Jacobi  Eisner, 
Observat.  Sacrx  :  Alberti  Observ.  Philolog. ; 
Lamberti  Bos,  Exercitat.  Philolog.;  Lamber- 
ti.  Bos,  Observat.  Miscell.  Fortuita  Sacra. 
These,  together  with  Wolfiusand  Raphelius, 
before  mentioned,  says  Dr.  Doddridge,  are 
books  which  I  cannot  but  recommend  to  my 
young  friends,  as  proper  n<'t  only  to  ascertain, 
the  sense  of  a  variety  of  words  and  phrases 
which  occur  in  the  apostolic  writings,  but  also 
to  form  them  to  the  most  useful  method  of 


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studying  the  Greek  classics ;  those  great 
masters  of  solid  sense,  elegant  expression, 
just  and  lively  painting,  and  masculine  elo- 
quence, to  the  neglect  of  which  1  cannot  but 
ascribe  that  enervate,  dissolute,  and  puerile 
manner  of  writing  whicli  is  growing  so  much 
on  the  present  age,  and  will  probably  con- 
sign so  many  of  its  productions  to  speedy  ob- 
livion. See  also  books  recommended  under 
articles  Bible,  Scripturks. 

COMMINATION,  an  office  in  the  church 
of  England  appointed  to  be  read  on  Ash 
Wednesday.  It  is  substituted  in  the  room 
of  that  godly  discipline  in  the  primitive 
church,  by  which  (as  the  introduction  to  the 
office  expresses  it)  "  such  persons  as  stood 
convicted  of  notorious  sins  were  put  to  open 
penance,  and  punished  in  this  world,  that 
their  souls  might  be  saved  in  the  day  of  the 
Lord  ;  and  that  others,  admonished  by  their 
example,  might  be  the  more  afraid  to  offend." 
This  discipline,  in  after  ages,  degenerated  in 
the  church  of  Rome  into  a  formal  confession 
of  sins  upon  Ash  Wednesday,  and  the  emp- 
ty ceremony  of  sprinkling  ashes  upon  the 
head  of  the  people.  Our  reformers  Avisely 
rejected  this  ceremony  as  mere  sha<tow  and 
show  ;  and  substituted  this  office  in  its  room, 
which  is  ji  denunciation  of  God's  anger  and 
judgment  against  sinners  ;  that  the  people, 
being  apprised  of  God's  wrath  and  indigna- 
tion against  their  sins,  might  not,  through 
want  of  discipline  to  the  church,  be  encour- 
aged to  follow  and  pursue  them. 

COMMISSARY,  an  officer  of  the  bishop, 
who  exercises  spiritual  jurisdiction  in  p'aces 
of  a  diocese  so  far  from  the  episcopal  see, 
that  the  chancellor  cannot  call  the  people  to 
the  Wshop's  principal  consistory  court  with- 
out great  inconvenience. 

COMMUNICATING,  a  term  made  use 
of  to  denote  the  act  of  receiving  the  Lord's 
supper.  Those  of  the  reformed  and  of  the 
Greek  church  communicate  under  both  kinds; 
those  of  the  Romish  only  under  one.  The 
oriental  communicants  receive  the  species  of 
wine  by  a  spoon  ;  and  anciently  they  sucked 
it  through  a  pipe,  as  has  been  observed  by 
Beat  Rheanus  on  Tertullian. 

COMMUNION,  in  its  strict  and  proper 
sense  signifies  holding  something  in  common 
with  another,  Acts  ii.  42 — 3.  In  a  more  gen- 
eral sens?,  it  denotes  conformity  or  agree- 
ment, 2  Cn,r.  vi.  14.  Eph.  v.  11. — 3.  It  sig- 
nifies conT^er.5p,or  friendly  intercourse,where- 
in  men  contrive  or  consult  together  about 
matters  of  common  concern,  Luke  vi.  11. 
Ps.  iv.  4. — 4  Communion  is  also  used  for 
the  Lord's  supper,  because  w^c  herein  make 
a  public  profession  of  our  conformity  to  Christ 
and  his  laws  ;  and  of  our  agreement  witli 
othar  Christians  in  the  spirit  and  faith  of  the 
Gospel.    See  Lord's  Supper. 

The  fourth  council  of  Lateran  decrees, 
that  every  believer  shall  receive  the  com- 
munion, at  least,  at  Easter  ;  whicli  seems  to 
import  a  tacit  desire  that  they  should  do  it  of- 
tener,  as  in  effect  they  did  it  much  oftcner 

M 


in  the  primitive  days.  Gratian,  and  the 
masterof  the  sentences,  prescribe  it  as  a  rule 
for  the  laity  to  Cimmunicate  three  times  a 
year;  at  Easter,  Whitsuntide,  and  'Jhriitmas: 
but  in  the  thirteenth  century  the  practice 
prevailed  of  never  approaching  the  Eucha- 
rist at  Easter  ;  and  the  council  thought  fit  to 
enjuin  it  then  by  a  law,  lest  tiieir  coldness 
and  remissness  should  go  farther  still  :  and 
the  council  of  Trent  renewed  the  same  in- 
junction, and  recommended  frequentcommu- 
nion,  without  enforcing  it  by  an  express  de- 
cree. In  the  ninth  century  the  communion 
was  still  received  by  the  laity  in  both  kinds, 
or  rather  the  species  of  bread  was  dipped 
in  the  wine,  as  is  owned  by  the  Romaniste 
themselves.  M.  de  Marca  observes,  that 
they  I'eceived  it  at  first  in  their  hands ;  and 
believes  the  communion  under  one  kind 
alone  to  have  had  its  rise  in  the  West,  under 
pope  Urban  II.  in  1096,  at  the  time  of  the 
conquest  of  the  Holy  Land.  It  was  more 
solemnly  enjoined  by  the  council  of  Constance, 
in  1414.  The  twenty  weight  canon  of  the  coun- 
cil of  Clermont  enjoins  the  communion  to  be 
received  under  both  kinds  distinctly  :  adding, 
liowever,  two  exceptions— the  one  of  neces- 
sity, the  other  of  caution  ;  the  first  in  favour 
of  the  sick,  and  the  second  of  the  abstemious, 
or  those  who  had  an  aversion  for  wine.  It 
was  formerlya  kind  of  canonical  punishment 
for  clerks  guilty  of  any  crime  to  be  reduced 
to  lay  communion  ;  1.  e.  only  to  receive  it  as 
the  laity  did,  viz  under  one  kind.  They 
had  another  punishment  of  the  same  nature, 
though  under  a  different  name,calledybr(?;"§-77. 
coinmunio7i,  to  which  the  canons  frequently 
cnnileumcd  their  bishops  and  oth.r  clerks. 
This  punishment  was  not  any  excommuni- 
cation or  dep^  sition,  but  a  kind  'i  suspen- 
sion from  the  function  of  the  order,  and  a 
degradation  from  the  rank  they  held  in  the 
church.  It  had  its  name  because  the  com- 
munion was  only  granted  to  th?  criminal  on 
the  foot  of  a  foreign  c'erk  ,  i.  e  being  re- 
duced to  tlie  lowest  '  f  his  order,  he  took  his 
place  after  all  those  of  his  rank,  as  all  clerks, 
&c.,  did  in  the  churches  to  which  they  did 
not  belong.  The  second  council  of  Agda  or- 
ders every  clerk  that  absents  himself  from 
the  church  to  be  reduced  to  foreign  com- 
munion. 

Church  communion  is  fellowship  with  any 
particular  church.  See  Church  Fellow- 
ship. It  is  sometimes  applied  to  different 
churches  united  in  doctrine  and  discipline. 
The  three  grand  communions  into  which  the 
Christian  church  is  divided  is  that  of  the 
church  of  Rome,  the  Greek  church,  and  the 
Protestant  churcli ;  but  originally  all  'Chris- 
tians were  in  communion  with  each  other, 
having  one  communion,  faith  and  discipline. 

Free  communioii,  a  term  made  use  of  in 
relation  to  tlie  Lord's  supper,  by  which  it  is 
understood  that  all  those  who  have  been 
baptized,  whether  in  infancy  or  adult  age, 
may,  on  profession  of  their  faith,  sit  down 
at  tiie  Lord's  table  with  others  of  different 


COM 


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denominations.  Some  of  the  Baptists  object 
to  free  or  mixed  communion,  and  do  not  al- 
low of  persons  wlio  have  been  baptized  in 
their  infancy  to  join  in  the  celebration  of  rhe 
Lord's  supper  with  them ;  because  they  look 
upon  such  as  not  having  been  baptized  at  all, 
and  consequently  cannot  be  admitted  to  the 
fable.  Others,  however,  suppose  that  this 
ought  to  be  no  objection ;  and  that  such  whd 
believe  themselves  to  be  really  baptized 
(though  in  infancy,)  are  partakers  of  grace, 
oelong  to  the  true  churcii  of  Christ  axid  are 
truly  devoted  to  God,  ought  not  to  be  rejected 
on  account  of  a  different  opinion  about  a  mere 
ordinance.  Mr.  Killingworth  and  Mr.  Booth 
have  written  against  free  communion  ;  John 
Bunyan,  Dr  Foster,  Mr.  Bidkely,  Mr. Wiche, 
and  Mr.  Robinson,  for  it. 

COMMUNION,  spiritual  or  divine,  is  I 
that  delightful  fellowship  and  intercourse 
which  a  believer  enjoys  with  God.  It  is 
founded  upon  union  with  him,  and  consists 
in  a  communication  of  divine  graces  from 
him,  and  a  return  of  devout  affections  to 
him.  The  believer  holds  communion  with 
God  in  his  works,  in  his  word,  and  in  his 
ordinances.  There  can  be  no  communion 
without  likeness,  nor  witliout  Christ  as  the 
mediator.  Some  distinguished  communion 
with  God  from  the  sense  and  feeling  of  it ; 
that  is,  that  we  may  hold  communion  with 
him  without  raptures  of  joy  ;  and  that  a 
saint,  even  under  desertion,  may  have  com- 
munion with  God  as  really,  though  not  so 
feelingly,  as  at  any  other  time.  This  com- 
munion cannot  be  interrupted  by  any  local 
mutations :  it  is  far  superior  to  all  outward 
services  and  ordinances  whatsoever  ;  it  con- 
cerns the  whole  soul,  all  the  affections,  facul- 
ties, and  motions  of  it,  being  under  its  inilu- 
ence  :  it  is  only  imperfect  in  this  Hfe,  and 
will  be  unspeakably  enlarged  in  a  better 
world — In  order  to  keep  up  communion  witti 
God,  we  should  inform  ourselves  of  his  will, 
John  V.  39.  be  often  in  prayer,  Luke  viii.  1. 
embrace  opportunities  of  retirement,  Ps.  iv. 

4.  contemplate  on  the  divine  perfections,  pro- 
vidences and  promises,  Ps.  civ.  34.  watch 
against  a  vain,  tritling,  and  volatile  spirit. 
Eph.  iv.  30.  and  be  found  in  the  use  of  all 
the  means  of  grace,  Ps.  xxvii.  4.  'I'he  ad- 
vantages of  communion  with  God  are,  dead- 
ness  to  the  world,  Phil.  iii.  8.  patience  under 
trouble.  Job.  i.  22.  fortitude  in  danger,  Ps. 
xxvii.  1.  gratitude  for  mercies  received,  Ps. 
ciii.  1.  direction  under  diflRculties,  Prov.  iii. 

5,  6.  peace  and  joy  in  opposition,  Ps.  xvi.  2."^ 
happiness  in  deatli,  Ps.  xxiii.  4  and  an  earn- 
est desire  for  heaven  and  glory,  2.  Tim.  iv. 
7, 8.    See   S/iaw's   Immanual ;    Owen  and 
He7iry  on  Communion  ;  and  article   Fel- 

LOW  SHIP 

COMPASSION  is  that  species  of  affec- 
tion which  is  excited  either  by  the  actual 
distress  of  its  object,  or  by  some  impendinji 
calamity  which  appears  inevitable.  It  is  a 
benevolent  sorrow  tor  the  sufferings  or  ap- 
proaching misery  of  another.  I'he  etymo- 
logy of  the  word  expresses  this  idea  with 


strict  propriety,  as  i\.^i^A.es  suffering  wit k 
the  object.  Hobbs  makes  this  a  mere  selfish 
passion,  and  defines  it  as  "  being  fear  for 
ourselves."  Hutchinson  resolves  it  into  in- 
stinct;  but  Dr.  Butler  much  mire  properly 
considers  it  as  an  original  distinct  particular 
affection  in  human  nature.  It  may  be  con- 
sidered as  a  generic  name,  comprehending 
several  other  affections;  as  mercy,  commist- 
7'ation,pity.  This  affection  (as  well  as  eveiy 
other  of  our  nature,)  no  doubt,  was  wisely 
given  us  by  our  Creator.  "  Ideas  of  fitness," 
as  Saurin  observes,  "  seldom  make  much 
impression  on  the  bulk  of  mankind ;  it  was 
necessary  therefore  to  make  sensibility  sup- 
ply the  want  of  reflection;  and  by  a  counter- 
blow with  which  the  miseries  of  a  neighbour' 
strike  our  feelings,  to  produce  a  disposition 
in  us  to  relieve  him." 

COMPASSION  OF  GOD  is  the  infinite 
greatness  of  his  mercy  and  love,  wher'eby  he 
relieves  the  miseries  of  his  people.  This 
perfection  of  Jehovah  is  conspicuously  dis- 
played in  the  gift  of  his  Son,  John  iii.  16.  the 
revelation  (jf  his  will,  Hos.  viii.  12.  the  boun- 
ties of  his  providence,  Ps.  cxlv.  9.  the  exer- 
cise of  his  patience,  Rom.  ii.  4.  the  pi'omise 
of  his  mercy,  Ps.  Ixxviii.  38.  the  manifesta- 
tion of  his  presence.  Matt,  xviii.  20.  and  the 
pi'ovision  of  eternal  glory,  1  Pet.  i,  4.  See 
Mercy. 

COMPLUTENSIAN  BIBLE.    See  Bi- 

BLE.  No.   29. 

COMPREHENSION,  in  Enghsh  church 
history,  denotes  a  scheme  proposed  by  Sir 
Orlando  Bridgman,  in  1667-8,  for  relaxing 
the  terms  of  conformity  on  behalf  of  the 
Protestant  Dissenters,  and  admitting  them 
into  the  communion  of  the  church.  A  bill 
for  this  purpose  was  drawn  up  by  Judge 
Hale,  but  disallowed.  The  attempt  wes  re- 
newed by  Tillotson  and  Stillingfleet,  in  1674, 
and  the  ttrms  were  settled  to  the  satisfac- 
tion of  the  non-conformists;  but  the  bishops 
refused  their  assent.  The  scheme  was  like- 
wise revived  again  immediately  after  the 
revolution.  The  king  and  queen  expressed 
their  desire  of  an  union  :  however,  the  de- 
sign failed,  after  two  attempts,  and  the  act 
of  toleration  was  obtained. 

CONCEPTION  OF  CHRIST,  the  su- 
pernatural and  miraculous  formation  of  the 
human  nature  of  Jesus  Chi'ist.  "  It  were  not 
difficult  to  shew,"  says  a  divine,  "  that  the 
miraculous  conception,  once  admitted,  natu- 
rally brings  up  after  it  the  great  doctrines  of 
the  atonement  and  the  incarnation.  '1  he 
miraculous  cojireption  of  our  Lord  evidently 
implies  some  higher  purpose  (^  his  coming 
than  tlie  mere  business  of  a  teacher.  The 
business  of  a  teacher  might  have  been  per- 
formed by  a  mere  man,  enlightened  by  the 
prophetic  spirit.  For  whatever  instruction 
men  have  the  capacity  to  receive,  a  man 
might  have  been  made  the  instrument  to 
convey.  Had,  teaching,  therefore  been  the 
sole  purpose  of  our  Saviour's  coming,  a  mere 
man  might  have  done  the  whole  business, 
and  the  supernatural  conception  had  'jeen  an 


CON 


91 


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unnecessarj'  miracle.  He,  therefore,  who 
came  in  this  miiviculous  way,  came  upon 
some  higher  business,  to  which  a  mere  man 
was  unequal.  He  came  to  be  made  a  sin- 
oftisriug  for  us,  tiiat  we  might  be  made  the 
righteousness  of  God  in  him."  See  bishop 
Horsley's  Tracts,  and  article  Humanity 
OF  Christ. 

CONCEPTION  IMMACULATE  of  the 
Holy  Virgin,  is  a  popish  festival  established 
in  honour  of  the  V  agin  Mary,  on  the  suppo- 
sition of  iier  having  been  conceived,  and  born 
immaculate,  i.  e.  without  original  sin:  held 
on  the  8th  of  December.  The  immacu- 
late conci'ption  is  the  great  head  of  contro- 
versy between  the  Scotists  and  Tiiomists; 
the  lormer  maintaining,  and  the  latter  im- 
pugning it.  Peter  d'Alva  has  published  48 
huge  foho  volumes  on  the  mysteries  of  the 
conception. 

CONCLAVE,  the  assembly  or  meeting 
of  the  cardinals  shut  up  for  the  election  of  a 
pope.  Conclave  also  signifies  the  place  in 
which  the  cardinals  of  the  Romish  church 
meet  for  the  above-mentioned  purpose.  The 
conclave  is  a  range  of  small  cells,  ten  feet 
square,  made  of  wainscot :  these  are  num- 
bered, and  drawn  by  lot.  I'hey  stand  in  a 
line  along  the  galleries  and  hall  of  the  Vati- 
can, with  a  small  space  between  each.  Eve- 
ry cell  has  the  arms  of  the  cardinal  over  it. 
The  conclave  is  not  fixed  to  any  one  deter- 
minate place,  for  the  constitutions  of  the 
church  allow  the  cardinals  to  make  choice 
of  such  a  place  for  the  conclave  as  they  think 
most  convenient:  yet  it  is  generally  held  in 
the  Vatican. — The  conclave  is  very  strictly 
guarded  by  troops :  neither  the  cardinals, 
nor  any  person  shut  up  in  the  conclave,  are 
spoken  to,  but  at  the  hours  allowed  of,  and 
then  in  Italian  or  Latin  :  even  the  provisions 
for  the  conclave  are  examined,  that  no  let- 
ters be  conveyed  by  that  means  from  the 
ministers  of  foreign  powers,  br  other  per- 
sons, who  may  have  an  intei'est  in  the  elec- 
tion of  the  pontifT 

CONCORQ, /or/n  of. — Form  of  concord, 
in  ecclesiastical  history,  a  standard-book 
among  the  Lutherans,  composed  at  Torgaw. 
in  1576,  and  thence  called  the  book  of  Tor- 
gau',  and  reviewed  at  Berg,  by  six  Lutheran 
doctors  of  Germany,  th:-  principal  of  whom 
was  James  Andt  rx.  This  book  contains,  in 
two  parts,  a  system  of  doctrine,  the  subscrip- 
tion of  which  was  a  condition  of  communion, 
and  a  formal  and  very  severe  condemnation 
of  all  who  differed  fi'om  the  compilers  of  it ; 
particularly  with  respect  to  the  majesty  and 
omnipresence  of  Christ's  body,  and  the  real 
roanducation  of  his  flesh  and  blood  in  the 
eucliarist.  It  was  first  imposed  upon  the 
Saxons  by  Augustus,  and  occasioned  great 
opposition  aritl  distui'bance.  The  dispute 
about  it  was  revived  in  Switzerland  in  1718, 
when  the  mai>istrates  of  Bern  published  an 
order  for  adopting  it  as  the  rule  of  faith  ; 
the  consequence  of  which  was  a  contest  that 
reduced  its  credit  and  auviiorilv. 


CONCORDANCE,  a  dictionary  or  index 
to  the  Bible,  wherein  all  the  leading  words 
are  ranged  alphabetically,  and  the  books, 
chapters,  and  verses  wherein  they  occur  re- 
ferred to,  to  assist  in  finding  out  passages, 
and  compari.ig  with  the  several  significa- 
tions of  the  same  word.  Cardinal  Hugo  de 
St.  Charro  seems  to  have  been  the  first  who 
compiled  a  concordance  to  the  Holy  Scrip- 
tures ;  and  for  carrying  on  this  work,  it  is 
said,  he  employed  500  monks  to  assist  him. 
Rabbi  Mordecai  Nathan  published  a  Hebrew 
concordance,  printed  at  Venice  in  1523,  con- 
taining all  the  Hebrew  roots,  branched  into 
their  various  significations,  and  under  each 
signification  all  the  places  in  Scripture  where 
;  in  it  occurs ;  but  the  best  and  most  useful 
Hebrew  concordance  is  that  of  Buxtorf, 
printed  at  Basil  in  1632.  Calasius,  an  Italian 
cordelier,  lias  given  us  concordances  of  the 
Hebrew,  Latin,  and  Greek,  in  two  columns  : 
the  first,  which  is  Hebrew,  is  that  of  rabbi 
Mordecai  Nathan  verbatim,  and  according 
to  the  order  of  the'  books  and  chapters :  in 
the  other  column  is  a  Latin  interpi-etation  of 
each  passage  of  Scripture  quoted  by  R. 
Mordecai :  this  interpretation  is  Calasius' 
own ;  but  in  the  margin  he  adds  that  of  tlie 
LXX  aud  the  Vulgate,  when  different  from 
his.  The  work  is  in  4  vols,  foho,  printed  at 
Rome  in  1621.  A  new  edition  of  this  work 
was  published  by  subscription  in  London,  in 
1747,  8,  9,  by  Mr.  Romaine,  to  which  he  ob- 
tained the  signature  of  every  crowned  head 
in  Europe,  his  Holiness  not  excepted.  Dr. 
Taylor,  published  in  1754,  a  Hebrew  concor- 
dance, in  2  vol.  folio,  adapted  to  the  English 
Bible,  and  disposed  after  the  same  manner 
as  Buxtorf.  This  is  perhaps  the  best  for 
English  readers. 

The  Greek  concordances  are  only  for  the 
New  Testament,  except  one  by  Conrad  Kir- 
cher  on  the  Old,  containing  all  the  Hebrew 
words  in  alphabetical  order;  and  underneath 
all  the  interpretations  of  them  in  tlie  LXX. 
and  in  each  interpretation  all  the  places 
where  they  occur  in  that  version.  In  1718, 
Trommius  published  his  Greek  concordance 
for  the  LXX,  at  Amsterdam,  in  2  vol.  folio;  - 
and  Schmidius,  improving  on  a  similar  work. 
of  H.  Stephen,  has  given  an  excellent  Greek 
concordance  for  the  New  Testament,  the 
best  edition  of  which  is  that  of  Leipsic,  anno 
1717.  Williams's  concordance  to  the  Greek 
Testament  gives  the  English  version  to  each 
word,  and  points  out  the  principal  Hebrew 
roots  corresponding  to  the  Greek  words  of 
the  Septuagint,  4to,  1767.  We  ha\-e  sevei'al 
concordances  in  English,  as  Fisher's,  Butter- 
worth's,  Newman's,  Brown's ;  but  the  best 
esteemed  is  that  in  4to,  by  Alexander  Cru- 
'en,  which  no  minister  or  student  should  be  . 
without,  except  he  have  such  a  prodigious 
memory  as  to  supersede  the  necei^sity  of  it. 
Crutweh's  Conc;ordancc  of  Parallels  ma}'  alse 
be  consulted  vvith  jirofit:  Talbot's  coni- 
plete  Analysis,  and  new  Arrangement  of  i' 
Bible;    Dodd    and  Lucke'-s  Common-r'    -**e 

.'/ace 


CON 


92 


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Books;   with  Clark  on  the  Promises,  and 
Gascrili's  institutes,  may  also  be  useful  to 

CONCUBINAGE,  the  act  of  nving  with 
a  woman  to  whom  the  man  is  not  legally 
married  It  is  also  used  for  a  marriage  Avitli 
a  Woman  of  interior  condition  (pert'orifted 
with  less  solemnity  than  the  'ormal  mar- 
riage,) and  to  whom  the  husband  does  not 
convey  his  rank.  As  polygamy  was  some- 
times practised  by  the  patriarchs,  it  was  a 
common  thing  to  see  one,  two,  or  many  wives 
in  a  family,  and  besides  these  several  con- 
cubines, 2  Sam.  iii.  3,  &c.  1  Kings  xi.  3.  2 
Chron.  xi  21 ;  but  ever  since  the  abrogation 
of  polygamy  by  Jesus  Christ,  and  the  reduc- 
tion of  marriage  to  its  primitive  institution, 
concubinage  has  been  forbidden  and  con- 
demned among  Christians. 

CONDESCENSION  is  that  species  of 
benevolence  which  designedly  waves  the 
supposed  advantages  of  birth,  title,  or  sta- 
tion, in  order  to  accommodate  ourselves  to 
the  state  of  an  inferior,  and  diminish  that 
restraint  which  the  apparent  distance  is  cal- 
culated to  produce  in  him.  It  is  enjoined  on 
the  Christian,  and  is  peculiarly  ornamental 
to  the  Christian  character,  Rom.  xii.  16. 
The  condesce7isio7i  of  God  appears  every 
wav  great,  when  we  consider  his  infinite 
perfection,  his  absolute  independence  of  his 
creatures,  his  purposes  of  mercy  towards 
them,  and  his  continual  care  over  them. 

CONDITION,  a  term  of  a  bargain  to  be 
performed.  It  has  i^een  debated  whether 
faith  should  be  called  the  condition  of  our 
salvation.  -  If  by  it  we  mean  a  valuable  equi- 
valent for  the  benefit  received,  or  some- 
thing to  be  performed  in  our  own  strpngth, 
or  that  will  be  meritorious,  it  is  certainly 
inapplicable ;  but  if  by  it  be  meant,  that  it 
is  only  a  mean,  without  which  we  cannot  be 
saved,  in  that  sense  it  is  not  improper.  Yet 
as  the  term  is  often  made  use  of  improperly 
by  those  who  are  mere  legalists,  perhaps  it 
would  be  as  well  to  decline  the  use  of  it. 

CONFERENCE  the  act  of  discoursing 
with  another  in  order  to  treat  upon  S'  me 
subject,  or  to  settle  some  point  of  dispute. 
Conference  Meetings,  in  a  religious  sciise, 
are  meetings  assembled  for  the  purpose  of 
relating  experience,  discnursing  on  some  re- 
ligious subject,  or  for  transacting  religious 
business.  "  Religious  conference,"  snys  a 
divine,  "  is  one  way  of  teaching  religion. 
We  all  have  leisure  time,  and  it  is  well 
spent  when  it  is  employed  in  set  conferences 
on  religion  There  the  doubting  man  may 
open  all  his  suspicions,  and  confirmed  Chris- 
tians will  strengthen  his  belief;  there  the 
fearful  may  learn  to  be  valiant  for  the  truth  ; 
there  the  liberal  m;iy  learn  to  devise  libeial 
thin?;s ;  there  the  tongue  of  the  stammerer 
may  learn  to  speak  plainly  ;  there  Paul  n)ay 
withstand  Peter  to  the  face,  because  he  de- 
serves to  be  blamed  ;  there  the  Ge«pel  may 
be  communicated  severally  to  them  of  re- 
putation ;  there  in  one  word,  ye  may  all 
pffophesy  bne  by  one,  that  all  may  learn,  and 


all  may  be  comforted.  One  liour  in  a  week 
spent  thus  will  contribute  much  to  our  edi- 
fication, provided  we  abstain  from  the  dis- 
orders that  have  often  disgraced,  and  some- 
times destroyed,  this  excellent  Christian 
practice.  Time  should  be  kept,  order  should 
be  preserved,  no  idle  questions  should  be 
asked;  freedom  of  inquiry  should  be  nourish- 
ed ;  immodest  forwardness  should  be  re- 
strained ;  practical,  experimental,  and  sub- 
stantial subjects  should  be  examined ;  Cha- 
rity with  all  its  gentle  train  should  be  there, 
for  she  openeth  her  mouth  with  wisdoni,  and 
in  her  tongue  is  the  law  of  kindness."  See 
Experience  Meetings. 

CONFESSION,  the  verbal  acknowledg- 
ment which  a  Chiistian  makes  of  his  sins. 
Among  the  Jews,  it  was  the  custom,  on  the 
annual  feast  of  expiation,  for  the  high  priest 
to  make  confession  of  sins  to  God,  in  the 
name  of  the  whole  people :  besides  this  gene- 
ral corifession,  the  Jews  were  enjoined,  if 
their  sins  wei'e  a  bi'each  of  the  first  table  of 
the  law,  to  make  confesKion  of  them  to  God; 
but  violations  of  the  second  table  were  to  be 
acknowledged  to  their  brethren.  Confession, 
according  to  Dr.  Watts,  is  the  third  part  of 
prayer,  ai>d  includes,  1.  A  confession  of  the 
meanness  of  our  original,  our  distance  from 
i  God,  our  subjection  to  him,  and  constant  de- 
pendance  on  him. — 2.  A  confession  of  our 
sins,  both  original  and  actual,  in  thought, 
life,  omission,  and  commission — 3.  A  con- 
fession of  our  desert  of  punishment,  and 
our  un  worthiness  of  mercy. — 4.  A  confession 
or  humble  representation  of  our  wants  and 
sorrows  of  every  kind.  Confession  also  may 
be  considered  as  a  relative  duty,  or  the  ac- 
knowledgment of  any  offence  we  have  been 
guilty  of  against  a  fellow  creature.  The 
Romish  church  requires  confession  not  only 
as  a  duty,  but  has  advanced  it  to  the  dig- 
nity of  a  sacrament.  These  confessions  are 
made  to  the  priest,  and  are  private  and 
auricular;  and  the  priest  is  not  to  reveal 
them  under  pain  of  the  highest  punishment. 
This,  however,  is  both  unnecessary  and  un- 
scriptural  ;  for,  in  the  first  place,  there  is 
no  proof  that  the  power  of  remitting  and  re- 
taining sins  (the  pretended  ground  of  sacra- 
mental confession,)  was  imparted  to  any 
but  the  apostles,  or  at  the  most  to  those  to 
whom  a  discernment  of  spirits  were  com- 
municated.— 2.  If  our  Saviour  had  designed 
this  to  have  been  a  duty,  he  would  most  pro- 
bably have  delivered  us  an  e-Npress  com- 
mand to  this  purpose. — 3.  This  authority  of 
pardoning  sins  imm.;diately  in  relation  to 
God  (the  foundation  of  the  pretended  duty 
of  secret  confession,)  without  any  reference 
tj  church  censures,  was  never  claimed  for 
many  ages  alter  Christ. 

NotAvithstanding,  however,  private  auri- 
cular confession  is  not  of  divine  authority, 
yet,  as  one  observes,  "  there  are  many  cases 
wherein  men  under  the  guilt  and  trouble  of 
their  sins  can  neither  appease  their  own 
minds,  nor  sufficiently  direct  themselves 
j  without  recourse  to  some  pious  and  prudent 


CON 


9S 


CON 


guide :  in  these  cases  men  certainly  do  very 
•well,  and  many  times  prevent  a  great  deal 
of  trouble  and  perplexity  to  themselves  by  a 
timely  discovery  of  their  condition  to  some 
faithful  minister;  and  to  this  purpose  a 
general  confession  is  for  the  most  part  suffi- 
cient ;  and  where  there  is  occasion  for  a 
more  particular  discovery,  there  is  no  need  ' 
of  raking  into  the  particular  circumstances 
of  men's  sins  to  give  that  advice  which  is 
necessary  for  the  ease  and  comfort  of  the 
penitent."  See  Absolution;  Watts  on 
Prayer i  Tillotson's  Scr.,  ser.  160,  161; 
Smit/t's  Errora  of  the  Church  cf  Rome. 

CONFESSION  OF  FAITH,  a  list  of  the 
several  articles  of  the  belief  of  any  church 
There  is  some  difference  between  creeds  and 
confessions.  Creeds  in  their  commencement 
Avere  simply  expressions  of  faith  in  a  few  ol 
the  leading  and  undisputed  doctrines  of  the 
Gospel.     Confessions  were  on  the  contrary 
rhe  result  of  many  an  hazardous  and  labori- 
ous effort,  at  the  dawn  of  reviving  literature 
to  recover  these  doctrines,  and  to  separate 
them  from  the  enormous  mass  of  erroneous 
and  corrupted  tenets,  which  the  negligence 
or  ignorance  of  some,  and  the  artifices  of 
avarice  and  ambition  in  others,  had   con- 
duced to  accumulate  for  a  space  of  1000 
years,   under  an  implicit  obedience  to  the 
arrogant  pretensio.is  of  an  absolute  and  infal- 
lible authority  in  the  church  r:  Rome.  Ob- 
jections have  been  formed  against  all  creeds 
or confessionsof faith,  asitis  said  theyinfringe 
Christian  liberty,  supersede  the  scriptures, 
exclude  such  as  ought  not  to  be  excluded,  and 
admit  such  as  ought  not  to  be  admitted  ; 
are  often  too  particular  and  long ;  are  liable 
to   be  abused ;    tempt  men    to    hypocrisy ; 
preclude  improvement;  and  have  been  em- 
ployed as  means  of  persecution.    On  the 
other  hand,  the  advocates  for  them  obser\'e, 
that  all  the  arts  and  sciences  have  been  re- 
duced to  a  system  ;  and  why  should  not  the 
truths  of  religion,  which  are  of  greater  im- 
portance .''  That  a  compendious  view  of  the 
chief  and  most  necessary  points  of  the  Chris- 
tian religion,  which  lie  scattered  up  and 
down  in  the  sci'ipture,  must  be  useful  to  in- 
form the  mind,  as  well  also  to  hold  forth  to 
the  world  what  are  in  general  the  sentiments 
of  such  a  particular  church  or  churches ; 
they  tend  to  discover  the  common  friends  of 
the  same  faith  to  one  another,  and  to  unite 
them  ;  that  the  scriptures  seem  to  authorize 
and  countenance  them ;  such  as  the  moral 
law,  the  Lord's  prayer,  the  form  of  doctrine 
mentioned  by  Paul,  Rom.  vi.  17  ;  and  again, 
"  the  form  of  sound  words,"  in  2  Tim.  13, 
&c.;    that  their  becoming  the   occasion  of 
hypocrisy  is  no  fault  of  the  articles,  but  of 
those  who  subscribe  them  ;  that  persecution 
has  been  raised  moi'e  by  the  turbulent  tem- 
pers of  men  than  from  the  nature  of  con- 
tiessinns.    Some  think  that  all  articles  and 
confessions  of  faith  should  be  expressed  in 
the  bare  words  of  scripture  ;  but  it  is  re- 
plied, that  this  would  destroy  all  exposition 


and  interpretation  of  scripture;  that  it 
would  have  a  tendency  to  make  the  minis- 
try of  the  word  useless  ;  in  a  great  measure 
cramp  all  religious  conversation ;  and  that 
the  sentiments  of  one  man  could  not  be  dis- 
tinguished from  another  in  some  points  of 
importance.  Some  of  the  most  noted  con- 
fessions are,  the  39  articles,  and  the  constU 
tut  ions  and  canons  of  the  church  of  Eng- 
land; the  Westminster  Assembly's  Confes- 
sion of  Faith  ;  the  Savoy  t  onf'ession,  or  a 
declaration  of  the  faith  and  order  owned  and 
practised  iti  the  congregational  churches  in 
England.  See  also  Corfius  et  Syntagma 
corifessionum  fdei,  qua  in  diversis  regnia 
et  nationibus  ecclesiaru?n  nomine,  fuerunt 
authentice  editx,  which  exhibits  a  body  of 
numerous  confessions.  See  likewise  An  Har- 
mony of  the  Confessions  of  Faith  of  the 
Christian  and  reformed  Churches;  Watts' 
Rational  Foundation  of  a  Christian  Church, 
qu.  8  ;  Graham  on  establishments,  p.  265; 
5cc.;  Bishop  Cleaver's  Sermon  on  the  For- 
mation of  the  Articles  of  the  Church  of 
England  ;  Paley's  Phil.  vol.  2.  p.  321. 

CONFESSOR,  a  Christian  who  has  made 
a  solemn  and  resolute  profession  of  the  faith, 
and  has  endured  torments  in  its  defence.  A 
mere  saint  is  called  a  confessor,  to  distin- 
guish him  from  the  roll  of  dignified  saints, 
such  as  apostles,  martyrs,  &c.  In  ecclesi- 
astical liistoiy,  the  word  confessor  is  some- 
times used  for  martyr ;  in  after  times  it  was 
confined  to  those  who,  after  liaving  been  tor- 
mented by  the  tyrants,  were  permitted  to 
live  and  die  in  peace  ;  and  at  last  it  was 
also  used  for  those  who,  after  having  lived 
a  good  life,  died  under  an  opinion  of  sanctity. 
According  to  St.  Cyprian,  he  who  presented 
himself  to  torture,  or  even  to  martyrdom, 
without  being  called  to  it,  was  not  called  a 
confessor,  but  a  professor ;  and  if  any  out 
of  want  of  courage  abandoned  his  country, 
and  became  a  voluntary  exile  for  the  sake 
of  the  faith,  he  was  called  ex  teiTis. 

Confessor  is  also  a  priest  in  the  Romish 
church,  who  has  a  power  to  hear  sinners  in 
the  sacrament  of  penance,  and  to  give  them 
absolution.  The  confessors  of  the  kings  of 
France,  from  the  time  of  Henry  IV,  have 
been  constantly  Jesuits  ;  before  him,  the  Do- 
minicans and  Cordeliers  shared  the  office 
between  them.  The  confessors  of  the  house" 
of  Austria  have  also  ordinarily  been  Domi- 
nicans and  Cordiliers,  but  the  latter  empe- 
rors have  all  taken  Jesuits. 

CONFIRMATION,  the  act  of  establish- 
ing any  thing  or  person. — 1.  Divi?ie  confir- 
mation is  a  work  of  the  Spirit  of  God, 
strengthening,  comforting,  and  establishing 
believers  in  faith  and  obedience,  1  Pet.  v.  10- 
1  Cor.  i.  8. — 2.  Ecclesiastical  confrmation 
is  a  rite  whereby  a  person,  arrived  to  years 
of  discretion,  undertakes  the  performance 
of  evpry  part  of  the  baptismal  vow  made  for 
him  by  his  godfathers  and  godmothers. 

In  the  primitive  church  it  was  done  im- 
mediately after  baptism,  if  the  bishop  hap- 


CON 


CON 


pened  to  be  present  at  the  solemnity. 
Throughout  the  East  it  still  accompiinies 
baptism  ;  but  the  Romanists  make  it  a  dis- 
tinct independent  sacrament  Seven  years 
is  the  stated  time  for  confirmation ;  how- 
ever, they  are  sometimes  after  that  age. 
The  person  to  be  confirmed  has  a  godfa- 
ther and  godmother  appointed  him,  as  in 
baptism.  In  the  church  of  England,  the 
age  of  the  persons  to  be  confirmed  is  not  fix 
ed.  Clarke's  Essay  on  Confirmation;  Wood 
on  ditto  ;  How's  Efiiscofiacy .  p.  167,  17'4. 

CONFLAGRATION  GENERAL,  a 
term  used  to  denote  that  grand  period  or 
catastrophe  of  our  world,  when  the  face  of 
natu'-e  is  to  be  changed  by  fire,  as  formerly 
it  was  by  water 

1.  Scripture  assures  lis  in  the  general,  that 
this  earth  in  its  present  form  will  not  be 
perpetual,  but  shall  come  to  an  end. — 2.  It 
farther  tells  us,  that  this  dissolution  of  the 
world  shall  be  by  a  general  conflagration, 
in  which  all  things  upon  the  face  of  the 
earth  shall  be  destroyed,  bv  which  the  at- 
mosphere shall  also  be  sensibly  affected,  as 
in  such  a  case  it  n^ccssri;  ily  avast  be,  2  Pet. 
iii.  5 — 7.  10.  12  where,  from  t;ie connection 
of  the  words,  the  opposition  between  the 
conflagration  and  the  tielnge,  as  well  as  the 
most  literal  and  apparent  i.-nportofthe  phra- 
ses themselves,  it  is  plain  they  cannot,  as  Dr. 
Hammond  strangely  suppose<>,  refer  to  the 
desolation  brought  on  Judea  when  desti'oyed 
by  the  Romans,  but  must  refer  to  t'le  disso- 
lution of  the  whole  earth. — 3.  The  scripture 
represents  this  great  burning  as  a  circum- 
stance nearly  connected  with  the  day  of 
judgment,  2  Pet.  iii.  7.  compared  with  2 
Thess.  i.  7,  8.  Heb.  x.  27.  1  Cor.  iii.  12. 
13 ;  and  it  is  probable  there  may  be  an  allu- 
sion to  this  in  several  passages  of  the  Testa- 
ment, such  as  Ps.  xi.  6.  Ps.  1.  3.  Ps.  xcvi  3. 
Isa.  xxxiv.  4.  8 — 10.  Isa.  Ixvi  15.  Dan.  vii  9, 
10.  Mai.  iv.  1.  Zeph.  iii.  8.  Deut.  xxxii.  22. 
to  which  many  parallel  expressions  might 
be  added,  from  the  canonical  and  apocry- 
phal books. — 4.  It  is  not  expressly  declared 
how  this  burning  shall  be  kindled,  nor  how 
it  shall  end ;  which  has  given  occasion  to 
various  conjectures  about  it,  which  see  below. 
The  ancient  Pythagoreans,  Platonists,  Epi- 
cureans, and  Stoics,  appear  to  have  had  a 
notion  of  the  conflagration  ;  though  whence 
they  should  derive  it,  unless  from  the  sa- 
cred books,  is  difficult  to  conceive  ;  except, 
perhaps,  from  the  Phoenicians,  who  them 
selves  liad  it  from  the  Jews.  Mention  of 
the  conflagration  is  m.ade  in  the  books  of  the 
Sibyls,  Sophocles,  Hystaspes,  Ovid,  Lucan, 
8cc.  Dr.  Bnrnet,  after  J  Tachard  and 
others,  relates  that  the  Siamese  believe  that 
the  earth  will  at  last  be  parched  up  with 
heat;  the moiuitains  nicked  down,  the  earth's 
wliole  surface  reduced  to  a  level,  and  then 
consumed  with  firo.  Aiul  the  Uramins  of 
Siam  do  not  only  hold  that  the  v/orld  sliall 
[I  be  destroyed  by  fire,  Ijut  also  that  a  new 
I  t-arth  shall  be  made  out  of  the  cinders  of 
I     tire  old. 


Divines  ordinarily  account  for  the  cojifla- 
gration  metaphysically,  and  will  have  it  take 
its  rise  from  a  miracle,  as  a  fire  from  hea- 
ven. Philosophers  contend  for  its  being  pro- 
duced from  natural  causes,  and  will  have 
it  effected  according  to  the  laws  of  mechan- 
ics. Some  think  an  eruption  of  the  central 
fire  sufficient  for  the  purpose ;  and  add,  that 
this  may  be  occasioned  several  ways,  viz, 
either  by  having  its  intension  increased, 
which  again  may  be  eftected  either  by  being 
driven  into  less  space  by  the  encroachments 
of  the  superficial  cold,  or  by  an  increase  of 
the  inflammability  of  the  fuel  whereon  it  is 
f f  d  ;  or  by  having  the  resistance  of  tlie  im- 
prisoning earth  weakened,  which  may  hap- 
pen either  from  the  diminution  of  its  mat- 
ter, by  the  consumption  of  its  central  parts, 
or  by  weakening  the  cohesion  of  the  consti- 
tuent parts  of  the  mass  by  the  excess  of  the 
defect  of  moisture.  Others  look  for  the  cause 
of  the  conflagration  in  the  atmosphere,  and 
suppose  that  some  of  the  meteors  there  en- 
gendered in  unusual  quantities,  and  explod- 
ed with  unusual  vehemence,  from  the  con- 
currence of  various  circumstances,  may  ef- 
fect it  without  seeking  any  farther. — Lastly, 
otheis  have  recourse  to  a  still  more  effec- 
tual and  flaming  machine,  and  conclude  the 
world  is  to  undergo  its  conflagration  from 
the  near  approach  of  a  comet  in  its  return 
from  the  sun. 

Various  opinions  also  are  entertained  as 
tn  the  renovation  of  the  earth  after  the  con- 
flagration.— 1.  Some  suppose  that  the  earth 
will  not  be  entirely  consumed,  but  that  tlie 
matter  of  which  it  consists  will  be  fixed,  pu- 
rified, and  refined,  which  they  say  will  be 
the  natural  consequence  of  the  action  of  fire 
upon  i^ ;  though  it  is  hard  to  say  what  such 
a  purification  can  do  towards  fitting  it  for 
its  intended  purpose,  for  it  is  certain  a  mass 
of  crystal  or  glass  would  very  il!  answer  the 
following  parts  of  this  hypothesis. — 2.  They 
suppose  that  from  these  materials  thus  re- 
fined, as  from  a  second  chaos,  tliere  will  by 
the  power  of  God  arise  a  new  c  eation ;  and 
then  the  face  of  the  earth,  and  likewise  the 
atmosphere,  Avill  then  be  k'\  restored.  <s  to 
resemble  what  it  origin-'lly  was  in  the  p'lra- 
diaaical  state ;  and  consequently  to  render 
it  a  more  desirable  abode  for  human  crea- 
tures than  it  at  present  is :  and  they  urge 
for  this  purpose  the  following  texts,  viz. 
2  Pet,  iii.  13.  (compare  Is.  !xv.  \7.  Ixvi.  22.) 
Matt.  xix.  28,  29.  (compare  Mark  x.  29.  30. 
Luke  xviii.  29,  30.)  Ps.  cii.  25,  26.  Acts 
iii  21.  1  Cor.  vii.  31.  Rom.  viii.  21. — 3. 
They  agree  in  supposing,  that  in  this  new 
state  of  things  there  will  be  no  sea.  Rev.  xxi. 
1 — 4.  They  suppose  that  the  earth,  thus 
beautified  and  in^roved,  shall  be  inhabited 
by  those  who  shall  inherit  the  first  resurrec- 
tion, and  shall  here  enjoy  a  very  considera- 
ble degree  of  happiness,  though  not  equal  to 
that  which  is  t"  Micceed  the  general  judg- 
ment ;  which  judgment  shall,  according  to 
them,  open  wlxn  those  thousand  years  are 
e.^pired,   mentioned  in  Rev.  xx.  4,  &c.    1 


CON 


95 


CON 


Thess.  iv.  17.  compare  ver.  15.  which  pas- 
sage is  thought  by  some  to  contain  an  insin- 
uation that  Paul  expected  to  be  alive  at  tiie 
appearance  of  Christ,  which  must  imply  an 
expectation  of  being  thus  raised  from  the 
dead  before  it :  but  it  is  answered  that  tlie  ex- 
pression ive  that  are  alive  may  only  signify 
"  that  of  us  that  are  so,"  speaking  of  all 
Christians  as  one  body,  1  Cor.  xv.  49—52, 
Dr.  Hartley  declared  it  as  his  opinion,  that 
the  nullciiiurr.  will  consist  of  a  thousand 
prophetica;  j  ef<rs  where  each  day  is  a  year, 
i.  e.  360,000";  pleading  that  this  is  the  lan- 
guage ustd  in  other  parts  of  the  Revelation. 
But  it  seems  an  invincible  objection  against 
this  hypothesis,  which  places  the  millenium 
after  the  conflagrati'  n,  that  the  saints  inha- 
biting the  earth  after  the  first  resurrection 
are  represented  as  distressed  by  the  inva- 
sion of  some  wicked  enemies.  Rev.  xx.  7 — 9. 
Ezekiel  xxxviii.  xxxix.  See  Millen- 
nium 

After  all,  little  can  be  said  with  certainty 
as  to  this  sul)ject.  It  is  probable  tiiat  the 
earth  will  survive  its  fiery  trial,  and  become 
the  everlasting  abode  of  righteousness,  as 
part  of  the  holy  empire  of  God  ;  but,  see- 
ing the  language  usect  in  the  Scripture,  and 
especially  in  the  book  of  Revelation,  is  often 
to  be  considered  as  figurative  rather  than 
literal,  it  becomes  us  to  be  cautious  in  our 
conclusions.  Burnetts  Theory  of  the  Earth  ; 
Whitby  on  the  MilleTiium ;  Hartley  on 
Man,  vol-  ii-  p.  400 ;  Fleming  on  the  first 
Resurrection  ;  Bay's  three  Discourses  ; 
Whiston's  Theory  of  the  Earth  ,  and  article 
Dissolution  in  this  Work. 

CONFUSION  OF  TONGUES,  a  memo- 
rable event  which  happened  in  the  one  hun- 
dred and  first  year,  according  to  the  He- 
brew chronology,  and  the  four  hundred  and 
first  year  by  the  Samaritan,  after  the  flood, 
at  tile  overthrow  of  Babel,  Gen.  xi.  Until 
this  period  there  had  been  but  one  common 
language,  which  formed  a  bond  of  union  that 
prevented  tlie  separation  of  mankind  into 
distinct  nations.  Writers  have  differed  much 
as  to  the  nature  of  this  confusion,  and  the 
manner  in  which  it  was  effected.  Some  think 
tliat  no  new  languages  were  formed ;  but 
that  this  event  was  accomplished  by  crea- 
ting a  misunderstanding  and  vari'iiCe  among 
the  builders,  without  any  immediate  influence 
on  their  language  ;  and  that  a  distinction  is 
to  be  made  between  confounding  a  language 
and  forming  new  ones.  Others  account  for 
this  event  by  the  privation  of  all  language, 
and  by  supposing  that  mankind  were  under 
a  necessity  of  associating  together,  and  of 
imposing  new  names  on  things  by  common 
consent.  Some,  again,  ascribe  the  confusion 
to  such  an  indistinct  remembrance  of  the 
original  language  which  they  spoke  before, 
as  made  them  speak  it  very  differently  ;  but 
the  most  common  opinion  is,  that  (Jod  caus- 
ed the  builders  actually  to  forget  their  for- 
mer language,  and  each  family  to  speak  a 
new  tongue  ;  whence  originated  the  various 
languages  at  present  in  the  world,.     It  is, 


however,  but  of  little  consequence  to  V.x\%vt 
precisely  how  this  was  effected,  as  the  scrip- 
tures are  silent  as  to  the  manner  of  it ;  and 
after  all  that  can  be  said,  it  is  but  conjecture 
still.  There  are  some  truths,  however,  we 
may  learn  from  this  part  of  sacred  writ— 
1.  It  teaches  us  God's  sovereignty  and  pow- 
er, by  which  he  can  easily  blast  the  greatest 
attempts  of  men  to  aggrandize  themselves. 
Gen.  xi.  7,  8 — 2.  God's  justice  in  punishing 
of  those  who,  in  idolizing  their  own  fame, 
forget  him  to  whom  praise  is  due,  ver.  4.— 
3  God's  wisdom  in  overruling  evil  for  good  ; 
for  by  this  confusion  he  facilitated  the  dis- 
persion of  mankind,  in  order  to  execute  his 
own  purposes,  ver.  8,  9.  See  Henry  and 
Gill  in  loc. ;  S(illing/i eet's  Orig.  Sac.  1. 
iii.  c.  V.  §  2 — 4 ;  Shuckford's  Con.  vol.  i.  p. 
124 — 140;  Fit7-inga's  Obs.  vol.  i.  diss.  I.e. 
ix  Le  Cterc'a  Diss.  No.  vi.  Hutchinson 
on  the  Confusion  of  Tongues ;  Bishofi 
Law's  Theory  of  Religion,  p.  66. 

CONGREGATION,  an  assembly  of  peo- 
ple met  together  for  religious  worship.  The 
term  has  been  also  used  for  assemblies  of 
cardinals  appointed  by  the  pope  for  the  dis- 
charge of  certain  functions,  after  the  man- 
ner of  our  officers  and  courts ;  such  as  the 
congregation  of  the  mcjuiaition,  the  congre- 
gation of  rites  of  aims,  &c.  &c. — It  also  sig- 
nifies a  company  or  society  of  religious  per- 
sons cantoned  out  of  this  or  that  order,  and 
making  an  inferior  order,  8cc.  Such  are  the 
congregations  of  the  Oratory ;  those  of  Clu- 
ny,  &c.  among  the  Benedictines. 

CONGREGATIONALISTS,  a  denomi- 
nation of  Protestants  who  reject  all  church 
government,  except  that  of  a  single  congre- 
gation under  the  direction  of  one  pastor,  with 
their  elders,  assistants,  or  managers.  See 
Church. 

CONONITES,  a  denomination  which  ap- 
peared in  the  sixth  century.  They  derived 
their  name  from  Conon,  bisliop  of  Tarsus. 
He  taught  that  the  body  never  lost  its  form ; 
that  i;ts  matter  alone  was  subject  to  corrup- 
tion and  decay,  and  was  to  be  restored  when 
this  mortal  shall  put  on  immortality. 

CONSCIENCE  signifies  knowledge  in 
conjunction ;  that  is,  in  conjunction  with  the 
fact  to  which  it  is  a  witness,  as  the  eye  is  to 
the  action  done  before  it ;  or,  as  Soutla  ob- 
serves, it  is  a  double  or  joint  knowledge, 
namely,  one  of  a  divine  law  or  rule,  and  the 
other  of  a  man's  own  action.  It  may  be  de- 
fined to  be  the  judgment  which  a  man  passes 
on  the  morality  of  his  actions  as  to  their 
purity  or  turpitude ;  or  the  secret  testimony 
of  the  soul,  whereby  it  approves  things  that 
are  good,  aud  condemns  those  that  are  evil. 
Some  object  to  its  being  called  an  act,  habit, 
or  faculty.  An  act,  say  they,  would  be  re- 
presented as  an  agent,  whereas  conscience 
is  a  testimony.  To  say  it  is  a  habit,  is  to  speak 
of  it  as  a  disposition  acting,  which  is  scarce 
more  accurate  than  ascribing  one  act  to  an- 
other ;  and,  besides,  it  would  be  strange  lan- 
guage to  say  that  conscience  itself  is  a  habit. 
Against  defi;riing  it  by  the  name  of  a  power  or 


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d6 


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faculty,  it  is  objected,  that  it  occasions  a  false 
notion  of  it,  as  a  distinct  power  from  reason. 

The  rules  of  conscience.  We  must  distin- 
guish between  a  rule  that  of  itself  and  imme- 
diately binds  the  conscience,  and  a  rule  that 
IS  occasionally  of  use  to  direct  and  satisfy 
the  conscience.  Now  in  the  first  sense  the 
■will  of  God  is  the  only  rule  immediately 
binding  the  conscience  No  one  has  authori- 
ty over  the  conscience  but  God.  All  penal 
laws,  therefore,  in  matters  of  mere  con- 
science, or  things  that  do  not  evidently  affect 
the  civil  state,  are  certainly  unlawful ;  yet, 
secondly,  the  commands  of  superiors,  not 
onlv  natural  parents,  but  civil,  as  magis- 
trates or  masters,  and  every  man's  private 
engagements,  are  rules  of  conscience  in 
things  indifferent. — 3.  The  examples  of  wise 
and  good  men  may  become  rules  of  con- 
science ;  but  here  it  iTaist  be  obsen^ed,  that 
no  example  or  judgment  is  of  any  authority 
against  law:  where  the  law  is  doubtful,  and 
even  where  there  is  no  doubt,  the  side  of  ex- 
ample cannot  be  taken  till  iiiqiliry  has  been 
first  made  concerning  what  the  law  directs 

Conscience  has  been  considered  as,  1 7iatii- 
ral,  or  that  common  principle  which  in- 
structs men  of  all  countries  and  religions  in 
the  duties  to  which  they  are  all  alike  obliged. 
There  seems  to  be  something  of  this  in  the 
minds  of  all  men.  Even  in  the  darkest  re- 
gions of  the  earth,  and  among  the  rudest 
tribes  of  men,  a  distinction  has  ever  been 
made  between  just  and  unjust,  a  duty  and  a 
crime. 

2.  A  rj^ht  conscience  is  that  which  de- 
cides aright,  or,  according  to  the  only  rule  of 
rectitude,  the  law  of  God.  This  is  also  cal- 
led a  ivell-biforme-d  coJiscience,  which  in  all 
its  decisions  proceeds  upon  the  most  evident 
principles  of  truth. 

3.  A  firobable  conscience  is  that  which,  in 
cases  which  admit  of  the  brightest  and  ful- 
lest light,  contents  itself  with  bare  probabili- 
ties. The  consciences  of  many  are  of  no 
higher  character  ;  and  though  we  must  not 
say  a  man  cannot  be  saved  with  such  aeon- 
science,  yet  such  a  conscience  is  net  so  per- 
fect as  it  might  be. 

4.  An  ignorant  conscience  is  that  which 
may  declare  right,  but,  as  it  wpre,  by  chance, 
and  without  any  just  ground  to  build  on. 

5.  An  erroneous  conscience  is  a  con- 
science mistaken  in  its  decisions  about  the 
nature  of  actions. 

6.  A  doubting  conscience  is  a  conscience 
unresolved  aljout  the  natirre  of  actions  ;  on 
account  of  the  equal  or  nearly  equal  ])roba- 
bilities  which  appear  fcr  and  against  each 
Slide  of  of  the  question. 

7.  Of  an  evil  conscience  there  are  several 
kinds.  Conscience,  in  regard  to  actions  in  ge- 
neral, is  evil  when  it  has  lost  more  or  less 
the  sense  it  ought  to  have  of  the  natural  dis- 
tinctions of  moral  good  and  evil:  this  is  a 
polluted  or  defiled  conscience.  Conscience  is 
evil  in  itself  when  it  gives  either  none  or  a 
false  testimony  as  to  past  actions ;  when  re- 
flecting upon  wickedness  it  feels  no  pains,  it 


is  evil,  and  said  to  be  seared  or  hardened,  1 
Tim.  iv.  2.  It  is  alio  evil  Avhen  during  the 
commission  of  sin  it  lies  quiet.  In  regard  to 
future  actions,  conscience  is  evil  if  it  does  not 
startle  at  the  proposal  of  sin,  or  connives  at 
the  commission  ot  it. 

For  the  nght  management  of  conscience, 
we  should,  1  Endeavour  to  obtain  acquaint- 
ance with  the  law  of  iio<\,  and  with  our  own 
tempers  and  fives,  and  frequently  compare 
them  together. 

2.  Furnish  conscience  with  gevitral  prin- 
ciples of  the  most  extensive  nature  and 
strongest  influence ;  such  as  the  supreme  love 
of  God  ,  love  to  our  neighbours  as  ourselves ; 
and  that  the  care  of  our  souls  is  of  the  great- 
est importance. 

3.  Preserve  the  purity  of  conscience. 

4.  Maintain  the  freedom  of  conscience, 
particularly  against  interest,  passion,  ttmper, 
example,  and  the  authority  of  great  names. 

5.  We  should  accustom  ourselves  to  cool 
reflections  on  our  past  actions  See  Grovels 
and  Faley^s  Moral  Philosophy ;  Smith's 
Scr?nons,  vol.  ii.  sermon  12.  and  books  un- 
der Casuistry 

CONSCIOUSNESS,  the  perception  of 
what  passes  in  a  man's  own  mind.  We  must 
not  confound  the  terms  consciousness  and 
conscience  ;  for  though  the  Latin  be  igno- 
rant of  any  such  distinction,  including  both  in 
the  word  conscienta,  yet  there  is  a  great  deal 
of  difference  between  them  in  our  language. 
Consciousness  is  confined  to  the  actions  of 
the  mind,  being  nothing  else  but  that  know- 
ledge of  itself  which  is  inseparable  from 
every  thought  and  voluntary  motion  of  the 
sotil.  Conscience extendsto  all  human  actions, 
bodily  as  well  as  mental.  Consciousness  is 
the  knowledge  of  the  existence  ;  conscience 
of  the  moral  nature  of  actions  Consciousness 
is  a  province  of  metaphysics ;  conscience  of 
moralitv. 

CONSECRATION,  a  rite  or  ceremony 
of  dedicating  things  or  persons  to  the  service 
of  God.  It  is  used  for  the  benediction  of  the 
elements  at  the  eucharist :  the  ordination  of 
bishops  is  also  called  consecration. 

The  Mosaical  law  ordained  that  all  the 
first  bom,  both  of  man  and  beast,  should  be 
sanctified  or  consecrated  to  God.  \\'e  find 
al§o,  that  Jbshua consecrated  the  GiI:>eonites, 
as  David  and  Solomon  did  the  NethininiP,  to 
the  service  of  the  temple  ;  and  that  the  He- 
brews sometimes  crnsecrated^their  fit  Ids  and 
cattle  to  the  Lord,  after  which  they  were  no 
longer  in  their  power.  Among  the  ancient 
Christians, tlip  consecration  of  churches  was 
performed  with  a  great  deal  of  pioussoleranity 
I'",  what  manner  it  wasdone  for  the  three  first 
agesisuncrrtain,the  authentic  accoiintsreach- 
ing  no  higher  than  the  fourth  century,  whon, 
in  the  peaceable  reign  of  Constantino,  chinxh- 
es  were  every  where  built  and  dedicated  with 
gi^at  solemnity.  The  Romanists  have  a  great 
deal  of  foppery  in  the  ceremonies  d  conse- 
cration, which  they  bestow  on  almost  every 
thing;  as  bells,  candles,  books,  water,  oil, 
ashes,  palms,    swords,    banners,    pictures. 


CON 


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crosses,  agnus  dels,  roses,  &c.  In  England, 
churches  have  Deen  always  consecrated  with 
particular  cercinonies,  the  form  of  which  was 
left  tu  tlie  discretion  of  the  bishop.  That  ob- 
served by  abp.  Laud,  in  consecrating  Saint 
I  Catherine  *Jree  church,  in  London,  gave  great 
j  offence,  and  well  it  might.  It  was  enough,  as 
i  one  observes,  to  have  made  even  a  popish 
,  cardinal  blush,  and  which  no  Protestant  can 
!  readbut  with  indignant  concern.  ''Thi:  bis/iofi 
came  attended  with  several  of  the  high 
commission,  and  some  civilians.  At  his  ap- 
proach to  the  westdocr  of  the  church,  which 
was  shut,  and  guarded  by  halberdeers,  some 
:  that  were  appointed  for  that  purpose  cried 
with  a  loud  voice — Ojien,  o/icn,  ye  everlast- 
ing doors,  that  the  King  of  Glory  may  come 
in!  Presently  the  doors  were  opened,  and  the 
bishofi,  with  some  doctors  and  principal  men, 
entered.  As  soon  as  they  were  within  the 
place,  his  lordsliiji  fell  down  upon  his  luiees  ; 
and,  with  eyes  lifted  up,  and  his  arms  sjjread 
abroad,  said,  T/tis  /ilr.ce  is  holy;  the  ground 
is  holy  :  in  the  name  oj"  the  Father,  Hon,  and 
Holy  Ghost,  I  pronounce  it  holy.  Then, 
walking  up  the  middle  aisle  towards  the 
chancel,  he  took  up  some  of  the  dust,  and 
threw  it  into  the  air  several  times.  When 
he  approached  near  the  rail  of  the  commu- 
nion-table, he  bowed  towards  it  five  or  six 
times;  /nd,  returning,  went  round  the  church 
with  his  attendants  in  procession ;  saving 
first  the  hundredth  and  then  the  nineteentli 
Psalm,  as  prescribed  in  the  Roman  Pontiji- 
cal.  He  then  read  several  collects,  in  one  of 
which  he/irays  God  to  acce/it  of  that  beau- 
tiful building,  and  concludes  thus:  We  conse- 
crate this  church,  and  separate  it  unio  thee 
as  Holy  Ground,  not  to  be  firoplianed  any 
Tir.re  to  common^use.  In  another  he  prays — 
That  ALL  ivho  should  hereafter  be  buried 
ivitkin  the  circuit  of  this  holy  and  sacred 
place,  may  rest  in  their  sepulchres  in  peace, 
till  Christ's  coining  to  judgmmt,  and  may 
thtn  rise  to  eternal  life  ayid  happiness  Then 
the  bishop,  sitting  undera  cloth  of  state  in  the 
aisle  of  the  char.cel,  near  the  communion- 
table, took  a  written  book  in  his  hand,  and 
pronounced  curses  upon  those  who  should 
liereafter  profane  that  holy  place  by  mus- 
ters of  soldiers,  or  keeping  profane  law 
com-ts,  or  carrying  burdens  through  it:  and 
at  the  end  of  every  curse  he  bowed  tn  the 
east,  and  said,  Let  all  the  people  say.  Amen. 
W'hen  the  curses  were  ended,  which  were 
about  twenty,  he  pronounced  a  like  number 
of  blessings  upon  ALL  that  had  any  hand  in 
framing  and  building  that  sacred  and  beauti- 
ful church  ;  and  on  those  that  had  given,  or 
should  hereafter  give,  any  chalices,  plate, 
ornaments,  or  other  utensils;  and,  at  the  end 
of  every  blessing,  he  bowed  to  the  east,  and 
said.  Let  all  the  people  say.  Amen.  After  this 
came  the  sermon,  then  the  sacrament,  which 
the  bishop  consecrated  and  administered  in 
the  following  manner  : — As  he  approached 
the  altar,  he  made  five  or  six  low  bows ;  and 
coming  up  to  the  side  of  it,  where  the  bread 
and  imie  were  covered,  he  bowed  seven 
times.  Then,  after  reading  many  prayers,  he 

N 


came  near  the  bread,  and,  gently  lifting  up 
the  corner  of  the  napkin,  beht- Id  it ;  and  im- 
jnediately  letting  fall  the  napkin,  he  retreat-  ^ 
ed  hastily  a  step  or  two,  and  made  three  low 
obeisances  :  his  loi'dship  then  advanced,  and, 
having  uncovered  the  brtad,  bowed  three 
times  as  before.  Then  he  laid  his  hand  on 
the  cup,  which  was  full  of  wine,  with  a  cover 
upon  it ;  vvhich  having  let  go,  he  stepped 
back,  and  bowed  three  times  towards  it;  then 
he  came  near  again,  and,  lifting  up  the  cover 
of  the  cup,  looked  in  it;  and  seeing  the  luine^ 
let  fall  the  cover  again,  retired  back,  and 
bowed  as  before.  Then  the  elements  were 
consecrated  ;  and  the  bishop,  having  first  re- 
ceived, give  it  to  some  principal  men  in  their 
surplices,  hoods,  and  tippets  ;  after  which, 
many  prayers  being  said,  the  solemnity  of  the 
consecration  ended." 

CONSIS  rEN TES,  a  kind  of  penitents, 
who  were  allowed  to  assist  at  prayers,  but 
who  could  not  be  admitted  to  receive  the 
sacrament. 

CONSISTORY,  a  v/ord  commonly  used 
for  a  cmincil-house  of  ecclesiastical  persons, 
or  place  of  justice  in  the  spiritual  court :  a 
session  or  assembly  of  prelates.  Every  arch- 
bishop and  bishop  of  every  diocese  hath  a 
consistoiy  court,  held  before  his  chancellor 
or  commissary,  in  his  cathedral  church,  or 
other  convenient  place  of  i.is  diocese,  for 
ccclesiasticalcauses.  Thebishop's  chancellor 
is  the  judge  of  this  court,  supposed  to  be 
skilled  in  the  civil  and  canon  lau  ;  and  in 
places  of  the  diucese  far  remote  from  the 
bisiiop's  consistmy,  the  bishop  appoints  a 
commissary  to  judge  in  all  causf-s  within  a 
certain  district,  and  a  register  to  enter  his 
decrees.  &c.  Consistory  at  Rome,  denotes 
the  cnlle.^e  of  cardinals,  or  the  pope's  senate 
and  council,  before  whom  judiciary  causes 
are  pleaded.  Consistory  is  also  used  among 
the  reformed  for  a  Council  or  assembly  of 
ministers  and  elders  po  regulate  their  affairs, 
discipline,  8cc. 

CONSTANCY,  in  a  general  sense.denotes 
immutability,  or  invariablen  ss.  When  ap- 
plied to  the  human  mind,  it  is  a  steady  ad- 
herence to  those  schemes  and  resolutions 
which  have  been  maturely  formed  ;  the  ef- 
fect of  which  is,  that  a  man  never  drops  a 
good  design  out  of  fear,  and  is  consistent 
with  himself  in  all  his  words  and  actions. 

Constancy  is  more  particularly  required  of 
us. — 1.  In  our  devotions,  Luke  xviii.  1.  1 
Thes.  V.  17,  18. — 2  Under  our  suffenngs. 
Matt.  V.  13,  13.  1  Pet.  iv.  12,  13— -3.  Incur 
profession  and  character,  Heb.  x.  23  — i.  In 
our  beneficence.  Gal.  vi.  9. — 5.  In  our  friend- 
ships, Prov.  xxvii.  10. 

CON3UBSTANTIAL,  a  term  of  like  im- 
port with  co-essential,  denoting  something  of 
the  same  substance  with  another.  Thus  we 
say,  that  Christ  is  consubstantial  with  the 
Father.  The  term  of^oncnai,  consubstantial, 
was  first  adopted  b}-  the  fathers  of  the  coun- 
cils of  Antioch  and  Nice,  to  exj^ress  the 
orthodox  doctrine  the  more  precisely,  and  to  J 
serve  as  a  barrier  and  precaution  against  ; 
the  errors  and  subtleties  of  the  Arians,  who 


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owned  every  thing  except  the  consubstan- 
tiality.  The  Avians  allowed  diat  the  word 
■was  God,  as  having  been  nmde  God  :  but 
they  denied  that  he  was  the  same  God,  and 
of  the  same  substance  with  the  Father:  ac- 
cordingly, they  exerted  themselves  to  the 
utmost  to  abolish  the  use  of  the  word.  Tlie 
emperc*-  Constantine  used  all  his  authority 
with  the  bishops  to  havejt  expunged  out  of 
symbols  ;  but  it  was  retained,  and  is  at  this 
day,  as  it  was  then,  the  distinguished  crite- 
rion between  an  Athanasian  and  an  Arian. 
See  articles  Arians,  and  Jesus  Christ. 

CONSUBSTANTIATION,  a  tenet  of 
the  Lutheran  ciuirch,  with  regard  to  the 
manuf  r  of  the  change  made  in  the  bread  and 
■wine  in  the  eucharist.  The  divines  (if  that 
profession  maintain  tliat,  after  consecration, 
the  body  and  blood  of  our  Saviour  are  sub- 
stantially present, together  with  tlie  substance 
of  the  bread  and  wine,  which  is  called  con- 
substantiation,  or  imputation.    See  Tran- 

SUBSTANTIATION. 

CONTEMPLATION,  studious  thought 
on  any  subject;  continued  attention.  "  Monks 
and  mystics  consider  coniemfilation  as  the 
highest  degree  of  moral  excellence;  and  with 
them  a  silent  spt-ctator  is  a  divine  man:" 
but  it  is  evident  we  are  not  placed  here  only 
to  think.'  There  is  something  to  be  done  as 
■well  as  to  contem]j!at^.  There  are  duties  to 
be  performed,  offices  to  be  discharged  :  and, 
if  we  wish  to  be  hap])y  in  ourselves  and  use- 
ful to  others,  we  must  be  active  as  well  as 
thoughtful. 

CONTENTMi'.NT  is  a  disposition  of 
mind  in  which  our  desires  are  confined  to 
what  we  enjoy,  without  murmuring  at  our 
lot,  or  wishing  ardently  for  more.  It  stands 
opposed  to  envy,  James  in.  16.  to  avarice, 
Heb.  xiii.  5.  to  prido  and  ambition,  Prov.  xiii. 
10.  to  anxiety  of  mind,  Matt.  vi.  25.  34.  to 
miirmurings  and  repinings,  1  Cor.  x.  10. 
Contentment  does  not  imply  unconcern  about 
our  welfare,  or  that  we  should  not  have  a 
sense  of  any  thing  uneasy  or  distressing;  nor 
does  it  give  any  countenance  to  idleness,  or 
prevent  diligent  endeavours  to  improve  our 
circumstances.  It  implies,  however,  that  our 
desires  of  worldly  good  be  moderate  ;  that 
■we  do  not  indulge  unnecessary  care,  nor 
use  unlawful  ctlbrts  to  better  ourselves  ;  but 
that  we  acquiesce  witli  and  make  the  best 
of  our  condition,  wliatever  it  be.  Content- 
•ment  arises  not  from  a  man's  outward"  condi- 
tion, but  from  his  inward  disposition,  and  is 
the  genuine  offspring  of  humility,  attended 
•with  a  fixed  babitual  sense  of  God's  particu- 
lar providence,  tin- recollection  of  past  mer- 
cies, and  a  just  estimate  of  the  true  nature 
of  all  earthly  things.  Motives  to  content- 
ment arisr  from  the  consideration  of  the  rec- 
titude ff  the  Divine  government,  Ps.  xcvii. 
1,2.  the  benignity  of  the  Divine  providence, 
Ps.  cxlv.  the  greatness  of  the  Divine  piomise, 
2  Pet.  i.  4.  oin-own  unworthiness.  Gen.  xxxii. 
10.  the  punishments  we  deserve.  Lam.  iii. 
59,  40.  the  reward  which  contentment  itself 
brings  with  it,  1  Tim.  vi.  G.  the  speedy  ter-J 


mination  of  all  our  troubles  here,  and  the 
I)rospect  of  eternal  felicity  in  a  future  state, 
Rom.  V.  2.  Barroiu''s  Works,  vol.  iii.  ser.  5, 
6,  7,  8,  9 ;  Hurroiiglis  on  Contentment  ; 
Watson's  Art  ofdiiio;  Hale's  Con..,  p.  59; 
Mason's  Christian  Morals,  \-ol.  i.  ser.  2. 

CONTINENCY  is  that  moral  virtue  by 
which  we  restrain  concupiscence.  There  is 
this  distinction  between  chastity  and  conti- 
nence : — Chastity  requires  no  effort  because 
it  may  result  from  constitution ;  whereas 
continency  appears  to  be  the  consequence  of 
a  victory  gained  over  ourselves.  I'he  term 
is  most  usually  applied  to  men;  as  chastity, 
is  to  women.    See  ('hastity. 

CONTINGENT,  any  thing  that  happens 
without  a  fore-known  cause ;  commonly  call- 
ed accidental.  An  event  not  come  to  pass  is 
said  to  be  contingent,  which  either  may  or 
may  not  be  :  what  is  already  done,  is  said  to 
have  been  contingent:  if  it  might  or  might 
not  have  been.  What  is  contingent  or  casual 
to  us  is  not  so  with  (iod.  As  effects  stand  re- 
lated to  a  second  cause,  they  are  many  times 
contingent ;  but  as  they  stand  related  to  the 
first  cause,  they  are  acts  of  God's  counsel, 
and  directed  by  his  wisdom, 

CONTRITE :  this  word  signifies  beaten 
or  bruised,  as  with  hard  blows,  or  an  heavy 
burden;  and  so  in  scripture  language  imports 
one  whose  heart  is  broken  and  wounded  for 
sin,  in  opposition  to  the  heart  of  stone.  Is. 
Ixvi.  2.    Ps.  li.  17.    Ps.lvii.15. 

The  evidences  of  a  broken  and  contrite 
spirit  are,  1.  Deep  conviction  of  the  evil  of 
sin. — 2.  Humiliation  under  a  sense  of  it.  Job 
xliii.  5,  6. — 3.  Pungent  sorrow  for  it,  Zech. 
xii.  10. — 4.  Ingenuous  confession  of  it,  1  John 
i.  9. — 5.  Prayer  for  deliverance  from  it,  Ps. 
!i.  10.  Luke  xviii.  13. — 6.  Susceptibility  of 
good  imDressions,  Ezek.  xi.  19. 

CONTROVERSIAL  DIVINITY.  See 
Disputation. 

CONVENT.  See  Abbey, Monastery, 
Monk. 

CONVENTICLE,  a  diminutive  of  con- 
vent, denoting  properly  a  cabal,  or  secret 
assembly  of  a  part  of  the  monks  of  a  convent, 
tv>make  a  party  in  the  election  of  an  abbot. 
The  term  conventicle  is  said  by  some  to  have 
been  first  applied  in  England  to  the  schools 
of  Wickliffe,  and  has  been  since  used  in  a 
way  of  reproach  for  those  assemblies  which 
dissent  from  the  established  church. 

In  1664  what  Avas  called  the  conventicle 
act  was  passed,  decreeing  that  if  any  person 
above  16  years  of  age,  was  present  at  any 
meeting  for  worship,  different  fi'om  the 
church  of  England,  where  there  should  be 
five  persons  more  than  the  household,  they 
should  for  the  first  offence  suffer  three 
months  imprisonment,  or  pay  51.  for  the  se- 
cond the  punishment  is  doubled,  and  for  the 
third  they  were  to  be  banished  to  America, 
or  pay  1001.  and  if  they  returned  to  suffer 
de.td).  This  act  having  expired,  it  was  re- 
vived in  1669,  for  by  22  Car.  II.  cap.  1.  it  is 
enacted.  That  if  any  persons  of  the  age  of 
sixteen  years,  subjects  of  this  kingdom  shall 


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be  present  at  any  conventicle  where  there 
are  five  or  more  assembled,  tliey  shall  be 
fined  five  siiillings  for  the  first  oflfence,  and 
ten  shillings  for  the  second :  and  persons 
preaching,  incur  a  penalty  of  twenty  pounds. 
Also  suffering  a  meeting  to  be  held  in  a  house  j 
is  twenty  pounds  penalty:  justices  of  peace 
have  power  to  enter  such  houses,  and  seize 
persons  assembled  :  and  if  they  neglect  tlieir 
duty,  they  forfeit  lOOl.  And  if  any  constable, 
&c.  know  of  such  proceedings,  and  do  not 
inform  a  justice  of  peace  or  chief  magistrate, 
he  shall  forfeit  51.  But  the  first  of  VVilliam 
and  Mary, 'cap.  18.  ordains  that  Protestant 
Dissenters  shall  be  exempted  from  these 
penalties ;  though  if  they  meet  in  a  house 
with  the  doors  l(xk.ed,  barred,  or  bolted,  such 
Dissenters  shall  have  no  benefit  from  the  1st 
of  William  and  Mary.  Officers  of  t!ie  go- 
vernment, 6cc.  present  at  any  conventicle  at 
which  there  shall  be  ten  persons,  if  the  r(  yal 
family  be  not  prayed  for  in  express  words, 
shall  forfeit  401.  and  be  disabled,  Stat.  10. 
Anne,  cap  2. 

CONVERSATION,  or  discoarse,  signi- 
fies an  interlocution  between  two  or  more 
persons,  with  this  distinction,  that  conversa- 
tion is  used  for  any  general  intercourse  of 
sentiments  whatever,  whereas  a  discourse 
means  a  conversation  limited  to  some  parti- 
cular subject. 

To  render  conversation  at  all  times  agree- 
able, the  following  rules  have  been  lain  down, 
1.  The  parties  should  meet  together  with  a 
determined  resolution  to  please  and    to    be 
pleased. — 2.  No  one  should  be  eager  to  in- 
terrupt others,  or  be  uneasy  at  being  inter-  i 
rupted. — S.  All  should  have  leave  to  speak  | 
in  turo. — 4.    Inattention  should  be  carefully  ! 
avoided. — 5.  Private  concerns  sliould  ne\er 
be  mentioned,    unless  particularly  enquired 
into,  and  even  then  as  brielly  as  possible. — 6. 
Each  person  should,  as  far  as  propriety  will 
admit,    be  afforded   an  opportunity  of   dis- 
coursing on  the  subject  with  which  he  is  best 
acquainted. — 7.  Stories  should  be  avoided, 
unless  short,  pointed,  and  quite  a  propels. — 
8.  Eacii  person  should  speak  often,  but  net 
long.     Haranguing  in  private  company  is  in- 
supportable — 9.  If  the  majority  of  the  com- 
pany be  naturally  silent  or  resers^ed,  the  con- 
versation will  fiag,  unless  it  be  often  renewed 
by  one  who  can  stail  new  subjects. — 10.    It 
is   improper  to  laugh  at  one's  own  wit  and 
humour  ;  this  should  be  left  to  the  company. 
— 11.  When  the  conversation  is  flowing  in  a 
serious  and  useful  channel,  never  interrupt 
it  by  an  ill-timed  jest. — It  is  at  all  limes  ex- 
tremely indelicate  to  whisper  to  one's  next 
neighbour :    this  is  in  some  degree  a  fraud, 
conversation  being  a  kind  of  common  proper- 
ty.— 13.  In  speaking  of  absent  people,  the  in- 
fallible  rule  is,    to   say  no   more   than    we 
should  say  if  they  were  present.  "  I  resolve.'' 
said  bishop  Beveridge,  "  never  to  speak  of  a 
man's  virtues  to  his  face,  nor  of  his  faults  be- 
i\ind  his  back"  A  golden  rule  !  the  observa- 
tion of  which  would  at  once  banish  flattery 
and  defamation  from  the  world. 


CONVERSION,  a  change  from  one  state 
to  another.     Conversion  may  be  1-  Merely 
external,  or  that  which  consists  only  in  an  out- 
ward re  formation. — 2.  Doctrinal,  orachange 
of  sentiments. — 3.  Saving,  which  consists  in 
the  renovation  of  the  heart   and  life,  or  a 
turning  from   the  power  of   sin  and  Satan     ■ 
unto  (iod.  Acts  xxvi.  IS.  and  is  produced  by 
the  iniiuence  of  Divine  grace  on  the  soul. — 
4.  Sometimes  it  is  put  for  restoration,  as  in 
the  case  of  Peter,  Luke  xxii.  .)2.     The  in- 
strumental cause  of  conversion  is  usually  the 
ministry  of  the  word  ;  though  sometimes  it 
is  pr(.duced  by  reading,  by  serious  and  ap- 
propriate conversation,  sanctified  affiictions, 
5cc.   Conversion  says  the  great  Ctiarncck,  is 
to  be  distinguished  from  regeneration  thus  — 
"Regeneration  is  a  spiritual  change;    con- 
version is  a  spiritual  moti'  n:  in  regeneration 
there  is  a  power  conferred  ;  conversion  is  the 
exercise  of  this  power:  in  regeneration  there 
is  given  us  a  principle  to  turn;  conversion  is 
our  actual  turning.      In  the  covenant  God's 
putting  his  spirit  into  us  is  distinguish  id  from 
our  walking  in   his   statutes   from  the  first 
step  we  take  in  the  way  of  God,    and  is  set 
down  as   the  cause  of   our    motion,    Ezek. 
xxxvi.  27.      In  renewing  us,  God  gives  us  a 
power ;    in  converting  us  he   excites    that 
power.     Men  are  naturally  dead,  and  have 
a  stone  upon  them  :  regeneration  is  a  rolling 
away  the  stone  from  the  heart,  and  a  raising 
to  newness  of  life  ;  and  then  conversion  is  as 
natural  to  a  regenerate  man  as  motion  is  to 
a  lively  body-     A  ])rinciple  of  activity  will 
produce    action.      In    regeneration    man  is 
wholly  passive ;  in  conversion  he  is  active. 
The  first  reviving  us  is  wholly  the  act  of 
God,  without  any  concurrence  of  the  crea- 
ture ;  but  after  we  are  revived   we  do  ac- 
tively and  voluntarily  live  in  his  sight.     Re- 
generation is  the  motion  of  God  in  the  crea- 
ture; conversion  is  the  motion  cf  the  creature 
to  God,  by  virtue  of  that  first  jn-inciple:  from 
this  principle  all  the   acts  of  believing,  re- 
penting, mortifying,quickening,do  si}rin:<.  In 
all  these  a  man  is  active  ;   in  the  other  he  is 
merely  passive."  Comcnsion  evidences  itself 
by  ardent  love  to  God,  Ps.  Ixxiii    25.  delight 
in  his  people,  John  xiii.  35.  attendance  on  his 
ordinances,  Ps.  xxvii  4  confidence  in  his  pro- 
mises, Ps.  ix.  10.  abhorrence  of  self,  and  re- 
nunciation of  the  world,  Job  xiii.  5.     Jas.  iv. 
4.  submission  to  his  authority,  and  uniform 
obedience  to  his  word.  Matt.  vii.  20.     See 
Calling.  Regeneraticn. 

CONVERT,  a  person  who  is  converted. 
In  a  monastic  sense,  converts  are  lay  friars, 
or  brothers  admitted  lor  the  service  cf  the 
house,  withcjut  orders,  and  not  allowed  to 
sing  in  the  choir. 

CONVICTION,  in  general,  is  the  assu- 
rance of  the  truth  of  any  ]3roposition.  In  a 
religious  sense,  it  is  the  first  degree  of  re- 
pentance, and  implies  an  affecting  sense  that 
we  are  guilty  before  God  ;  that  we  can  do 
nothing  of  ourselves  to  gain  his  forfeited  fa- 
vour ;  that  we  do  deserve  and  are  exposed  to 
the  wrath  of  God  :  that  sin  is  vciy  odious 


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and  hateful,  yea,  the  greatest  of  evils.  There 

is  a  natural  conviction  which  arises  from 
natural  conscience,  fear  of  punishment,  mo- 
ral suasi  )n,  i)V  alarming  prcvidencts,  but 
■which  is  not  of  a  permanent  nature.  Saving 
conviction  is  the  work  of  the  Spirit,  as  ilie 
cause  :  though  tlie  law,  the  conscience,  the 
Gospel,  or  afflicti(in,  may  be  the  means, 
John  xvi  8,  y.  Conviction  of  sin  differ  very 
much  in  their  degree  in  different  persons. 
It  h;is  been  observed  that  those  who  suffer 
the  most  agonizing  sensatims  are  such  as 
never  be  fore  enjoyed  the  external  call  of  the 
Gospel,  or  were  n^t  favoured  with  the  tui- 
tion of  religious  parents,  but  have  neglected 
or  notoriously  abused  the  means  of  grace. 
To  these  c mviction  is  .  ften  sudden,  and  pro- 
duces that  iiorrwr  and  shame  which  are  not 
soon  overcome ;  whereas  these  who  have 
sat  under  t'le  g-^spel  from  their  infancy  have 
not'had  such  alarming  convictions,  because 
theyhave  already  some  notions  nf  these  things, 
and  have  so  much  acquaintance  with  the 
Gospel  as  administers  immediate  comfort 
As  it  is  not.  therefore,  the  constant  method 
of  the  Spirit  to  convince  in  one  way,  it  is 
improper  for  any  to  distress  themselves  be- 
cause they  are  not,  or  have  not  been  tor- 
mented almost  to  despair:  they  should  be 
rather  thankful  that  the  Spirit  of  God  has 
dealt  tenderly  with  them,  and  opened  to  them 
the  source  of  consolation.  It  is  necessaiy 
however  to  observe,  that,  in  order  to  repen- 
tance and  conversion  to  God.  there  must  be 
real  and  lasting  conviction,  which,  thonsrh  it 
may  nut  be  the  same  in  degree,  is  the  same 
in  nature.  Evangelical  conviction  differs 
from  legal  convictif)n  thus  :  legal  arises  from 
a  consideration  of  God's  justic-,  power,  or 
omnis'  ience  ;  e-uangiiiccl  from  God's  i;ood- 
ness  and  holiness,  an(!  fn»m  a  disaffection 
to  sin  :  legal  conviction  still  conceits  there  is 
some  remaining  good:  but  evarigelical  is  sen- 
sible there  is  no  good  at  all :  Irga!  wishes 
freedom  from  pain  ;  tvangelicaJ.  from  sin  : 
legal  hardens  the  heart ;  evangelical  softens 
it :  legal  is  only  temporary ;  evangelical 
lasting. 

CONVOCATION,  an  assembly  of  persons 
for  the  worship  of  God,  Lev.  xxiii.  Num. 
xxviii  Exod.  xii.  16  An  assembly  of  the 
clergy  for  consultation  upon  matters  eccle- 
siastical. 

As  the  parliament  consists  of  two  distinct 
houses,  so  does  this  convocation.  The  one 
called  the  u])per  house,  where  the  archbi- 
shops and"l)ishopssit  severally  by  themselves; 
the  other  the  lower  hmse,  where  all  the  rest 
of  the  clergy  are  represented  by  tlieir  depu- 
ties.— The  inferior  clergy  are  represented 
by  their  proctors  ;  consisting  of  all  the  deans 
and  archdeacons  ;  of  one  proctor  for  every 
chapter,  and  two  for  the  clergy,  of  every 
diocese — in  all,  one  hundred  and  forty-three 
divines,  viz.  twenty-two  deans,  fifty-three 
archdeacons,  twenty-four  prebendaries,  and 
forty-four  proct-^rs  of  the  diocesan  clerg}\ 
The  lower  house  chooses  its  prolocutor,  who 
is  to  take  care  tliat  the  members  attend,  to 


collect  their  debates  and  votes,  and  to  carry 
their  resolution  te  the  upper  bcuse.  The 
convocation  is  summoned  by  the  king's  writ, 
directed  to  the  archbishop  of  each  province, 
rt-quirmg  him  to  summon  all  bishops,  deans, 
archdeac-ns,  &c.  The  power  •-  f  the  convo- 
cation is  limited  by  a  statute  of  Henry  Vlll. 
They  are  not  to  make  any  canons,  or  eccle- 
siastical laws,  without  the  king's  license  ; 
nor,  when  permitted,  can  they  put  them  in 
execution  but  under  several  restrictions. — 
They  have  the  examihing  and  censuring  all 
heretical  and  schismatical  books  and  per- 
sons, &c  but  there  lies  an  appeal  to  the 
king  in  chancery,  or  to  his  delegates.  The 
clergy  in  convocation,  and  their  servants, 
have  the  same  privileges  as  members  of  par- 
liament. In  1665,  the  convocation  of  the 
clergy  gave  up  the  privilege  of  taxing  thenj- 
selves  to  the  house  of  commons,  in  conside- 
ration of  their  being  allowed  to  vote  at  the 
election  of  members  fia*  that  house.  Since 
that  period  they  have  been  seldom  allowed 
to  do  any  business ;  and  are  generally  pro- 
rogued from  time  to  time  till  dissolved,  a 
new  convocation  being  generally  called  along 
with  a  new  parliament. 

COPHI,  CopHT,  or  CopTi,  a  name  given 
to  the  Christians  of  Egypt  who  are  ot  the 
sect  of  the  Jacobites.  See  Jacobites.  The 
C'lphts  have  a  patriarch,  who  resides  at 
Cairo  ;  but  he  takes  his  title  from  Alexan- 
diia.  He  has  no  archbishop  under  him,  but 
eleven  or  twelve  bishops.  The  rest  uf  the, 
clergy,  whether  secular  or-regular,  are  com- 
posed of  the  orders  of  St.  Anthony,  St.  Paul, 
St.  Macarius,  who  have  each  their  monas- 
teries. Besides  the  orders  of  priests,  dea^ 
cms,  and  sub-deacons,  the  Cophts  have, 
likewise,  archimandrites,  or  abbots;  the  dig- 
nitv  whereof  they  confer  with  all  the  prayers 
and  ceremonies  of  a  strict  ordination  By 
a  custom  of  six  hundred  yeais  standing,  if 
a  priest  elected  bishop  be  not  aire  ady  archi- 
mandrite, that  dignity  must  be  conferred  on 
him  before  episcipal  ordinatien  The  second 
person  among  the  clergy  after  the  patriai-ch 
is  the  titular  patriarch  of  Jerusalem,  who  also 
resides  at  Cairo.  To  him  belongs  the  go- 
vernment of  the  Cophtic  church  during  the 
vacancy  of  the  patriarchal  see.  To  be  elected 
patriarch,  it  is  necessary  the  person  have 
lived  all  his  life  in  continence.  To  be  elected 
bish' p,  the  person  must  be  in  the  celibate  ; 
or  if  he  have  been  married,  it  must  not  be 
above  once.  The  priests  and  inferior  minis- 
ters are  allowed  to  be  married  before  ordi- 
nation ;  but  not  forced  to  it,  as  some  have 
observed.  They  have  a  great  number  of 
deacons,  and  even  confer  the  dignity  fre- 
quently on  their  children.  None  but  the 
lowest  rank  among  the  people  commence 
ecclesia-stics  ;  whence  arises  that  excessive 
ignorance  found  amongthem:  yet  the  respect 
of  the  laity  towards  the  clergy  is  very  ex- 
traordinary. The  monastic  life  is  in  great 
esteem  among  them  :  to  be  admitted  into  it, 
there  is  always  required  the  consent  of  the 
bishop.    The   religious  Cophts,   it  is   said, 


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make  a  vo^^  of  perpetual  chastity ;  renounce 
the  world,  and  live  with  great  austerity  in 
deserts :  tiiey  are  obliged  to  sleep  in  their 
clotlies  and  their  girdle,  on  a  mat  stretched 
on  the  ground  ;  and  to  prostrate  themselves 
every  evening  one  hundred  and  fifty  times 
with  their  face  and  breast,  on  the  ground. 
The-y  are  all,  both  men  and  women,  of  the 
lowest  class  of  the  people,  and  li<^e  on  alms 
The  nunneries  are  properly  hospitals,  and 
few  enter  but  v/idows  reduced  to  beggary. 

CORBAN,  in  Jewish  antiquity,  were  those 
ofierings  which  had  life  ;  in  opposition  to  the 
T)iinchah,  or  those  which  had  not.  It  is  de- 
rived from  the  word  karab,  which  signifies 
"  to  approach ;"  because  the  victims  were 
brought  to  the  door  of  the  tabernacle.  The 
corban  were  always  looked  upon  as  the  most 
sacred  offerings.  The  Jews  are  repxoached 
with  defeating,  by  means  of  the  corban,  the 
precept  of  the  fifth  commandment,  which 
enjoins  the  respect  due  to  parents ;  for  when 
a  child  had  no  mind  to  relieve  the  wants  of 
his  father  or  mother,  he  would  say  to  them — 
"  It  is  a  gift  (corban)  by  whatsoever  thou 
mightest  be  profited  by  me  ;"  i.  e.  *'  I  have 
devoted  that  to  (iod  which  you  ask  of  me, 
and  it  is  nolonsrermine  to  give."  Markvii.  11. 

CORDELlEiv,  a  Franciscan,  or  religious 
of  the  order  of  St.  Francis.   The  denomina- 
tion cordelier  is  said  to  have  been  given  in 
the  war  of  St.  Lewis  against  the  'infidels, 
•wherein  the  friars  ?ni?ior  having  repulsed 
the  barbarians,  and  that  king  having  enquir- 
ed their  name,  it  was  answered,  they  were 
people  corddiez,  "  tied  with  ropes ;"  allud- ; 
ing  to  the  girdle  of  rope,  or  cord,  tied  with  | 
three  knots,  which  they  wore  as  part  of  I 
their  habit.  | 

CORNARISTS,  the  disciples  of  Theo- 
dore Cornhert,  an  enthusiastic  secretary  of 
the  states  of  Holland.  He  wrote,  at  the  same  i 
time,  against  the  Catholics,  Lutherans,  and 
Calvinists.  He  maintained  that  every  reli- 
gious communion  needed  reformation;  but 
he  added,  that  no  person  had  a  right  to  en- 
gage in  accomplishing  it  without  a  mission 
supported  by  miracles.  He  was  also  of  opin- 
ion, that  a  person  might  be  a  good  Christian 
without  being  a  memberofany  visible  church. 

COVENANT,  a  contract  or  agreement, 
between  two  or  more  parties  on  certain  terms. 
The  terms  made  use  of  in  the  Scriptures 
for  covenant  r\'"\l  are  and  ^(x^r,Kii.  The 
former  signifies  c/ioosi77g,  oxfriendlij  parting; 
as  in  covenants  each  party,  in  a  friendly 
manner,  consented,  and  so  bound  himself  to 
the  chosen  terms;  the  latter  signifies  testa- 
ment, as  all  the  blessings  of  the  covenant 
are  freely  disposed  to  us.  The  word  cove- 
nant is  also  used  for  an  immutable  ordinance, 
Jer.  xxxiii.  20  a  promise,  Exod.  xxxiv,  10. 
Is.  lix.  21.  and  also  for  a  precept,  Jer  xxxiv. 
13,  14.  In  Scripture  we  read  of  vai-ious  co- 
venants ;  such  as  those  made  with  Noah, 
Abraham  and  the  Hebrews  at  large.  An- 
ciently covenants  were  made  and  ratified  with 
great  solemnity.  The  Scriptures  alluded  to 
the  cutting  of  animals  asunder;  denoting 


that,  in  the  same  manner,  the  perjured  and 
covenant-breaker  should  be  cut  asunder  by 
the  vengeance  of  God,  Jer.  xxxiv.  18. 

The  covenants  which  more  especially  re- 
late to  the  human  race,  ai-e  generally  called 
the  covenant  of  works  and  the  covenant  of 
grace. 

The  covenant  qfnvorks  is  that  whereby 
God  requires  perfect  obedience  from  his 
creatures,  in  such  a  manner  as  to  make 
no  express  provision  for  the  pardon  of 
offences  committed  against  tlie  precepts 
of  it  on  the  repentance  of  such  offenders, 
hut  pronounces  a  sentence  of  death  upon 
them.  Gen.  ii.  Cial.  iv.  24.  Ps.  Ixxxiz.  3,  4. 
The  covenant  of  grace  is  generally  defin- 
ed to  be  that  which  was  made  with  Christ, 
as  the  second  Adam,  and  in  him  with  all 
the  elect  as  his  seed,  Is.  xlii.  1 — 6.  1  Pet.  i. 
20.     Is  lii.  13. 

I.  Th&  covenant  of  works  was  made  with 
Adam  ;  the  condition  of  which  was,  his  per- 
severance during  th.e  whole  time  of  his  pro- 
bation :  the  reward  annexed  to  this  obedi- 
ence was  the  continuance  of  him  and  his 
posterity  in  such  perfect  holiness  and  feli- 
city he'  then  had  while  upon  earth,  and 
everlasting  hfe  with  God  hereafter.  The 
penalty  threatened  for  the  breach  of  the 
command  was  condemnation  ;  terminating  in 
death  temporal,  spirittial  and  eternal.  The 
seals  of  this  covenant  were,  the  tree  of 
knowledge  and  the  tree  of  life ;  and,  per- 
haps, the  Sabbath  and  Paradise,  Gen.  ii. 
Gal.  iii.  ii.  24.  Rom.  v.  12.  19.  This  cove- 
nant was  broken  by  Adam's  eating  of  the 
forbidden  fruit,  -whereby  he  and  his  posterity 
were  all  subject  to  ruin.  Gen.  iii.  Rom.  v. 
12.  19;  and  without  the  intervention  of  the 
divine  grace  and  mercy,  -would  have  been 
lost  for  ever.  Rom.  iii.  23.  The  Divine  Being, 
foreseeing  this,  in  infinite  wisdom  and  un- 
speakable compassion  planned  the  covenant 
of  grace  ;  by  virtue  of  which  his  people  are 
reinstated  in  the  blessings  of  purity,  know- 
ledge, and  felicity,  and  that  without  a  pos- 
sibility of  any  farther  defalcation. 

II.  The  covenant  of  grace.  Some  divines 
make  a  distinction  between  the  covenant  of 
redemption  and  that  of  grace ;  the  former, 
they  say,  was  made  with  Christ  in  eternity; 
the  latter  with  believers  in  time.  Others 
object  to  this,  and  suppose  it  a  needless  dis- 
tinction ;  for  there  is  but  one  covenant  of 
grace,  and  not  two,  in  which  the  head  and 
members  are  concerned ;  and,  besides,  the 
covenant  of  grace,  properly  speaking,  could 
not  be  made  between  God  and  man ;  for 
what  can  man  restipulate  with  God,  which 
is  in  his  power  to  do  or  give  him,  and 
which  God  has  not  a  prior  right  unto.' 
Fallen  man  has  neither  inclination  to  yield 
obedience,  nor  power  to  perform  it.  The 
parties  therefore,  in  this  covenant,  are 
generally  said  to  be  the  Father  and  the  Son; 
but  Dr.  Gill  supposes  that  the  Holy  Ghost 
should  not  be  excluded,  since  he  is  promis- 
ed in  it,  and,  in  consequence  of  it,  is  sent 
down  into  the  hearts  of  believers ;  and  which 


c  o  V 


102 


C  O  V 


must  be  by  agreement,  and  w'.th  his  consent 
If  we  believe,  therefore,  in  a  Trinity,  it  is 
ninre  proper  to  suppose  that  they  were  all  en- 
gaged in  this  plan  of  the  C()venant,than  to  sup- 
pose that  the  Father  and  Son  were  engaged 
exclusive  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  1  John  v.  6, 7.  As 
to  the  work  of  the  Son,  it  was  the  will  and 
appointment  of  tlie  Father  that  he  should 
take  the  charge  and  care  of  his  people,  John 
vi.  39.  Heb.  ii.  13,  redeem  them  by  his 
blood,  John  x\ii.  Heb.  x.  obey  the  law  in 
their  room,  Rom.  x.  4.  justify  them  by  his 
righteoHsness,  Dan.  ix.  24,  8cc.,  and,  finally,  i 
preserve  them  to  glorj-,  Isa.  xl.  11.  Jesus  I 
Christ,  according  to  tlie  divine  purpose,  be-j 
came  the  representative  and  covenant  head\ 
of  his  people,  Eph.  i.  22,  23.  Col.  i.  18. | 
They  wei'e  all  considered  in  him,  and  re- 1 
presented  by  him,  Eph.  i.  4,  premises  ofj 
grace  and  glory  made  to  them  m  him,  Tit.i 

1.  2.    1  Cor.  i.  20.  he  suffered  in  their  stead,  '■ 
2  Cor.  V.  21,    He  is   also  to  be    crnsid<jred| 
as  the  ^Mediator  of  the  Covenant  by  \\  horn ' 
justice  is  satisfied,   and  man  reconciled  to; 
God.     See  art.  Mediatoii.    Heisnlsothei 
surety  of  this  covenant,  Heb.  vii.  22.  as  he  | 
took   the  whole   debt  njion   him,  freed  his! 
people  from  the  charge,  obe}ed  the  law,  and  I 
engaged  to  bring  his  people  to  glory,  Heb.  | 
ii.    13.    Isa.   xlix.   5,   6.     He  is  called  the  j 
Testator  of  the  covenant,  which  is  denomi-i 
nated  a  Testamest,  Heb.   vii   22.    Heb.  ix. 
15.     He  disposes  of  his  blessings  according 
to  his  will  or  testament,  which  is  unalter- 
able, signed  by  his  hand,  and  sealed  by  his 
blood.     In   this  covenant,   as  we  before  ob- 
served, the  Holy  Spirit  also  is  engaged.  His 
assent  is  given  to  eveiy  part  thereof;  he 
brings  his  ueoyjle  into  the  enjoyment  of  its 
blessings,    1   Pet.   i.  2.     2  Thes.  ii.  13.     He 
was  concerned  in  the  incarnation  of  Chi'ist,  | 
Matt.  i.  18.  and  assisted  his  human  nature, 
Heb.  ix.  14.  He  takes  of  the  things  of  Christ, 
and  shews  them  unto  us;  cleanses,  enlightens, 
sanctifies,  establishes,  and  comforts  his  peo- 
ple, according  to  the  plan  of  the  covenant, 
Rom.  viii.  15,  16.     See  Holy  Ghost. 

III.  The  firolieriies  of  this  covenant  are 
such  as  these  :  1.  It  is  eternal,  behig  made 
before  time,  Eph.  i.  3,  4.  2  Tim.  i.  9  — 2. 
Divine  as  to  its  origin,  springing  entirely 
from  free  grace,  Rom.  xi.  6,  6.    Ps.  Ixxxix. 

2,  3.  28. — 3.  It  is  absolute  and  unconditional, 
Eph.  ii.  8,  9. — 4.  It  'm  perfect  and  complete, 
wanting  nothing,  2  Sam.  xxiii.  5. — 5.  It  is 
sure  and  immovt-able,  Isa.  liv.  10.  Isa.  Iv. 
3. — 6.  Called  new  in  opposition  to  the  old, 
and  as  its  blessings  will  be  always  new,  Heb. 
viii.  6.  8. 

IV.  These  two  covenants  above-mentioned 
agree  in  some  thi7igs,  in  others  they  differ. 
1.  "  In  both,"  say  Witsius,  "  the  parties 
concerned  are  God  and  man — 2.  In  both,  the 
same  promise  of  eternal  life. — 3.  The  con- 
dition of  both  is  the  same,  perfect  obedience 
to  the  law  prescribed  ;  for  it  is  not  woi  thy 
of  God  to  admit  man  to  a  blessed  commu- 
mon  with  him  but  in  the  way  of  holiness. — 
4.  In  both  is  the  same  end,  the  glory  of  God. 


Rut  they  differ  in  the  following  respects : 
1.  In  the  covenant  of  works,  the  character 
or  relation  cf  God  is  that  of  a  supreme  law- 
giver, and  the  chief  good  rejoicing  to  com- 
municate happiness  to  his  creatures.  In  the 
Covenant  of  grace  he  appears  as  infinitely 
merciful,  adjudging  life  to  the  elect  sinner, 
agreeably  to  his  wisdom  and  justice. — 2.  In 
the  covenant  of  works  there  was  no  media- 
ator :  the  covenant  of  grace  has  a  mediator, 
Christ. — 3.  In  the  covenant  of  works,  the 
condition  of  perfect  obedience  was  required 
to  be  performed  by  man  himself  in  covenant. 
In  the  covenant  of  grace  the  same  condition 
is  proposed,  but  to  be  performed  by  a  medi- 
ator.— 4  In  the  covenant  cf  works  man  is 
considered  as  working,  and  the  reward,  as 
to  be  given  of  debt.  In  the  covenant  of  grace 
the  n'an  in  covenant  is  considered  as  be- 
lieving ;  eternal  life  being  given  as  the  merit 
of  the  mediator,  out  of  free  grace,  which 
excludes  all  boasting. — 5  In  tlie  covenant  of 
works  something  is  required  as  a  condition, 
which  being  performed,  entitles  to  reward. 
The  covenant  of  grace  consists  not  of  con- 
ditions, but  of  promises :  the  life  to  be  ob- 
tained :  faith,  by  which  we  are  made  par- 
takers of  Christ :  persevei'ance,  and,  in  a 
word,  the  whole  of  salvation,  are  alisolately 
promised. — 6.  The  special  end  of  the  cove- 
nant of  works  was  the  manifestation  of  the 
holiness,  goodness,  and  justice  of  God  ;  but 
the  special  end  of  the  covenant  of  grace,  is 
the  praise  of  the  glor)'  of  his  grace,  and  the 
revelation  of  his  unsearchable  and  manifold 
wisdom." — 7.  The  covenant  of  wsrks  was 
only  for  a  time,  but  the  covenant  of  grace 
stands  sure  for  ever. 

V.  The  administration  of  the  covenant  of 
grace  — The  covenant  of  prace,  under  the 
Old  Testament,  was  exhibited  by  promises, 
sacrifices,  types,  ordinances,  and  prophecies. 
Under  the  New  it  is  administtrecl  in  the 
preaching  of  the  Gospel,  baptism,  and  the 
Lord's  supper ;  in  Avhich  grace  and  salva- 
tion are  held  forth  in  more  tulness,  evidence, 
and  efficacv  to  all  nations,  2  Cor.  iii.  6 — 18. 
Heb.  viii.  Matt,  xxviii.  19,  20.  But  in  both 
periods,  the  mediator,  the  whole  substance, 
blessings,  and  manner  of  obtaining  an  interest 
therein  by  faith,  are  the  very  same,  without 
any  difference,  Heb.  xi  6.  Gal.  iii.  7.  14. 
The  reader,  who  may  wish  to  have  a  more 
enlarged  view  of  this  subject,  may  peruse 
Witsius,  Strong,  or  BostoJi  o?i  the  Cove- 
nants, in  the  former  of  which  especially  he 
will  find  the  subject  masterly  handled. 

Covenant,  in  ecclesiastical  history,  de- 
notes a  contract  or  convention  agreed  to  by 
the  Scotch,  in  the  year  1638,  for  maintaining 
their  religion  free  from  innovation.  In  1581, 
the  general  assembly  of  Scotland  drew  up  a 
cojifession  of  faith,  or  national  covenant,  con- 
demning episcopal  government,  under  t)ie 
name  of  hierarchy,  whicii  was  signed  by 
James  I,  and  which  he  enjoined  on  all  his 
subjects.  It  was  again  subscribed  in  1590 
and  1596.  The  subscription  was  renewed  in 
1638,  aiid  the  subscribers  engaged  by  oath  to 


cov 


103 


cou 


maintain  religion  in  the  same  state  as  it  was 
in  1580,  and  to  reject  all  innovations  intro- 
duced since  that  time.  Tliis  oath,  annexed 
to  tlie  confession  of  faith,  i-eceived  the  name 
of  CovcnaJit,  as  those  who  subscribed  it 
were  called  Covenanteis. 

Solemn  league  and  covenant,  was  esta- 
blished in  the  year  1643,  and  formed  a  bond 
of  union  between  Scotland  and  England.  It 
was  sworn  to  and  subscribed  by  many  in 
both  nations  ;  who  hereby  solemnly  abjured 
popery  and  prelacy,  and  combined  together 
for  their  mutual  defence.  It  was  approved 
bv  tlie  parliament  and  assembly  at  West- 
minster, and  ratified  by  the  general  assem- 
bly of  Scotland  in  1645.  King  Charles  1. 
disapproved  of  it  when  he  surrendered  him- 
self to  the  Scots  army  in  1646  ;  but,  in  1650, 
Charles  II.  declared  his  approbation  both  of 
this  and  the  national  covenant  by  a  solemn 
oath;  and,  in  August  of  the  same  year, 
made  a  farther  declaration  at  Dunferline 
to  the  same  purpose,  which  was  also  re- 
newed on  occasion  of  his  coronation  at  Scone, 
in  1651.  The  covenant  was  ratified  by  par- 
liament in  this  year ;  and  the  subscriptioJi  of 
it  was  required  by  evtvy  member,  with- 
out which,  the  constitution  of  the  parlia- 
ment vas  declared  null  and  void.  It  pro- 
duced a  series  of  distractions  in  the  subse- 
quent history  of  that  country,  and  was  voted 
ille,e;al  by  parliament,  and  provision  made 
against  it.  Stat.  14.  Car.  2.  c.  4. 

COVETOUSNESS,  an  unreasonable  de- 
sire after  that  we  have  not,  with  a  dissatis- 
faction with  what  we  have.  It  may  farther 
be  considered  as  consisting  in,  1.  An  anxious 
carking  care  about  the  things  of  this  world, 
— A  rapacity  in  getting  — 3.  Too  frequently 
includes  sinister  and  illegal  ways  of  obtaining 
wealth. — 4.  A  tenaciousness  in  keejiing.  It  is 
a  vice  which  marvellously  prevails  upon  and 
insinuates  into  the  heart  of  man,  and  for 
these  reasons :  it  often  bears  a  near  resem- 
blance to  virtue;  brings  with  it  many  plausible 
reasons;  and  raises  a  man  to  a  state  of  re- 
putation on  account  of  his  riches.  "  There 
cannot  be,"  as  one  observes,  "  a  more  un- 
reasonable sin  than  this.  It  is  unjust ;  only  to 
covet,  is  to  wish  to  be  unjust.  It  is  cruel :  the 
covetous  must  harden  themselves  against  a 
thousand  plaintive  voices.  It  is  ungrateful : 
sucii  forget  their  former  obligations  and  their 
present  supporters.  It  i?,  foolish  :  it  destroys 
reputation,  breaks  the  rest,  unfits  for  the 
performance  of  duty,  and  is  a  contempt  of 
God  himself:  it  is  unprecedented  in  all  our 
examples  of  virtue  mentioned  in  the  scrip- 
ture. One,  indeed,  spoke  unadvisedly  with 
his  lips ;  another  cursed  and  swore  ;  a  third 
was  in  a  passion ;  and  afourth  committed  adul- 
tery ;  but  Avhich  of  the  saints  ever  lived  in 
a  habit  of  covetonsncss  I  Lastly,  it  is  idolatry. 
Col.  iii.  5.  the  idolatry  of  the  heart ;  where, 
as  in  a  temple,  the  miserable  v.retch excludes 
God,  sets  up  gold  instead  of  him,  and  places 
that  confidence  in  it  which  belongs  to  the 
Great  Supreme  alone."  Let  those  who  live 
in  the  habitual  practice  of  it  consider  the 


[judgments  that  have  been  inflicted  on  such 
characters.  Josh.  vii.  21.  Acts  v.  the  mi.sery 
with  which  it  is  attended  ;  the  curse  such 
persons  are  to  society;  the  denunciations  and 
cautions  respecting  it  in  the  holy  scripture ; 
and  how  effectually  it  bars  men  from  God, 
from  happiness,  and  froin  heaven.  Scott's 
Essays.  72,  73.  Soutli's  Serin,  vol.  iv.  "ser. 
1  ;  Robmson''s  Mor.  Exercises,  ex.  iv. 
Saurin's  Serm.  vol.  v.  ser.  12.  Eng.  Trans. 

COUNCIL,  an  assembly  of  persons  met 
together  for  the  purpose  of  consultation  ;  an 
assembly  of  deputies  or  commissioners  sent 
from  several  churches,  associated  by  cei- 
tain  bonds  in  a  general  body,  Acts  i.  vi. 
XV.  xxi. 

Council,  Oecianenical  or  General,  is  an 
assembly  which  represents  the  whole  body 
of  the  Christian  church.  TheRomanistsreck- 
on  eighteen  of  them,  Bullinger,  six,  Dr.  Pri- 
deaux  seven,  and  bishop  Beveridge  eight ; 
which  he  says  are  all  the  general  councils 
which  have  ever  been  held  since  the  time  of 
the  first  Christian  emperor.  They  are  as  fol- 
lows : — 1.  The  council  of  Nice,  held  in  the 
reign  of  Constantine  the  Great,  on  account  of 
the  heresy  of  Arius — 2.  The  council  of  Con- 
stantinople, called  under  the  reign  and  by 
the  command  of  Theodosius  the  Great,  for 
much  the  same  end  that  the  former  council 
was  summoned  — 3.  The  council  of  Ephesus, 
convened  by  Theodosius  the  younger,  at  the 
suit  of  Nestnrius. — 4.  The  council  at  Chal- 
cedon,  held  in  the  reign  of  Martianus,  which 
approved  of  the  Eutychian  heresy. — 5.  The 
second  council  of  Constantinople,  assembled 
by  the  emperor  Justinian,  condemned  the 
three  chapters  taken  out  of  the  book  of  The- 
odorus,  of  Mopsuestia,  having  first  decided 
that  it  was  lawful  to  anathematize  the  dead. 
Some  authors  tell  us  that  they  likewise  con- 
demned the  several  errors  of  Origen  about 
the  Trinity,  the  plurality  of  worlds,  and  pre- 
existence  of  souls.— -6.  The  third  council  of 
Constantinople,  held  by  the  command  of  Con- 
stantius  Pogonatus,  the  emperor,  in  which 
they  received  the  definitions  of  the  five  first 
general  councils,  and  particularly  that 
against  Origen  and  Theodorus,  of  Mopsuestia. 
— 7.  The  second  Nicene  council. — 8.  The 
fourth  council  of  Constantinople,  assembled 
when  Louis  II.  was  emperor  of  the  West. 
Their  regulations  are  contained  in  twenty- 
seven  canons,  the  heads  of  which  the  reader 
may  find  in  Dupin.  Whatever  may  be  said  in 
favour  of  general  councils,  their  utility  has 
been  doubted  by  some  of  the  wisest  men. 
Dr.  Jortin  says,  "  they  have  been  too  much 
extolled  by  Papists,  and  by  some  Protestants. 
They  were  a  collection  of  men  who  were 
frail  and  fallible.  Some  of  those  councils  were 
not  assemblies  of  pious  and  learned  divines, 
but  cabals,  the  majority  of  which  were  quar- 
relsome, fanatical,  domineering,  dishonest 
prelates,  who  wanted  to  compel  men  to  ap- 
prove all  their  opinions,  of  which  they  them- 
selves had  no  clear  conceptions,  and  to  an- 
athematize and  oppress  those  who  would  not 
implicitly  submit  to  their  determinations." 


c  ou 


104 


CRE 


Jordn's  Works,  vol.  \ii.  charge  2;  Brouf^h- 
ton's  Diet.  Mosheim's  Eccl.  Hist.  Index. 

Councils,  Provincial  or  Occasional, 
have  been  numerous.  At  Aix  la  Chape  lie. 
A.  D.  816,  a  council  was  held  for  regulating 
the  canons  of  cathedral  churches.  The  coun- 
cil of  Savonnieries,  in  859,  was  the  first 
which  gave  the  title  of  Most  Christian  King 
to  the  king  of  France ;  but  it  did  not  become 
the  peculiar  appellation  of  that  sovereieii 
titl  1469,  Of  Troyes,  in  88~,  to  decide  the 
disputes  about  the  imperial  dignity.  The 
second  council  of  Troyes,  1107,  restrains  the 
clergy  from  marrying.  I'he  council  of  Cler- 
mont, in  1095.  Tiie  tirst  crusade  was  deter- 
mined in  this  council.  The  bishops  iiad  yet 
the  precedency  of  cardinals.  In  this  assembly 
the  name  of  Pope  was  for  the  first  time  giv- 
en to  the  head  of  the  church,  exclusive'y  of 
the  bishops,  who  uscrd  to  assume  that  title. 
Here,  also,  Hugh,  archbishop  of  Lyons,  ob- 
tained of  the  pope  a  confirmation  of  the 
primacy  of  his  see  over  that  of  Sens.  The 
council  of  Rheims,  summoned  by  Eugenius 
ill.  in  1148,  called  an  assembly  of  Cisastrian 
Gaul,  in  which  advowses,  or  patron  of  church- 
es, are  prohibited  taUing  more  than  ancient 
fees,  upon  pain  v.i  deprivation  and  ecclesias- 
tical burial.  Bishops,  deacons,  subdeaccms, 
monks,  and  nuns,  are  restrained  from  mar- 
rying. In  this  council  the  doctrine  of  the  Tri- 
nity was  decided  ;  but  upon  separation  the 
pope  called  a  congrt^gcftion,  in  which  the 
cardinals  pretended  they  had  no  right  to 
judge  of  doctrinal  points  ;  that  this  was  the 
privilege  peculiar  to  the  pope.  The  council 
of  Sutrium,  in  1046,  whereinthree  popes  who 
had  assumed  the  chair  were  deposed.  The 
council  of  Clarendfju  in  England,  against 
Becket,  held  in  1164.  The  council  of  Lom- 
bez,  in  the  country  of  Albigeois,  in  1200,  cc- 
.  casioned  by  some  disturbances  on  account 
of  the  Albigenses:  a  crusade  was  formed  on 
this  account,  and  an  army  sent  to  extirpate 
them.  Innocent  III.  spirited  up  this  barba- 
rous war.  Dominic  was  the  apostle,  the  count 
of  Toulouse  the  victim,  and  Simon,  count  of 
Montfort,  the  conductor  or  chief.  The  coun- 
cil of  Paris  in  1210,  in  which  Aristotle's  me- 
taphysics were  condemned  to  itlie  flames, 
lest  the  refinements  of  that  philosopher  should 
have  a  bad  tendency  on  men's  minds,  by  ap- 
plying those  subjects  to  religion.  The  coun- 
cil of  Pisa,  begun  March  the  2d,  1409,  in 
which  Benedict  XIII.  and  Gregory  XII. 
were  deposed.  Another  council,  sometimes 
called  general,  held  at  Pisa  in  1505.  Lewis 
XII.  of  France,  assembled  a  national  council 
at  Toui'S  (being  highly  disgusted  with  the 
pope,)  1510,  where  was  present  the  cardinal 
De  Gurce,  deputed  by  the  emperor;  and  it 
was  then  agreed  to  convene  a  general  council 
at  Pica,  Murray's  History  of  Religion, 

Council  (f  Trent.  See  Trent. 

COURAGE  is  that  quality  of  the  mind 
that  enables  men  to  encounter  difficulties  and 
dangers.  JKattiral  coui'age  is  that  which  ari- 
ses chiefly  from  constitution ;  moral  or  s/iirit- 
7{qI  is  that  which  is  produced  from  principle, 


or  a  sense  of  duty.  Courage  and  fortitude  are 
often  used  as  synonymous,  but  thej'  m:iy  be 
distinguished  thus :  fortitude  is  firmness  of 
mind  that  supports  pain  :  courage  is  active 
fortitude,  that  meets  dangers,  and  attempts 
to  repel  them.  See  Fortitude.  Courage, 
says  Addison,  tliat  grows  fiom  constitution, 
very  often  forsakes  a  man  when  he  has  occa- 
sion for  it ;  and  when  it  is  only  a  kind  of  in- 
stinct in  the  soul,  it  Ipiaks  out  on  all  occa- 
sions, Avithout  judgnifent  or  discretion ;  but 
that  courage  which  arises  from  a  sense  of  du- 
ty, and  from  a  fear  of  offending  Him  that 
made  us,  always  acts  in  an  uniform  manner, 
and  according  to  the  dictates  of  right  reason. 

CREATION,  in  its  primary  import,  sig- 
nifies thf-  bringing  into  being  something 
which  did  not  before  exist.  The  term  is  there- 
fore most  generally  applied  to  the  original 
prf  ducdon  of  the  materials  whereof  the  vi- 
sible world  is  composed  It  is  also  used  in  a 
secondary  or  subordinate  sense  to  denote 
those  subsequent  operations  C)f  the  Deity  upon 
the  matter  so  produced,  by  which  the  whole 
system  of  Nature,  and  all  the  primitive  ge- 
nera of  things,  receive  their  form,  qualities, 
and  laws. 

There  is  no  subject  concerning  Avhich 
learned  men  have  differed  in  their  conjec- 
tup-S  more  than  in  this  of  creation.  "  It  is 
certain,"  as  a  good  writer  observes,  "  that 
none  of  the  ancient  pli'osophers  had  the 
smallest  idea  of  its  being  possible  to  produce 
a  substance  out  of  nothing,  or  that  even  the 
power  of  the  Deity  himself  could  work  with- 
out any  materials  to  work  upon.  Hence 
some  of  them,  among  whom  was  Aristotle, 
asserted  that  the  world  was  eteroal,  both  as 
to  its  matter  and  form.  Others,  though  they 
believed  that  the  gods  had  given  the  world 
its  form,  yet  imagined  the  materials  whereof 
it  is  composed  to  have  been  eteiTia!.  Indeed, 
the  .^pinions  of  the  ancients,  who  had  not  the 
benefit  of  revelation,  wei'e  on  this  head  so 
confused  and  contradictoiy,  that  nothing  of 
any  consequence  can  be  deduced  from  them. 
The  free-thinkers  of  our  own  and  of  former 
ages  have  denied  the  possibility  of  creation, 
as  being  a  contradiction  to  reason ;  and  of 
consequence  have  taken  the  opportunity  from 
thence  to  discredit  revelation.  On  the  other 
hand,  many  defenders  of  the  sacred  writ- 
ings have  asserted  that  creation  out  of  no- 
thing, so  far  from  behig  a  contradiction  to  rea- 
son, is  not  only  probable,  but  demonstrably 
certain.  Nay,  some  have  gone  so  far  as  to 
say  that  from  the  verv'  inspection  of  the  visi- 
ble system  of  Nature,  we  are  able  to  infer  that 
it  was  once  in  a  state  of  non-existence."  We 
cannot,  however,  here  enter  into  the  multi- 
plicity of  the  arguments  on  both  sides  ;  it  is 
enough  for  us  to  know  what  God  has  bt-en 
pleased  to  reveal,  both  conceraing  himself 
and  the  works  of  his  hands  "  Men,  and 
other  animals  that  inhabit  the  earth  and  'he 
seas  ;  all  the  immense  varieties  of  herbs  and 
plants  of  which  the  vegetable  kingdom  con- 
sists;  the  globe  of  the  earth,  and  the  ex- 
panse of  the  oceans ;  these  wc  know  to  have 


CRE 


105 


CRE 


been  produced  by  his  power.  Besides  the 
terrostrial  world,  whicli  we  inhabit  we  see 
many  other  materiaJ  bodies  disp.  sed  around 
it  in  the  wide  extent  of  space  The  moon, 
which  IS  in  a  particular  manner  connected 
with  our  earth,  and  even  dependent  upon 
it;  the  sun,  an  1  thi-  other  planets,  with  their 
satellites,  wh  ch  like  the  earth  circulate 
round  the  sun,  and  appear  to  derive  from 
him  li^tit  and  heat ;  thoe  bodies  which  we 
call  fixed  stars,  and  consider  as  illuminating 
and  cherishing  with  heat  each  its  peculiar 
system  of  phinets;  and  tlie  comets  which  at 
certain  periods  surprise  us  with  th(  ir  ap- 
pearance, and  the  nature  of  whose  connec- 
tion with  the  general  system  of  Nature,  or 
with  any  particular  system  of  planets,  we 
cannot  pretend  to  have  fully  discuve'-ed; 
these  are  so  many  more  of  the  Deit'  's  works, 
from  the  contemplation  of  which  we  cannot 
but  conceive  the  most  awful  ideas  of  his 
creative  power. 

"  Matter,  however,  whatever  the  varie- 
ties of  form,  under  which  it  is  made  to  ap- 
pear, the  relative  di>pusition  of  its  parts,  or 
the  motions  communicated  to  it,  is  but  an  in- 
ferior pait  of  the  works  of  creation  Wo  be- 
lieve ourselves  to  be  animated  with  a  much 
higlier  principle  than  brute  matter:  in  view- 
ing the  manners  and  oeconomy  of  the  lower 
animals,  we  can  scarce  avoid  acknowledg- 
ing even  them  to  consist  of  something  more 
than  various  modifications  of  matter  and  mo- 
tion. Tlie  other  planetary  bodies,  which 
seem  to  be  in  circumstances  nearly  analogous 
to  those  of  our  earth,  are  surely,  as  well  as 
it,  destined  for  the  habitations  of  rational 
intelligent  beings  The  existence  of  intelli- 
gences of  an  higher  order  than  man.  th'ugh 
infinitely  below  the  Deity,  appears  extremely 
p  obible.  Of  these  spiritual  beings,  called 
xin-gelfi-  we  have  express  intimation  in  scrip- 
ture (see  the  article  Angel)  But  the  limits 
of  the  creation  we  must  not  pretend  to  de- 
fine. How  far  the  regions  of  space  extend, 
or  how  they  are  tilled,  we  know  not.  How 
the  planetary  worlds,  the  sun.  and  the  fixed 
stars  are  occupied,  we  do  not  pretend  to 
have  ascertained  We  are  even  ignorant 
how  wirle  a  diversity  of  forms,  what  an  in- 
finity of  living  animated  beings  may  inhabit 
our  own  globf*.  So  confined  is  our  know- 
ledge of  creation,  yet  so  grand,  so  awful, 
that  part  which  our  narrow  understandings 
can  comprehend  ! 

"  Cnrcerning  the  periods  of  time  at  which 
the  Deity  executed  his  several  works,  it 
cannot  be  pretended  that  mankind  have  had 
opportunities  of  receiving  very  jjarticular  in- 
formation. Many  have  been  the  conjec- 
tures, and  curious  the  fancies  nf  learned 
men,  respecting  it ;  but,  after  all,  we  must 
be  indebted  to  the  sacred  writings  for  the 
best  information."  DiTerent  copies,  indeed, 
give  different  dates  The  Hebrew  copy  nf 
the  Bible,  which  v/e  Christians,  for  good  rea- 
sons, consider  as  the  most  authentic,  elates 
the  creation  of  the  world  3944  y-ears  before 
the  Christian  era.    The   Samaritan    Bible, 

o 


again,  fixes  the  era  of  the  creation  430ii 
years  before  the  birth  of  Christ.  And  th? 
Greek  translation,  known  by  the  name  of 
the  Septuagint  version  of  the  Bible,  give» 
5270  as  the  number  of  the  years  wliich  in- 
tervened between  these  two  periods.  By 
comparing  the  various  dates  in  the  sacred 
writings,  examining  how  these  have  come  to 
(lisagree,  and  to  be  diversified  in  different 
Copies;  endeavouring  to  reconcile  the  most 
authentic  profane  with  sacred  chronology, 
some  ingenious,  men  have  formed  schemes  of 
chronology ;  plausible,  indeed,  but  not  sup» 
ported  by  sufficient  authorities,  which  they 
would  gladly  persuade  us  to  receive  in  pre* 
ference  to  any  of  those  ab(ive-mentioned. 
U.sher  m^kes  out  from  the  Hebrew  Bible 
4u04  years  as  the  t(  rm  between  the  crea- 
tion and  the  birth  of  Christ.  Jv-isephus,  ac- 
cording to  Dr.  Wills  and  Mr.  Whiston, 
makes  it  4658  years ;  and  M.  Pezron,  with 
the  help  of  the  Septuagint,  extends  it  to 
5872  years.  Uslier's  system  is  the  most 
generally  received.  But  though  these  diffe- 
rent systems  of  chronology  are  so  inconsis- 
tent, and-  so  slenderly  supported,  yet  the 
differences  among  them  are  so  inconsidera- 
ble, in  comparison  with  those  which  arise 
brfore  us  when  we  contemplate  the  chrono- 
logy of  the  Chi  nose,  the  Chaldeans,  and  the 
Egyptians,  and  they  agree  so  well  with  the 
general  information  of  authentic  history,  and 
with  the  appearances  of  nature  and  of  so-f 
ciety,  that  they  may  be  considered  as  nearly 
fixing  the  true  period  of  the  creation  of  the 
earth."  Uncertain,  however,  as  we  may  be 
as  to  the  exact  time  of  the  creation,  we  may 
in'ofitably  apply  ourselves  to  the  contempla- 
tion of  this  immense  fabric.  Indeed,  the 
beautiful  and  multiform  works  around  us 
mu.»t  strike  the  mind  of  every  beholder  with 
wonder  and  admiration,  unless  he  be  enve- 
loped in  ignorance,  and  chained  down  to 
the  earth  with  sensuality.  These  works 
every  way  proclaim  the  wisdom,  the  power, 
and  the  goodness  of  the  Creator.  Creation 
is  a  book  which  the  nicest  philosopher  may 
study  \vith  the  deepest  attention.  Unlike 
the  works  of  art,  tiie  more  it  is  examined, 
the  more  it  opens  to  us  sources  of  admira- 
tion of  its  great  Author;  the  more  it  calls 
for  our  inspection,  and  the  more  it  demands 
our  praise.  Hi-re  every  thing  is  adjusted 
in  the  exacte.st  order;  all  answering  the 
wisest  ends,  and  acting  according  to  the  ap- 
pointed laws  of  Deity.  Herf  the  Christian 
is  led  into  the  most  delightful  field  of  con- 
templation. To  him  every  pebble  becomes 
a  preacher,  and  every  atom  a  step  by  which 
he  ascends  to  his  Creator  Placed  in  this 
beautiful  temple,  and  lo(  king  around  on  all 
its  various  parts,  he  cannot  h(  Ip  joining 
with  t!ie  P^rdmist  in  saying,  "  O  Lord,  how 
manifold  are  thy  works;  in  wisdom  hast 
thou  made  them  all!"  See  Eternity  of 
God. 

See  Raif  and  Rlackmoi-e  on  the  Creation  ; 
^rt  Creation,  Ency  Pirii  ;  I)irham*9 
Aeiro    a?id    Phv^ico-Uieolocrv  ;    'Ihrvev'e 


CRE 


106 


CRI 


I 


Meditatione  ;  La  Pluche's  JVafure  Display- 
ed ;  StuTTn'a  Refleciions  on  the  Works  of 
God 

CREDULITY,  the  belief  of  any  proposi- 
tion wittiout  sufficitnt  evidenee  of  its  truth.    'I 
CREED,  a  firm  of  words  in  which   the  ij 
articles   oi   faith    are   comprehended,    bee  i 
Confession  || 

The  meat  ancient  form  of  creeds  is  that  jl 
which  gnes  undfrthe  name  of  the  Apostle's  |; 
Creert  (see  below  ;)  besides  this,  there  are  i| 
several  other  ancient  forms  and  scattered 
remains  of  creeds  to  be  met  with  in  the  pri- 
mitive records  of  the  church ;  as,  1.  Th^ 
form  of  aposLolical  doctrine  collected  by 
Origen. — 2  A  fragment  of  a  creed  preserv- 
ed by  Tertuliian.— 3  A  remnant  of  a  creed 
in  the  works  cf  Cyprian. — 4  A  cree#  com- 
posed by  Greg(>ry  Thanmaturgus  for  the 
use  of  his  own  church — 5  Tiie  creed  of 
Lucian,  the  martyr— 6  The  creed  of  the 
apostolical  constitutions.  Besides  these  scat- 
tered remains  of  the  ancient  creeds,  there 
are  extant  b  ime  perfect  forms,  as  those  of 
Jerusalem,  Cesarea,  Antioch,  &c. 

CREED,  APOSTLEb',  is  a  formula  or 
summary  of  the  Christian  faith,  drawn  up, 
according  to  Ruffinus,  Ijy  the  apostles  them- 
seivps;   who,  during  their  stay  at  Jerusa- 
len,,  soctn  after  our  Lord's  ascension,  agreed 
upon  this  creed  as  a   rule  of  faith     Baro- 
ni'js   and  others  conjecture  that  they    did 
not  compose  it  till  the  second  year  of  Clau- 
dius, a  little    before  their  dispersion ;    but 
there   are   many    reasons  which  induce  us 
to  question  whether   the    apostles   compo- 
sec'    any  such    creed.    Fi.r,   1    Neither  St 
Luke,  nr.r  any  other  writer  before  the  fifth 
century,  make  any   mention  of   an   asscm- 
b:y  of  the  apustlts  for  composing  a  creed. — 
S.The    fathers   of  the   three    first  centu- 
ines,  in  dispiiting  against  the  heretics,  en- 
deavour  to    prove  that  the  doctrine    con- 
tained  in  th  s  creed  was  the  same    which 
the   apostles  taught ;   but  they  never  pre- 
tend th<it  the  apostles  comprsed  it — 3.  If 
the  apr Et'es  had  made  this  creed,  it  would 
have  been  the  same  in  ali  churches  and  in 
all  ag"  s  ;   and  all  authors  would  have   cited 
it  after  tht  same  manntr.    But  the  case  is 
quHe   ot'^erwise    In  th""    second  and  third 
av!S  r«f  the  church   there   were   as  maiiy 
C'-eds  as  antliors;    and  the    same  author 
Sets  down  tlie  crerd  after  a  different  man- 
ner in  sevtra'   pl-ices  of  his  works  :    which 
is  an  t  vidence,  that  there  was  not,  at  that 
time,  any  creed   repu'ed  to  be  the  apostles. 
In  the  fourth  century,  RuflRnus  compares  to- 
gether the  three  ancient  creeds  of  thcchurch- 
cs  '  f  Aquiltia.  Rome,  and  the  Ea^^t,  which 
difF'-r     vfry     conside'ahly.     Besid*  s,    the-e 
ere  ris  dil^red  ni^'t  rply  in  the  terms  and 
expressions,  but  evtn  in  the  articles,  some  of 
whirl-,  wtrc  omitted  in  one  or  othfr  of  thpr^i ; 
such  as  thos'   of  the  dcfite.nt  into   hflh  the 
cormnun'on  of  the  saints^  a'.d  the  life  evcr- 
/a.sfi>i(c    ¥'•■■<•  a'!  which  it  may  be  g;it!iered, 
thrit  tnnui;h  thi^  cr^f-d  may  be  said  to  be  that 
of  the   apostles,  in  regard  to  the  doctrines 


contained  therein,  yet  it  cannot  be  referred 
to  them  as  the  authors  of  it.  Its  great  anti- 
quity, however,  may  be  inferred  from  hence, 
that  the  whole  form,  as  it  now  stands  in  the 
English  hturgy,  is  to  be  found  in  the  works 
of  bt  Ambrose  and  Ruffinus ;  the  former  of 
whom  flourished  in  the  third,  and  the  latter 
in  the  fourth  century.  The  primitive  Chris- 
tians did  not  publicly  recite  the  creed,  ex- 
cept at  baptisms,  which,  unless  in  cases  of 
necessity,  were  only  at  Easter  and  Whit-  . 
suntide.  The  constant  repeating  of  it  wag 
not  introduced  into  the  church  till  the  end 
of  the  fifth  century ;  about  which  time  Peter 
Gnaphius,  bishop  of  Anticch,  prescribtd  the 
recital  of  it  every  time  divine  service  was 
performed-  See  King's  History  of  the  Afios' 
ties'  Creed  ;  and  Barrow's  Kxfxosilion  of  it 
in  his  Works,  vol.  ii. 

CREED,  ATHANASIAN,  a  formulary 
or  confession  of  faith,  long  suj^posed  to  have 
been  drawn  up  by  Athanasius,  bishop  of 
Alexandria,  in  the  fourth  century,  t(  justify 
himself  against  the  calumnies  of  his  Arian 
enemies  ;  but  it  is  now  generally  allowed  not 
to  have  been  his.  Dr  Waterland  ascribes 
it  to  Hilary,  bishop  cf  Aries.  This  creed 
obtained  in  France  about  A.  D.  850,  and  was 
received  in  Spain  and  Germany  about  180 
years  later.  As  to  our  own  country,  we 
have  clear  proofs  of  its  being  sung  alter- 
nately in  our  churches  in  the  tenth  century. 
it  was  in  common  use  in  some  parts  of  Italy 
in  960,  and  was  received  at  Rome  abi.;ut 
1014.  As  to  the  Greek  and  Oriental, 
churches,  it  has  been  questioned  whether 
they  have  ever  received  it,  though  some 
writers  are  of  a  contrary  persuasion.  The 
tpi.^copal  chmxhes  cf  America  have  n ject- 
ed  it.  As  to  the  matter  of  it,  it  is  given  as 
a  summary  of  the  true  orthodox  faith.  Un- 
happily, ho^Vever,  it  has  proved  a  fioiitful 
source  of  unprofitable  controversy.  See  Dr, 
Waterland's  Critical  History  of  it. 

CREED.  NICENE.  a  formulary  of  Chris- 
tian faith  ;  so  called,  because  it  is  a  para- 
piirast  of  that  creed  which  was  made  s^t  the 
first  general  council  of  Nice.  This  latter 
was  drawn  up  by  the  second  general  council 
of  Constantinople,  A.  D.  381:  and  therefore 
might  he  more  properly  styled  the  Constan- 
tinf'politan  creed.  The  creed  was  carried  by 
a  majority,  and  admit  ed  into  the  church  as 
a  barrier  against  Arius  and  his  followers. 

The  three  creeds  above-mentioned  are 
used  in  the  public  offices  of  the  church  of 
England  ;  and  subscription  to  them  is  requi- 
red of  all  the  established  clergy.  Subscrip- 
tion to  these  was  also  required  of  the  dis- 
senting teachers  by  the  toleration  act ;  but 
frnm  which  they  are  now  relieved  by  19 
Geo  111 

CRIME,  a  voluntary  breach  of  any  known 
law.  Faults  result  from  human  we^ikness, 
being  transgressions  of  the  rules  of  duty. 
(  rimes  proceed  from  th;'  wickedness  of  the 
heart,  being  actions  against  the  rules  of  na- 
ture See  PuNisHMKNT  and  Sin. 
CRISPITES,  tlvose  who  adopt  the  senti- 


CRO 


107 


CRO 


Qients  of  Dr.  Crisp,  a  divine  of  the  seven- 
tt-entli  century.  He  was  fond,  it  is  said,  of 
«xpressions  which  alarm,  and  paradoxes 
•w  ich  abtoiiish;  and  perple-xed  himsfU" 
much  atK)Ut  the  divine  purposes  He  did 
not  distinguish  as  he  ought,  between  God's 
secret  will  in  his  decrees,  and  his  revealed 
■will  in  his  covenant  and  promises.  The 
root  (if  his  error  seems  to  be  this: — lie  view- 
ed the  union  betwetn  Christ  and  the  be- 
liever to  be  of  such  a  kind  as  actually  to 
make  a  Saviour  nt  the  smner,  and  a  sinner 
of  tlie  Saviour  He  speaks  as  if  God  consi- 
dv  red  t'e  sinner  as  doing  and  suffering  what 
Christ  did  and  suffered ;  and  Cin-i>t  as  hav- 
ing C'lm milted  their  sins,  and  as  being  ac- 
tually guilty  of  them.  See  book  under  arti- 
cles Antinomians  and  Neonomians. 
Crisp's  Sermons^  edited  by  Ur.  Gill,-  Bogue 
and  Bennet's  History  of  Dissenters,  vol.  i. 
p.  400 

CROISADE,  or  Crusade,  may  be  ap- 
plied to  any  war  undeitaken  on  pretence  of 
deff.nding  the  cause  of  r.  ligion,  but  has  been 
chiefly  used  for  the  expeditions  of  the  Chris- 
tians against  the  infidels  for  the  conquest  of 
Palestine. 

These  expeditiins  commenced  AjD.  1096. 
The  foundation  of  them  was  a  superstitious 
venerati'in  f  r  thn&e  places  where  our  Sa- 
viour performed  his  miracles,  and  accom- 
plished the  work  of  man's  redemption.  Jeru- 
salem had  been  taken  and  Palestine  con- 
quered by  Omar.  This  proved  a  considera- 
ble interruption  to  the  pilgrims,  who  flocked 
from  all  quarters  to  perform  their  devotions 
at  the  holy  sepulchre.  They  had,  however, 
still  been  allowed  this  liberty,  en  paying  a 
small  tribute  to  the  Saracen  caliphs,  who 
were  not  much  inclined  to  molest  them.  But, 
in  1064,  this  city  changed  its  masters.  The 
Turks  took  it  from  the  Saracens  ;  and  being 
much  more  fierce  and  barbarous,  the  pil- 
grims now  found  they  could  no  longer  per- 
form their  devotions  with  the  same  safety 
An  opinion  was  about  this  time  also  preva- 
lent in  Europe,  which  made  these  pilgri- 
mages much  more  frequent  tlian  formerly  : 
it  was  imagined,  that  the  1000  yeai-s  men 
tioned  in  Rev  xx.  were  fulfilled  ;  that  Christ 
■was  soon  to  make  his  appt  arance  in  Pales- 
tine to  ju^lge  the  world  ;  and  consequently 
that  journeys  to  that  country  were  in  the 
highest  degree  meritorious,  and  even  abso- 
lutely necessar)'.  The  multitudes  of  pilgrims 
who  now  flocked  to  Palesiinr-.  meeting  with 
a  very  rough  reception  from  the  Turks,  filled 
all  Europe  with  complaints  against  those  in- 
fidels, who  profaned  the  holy  city,  and  de 
rided  the  s'icred  mysteries  of  Christianity 
even  in  the  place  where  they  were  fulfilled. 
Pope  Gregory  VII  had  formed  a  design  c+ 
uniting  all  ti\e  princes  of  Christendom  against 
the  Mahometans;  but  his  exorbitant  en 
rroachments  upon  the  civil  power  of  princ-^ 
had  created  him  so  many  enemits,  and  ren 
dered  his  schemes  so  suspiGiou:^,  that  he  wa 
r -t  able  to  make  great  progress  in  his  under 
taking.  The  work  was  reserved  fpr  ameanti 


instrument.  Peter,  commonly  called  the 
Hermit,  a  native  of  Amiens  in  Picardy,  had 
made  the  pilgrimage  to  Jerusalem  ;  and  be- 
ing deeply  affected  with  the  dangers  to 
which  that  act  of  piety  now  exposed  the 
pilgrims,  as  well  as  with  the  oppre&si«'n  un- 
der which  the  eastern  Christians  now  la- 
boured, formed  the  bold,  and,  in  all  appear- 
ance, impracticable  design  of  leading  into 
Asia,  from  the  farthest  extiemities  of  the 
West,  armies  sufficient  to  subdue  those  po- 
tent and  warlike  nations  that  no^v  held  the 
holy  land  in  slavery.  He  proposed  his  scheme 
to  pope  Martin  II.  who,  prudently  resoiving 
nut  to  interpose  his  authority  till  he  saw  a 
probability  of  success,  summined  at  Pla- 
Gentia  a  council  of  4000  ecclesiastics  and 
30  090  seculars.  As  no  hall  could  be  found 
large  enough  to  contain  such  a  multitude, 
the  assembly  was  held  in  a  plain.  Here  the 
pope  himself,  as  well  as  Peter,  harangued 
the  people,  representing  the  dismal  situation 
of  tlieir  brethren  in  the  East,  and  the  indig- 
nity offered  to  the  Christian  name  in  alL  wing 
the  holy  city  to  remain  in  the  hands  of  the 
infidels.  These  speeches  were  so  agr(ifeable 
to  those  who  heard  them,  that  the  whole 
multitude  suddenly  and  violently  declared 
for  the  war,  and  solemnly  devoted  them- 
selves to  perform  this  service,  which  they 
believed  to  be  meritorious  in  the  sight  of 
God  But  though  Italy  seemed  to  have  em- 
braced the  design  with  ardour,  Martin 
thought  it  necessary,  in  order  to  obtain  per- 
fect success,  to  engage  the  greater  and  more 
warlike  nations  in  the  same  enterprise. 
Having,  therefore^  exhorted  Peter  to  visit 
the  chief  cities  and  sovereigns  of  Christen- 
dom, he  summoned  another  council  at  Cler- 
mont in  Auvergne.  The  fame  of  this  great 
and  pious  design  being  now  universally  dif- 
fused, procured  the  attendance  of  the  great- 
est prelates,  nobles,  and  priixes ;  and  when 
the  pope  and  the  hermit  renewed  their  pa- 
thetic exhortations,  the  whole  assembly,  as 
if  impelled  by  immediate  inspiration,  ex- 
claimed with  one  voice,  "  It  is  the  will  of 
God ! "  These  words  were  deemed  so  muck 
the  effect  of  a  divine  impulse,  that  they 
were  employed  as  the  signal  of  rendezvous 
and  battle  in  all  future  exploits  of  these  ad- 
venturers. Men  of  all  ranks  now  flew  to 
arms  with  the  utmost  ardour,  and  a  cross 
was  affixed  to  their  right  shoulder  by  all 
who  enlisted  in  those  holy  enterprise.  At  this 
time  Europe  was  sunk  in  the  most  profound 
ignorance  and  superstition.  The  ecclesiastics 
liad  gained  the  greatest  ascei  d  mt  ever  the 
human  mind;  and  tlie  people,  who  commit- 
ted the  most  horrid  crimes  and  disorders, 
Unew^  of  no  i  ther  expiation  than  the  obser- 
vnnc.es  inq)osed  on  them  by  their  spiritual 
pa.stors.  But  amidst  the  abject  superstition 
which  now  prev  ailed,  the  military  spirit  had 
,ilso  universally  diffused  itself;  and,  though 
lot  supported  by  art  or  discipline,  was  be- 
cfime  the  general  passion  of  ^e  nations  go- 
■erned  by  the  feudal  law.  All  the  great 
lords  possessed  the  right  of  peace  and  war. 


CRO 


108 


CRO 


They  -were  engaged  in  continual  hostilities 
with  one  anotiitr:  the  open  country  was 
bee  me  a  scene  of  outi'age  and  disorder : 
the  cities,  still  mean  and  poor,  were  neither 
guarded  by  walls  nor  protected  by  privi- 
leges Eveiy  man  was  obliged  to  depend 
for  safety  on  his  own  force,  or  his  pri- 
vate alliances ;  and  valour  was  the  only 
excellence  which  was  held  in  esteem,  or 
gave  one  man  the  pre-emineiice  abi  ve  an- 
other. When  ail  the  particular  supei-stitions, 
therefore,  wei'e  here  united  in  one  great 
object,  the  ardiur  for  private  hostilities  took 
the  same  direction ;  "  and  all  Europe,"  as 
the  princess  Anna  Comnen.a  express  it, 
"  torn  from  its  foundations,  se  med  ready  to 
precipitate  itself  in  one  united  body  upon 
Asia." 

All  ranks  of  men  now  deeming  the  cmi- 
sades  the  only  road  to  heaven,  were  impa- 
tient to  open  the  way  with  their  swords  to 
the  holy  city.  NnbJes  artisans,  peasants, 
even  priests,  enrolled  their  names ;  and  to 
decline  this  service  was  branded  with  the 
reproach  of  impiety  or  cowa  dice.  The 
nobles  were  moved,  by  the  romantic  spirit 
of  the  age,  to  hope  for  opulent  establish- 
ments in  the  East,  the  chief  seat  fif  arts  and 
commerce  at  that  time  In  pursuit  of  these 
chimerical  pr  jects,  they  sold  at  low  prices 
their  ancient  castles  and  inheritances,  which 
had  no»v  lost  all  value  in  tiieir  ejes.  The 
infirm  and  aged  contributed  to  the  expedi- 
tion by  presents  and  money,  and  many  of 
them  attended  it  in  person;  being  determin- 
ed, if  possible,  to  breathe  their  last  in  sight 
of  that  city  where  their  Saviour  died  for 
them.  Even  women,  concealing  their  sex 
under  the  disguise  of  armour,  attended  the 
camp  ;  and  often  forgot  their  duty  stil!  n)(^re, 
by  prostituting  themselves  to  the  army.  The 
greatest  ciiminals  were  forward  in  a  service 
which  they  considered  as  an  expiation  for 
all  crimes ;  and  the  most  enormous  disorders 
were,  during  the  course  of  these  expeditions, 
committed  by  men  inured  to  wickedness 
encouraged  by  example,  and  impelled  by 
necessity.  The  adventurers  were  at  last  S'., 
numerous,  that  their  sagacious  leaders  be- 
came apprehersi\  e  lest  the  greatness  of  the 
armament  woul^l  be  tlie  cause  of  its  (  wn  dis- 
appointment. For  this  reason  they  permit- 
ted an  undisciplined  multitude,  computed  at 
300.000  men,  to  go  hefore  them  under  the 
command  of  Peter  the  hermit,  and  Gautier 
or  Walter,  suriiamed  the  moncij/e^s,  from 
his  being  a  soldier  of  fortune.  These  took 
the  road  towards  Constantinople  throni.h 
Hungary  and  Bulgaria  ;  and  trusting  that 
heaven,  by  supernattiral  assistance,  would 
supply  all  their  necessiti'  s,  ttiey  made  no 
pn.vision  for  subsistence  in  tVeir  march 
I'hey  soon  fouml  fh-m.'^elves  rhli.8;ed  to  ob 
tain  by  plunder  what  thev  vainly  expected 
from  miracles:  and  the  enraged  inhabitants 
of  the  countries  through  which  they  passed 
attacked  tlie  disorderly  multitude,  and  slaugh- 
tered them  without  resistance.  The  more 
disciplined  armies  followed  after;  and,  pass- 


ing the  straits  of  Constantinople,  were  mus* 
tered  in  the  plauisjt.t  Asia,  and  amounted  in 
the  whole  to  700.000  men.  1  he  princes  en- 
gaged intuishist,  C'  lisade  were.  Hugo, count 
'.f  Vermancicisc,  broi.'ur  to  Pi.ilip  I  King  of 
France;  Robert,  duke  of  Normandy,  Ro- 
bert, earl  of  Fliin'lers;  Raimond,  earl  of 
T  uiouse  and  Sit  Giles;  the  celebrateo  (ied- 
frey  ot  Bi.uil!  n,  duice  of  Lorrain,  witli  his 
brothers  B;>!dvvin  and  Eusii^.ce;  Stephen, 
earl  of  CU..rires  and  Bhise,  Hugo,  count  of 
St  Paul;  with  many  ;  thcr  ...rds.  The  gere- 
ral  rendezvous  vsas  at  Constantinople  iq 
this  expedition.  Godfrey  besiet,id  and  took 
the  city  of  Nice.  Jcrusaleni  was  taken  by 
the  confederated  army,  and  G.  dtrey  chosen 
king.  The  Christians  gained  the  iarnou* 
Imttle  of  Ascalon  i^gainst  tiie  sultan  ot  Egypt, 
which  put  an  end  to  tne  first  crusade,  but 
not  to  the  spirit  of  cru^avinig  The  rage 
continued  for  near  two  centuries.  The 
second  crusade,  in  1144.  was  her;Cled  by  the 
emperor  Conrad  111.  aad  Li  uis  Vll  king  of 
France  The  emper  r's  ir;'  v  was  either 
destroyed  by  the  enemy,  or  perished  through 
the  treachery  of  Manual,  tiie  Greek  em- 
roi  :  and,  the  second  army,  through  the  un- 
faithfulness of  the  Christians  ot  hwia,  was 
forced  to  break  up  the  siege  of  f)^mabrus. 
The  third  crusade,  in  IlfcS,  imnn  (iiately 
followed  the  taking  of  Jerusal'.ni  l.y  Safadin, 
the  sultan  of  Egypt.  The  princts  en-.j^,g- 
ed  in  this  expedition  were,  the  M,pln)r 
Frederic  Barbarossa;  Frederic,  dnke  of 
Suabia,  his  ser.ojid  son;  Le'fv  Id,  dui.t  of 
Austria;  Berthold,  duke  of  IVI'ravia;  I^ler- 
mari,  marquis  of  Baden  ;  the  counts  ot  Nas- 
sau,  Thuiingia,  Missen,  and  HfUand;  and 
above  sixty  other  princes  ot  the  emjire; 
with  the  bishops  of  Besan^*  n,  Canrbray, 
iMunster,  Osnaburg,  IVlissen,  Passau.  Vls- 
burg,  and  several  otic  rs.  Jn  thisex|.efiition 
the  empen  r  Frederic  .'efeattd  the  sn'U^n  of 
Ici'uium:  his  .sop  Frpd(  ric,  j  ii  e('  by  Guy 
Lusignon,  khig  --'f  J(-ius;:'cm,  m  vain  endea- 
voured t.itake  Acre  or  Pto'emais.  During 
these  transacti(  OS,  Phi.ip  Aui^u.stus,  -king  of 
France,  and  Richard  11  kini;  of  En)j;l\ir.d 
joined  the  croisade ;  by  which  m' ans  the 
Christian  army  consisted  <  f  300.000  figbtirg 
m"n  :  but  great  disputes  happening  bf  tw  en 
the  kings  of  France  and  Engl.iod,  the  f  r- 
nier  quitted  the  holy  htnd,  and  Richard  crn- 
cluded  a  j.ieace  with  Sah.din  'I  he  fiurth 
croisade  was  undertaken  in  1195,  by  the 
emperor  Henry  VI.  after  S.aladin's  diath. 
In  this  expedition  tl  e  Christians  gained 
several  battles  against  the  infidels,  took  a 
great  many  towns,  and  were  in  the  way  of 
success,  when  the  death  ff  the  emperor  ol> 
tiged  them  to  quit  the  bcly  land,  an<!  return 
i"t'  Germany.  Tbe  fifth  cr<  isado  was  pub- 
lished by  pope  Innocent  HI  in  1198.  Those 
engaged  in  it  made  fruit'css  efforts  for  the  « 
rec  very  of  the  holy  land  :  for,  though  J<  hn 
de  Neule,  who  ciimmanded  the  fleet  equip- 
ped in  Flanders,  arrived  at  Pt'  lemais  a 
little  after  Simon  of  Montfort,  Renard  of 
Dampierre,  and  others,  yet  the  plague  de- 


CRO 


109 


CRO 


stroying  many  of  them,  and  the  rest  either 
returning  or  engaging  in  the  petty  quarrels 
of  the  Cliristian  princes,  there  was  nothing 
done  ;  so  that  the  sultan  of  Aleppo  easily 
defeated  their  troops  in  1204.  The  sixth 
croisade  began  in  12  8;  in  which  the  Chris- 
tians took  the  town  of  Damietta,  but  were 
forced  to  surrender  it  again.  In  1:29,  the 
emperor  Frederic  made  peace  with  the 
sultan  for  ten  years.  About  1240,  Richard 
earl  of  Cornwall,  brother  to  Henry  HI.  king 
of  England,  arrived  at  Palestine,  at  the  he^d 
of  the  English  croisade  ;  but  iindiiig  it  most 
advantageous  to  conclude  a  peace,  he  re- 
embarked,  and  steered  towards  Italy.  In 
1244,  the  Karasmians  being  driven  out  of 
Turkey  by  the  Tartars,  broke  into  Palestine, 
and  gave  the  Christians  a  general  defeat 
near  Gazo.  The  seventh  croisade  was 
headed  in  1C49,  by  St  Lewis,  who  took  the 
town  of  Damietwi ;  but  a  sickness  happening 
in  the  Christian  army,  the  king  endeavoured 
a  retreat ;  in  which,  Uing  pursued  by  the 
infidels,  most  of  his  army  were  miserably 
butchered,  and  himself  and  the  nobility 
taken  prisoners.  A  truce  was  agreed  upon 
for  ten  years,  and  the  king  and  lords  set  at 
lib'  rty.  The  eighth  croisade,  in  li;79,  was 
headed  by  the  same  prince,  who  made  him- 
self master  of  the  port  and  castle  of  Car- 
thage in  Africa ;  but  dying  a  short  time 
after,  he  left  i>is  army  in  a  very  ill  con- 
dition. Soon  after,  the  king  of  Sicily  coming 
up  with  a  good  fleet,  and  joining  Philip  the 
Bold,  son  and  successor  of  Lewis,  king  of 
Tunis,  after  several  engagements  with  the 
Christians,  in  which  he  was  always  worsted, 
desired  peace,  which  was  granted  upon  Cin- 
diti<ms  advantageous  to  the  Christians;  after 
which  both  princes  embarked  to  their  own 
kingdoms.  Prince  Edward,  of  England,  who 
arrived  at  Tunis,  at  the  time  of  this  treaty, 
sailed  towards  Ptolemais,  where  he  landed 
a  small  body  of  300  English  and  French,  and 
hiiKlered  Bendochar  from  laying  siege  to 
Ptolemais:  but  being  obliged  to  return  to 
take  possession  of  the  crown  of  England,  this 
croisade  ended  without  contributing  any 
thing  to  the  recoveiy  of  the  holy  land.  In 
1291,  the  town  of  Acre  or  Ptolemais  was 
taken  and  plundered  by  the  sultan  of  Egypt, 
and  the  Christians  quite  driven  out  of  Svria 
There  has  been  no  croisade  smce  that  period, 
though  several  popes  have  attempted  to 
stir  up  the  rhristiar'S  to  such  an  undertaking, 
particularly  Nicholas  IV.  in  1292,  and  Cle- 
ment V.  \n  llll. 

Though  these  croisades  were  effects  of 
the  most  absurd  superstition,  they  tended 
greatly  to  promote  the  good  of  Europe 
Multitudes,  indeed,  were  destroj'ed.  M.  Vol- 
taire computes  the  people  who  jjerishtd  in 
the  different  expeditions  at  upwards  of  two 
millions.  Many  there  were,  however,  who 
returned  ;  and  these  having  conversed  so 
long  with  people  who  lived  in  a  much  more 
niagnificent  way  than  themselves,  began  t< 
«?ntert,aiu  some  taste  for  a  refined  and  oolish- 


ed  way  of  life.  Thus  the  barbarism  in  which 
Europe  had  been  so  long  immersed  began 
to  wear  off  soon  after.  The  princes  also  who 
remained  at  home,  found  means  to  avail  them- 
selves of  the  frenzy  of  the  people.     By  the 
absence    of    such   numbers  of   restless   and 
martial  adventurers,    peace  was  concluded 
in  their  dominions     They  also  took  the  op- 
portunity of  annexing  to  their  crowns  many 
coRsiderable  fiefs,  either  by  purchase,  or  the 
extinction  of  the  heirs;  and  thus  the  mis* 
chiefs  which  must  always  attend  feudal  go- 
vernments were  considerably  lessened.  With 
regard  to  the  bad  success  of  the  croisaders, 
it  was  scarcely  possible  that  any  other  thing 
could  happen  to  them.      The  emperors  of 
Constantinople,  instead  of  assisting,  did  all 
in  their  power  to  disconcert  their  schemes  : 
they  were  jealous,  and  not  without  reason, 
of  such  an  inundation  of  barbarians.      Yet, 
had  they  considered  their  true  interest,  they 
would  rather  have  assisted  them,  or  at  least 
stood  neuter,  than  enter  into  alliances  witli 
the  Turks.  They  followed  the  latter  metlod, 
however,  and  were  often  of  very  great  dis- 
service to  the  western  adventurers,  which 
at  last  occasioned  the  loss  of  their  city.     But 
the  worst  enemies  the  croisaders  had  were 
their  own    internal   feuds   and  dissentions. 
They  neither  could  agree  while  marching 
together  in  armies  with  a  view  to  conquest, 
nor  could'they  unite  their  conquests  under 
one  government  after  they  had  made  them. 
They  set  up  three  small  states,  one  at  Jeru- 
salem, another  at  Antioch,   and  another  at 
Edcssa.     These  states,  instead   of  assisting, 
niade  war    upon   each    other,    and  on  the 
Cireek  emperors ;  and  thus  became  an  easy 
prey  to  the  common  enemy.      The   horrid 
crueltits    they  committed    too,   must   have 
inspired  the    Tiii'ks  with    the    most   invin- 
cible    hatred    against    them,     and    made 
them    resist   with    the    greatest    obstinacy. 
They  were  such  as  could  have  been  com- 
mitted only  by  barbarians  inflamed  with  the 
no-st  bigotted  enthusiasm.    When  Jenisaltm 
was  taken,  not  only  the  numerous  garrison 
were  put  to  the  sword,  but  the  inhabitants 
were  massacred  without  mercy  and  without 
distinction.     No  age  or  sex  was  spared,  not 
even  sucking  children.     According  to  Vol- 
taire, some  Christians,  who  had  been  suffer- 
ed by  the  Turks  to  live  in  that  city,  led  the 
conquerors   into    the    most    private    caves, 
where    women   had   concealed  themselves 
with  their  children,  and  not  one  of  theim 
was  suffered  to  escape.     What  eminently 
shews  the  enthusiasm   by  which  these  con- 
querors were  animated,   is,  their  behaviour 
after  this  terrible  slaughter.  They  marched 
over  heaps  of  dead  bodies  towards  the  holy 
sepu'chre :  and  while  their  hands  were  pol- 
luted  with  the  blood  of   so  many  innocent 
persons,    sung   anthems  to  the  common  Sa- 
viour of  mankind  !  Nay,  so  far  did  tlieir  re- 
ligious enthusiasm  overcome  their  fury,  that 
these   ferocious   conquerors  now  burst  into 
tears.    If  the  absurdity  ajid  wickedne.<5s  ci" 


CRO 


110 


CRO 


their  conduct  can  be  exceeded  by  any  thing, 
it  must  be  by  what  follows.  In  lil04,  the 
frenzy  of  croisading  seized  the  children,  who 
are  ever  ready  to  imitate  what  they  see  their 
parent-,  engaged  in  Their  childish  folly  was 
encouraged  by  the  monks  and  schoolmasters; 
and  thousands  of  those  innocents  wti-e 
conducted  from  the  houses  of  their  pa- 
rents on  the  superstitious  interpretation  of 
these  words :  "  Out  of  the  mouths  of  babes 
and  sucklint,s  hast  thou  perfected  praise." 
Their  b  ise  conductors  sold  a  part  of  them 
to  the  Turks,  and  the  rest  perished  mise- 
rably Huinta  Hist,  oj  England,  vol  i.  p, 
L92,  &c.  and  vol.  ii,  p  280 ;  Enc  Brit.  ; 
and  M'lshnin's  Mcc  Hist. 

CROiSiERS,  a  religious  order,  founded 
in  honour  it  tUe  invention  or  discrvery  of  ihe 
cross  by  'he  empress  Helena.  I'hty  were. 
till  of  late,  dispersed  in  several  parts  of 
Eun^pe,  particuitirly  in  the  L<}W  Countries. 
France,  and  Bohemia :  those  of  Italy,  were 
suppressed  even  before  tne  late  revoluticiis. 
Tht  se  religious  follow  the  rule  of  St.  Au- 
gustiiK'.  They  had  in  England  the  name  of 
Crouched  Friars. 

CROSIER,  or  Crozier,  a  shepherd's 
criok  ;  a  symbol  of  past.)ral  authority,  con- 
sistii;;^  of  a  golcj  or  silvt-r  staff,  crooked  at 
the  t'p.  carriecl  occasiotrally  before  bishops 
and  abbots,  and  held, in  the  hand  when  they 
give  tlie  solemn  benedictions. 

CROSS,  in  scripture  language,  means  the 
sufferings  of  Christ,  Gal  vi.  14.  The  suf- 
feriiit^b,  trials,  or  persecutions  of  the  jieople 
are  a't,>*  called  a  cross.  Matt.  xvi.  24.  Cross 
s'gnifies  also  a  gib!)et,  made  with  two  pieces 
of  wocd,  placed  crosswisf%  whether  thev 
cross  with  rigot  ani^les  at  the  top  like  a  T, 
or  m  the  middle  of  their  length  like  an  X. 
The  cross  to  whicli  our  Savimr  was  fasten- 
ed, aid  m  which  he  died,  was  of  the  former 
kind  ;  being  thus  rei^resented  by  old  monu- 
nieucs,  coins  and  crosses.  The  death  of  the 
cross  was  the  most  dreadful  of  all  others, 
boi'i  far  tlie  s'lame  and  pain  of  it  ;  and  so 
scandalous,  th.tt  it  was  inflicted  as  the  last 
mark  of  detestation  upon  the  vilest  of  people. 
It  vvas  the  punishment  of  robbers  and  nuir- 
derer.s,  provided  that  they  were  slaves,  too; 
but  otherwise,  if  tlicy  were  free,  and  had 
the  privilege  of  the  city  of  Rome,  this  was 
then  thought  a  prostitution  of  that  honour, 
and  too  i'lfam  us  a  punishment  for  such  a 
one,  let  liis  crimes  be.  what  they  would 
Tlie  form  of  a  cross  being  such  as  has  bfen 
ilreHfly  described,  the  body  of  the  criminal 
was  fastened  to  the  upright  piece  by  nailing 
the  feet  to  it.  and  on  the  other  transverse- 
piece  tjenerallv  hv  nailing  the  hands  on  each 
side.  Now,  because  these  parts  of  the  bo<tv, 
being  the  instruments  of  action  and  motion, 
are  provided  by  nature  with  a  much  greater 
quantity  of  nerves  than  others  have  occasion 
for;  and  because  all  sensation  is  performed 
bv  tlie  spirit  contained  in  the  nerves;  it  will 
follow,  as  Stanhi  pe  observes,  that  wherever 
they  abound,  the  st-nse  of  pahi  must  needs  in 
proportion  be  more  quick  aiid  tender.     The 


Je^vs  confess,  indeed,  that  they  crucified 
peijple  in  their  nation,  but  deny  that  they 
inflicted  this  punishment  upon  any  one  ahve. 
They  first  put  them  to  death,  and  then 
fastened  them  to  the  ci-oss,  either  by  the 
hands  or  neck.  But  there  are  indisputable 
proofs  of  their  cnacifying  men  frequently 
alive.  The  worshippers  of  Baal-pt.  r  and 
the  king  of  Ai  were  hung  up  alive :  as  were 
also  the  descendants  of  Saul,  who  were  put 
into  the  handsof  the  Gibeonites,  2  bam.  xxi  9l 
^Before  crucifixion,  the  criminal  was  gene- 
rally scourged  with  cords  ;  sometimes  little 
bones,  or  pieces  of  bones,  were  tied  to  these 
scourges,  so  that  the  condemned  person 
might  suffer  more  severely.  It  was  also  a 
custom,  that  he  who  was  to  be  crucified 
should  bear  his  own  cross  to  the  place  of 
execution.  After  this  manner,  we  find 
Christ  was  compelled  to  bear  his  cross  : 
and  as  he  sunk  under  the  burden,  Simon  the 
^^yrenian  was  constrained  to  bear  it  after 
him  and  with  him.  But  whereas  it  is  gene- 
rally supposed  that  our  Lord  bore  the  whole 
•ross,  i  e.  the  long  and  transverse  part  both, 
this  seems  to  be  a  thing  impossible  ;  and 
tiierefore  Lipsius  (in  his  treatise  De  Sufi- 
filicio  Crucis,)  has  set  the  matter  in  a  true 
light,  when  he  tells  us  that  Jesus  only  carri- 
■  d  the  transver.se  beam  ;  because  the  long 
•>eam,  or  the  body  tf  the  cross,  was  either 
lixed  in  the  ground  before,  or  made  ready  to 
be  set  up  as  soon  as  the  prisoner  came:  and 
from  hence  he  observes,  that  painters  are 
very  much  mistaken  in  the  description  of 
our  Saviour  carrying  the  whole  cross.  There 
was  several  ways  of  cmcifyiog ;  sometimes 
the  criminal  was  fastened'  with  cords  to  a 
tree,  sometimes  he  was  crucified  with  his 
head  downwards.  This  way,  it  is  said,  Peter 
chose,  out  of  respect  to  his  master,  Jesus 
Christ,  not  thinking  himself  worthy  to  be 
crucified  like  him;  though  the  common  way 
of  crucifying  was  by  fastening  the  criminal 
with  nails,  one  through  each  hand,  and  one 
through  both  feet,  or  one  through  each  of 
them  :  for  this  was  not  always  performeci  in 
the  same  manner;  the  ancients  sometimes 
represent  Jesus  Christ  crucified  with  f  mr 
nails,  and  sometimes  with  three.  The  cri- 
minal was  fixed  to  the  cross  quite  naked  ; 
and,  in  all  probability,  the  Saviour  of  sinners 
was  not  used  with  any  greater  tenderness 
thin  othersupon  whom  this  p^mishnient  was 
infl'Cted.  The  text  of  the  Gospel  shews 
clearly  that  Jesus  Christ  was  fastened  to  the 
cross  with  nails  ;  and  the  Psalmist  (Ps.  xxii. 
16)  had  foretold  long  before,  that  they 
shou  d  pierce  his  hands  and  his  feet:  but 
there  are  great  disputes  concerning  the 
number  of  these  nails  The  Greeks  repre- 
.sent  our  Saviour  as  fastened  to  the  cross 
with  four  nails;  in  which  ]iarticular  Gregory 
of  Tours  agrees  with  them,  one  on  each 
l>and  and  foot.  But  several  are  of  ci)inion 
that  our  Saviour's  hands  and  feet  were 
pierced  with  three  nails  only,  viz.  one  on 
each  hand,  and  one  through  both  h's  feet : 
I  and  the  custom  of  the  Latins  is  rather  for 


CRO 


111 


CUR 


this  last  opinion ;  for  the  generality  of  tlie 
old  crucihxcij  made  in  the  Latin  church  have 
only  tiiree  nails.  Nonnus  thinks  tliat  our  Sa- 
viour's urms  were  besides  bound  fast  to  the 
cr..bs  witii  ciiains;  and  St  Hilary  speaks  ot 
thi'  c>rds  whtrewith  ne  was  tied  to  it.  Some- 
times liiey  wiio  were  fastened  upon  the  cross 
lived  a  good  while  in  that  condition.  St  An- 
drew is  believed  to  have  continued  three  days 
alive  upon  it.  fiusebius  speaks  of  certain 
martyr:>  in  Egypt  who  were  kept  upon  the 
cross  till  they  were  starved  to  death  Pilate 
was  amazed  at  J^sus  Christ's  dying  so  soon, 
because  naturally  he  must  have  lived  longer, 
if  it  had  not  been  in  his  power  to  have  laid 
down  his  life,  and  to  take  it  up  again.  The 
thighs  of  the  two  thieves,  who  were  cr>:cified 
with  our  Saviour,  were  broken,  in  order  ti. 
hasten  their  death,  that  their  be  dies  might 
not  reuiain  upon  the  cross  on  the  sabbath  dLiy, 
John  xix  31  33,  and  to  comply  with  the 
law  of  Moses,  which  lorbids  the  bodies  to  be 
left  there  after  sun-set.  But  among  other  na- 
tions, they  were  suffered  to  remaui  upon  the 
cross  a  long  time  Sometimes  they  were  de- 
voured alive  by  birds  and  beasts  of  prey 
Guards  were  appointed  to  observe  that  none 
of  their  friends  or  relations  should  take  theni 
down  and  bury  them.  The  Roman  soldiers, 
who  had  crucified  Jesus  Christ  and  the  two 
thieves,  continued  near  the  crosses  till  the 
twdies  were  taken  down  and  buried. 

Invention  of  the  Cross,  an  ancient  feast 
solemnized  on  the  3d  ot  May,  in  memory  of  I 
St.  Helena's  (the  mother  of  Coiistantine)  find- 
ing the  true  cross  of  Christ  deep  in  the 
ground  on  Mount  Calvary,  where  she  erect-  I 
ed  a  church  for  the  presei-vation  of  part  of 
it ;  the  rest  bemg  brought  to  Rome,  and  de- 
posited in  the  church  of  the  Holy  Cross  of 
Jerusalem 

Exaltation  of  the  Cross,  an  ancient  feast 
held  on  the  14ih  of  September,  in  memory  of 
this,  that  Heraclitus  restored  to  Mount  Cal- 
vary tlie  true  cross,  in  642,  which  had  been 
carried  off  fourteen  years  before  by  Cosmcs, 
king  of  Persia,  upon  his  taking  Jerusalem 
from  the  emperor  Phocas. 

The  Adoration  of  the  (  ross  seems  to  have 
been  practised  in  the  ancient  church,  in  as 
much  as  the  heathens,  particularly  Julian, 
reproached  the  primitive  Christians  with 
it  :  and  we  do  not  find  that  their  apologists 
disclaimed  the  charge.  Momay,  indeed,  as- 
serted that  this  had  been  done  by  St.  Cyril, 
but  cou'd  net  support  his  allegation  at  the 
conference  of  F  untain-bleau.  St.  Helena  is 
said  to  have  reduced  the  adoration  of  the 
Cross  to  its  just  principle,  since  she  adored 
Christ  in  the  wood,  not  the  wood  itself  With 
such  modifications  some  Protestants  have 
been  induced  to  admit  the  adoration  of  the 
cross.  John  Huss  allowed  of  the  phrase,  pro- 
vided it  was  expressly  added,  that  the  ado- 
ration was  relative  to  the  person  of  Christ. 
But,  however  Roman  catholics  may  seem  to 
triumph  by  virtue  of  such  distinction  and 
mitigations,  it  is  well  known  they  have  no 


great  place  in  their  own  practice.  Imbert, 
the  prior  of  Gascony,  was  severe. y  prosecu- 
ted in  1683  tor  telling  the  people,  that,  in  the 
ceremony  of  adoring  the  cnjss,  practiseo  in 
that  chui'ch  on  Good  Friday,  they  were  not 
to  adore  the  woid,  but  Christ,  who  was  Ci  u- 
cified  on  it.  The  curate  of  the  jjarisli  L<id 
them  the  contrary.  It  was  the  wood  ;  the 
wood  they  were  to  adore  !  Imbert  replied,  it 
was  Christ,  not  the  woi  d  :  for  which  he  was 
cited  before  the  archbishop  of  Bordeaux, 
suspender'  from  his  lunctions,  and  even 
threatened  with  chains  and  perpetual  pri- 
sonment  It  little  availed  him  to  cite  the  bi- 
shop of  Meaux's  distinction:  it  was  answered, 
that  the  church  allowed  it  not 

CROSS-BEARER,  in  the  Romish  church, 
the  chaplain  of  an  archbishop,  who  bears  a 
cross  before  him  on  solemn  occasions.  Cross- 
bearers  also  denote  certain  officers i;.  the  In- 
quisition, who  make  a  vow  before  the  it  qui- 
sitors,  or  their  vicars,  to  defend  thecaUnlic 
faith,  though  with  the  loss  of  fortune  and 
life  I'heir  business  is  also  to  provide  the  in- 
quisitors with  necessaries. 

CRUCIFIX,  a  cross,  upon  which  the  body 
f  Christ  is  fastened  in  effigy,  used  by  the 
Roman  catholics,  to  excite  in  thtir  mine's  a 
strong  idea  of  our  Savi-iurs  passion. 

CRUCIFIXION     OF     CHRIST.     See 

CRUSADE,  See  Croisade. 
CURATE,  the  lowest  degree  in  the  churh 
I  of  England  ;  he  who  represents  the  incum- 
1  bent  of  a  church,  parson,  or  vicar,  amlf  ffi- 
iciates  in  his  stead  :  he  is  to  be  licensfflf  ar,d 
admitted  by  the  bishop  of  the  diocrsefoi-  by 
an  ordinary  having  episcopal  jurisdiction  ; 
and  when  a  curate  hath  the  appn  bration  of 
the  bishop,  he  usually  apptints  the  salary 
too;  and  in  such  case,  if  he  be  net  paid,  lie 
curate  hath  a  proper  remedy  in  the  ecclesi- 
astical couit,  by  a  sequestration  of  the  pr'  fits 
of  the  benefice;  but  if  the  curate  be  not  licei.s- 
ed  by  the  bishop,  he  is  put  to  liis  remedy  at 
common  law,  where  he  must  prove  the 
agreement,  &c.  A  curate,  having  no  fixed  es- 
tate in  his  curt.cy,  not  being  instituted  ard  in- 
ducted, may  be  removed  at  p'easiire  by  the 
bishop,  or  incumbent.  But  there  art  perpetu- 
al curates  as  well  as  temporary,  who  are  ap- 
pointed where  tithes  are  imjin  priate,  and 
no  vicarage  endowed  :  these  are  not  remove- 
able,  and  the  improprietrrs  are  obliged  to 
find  them  :  some  whereof  have  certain  por- 
tions of  the  tithes  settled  on  them.  Curates 
must  subscribe  the  declaration  acojrding  to 
the  act  of  uniformity,  or  are  liable  to  impri- 
sonment Though  the  condition  of  curates  be 
somewhat  meliorated  by  a  late  act,  it  must 
be  confessed  that  they  are  still,  in  many  re- 
spects exposed  to  hardships  :  their  salaries 
are  not  equal  to  many  dissenting  ministers, 
who  have  nothing  to  depi  nd  en  but  the  libe- 
rality of  their  people.  Can  there  be  a  grei'ter 
reproach  to  the  dignified  ecclesiastics  of  this 
country,  than  the  comp?ratively  niiserab'e 
pittance  allowed  the  curates,  who  do  all  the 


CUR 


112 


CYN 


labour  ?  Surely  they  must  be  a  set  of  useless 
beings,  to  reap  so  little  wages  ;  or  else  they 
are  unjustly  treated  ! ! ! 

CURIOSITY,  a  propensity  or  disposition 
of  the  soul  which  inclines  it  to  inquire  after 
new  objects,  and  to  delight  in  viewing  them. 
Cu  iosity  is  prDper,  when  it  springs  from  a 
desire  to  know  our  duty,  to  mature  our 
judgments,  to  enlarge  our  minds,  and  to  re- 
gulate our  conduct ;  but  improper  when  it 
■wishes  to  know  more  of  God,  of  the  decrees; 
the  origin  of  evil ;  the  state  of  men,  or  the 
nature  of  things  than  it  is  designed  for  us  to 
know.  The  evil  of  this  is  evident.  It  re- 
proaches God's  Goodness ;  it  is  a  violation  of 
Scripture,  Deut.  xxii.  29  .  it  robs  us  of  our 
time  it  often  makes  us  unhappy  ;  lessens 
our  usefulness  and  produces  mischief  To 
cure  this  disposition  let  us  consider  the  divine 
command,  Phil.  iv.  6,  that  every  thing  essen- 
tial is  revealed  ;  that  God  cannot  err  ;  that 
■we  shall  be  satisfied  in  a  future  state,  Is.  xiii. 
7.  Curiosity  concerning  the  affairs  of  others 
is  exceedingly  reprehensible.  "It  interrupts," 
says  an  elegant  writer,  "  the  order,  and 
breaks  the  peace  of  society.  Persons  of  this 
disposition  are  d.angerous  troublers  of  the 
world  Crossing  the  lines  in  which  others 
nnove,  they  create  confusion,  and  awaken  re- 
sentment. Hence,  many  a  friendship  has 
been  broken  ;  the  peace  of  many  a  family 
has  been  overthrown  :  and  much  bitter  and 
lasting  discord  has  been  propagated  through 
society.  Such  a  disposition  is  entirely  the 
reverse  of  that  amiable  spirit  of  charity  our 
LorMbculcates.  Charity,  like  tlie  sun,  brigh- 
tens Wpery  object  on  which  it  shines :  a  cen- 
sorious disposition  casts  every  character  into 
the  darkest  shade  it  will  bear.  It  is  to  be 
further  observed,  that  all  impertinent  curio- 
sity, about  the  affairs  of  others  tends  greatly 
to  obstruct  personal  reformation.  They  who 
are  so  officiously  occupied  about  their  neigh- 
bours, have  little  leisure,  and  less  inclination, 
to  observe  their  own  defects,  or  to  mind  their 
own  duty.  Fron»  their  inquisitive  researciies, 
they  find,  or  imagine  they  find,  in  the  behav- 
iour of  others,  an  apology  for  their  own 
failings;  and  the  favourite  result  of  their 
inquiries  generally  is,  to  rest  satisfied  with 
themselves.  We  should  consider,  also,  that 
every  excursion  of  vain  curiosity  about  others 
is  a  subtraction  from  that  time  and  thought 
which  are  due  to  ourselves,  and  to  (iod.  In 
the  great  circle  of  human  affairs,  there  is 
room  for  every  one  to  be  busy,  and  well  em- 
ployed in  his  own  province,  without  encroach- 
ing upon  that  of  others.  It  is  the  province 
of  superiors  to  direct :  of  inferiors  to  obey ; 
of  the  learned  to  be  instructive  ;  of  the  igno- 
rant to  be  d<  cile  ;  of  the  old  to  be  commu- 
nicative ;  of  the  young  to  be  advisable  and 
diligent.  In  a'l  the  various  relations  which 
subsist  among  us  in  life,  as  husband  and  wife, 
master  and  s'rvants,  parents  and  children, 
relations  and  friends,  rulers  and  subjects,, 
innunierable duties  stand  ready  tnbe  perform- 
ed ,  innumerable  calls  to  activity  present 
themselves  on  every  haiid,  sufficient  to  fill  up 


with  advantage  and  honour  the  whole  time 
of  man."  hlair^s  Ser.  vol.  iv.  ser  8  ;  Llarke't 
Serin,  ser  on  Deut.  xxix.  ii9  ;  Seed's  Foslh, 
Serm.  ser.  7. 

CUKSE,  the  action  of  wishing  any  tre- 
mendous evil  to  another.  In  scripture  lan- 
guage It  signifies  the  just  and  lawful  sentence 
of  God's  law,  condenming  sinners  to  suffer 
the  full  punishment  of  their  sin,  Gal.  iii   lU. 

CURSING  ami  Swearing.  See  Swearing. 

CUSi'OM,  a  very  comprehensive  term, 
denoting  the  manners,  ceremonies;  and  fa- 
shions of  a  people,  which  having  turned  into 
habit,  and  passed  into  use,  obtain  the  force 
of  laws.  Custom  and  habit  are  often  con- 
founded. By  custom,  we  mean  a  frequent 
reiteration  of  the  same  act ;  and  by  habit, 
the  effect  that  custi  m  has  on  the  mind  or 
the  body.  See  Habit. 

"  Viewing  man,"  says  Lord  Kames,  "  as 
a  sensitive  being,  and  perceiving  the  influ- 
ence of  novelty  upon  him,  would  one  suspect 
that  custom  has  an  equal  influence  *  and  yet 
our  nature  is  equally  susceptible  of  both  ;  not 
only  in  different  objects,  but  frequently  in 
the  same.  When  an  object  is  nt-w,  it  is 
enchanting :  familiarity  renders  it  indiffe- 
I'ent ;  and  custom,  after  a  longer  familiarity, 
makes  it  again  desirable.  Human  nature, 
diversified  with  many  and  various  springs 
of  action,  is  wonderful,  and  indulg'ng  the 
expression,  intricately  constructed.  Custom 
hath  such  influence  upon  many  of  our  feelings, 
by  warping  and  varying  them,  that  we  must 
attend  to  its  operations,  if  we  w«iuld  be  ac- 
quainted with  human  nature.  A  walk  upon 
the  quarter-deck,  though  intolerably  confined, 
becomes,  however,  so  agreeable  by  custom, 
that  a  sailor,  in  his  walk  on  shore,  confines 
himself  commonly  within  the  same  bound* 
I  knew  a  man  who  had  relinquished  the  sea 
for  a  country  life  ;  in  the  corner  of  his  gar- 
den he  reared  an  artificial  mount,  with  a 
level  summit,  resembling,  most  accurately, 
a  quarter-deck,  not  only  in  shajje,  but  in 
size  ;  and  here  was  his  choice  walk."  Such 
we  find  is  often  the  power  of  custom. 

CYNICS,  a  sect  of  ancient  philosophers, 
who  valued  themselves  upon  their  contempt 
of  riches  and  state,  arts  and  sciences,  and 
every  thing,  in  short,  except  virtue  and  mo- 
rality. They  owe  their  origin  and  institu- 
tion to  Antisthenes  of  Athens,  a  disciple  of 
Socrates  ;  who  being  asked  of  what  use  his 
philosophy  had  been  to  him,  replied,  "it 
enables  me  to  live  with  myself."  Dioc;^nes 
was  the  most  famous  of  his  discipK-s,  in 
whose  life  the  system  of  this  philosophy  ap- 
pears in  its  greatest  perfection.  Ht-  led  a 
most  whimftcal  life,  despising  every  kind  of 
convenience  ;  a  tub  serving  him  for  a  lodg- 
ing, which  he  rolled  before  him  wherever 
he  v/ent:  yet  he  was  not  the  m(>re  humble 
on  account  of  his  ragged  cloak,  bag,  and  tub. 
One  day  entering  Plato's  bouse,  at  a  time 
when  there  was  a  splendid  entertainment 
for  several  persons  of  distinction,  he  jumped, 
in  all  his  dirt,  upon  a  very  rich  conch,  sny- 
ing,  "I  trample   on   the  pride  of  Plato!" 


DM  M 


113 


DM  M 


"  Yes,"  replied  Plato,  "  but  with  still  greater 
pride,  Diogenes !"  He  had  the  utmost  con- 
tempt for  all  the  human  race  ;  tor  he  walked 
the  street  of  Athens  at  noon  day,  Aviih  a 


lighted  lanthern  in  his  liand,  telling  the  peo- 
ple "  he  was  in  searcli  cJi  an  honest  man." 
But  with  all  his  maxims  of  morality,  he  held 
some  very  pernicious  opinions. 


D. 


DAMIANISTS,  a  denomination  in  the 
sixth  century,  so  called  from  Damian,  bishop 
of  Alexandria.  Their  opinions  were  the 
same  as  tlie  Angelites,  which  see. 

DAEMONS,  a  name  given  by  the  ancients 
to  certain  spirits  or  genii,  whicli,  thty  say, 
appeared  to  men,  either  to  do  them  service, 
or  to  hurt  them. 

Several  of  tlie  heathen  philosophers  held 
that  there  were  different  kinds  of  daemons ; 
that  some  of  them  were  spiritual  substances 
of  a  more  noble  origin  than  the  human  race, 
and  tliat  others  had  once  been  men. 

But  those  demons  who  were  the  more  im- 
mediate objects  of  the  established  wcrship 
among  the  ancient  nations  were  Imman  spi- 
rits, such  as  were  beheved  to  become  dae- 
mons, or  deities,  after  their  departure  from 
their  bodies. 

It  has  been  generally  thought,  that  by 
damans  we  are  to  understand  devils,  in  the 
Septuagint  version  of  the  Old  Testament. 
Others  think  the  word  is  in  that  version 
certainly  applied  to  the  ghosts  'f  such  dead 
men  as  the  heathens  deified,  in  Deut.  xxxii. 
17.  Ps.  cvi.  Sr.  That  damon  often  bears 
the  same  meaning  in  the  New  Testament, 
and  particularly  in  Acts  xvii.  18.  1  Cor.  x. 
21.  1  Tim.  iv.  1.  Rev  ix.  13  is  shewn  at 
large  by  Mr.  Joseph  Mede  (see  Works,  p. 
623.  ct.  seq.)  That  tlie  word  is  applied  d- 
ways  to  human  spirits  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment, Mr.  Farmer  has  attempted  to  shew 
in  his  Essay  on  Dsemoniacs,  p.  208.  et  seq. 
As  to  the  meaning  of  the  word  dxmon,  in 
the  fathers  of  the  Christian  church,  it  is 
used  by  them  in  the  same  sense  as  it  was  by 
,  the  heathen  philosophers,  especially  the  latter 
Platonists;  that  is,  sometimes  for  departed 
human  spirits,  and  at  other  times  for  such 
spirits  as  had  never  inhabited  human  bodies. 
In  the  fathers,  indeed,  the  word  is  more 
commonly  taken  in  an  evil  sense,  than  in  the 
anc-ent  pliilosrphers. 

D.^MONIAC,  a  human  being  whose  vo- 
lition and  other  mental  faculties  are  ever- 
powered  and  restrained,  and  his  body  posses- 
sed and  actuated  by  some  created  spiritual 
Ijeing  iif  superi(jr  power.  Such  seems  to  1^  the 
determined  sense  (.f  the  word  ;  but  it  is  dis- 
puted whether  any  (f  mankind  ever  were  in 
this  unfortunate  condition.  Tiiat  the  reader 
may  form  some  judgment,  we  sliall  lay  be- 
fore him  the  arguments  rn  b-ith  sides. 

1.  Dxtr.onJacs,  arguments  at^'uiyut  the  e.r- 
istmre  of.  Th(,se  who  are  unwilling  to  al- 
low that  angels  or  devils  have  ever  inter- 


meddled with  the  concerns  of  human  life, 
urge  a  number  of  specious  arguments    The 
Greeks  and  Romans  of  old,   say  they,  did 
beUeve  in  the  reality  of  dsmoniacal  posses- 
sion.   Tliey   supposed  that  spiritual  beings 
did  at  times  entc  r  into  the  sons  and  daugh- 
ters of  mcB,  and  distinguish  themselves  in 
tliat  situation  by  capricious  freaks,  t!eeds  of 
wanton  mischief,  or  prophetic  enunciations. 
But  in  the  instances  in  which  they  supposed 
this  to  happen,   it  is  evident  no  such  thing 
tiiok  place.    Their  accounts  of  the  state  and 
conduct  of  those  persons  whom  they  believed 
to  be  possessed  in  this  supernatural  manner, 
shew  plainly  that  what  they  ascribed  to  the 
influence  of  dzemons  were  merely  the  effect 
of  natural  diseases.    Whatever  they  relate 
corcerning  the  larvati,  the  cerriii,  and  the 
lyinfihaAd-   shews  that  these  were  merely 
pe(  pie  dis<  rdered  in  mind,  in  the  same  un- 
fortunate situation  with  those  mac'men,  idiots, 
and   melancholy  persons,    whom    we    have 
among  ourselves.     Festus  describes  the  lar- 
vati as  h€\\\%  furiosi  et  vieJiie  moti.     Lucian 
describes  dsmoniacs  as  lunatic,  and  as  sta- 
ring with  their  eyes,  foamirg  at  the  mcnth, 
and  being  speechless     It  appears  still  mora 
evident  that  all  the  persons  spoken  of  as  pos- 
sessed with  devils  in  the  New  Testament, 
were  either  mad  or  epileptic,  and  precisely 
in  the  same  conditii-n  with  the  madmen  and 
epileptics   of  modern    times.      The   Jews, 
among  other  reprcachts  which  they  threw 
out  agaii'St  our  Saviour,  said.  He  kaih  a  dc 
vil,  and  is  mad  ;  why  hear  ye  him  ?    The 
ex[)ressio!;s  he  hath  a  dexnl,  and  is  mad  wet  e 
I  certainly  used  on  this  occasion  as  synonymrus. 
j  With  all  theirvirulence,theyw(;uldnot  surely 
I  ascribe  to  him  at  once  two  things  that  were 
I  inconsistent  and  contradictory.     I'hose  who 
thi  ught  more  favourably  of  the  character  of 
;  Jesus,  asserted  concerning  his  discrurses,  in 
I  reply  to  his  adversaries.  These  are  not  the 
\ivords  of  hivn  that  hath  a  dxmon  ;  meaning, 
!  no  doubt,   that  lie  spoke  in  a  mr  re  rational 
;  manner  than  a  madman  could  be  expected 
'  to  speak.     The  Jews  appear  to  have  ascrib- 
!  ed  to  the  influence  of  demons,  not  only  that 
i  species   of  madn'ss   in   which  the  patient 
j  is  raving  and  furious.,  but  also  melancholtf  A 
■  Piadness.     Of  Jdin,   who  secluded  himself" 
from  intercourse  with  the  world,   and  was  , 
distinguished  for  abstinence  and  acts  (  f  mor- 
tification, they  said.  He  hathadawion    The 
youth,  whose  father  applied  to  Jesus  to  fiee 
him  from  an  evil  spirit,  describing  his  un- 
happy condition  in  these  words,  Have  mc  rcy  ■ 


BMM 


iU 


D  JEM 


on  my  son,  for  he  U  lunatic,  and  sore  vexed 
with  a  dxmon  :  for  oft  times  he  falleth  into 
the  fire,  and  oft  into  the  ivater,  was  plainly 
epileptic  Every  thing,  indeed,  that  is  related 
in  the  New  Testament  concerning  dsemo- 
niacs,  proves  that  they  were  people  affected 
with  suth  natural  diseases  as  are  far  from 
being  uncommon  among  mankind  in  the  pre- 
sent age.  When  the  symptoms  of  the  disor- 
ders cured  by  our  Saviour  and  his  apostles 
as  cases  of  dsemoniacal  possessions  correspond 
so  exactly  with  those  of  diseases  well  known 
as  natural  in  the  present  age,  it  would  be 
absurd  to  impute  them  to  a  supernatural 
cause.  It  is  much  more  consistent  with  com- 
mon sense  and  sound  philosophy,  to  suppose 
that  our  Saviour  and  his  apostles  wisely,  and 
with  that  condescension  to  the  weakness  and 
prejudices  of  those  with  whom  they  conversed, 
which  so  eminently  distinguished  the  cha- 
racter of  the  Author  of  our  holy  religii  n, 
and  must  always  be  a  prominent  feature  in 
the  character  of  the  true  Christian,  adopted 
the  vulgar  language  in  speaking  of  those  un- 
fortunate persons  who  were  groundlessly 
imagined  to  be  possessed  with  daemons, 
though  they  well  knew  the  notions  which 
had  given  rise  to  such  modes  of  expression 
to  be  ill  founded,  than  to  imagine  that  dis- 
eases which  arise  at  present  from  natural 
causes,  were  produced  in  days  of  old  by  the 
intervention  of  dasmons,  or  that  evil  spirits 
still  continue  to  enter  into  mankind  in  all 
cases  of  madness,  melancholy,  or  epilepsy. 
Besides,  it  is  by  no  means  a  sufficient  reason 
for  receiving  any  doctrine  as  true,  that  it 
has  been  generally  received  through  the 
world.  Error,  like  an  epidemical  disease, 
is  communicated  from  one  to  another.  In 
certain  circumstances,  too,  the  influence  of 
imagination  predominates  and  restrains  the 
exertions  of  reason.  Many  false  opinions 
have  extended  their  influence  through  a 
very  wide  circle,  and  maintained  it  long. 
On  every  such  occasion  as  the  oresent, 
therefore,  it  becomes  us  to  enquire  not  so 
much  how  generally  any  opinion  has  been 
received,  or  how  long  it  has  prevailed,  as 
from  what  cause  it  has  originated,  and  on 
what  evidence  it  rests.  When  we  contemplate 
the  frame  of  Nature,  we  behold  a  grand 
and  beautiful  simplicity  prevailing  through 
the  whole:  notwithstanding  its  immense  ex- 
tent, and  though  it  contains  such  number- 
less diversities  of  being,  yet  the  simplest 
machine  constructed  by  human  art  does  not 
display  greater  simplicity,  or  an  happier 
connection  of  parts  We  may  therefore,  in- 
fer by  analogy,  from  what  is  observable  of 
the  order  of  nature  in  general  to  the  pre- 
sent case,  that  to  permit  evil  s])irits  to  inter- 
meddle witli  the  concerns  of  human  life, 
would  be  to  break  tlircugh  tliat  order  which 
the  Deity  appears  to  have  established 
through  his  wcnks  ;  it  would  be  to  introduce 
a  degree  of  confusion  unworthy  of  the  wis- 
dom of  Divine  providence. 

II.  Dtemoniacs,  arguments  for  the  exis- 
fcnce  of    In  opposition  tp  these  arguments, 


the  following  are  urged  by  the  Dsemonian- 
ists.  In  the  days  of  our  Savit  ur,  it  would 
appear  that  dxmoniacal  possession  was 
very  frequent  among  the  Jews  and  the 
neighbouring  nations.  Many  were  the  evil 
spirits  whom  Jesus  is  refated  in  the  Gospels 
to  have  ejected  from  patients  that  were 
brought  unto  him  as  possessed  and  torment- 
ed by  those  malevolent  daemons.  His  ap' s- 
tles,  too,  and  the  first  Chiistians,  wii<  were 
most  active  and  successful  in  the  pr  pagation 
of  Christianity,  appear  to  have  ofte.i  exerted 
the  miraculous  powers  with  whici>  thty  were 
endowed  on  similar  occasioiis.  The  daemons 
displayed  a  degree  of  knowledge  and  niale- 
volence  which  sufficiently  distinguished  them 
from  human  beings ;  and  the  language  in 
which  the  dacmoniacs  are  mentioned,  and 
the  actions  and  sentiments  ascribed  to  them 
in  the  New  Te^stament,  shew  that  our  Sa- 
viour and  his  apostles  did  not  consider  tlie 
idea  of  daemoniacal  possession  as  being  mere- 
ly a  vu'ear  eiTor  concerning  the  origin  ( f  a 
disease  or  diseases  produced  by  natural 
causes.  The  niore  enlightened  cannot  al- 
ways avoid  the  use  of  metaphorical  modes 
of  expression  ;  which  thrugh  founded  upon 
error,  yet  have  been  so  established  in  lan- 
guage by  the  influence  of  custom,  that  they 
cannot  be  suddenly  dismissed.  But  in  des- 
criptions cf  characters,  in  the  narration  of 
facts,  and  in  the  laying  down  of  systems  of 
doctrine,  we  require  different  rules  to  be 
observed.  Should  any  person,  in  compliance 
with  popular  opinions  talk  in  serious  lan- 
guage of  the  existence,  dispositii  ns,  declara- 
tions and  actions  of  a  race  of  beings  whom 
he  knew  to  be  absolutely  fabulous,  we  surely 
could  not  praise  him  for  integrity :  we  must 
suppc  se  him  to  be  either  exulting  in  ifo.ny 
over  the  weak  credulity  of  those  around  him, 
or  taking  advantage  of  their  weakness,  with 
the  dishonesty  and  selfish  views  of  an  impos- 
tor. And  if  he  himself  should  pretend  to 
any  connection  with  this  imaginary  system  of 
beings ;  and  should  claim  in  consequence  of 
his  connection  with  tliem,  particular  ho- 
nours from  his  contemporaries ;  whatever 
might  be  the  dignity  of  his  character  in  all 
other  respects,  nobody  could  hesitate  to 
brand  him  as  an  impostor.  In  this  light  must 
we  regard  the  conduct  of  our  Saviour  and 
his  apostles,  if  the  idea  of  dsmoniacal  pos- 
session were  to  be  considertd  merely  as  a 
vulgar  error.  They  talked  and  acted  as  if 
tliey  believed  that  evil  spirits  had  actually 
entered  into  those  who  were  brought  to 
thenl  as  possessed  with  ('evils,  and  as  if 
those  spirits  had  been  actoaly  expelled  by 
their  authority  out  of  the  unhapjiy  persons 
whom  they  had  possessed.  They  demanded, 
too,  to  have  their  possessions  and  declara- 
tions believed,  in  consequence  of  their  per- 
forming such  mighty  works,  and  having 
thus  triumphed  over  the  powers  of  hell. 
The  reality  of  rxmnniacal  possessions  stands 
upon  the  same  evit'ence  with  the  Gospel  sys- 
tem in  general.  Nor  is  there  any  thing  un- 
reasonable in  this  doctrine.    It  does  not  ap- 


DAM 


115 


D  AR 


pear  to  conti'adict  those  ideas  wliich  the 
general  appearance  of  Nature  and  the  series 
•f  events  suggest,  concerning  the  benevo- 
lence and  wisdom  of  the  Deity,  by  which 
he  regulates  the  affairs  of  the  universe.  We 
often  fancy  ourselves  able  to  comprehend 
things  to  which  our  understanding  is  wholly 
inadequate  :  we  persuade  ourselves,  at  times, 
that  the  whole  extent  of  the  works  of  the 
Deity  must  be  well  known  to  us,  and  that 
his  designs  must  always  be  such  as  we  can 
fathom.  We  are  then  ready  whenever  any 
difficulty  arises  to  us  in  considering  the  con- 
duct of  Providence,  to  model  things  accor- 
ding to  our  own  ideas ;  to  deny  that  the  Deity 
can  possibly  be  the  author  of  things  which 
we  cannot  reconcile  ;  and  to  assert,  that  he 
must  act  on  every  occasion  in  a  manner  con- 
sistent with  our  narrow  views.  This  is  the 
pride  of  reason  ;  and  it  seems  to  have  sug- 
gested the  strongest  objections  that  have 
been  at  any  time  urged  against  the  reality  of 
dxmoniacal  possession.  But  the  Deity  may 
surely  connect  one  order  of  his  creatures 
with  another.  We  perceive  mutual  relations 
and  a  beautiful  connection  to  prevail  through 
all  tha:  part  of  Nature  which  falls  within 
the  sphere  of  our  observation.  The  inferior 
animals  are  connected  with  mankind,  and 
subjected  to  their  authority,  not  only  in  in- 
stances in  which  it  is  exerted  for  tlieir  ad- 
vantage, but  even  where  it  is  tyrannically 
abused  to  their  destruction.  Among  the 
evils  to  which  mankind  have  been  subject- 
ed, why  might  not  their  being  liable  to  dse- 
moniacal  possession  be  one  ?  While  the  Su- 
preme Being  retains  the  sovereignty  of  the 
universe,  he  may  employ  whatever  agents 
he  thinks  proper  in  the  execution  of  his 
purposes  ;  he  may  either  commission  an  an- 
gel, or  let  loose  a  devil ;  as  well  as  bend 
the  human  will,  or  communicate  any  parti- 
cular impulse  to  matter.  AW  that  revela- 
tion makes  known,  all  that  human  reason 
can  conjecture  concerning  the  existence  of 
various  orders  of  spiritual  beings,  good  and 
bad,  is  perfectly  consistent  with,  and  even 
favourable  to,  the  doctrine  of  dxmoniacal 
possession.  It  is  mentioned  in  the  New  Tes- 
tament in  such  language,  and  such  narra- 
tives are  related  concerning  it,  that  tlie 
Gospels  cannot  be  well  regarded  in  any 
other  light  than  as  pieces  of  imposture,  and 
Jesus  Christ  must  be  considered  as  a  man 
who  took  advantage  of  the  v/eakness  and 
ignorance  of  his  contemporaries,  if  this  doc- 
trine be  nothing  but  a  vulgar  error ;  it 
teaches  nothing  inconsistent  with  the  general 
•conduct  of  Providence ;  in  short,  it  is  not 
the  caution  of  philosophy,  but  the  pride  of 
reason  that  suggests  objections  against  this 
doctrine.  See  the  essavs  of  Young;  Farmer, 
Worchington,  Dr.  Lardner,  Afacknight, 
Fell,  Burgh,  t!fc-  on  Dccmoniacs ;  Seed's 
Posthumous  Sermons,  ser.  vi.  and  article 
DEMONIAC  in  Enc.  Brit. 

DAMNATION,  condemnation.  This 
word  is  used  to  denote  the  final  loss  of  the 
soul ;  but  it  is  not  always  to  be  understood 


in  this  sense  in  the  sacred  Scripture.  Thus 
it  is  said  in  Rom.  xiii.  2  "  They  that  resist 
shall  receive  to  themselves  damnation,"  i.  e. 
condemnation,  "  from  the  rulers  who  are 
not  a  terror  to  good  works,  but  to  the  evil." 
Again,  in  1  Cor.  xi.  29.  "  He  that  eateth 
and  drinketh  unworthily,  eateth  and  drink- 
eth  damnation  to  himself ;"  i.  e.  condemna- 
tion; exposes  himself  to  severe  temporal 
judgments  from  God,  and  to  the  judgment 
and  censure  of  the  wise  and  good.  Again, 
Rom.  xiv  23.  "  He  that  doubteth  is  damned 
if  he  eat ;"  i.  e.  is  condemned  both  by  his 
own  conscience,  and  the  word  of  God,  be- 
cause he  is  far  from  being  satisfied  that  he 
is  right  in  so  doing. 

DANCERS,  a  sect  which  sprung  up  about 
1373  in  Flanders,  and  places  about.  It  was 
their  custom  all  of  a  sudden  to  fall  a  dancing 
and,  holding  each  other's  hands,  to  continue 
thereat,  till,  being  suffocated  with  the  extra- 
ordinaiy  violence,  they  fall  down  breathless 
together  During  these  intervals  of  vehement 
agitation,  they  pretended  to  be  favoured  with 
wonderful  vision.  Like  the  Whippers,  they 
roved  from  place  to  place,  begging  their 
victuals,  holding  their  secret  assemblies,  and 
treating  the  priesthood  and  worship  of  the 
clmrch  with  the  utmost  contempt.  I'hus  we 
find,  as  Dr.  Haw^eis  observes,  that  the  French 
Cnnvulsionists  and  the  Welch  Jumpers  have 
had  predecessors  of  the  same  stamp.  There 
is  nothing  new  under  the  sun.  Haives  and 
Alosheim's  Ch.  Hist.  Cent.  14. 

DARKNESS,  the  absence,  privation,  or 
want  of  natural  light.  In  scripture  language 
it  also  signifies  sin,  John  iii.  19.  trouble.  Is. 
viii.  '21.  obscurity,  privacy.  Matt.  x.  27.  for- 
getfulness,  contempt,  Ec.  vi.  4. 

Darkness,  says  Moses,  was  upon  the  face 
of  the  deep,  Gen,  i.  2.  that  is  to  say,  tlie  chaos 
was  plunged  in  thick  darkness,  because 
hitherto  the  light  was  not  created.  Moses,  at 
the  command  of  God,  brought  darkness  upon 
Egypt,  as  a  plague  to  the  inhabitants  of  it. 
The  Septuagint,  our  translation  of  the  Bible, 
and  indeed  most  others,  in  exjjlaining  Mo- 
ses' account  of  the  darkness  render  it  "  a 
darkness  which  may  be  felt ;"  and  the  Vul- 
gate has  it.  "  palpable  darkness ;"  that  is,  a 
darkness  consisting  of  black  vapours  and  ex- 
halations, so  condensed  that  they  might  be 
perceived  by  the  organs  of  feeling  or  seeing; 
but  some  commentators  think  that  this  is 
carrying  the  sense  too  far,  since,  in  such  a 
medium  as  this,  mankind  could  not  live  an 
hour,  much  less  for  the  space  of  thi-ee  d.iys, 
as  the  Egyptians  are  said  to  have  done,  dur- 
ing the  time  this  darkness  lasted;  and  there- 
fore, they  imagine  that  instead  of  a  darkness 
that  may  be  felt,  the  Hebrew  phrase  may 
signify  a  darkness  wlierein  men  wtnt  groping 
and  feeling  about  for  eveiy  thing  they  want 
ed.  I^t  this,  however,  be.  as  it  may,  it  wa? 
an  awful  judgment  on  the  Eevptiane  ;  and  we 
may  naturally  conclude  that  it  must  have  also 
spread  darkness  and  distress  over  their 
minds  as  well  as  their  persons.  The  tradition 
of  the  Jews  is,   that  i«  this  darkness   tU^-y 


D  A  V 


116 


DE  A 


were  terrified  by  the  apparitions  of  evil  f 
spirits,  or  rather  by  dr  adful  sounds  and 
mvirmurs  which  they  made.  Whiit  made  it 
still  worse,  was  the  length  of  time  it  con- 
tinued, rhree  days,  or,  as  bishop  Hall 
expresses  it,  six  nights  in  one. 

During  the  last  three  hours  that  our  Savi- 
our hung  upon  the  cross,  a  darkness  covered 
tlie  face  of  the  earth,  to  the  great  terror  and 
amazement  of  the  people  present  at  his  exe- 
cution. This  extraordinary  alteration  in  the 
face  of  Nature,  says  Dr.  Macicnight,  in  his 
Jlarmony  of  the  Gospels,  was  peculiarly 
proper,  whilst  the  Sun  of  Righteousness  was 
withdrawing  his  beams  from  the  land  of  Is- 
rael, and  from  the  world ;  not  only  because 
it  was  a  miraculous  testimony  borne  by  God 
himself  to  his  innocence,  but  also  because  it 
vas  a  fit  emblem  of  his  departure  and  its 
effects,  at  least  till  his  light  shone  out  anew 
with  additional  splendour  in  the  ministry  of 
liis  apostles.  Tiie  darkness  which  now  co- 
vered Judea,  and  the  neighbouring  countries, 
beginning  about  noon,  and  continuing  till  Jesus 
expired,  was  not  the  effect  of  an  ordinary 
eclipse  of  the  sun,  for  that  can  never  happen 
but  at  the  new  moon,  whereas  now  ic  was 
full  moon  i  not  to  mention  that  the  total  dark- 
ness occasioned  by  eclipses  of  the  sun  never 
continues  above  twelve  or  fifteen  minutes  ■ 
%vherefore  it  must  have  been  produced  by  the 
divine  power,  in  a  manner  we  are  not  able 
to  explain  Accordingly  Luke  (chap,  xxiii. 
44,45,)  afterrelatingthat  there  wasdarkness 
over  all  the  earth,  adds,  "  and  the  sun  was 
darkened  ;  which  perhaps  may  imply  thar 
trie  darkness  of  the  sun  did  not  occasion,  but 
proceeded  from,  the  darkness  that  was  over 
all  the  land  Farther,  the  Christian  writers, 
in  their  most  ancient  apologi  s  to  the  heath- 
ens, affirm,  that  :\s  it  was  full  moon  at  the 
passover  when  Christ  was  cracified,  no  such 
eclipse  could  happen  by  the  course  of  Nature. 
They  observe,  also,  that  it  was  taken  notice 
of  as  a  prodigv  by  the  heathens  themselves. 

DAVIDISTS,  tile  adhcveots  of  David 
(Jeorge,  a  native  of  delft,  who,  in  1.525,  bc- 
fjan  to  preach  a  new  doctrine,  publisliing 
himself  to  be  the  true  Messiah  ;  and  that  he 
was  sent  of  God  to  fdl  heaven,  which  was 
quite  empty  for  want  of  pr-ople  to  desv.-rve 
it.  He  is  likewise  said  to  have  denied  the 
existence  of  ang-els,good  and  evil,  and  to  have 
disbelieved  the  doctrine  o4^a  future  judgment. 
He  rej"Cted  marriage  with  the  Adamites, 
lield  with  Manes,  that  the  soul  was  not  de- 
tiled  by  sin;  and  laughed  at  the  «;elf-denial  so 
much  recommended  by  Jesus  Christ.  Such 
were  hisjn'incipaleiTors.  Hemade  hiscscape 
from  DoU't,  and  retired  first  into  Fricsland. 
and  then  to  Basil,  where  he  changed  his  name, 
assuming  that  of  J  hn  linick,  and  died  in 
1556.  He  left  some  disciples  bcliind  him,  to 
V'hnm  he  promised  that  he  would  rise  again 
at  the  end  of  three  years  Nor  was  he  iilto- 
gether  a  false  pr.iphet  heifin  ;  for  the  ma- 
gistrates of  that  city  beii'g  iofernK. d  at  tli^- 
three  years'  end  of  wliat  hi'  had  taui^ht, 
ordered  him  to  be  dug  up  and  b.irnt,  tog,  ther 


with  his  writings,  by  the  common  hangman 
DEACON,  A<«xovo5,  a  servant,  a  minister, 

1.  In  ecclesiastical  polity,  a  deacon  is  one 
of  the  lowest  of  the  three  orders  of  the  clergy. 
He  is  rather  a  novitiate,  or  in  a  state  of  pro- 
bation for  one  year,  after  which  he  is  admit- 
ted into  full  orders,  or  ordained  a  priest. 

2.  In  the  New  Testament  the  word  is  used 
for  any  one  that  ministers  in  the  service  of 
God  :  bishops  and  presbjters  are  also  styled 
deacons;  but  more  particularly  and  generally 
it  is  understood  of  the  lowest  order  of  mi- 
nistering servants  in  the  church,  1  Cor.  iii.  5. 
Col  i   23,  25    Phil    i.  1.  1  Tim.  iii. 

I'he  office  of  deacons  originally  was  to 
serve  tables,  the  L<ird's  table,  the  minister's 
table,  and  the  poor's  table.  'ITiey  took  care 
of  the  sicular  affairs  of  the  church,  receiv- 
ed and  disbursed  n^onies,  kept  the  cliurches* 
accounts,  and  provided  every  thing  necessa- 
ry for  its  temporal  good.  Thus,  while  the 
bishop  attended  to  the  souls,  the  deacons  at- 
tended to  the  bodies  of  the  people.  I'he  pas- 
tor to  the  spiritual,  and  the  deacons  the 
temporal  interests  of  the  church,  Acts  vi. 

DEACONESS,  a  female  deacon.  It  is 
generally  allowed,  that  in  the  primitive 
church  there  were  deaconesses,  i.  e  pious 
women,  whose  particular  business  it  was  to 
assist  in  the  entertainment  and  care  of  the 
itinerant  proachers,  visit  the  sick  and  im- 
prisoned, instruct  female  catechumens,  and 
assist  at  their  baptism  ;  then  more  particu- 
larly necessary,  from  the  peculiar  customs 
of  those  countries,  the  persecuted  state  of  the 
church,  and  the  speedier  spreading  cf  the 
(iosptl.  Such  a  one  it  is  reasonable  to  think 
Phebe  was,  Rom.  xvi.  1.  who  is  expressly 
called  i5"<«e)tovay,  a  deaconess  or  stated  servant, 
as  Doddridge  renders  it.  Tliey  were  usually 
widows,  and  to  prevent  scandal  generally  iu 
years,  1  Tim.  v.  9.  See  also  S/ianhcim.  Hint. 
'Christ.  Seciil.  1.  p.  554.  The  apostolic  con- 
stitutions, as  they  are  called,  mention  the  or- 
dination of  a  deaconess,  and  the  form  of  pray- 
er used  on  that  occasion  (lib.  viii.ch.  19,  20.) 
Piiny,  also,  in  his  celebrated  epistle  to  Tra- 
jan (xcvii.)  is  thought  to  refer  to  them,  when, 
speaking  of  two  female  Christians  whom  he 
put  to  the  torture,  he  says,  qux  ministrs 
dicebantur,  i.  e.  who  were  called  deacon. -ss- 
es — But  as  the  primitive  Christians  sei^ii  to 
be  led  to  this  jiractice  from  the  peculiarity 
of  their  circumstances,  and  the  Scripture 
is  entirely  silent  as  to  any  appointment  to 
this  supposed  office,  or  any  rules  about  it, 
it  is  very  justly  laid  aside,  at  least  as  an 
office 

DEAN,  an  ecclesiastical  dignitary,  next 
under  the  bishop  in  cathedral  churclies,  and 
head  of  the  chapter.  'l"hc  Latin  word  is  dc. 
canus,  derived  from  the  (ireek  ^r.<ci,  ten, 
'K-cause  the  dean  ])r('sid('S  over  at  least  ten 
canons,  or  prebendaries.  A  dean  and  chajrter 
are  the  bi.iliop's  council,  to  assist  liim  in  the 
.iffiers  of  rehgi<  n. 

DE.\TM  is  generally  defir.ed  to  be  the  se- 
par.ition  nf  the'" soul  from  th-;'  body.  It  is  styl- 
ed in  scripture  language,  a  departure  outef 


DE  A 


117 


DE  A 


this  world  to  another,  2  Tim  iv.  7.  a  dissolv- 
ing of  the  earthly  house  of  this  tabernacle, 
2  Cor.  V.  1.  a  going  the  way  of  all  the  earth, 
Josh.xxiii.  14.  a  returning  to  the  dust,  Ecc. 
xii.  7.  a  sleep,  John  xi.  11.  Death  may  be 
considered  as  the  effect  of  sin,  Rom.  v.  12. 
yet,  as  our  existence  is  from  God,  no  man 
has  a  right  to  take  away  his  own  life,  or  the 
life  of  another,  Gen.  ix.  6  Satan  is  said  to 
have  tht /lower  of  death,  Heb.  ii.  14.  not 
that  he  can  at  his  pleasure  inflict  death  on 
mankind,  but  ashe  was  the  instrumentof  first 
bringing  death  into  the  world,  John  viii.  44. 
and  as  he  may  be  the  executioner  of  God's 
wrath  on  impenitent  sinners,  when  God  per- 
mits him.  Death  is  but  once,  Heb.  ix.  27. 
certain.  Job  xiv.  1,  2.  powerful  and  terrific, 
callrd  the  king  of  terrors.  Job  xviii.  14.  un- 
certain as  to  the  time,  Prov.  xxvii.  1.  univer- 
sal,Gen.  V.  necessary,  that  God's  justice  may 
be  displayed,  and  his  mercy  manifested  :  de- 
sirable,to  the  righteous,  I, ukni\  28 — 30  The 
fear  of  death  is  a  source  of  uneasiness  to  the 
generality,  and  to  a  guilty  conscience  it  may 
indeed  be  terrible :  but  to  a  good  man  it 
should  be  obviated  by  the  consideration  that 
death  is  the  termination  of  every  trouble  ; 
that  it  puts  him  beyond  the  reach  of  sin  and 
temptation ;  that  God  has  promised  to  be 
with  the  righteous  even  to  the  end,  Heb.  xiii. 
5  that  Jesus  Christ  has  taken  away  the  sciug, 
1  Cor.  XV.  54,  and  that  it  introduces  him  to 
a  state  of  endless  felicity,  2.  Cor.  v.  8. 

Prefiaration  for  di-ath.  This  dpes  not  con- 
sist in  bare  morality  ;  in  an  external  refor- 
mati'-in  from  gross  sins:  in  attention  to  a 
round  of  duties  in  our  own  strength  ;  in  acts 
of  charity  ;  in  a  zealous  profession  :  in  pos- 
sessing eminent  gifts  :  but  in  reconciliation  to 
God  :  repentance  of  sin  :  faith  in  Christ ;  obe- 
dience to  his  word :  and  all  as  the  effect  of 
regeneration  by  t!ie  Spirit,  3  Jihn  iii.  6.  1 
Cor.  xi.  S.  Tit.  5.  Bates\four  last  Things  ; 
Hofikins,  Dre-lincourt,  Sherlock,  and  Fel- 
lowes,  on  Death;  Bp.  Porteus''  Poem  on 
Death  ;  Grove's  admirable  Sermon  on  the 
Fear  of  Drafh  ;   Watts'  World  to  Come. 

Spiritual  Death  is  that  awful  state  of 
ignorance,  insensibility,  and  disobedience, 
which  mankind  are  in  by  nature,  and  which 
exclude  them  from  the  fnvnur  and  enjoyment 
of  God,  Luke  i.  79.  See  Sin. 

Brothers  of  Deaf h,  a  denomination  usual- 
ly given  to  the  religious  of  the  order  of  St. 
Paul,  the  first  hermit.  They  are  called  bro- 
thers of  death,  on  account  of  the  figure  of 
a  death's  head  whicli  they  were  always  to 
have  with  them,  in  order  to  keep  perpetual- 
ly before  them  the  thoughts  of  death.  The 
order  was  probably  suppressed  by  pope  Ur- 
ban VIII. 

Dearh  of  Christ.  The  circumstances  at- 
tendant on  the  death  of  Christ  are  so  well 
known  that  they  need  not  be  inserted  here. 
As  tlie  subject,  however,  of  all  others,  is 
the  most  important  to  the  Christian,  a  brief 
ab.stractof  what  has  been  said  on  it,  from  a 
sermon  allowedly  one  of  the  bf  st  in  tl\e  En- 
(ihsh  language,   shall  here  be  given.    •'  The 


hour  of  Christ's  death,  says  Blair  (vol.  i.  %er, 
5)  "  was  the  most  critical,  the  most  preg- 
nant with  great  events,  since  hours  had  b«- 
gun  to  be  numbered,  since  time  had  begun  to 
run.  It  was  the  hour  in  which  Christ  was 
glorified  by  his  sufftrings.  Through  the  cloud 
of  his  humiliation  his  native  lustre  often 
broke  forth,  but  never  did  it  shine  so  brigiit 
as  now.  It  was  mdeed  the  hour  of  distress  and 
blood.  It  is  distress  which  enobles  eveiy 
great  character,  and  distress  was  to  glorify 
the  Son  of  God.  He  was  now  to  teach  all 
mankind,  by  his  example,  how  to  suffer,  and 
how  to  die.  What  magnanimity  in  all  his 
words  and  actions  f>n  this  great  occasion ! 
No  upbraiding,  no  complaining  expression  es- 
caped from  his  lips.  He  betrayed  no  symp- 
tom of  a  weak,  a  discomposed,  or  impatient 
mind.  With  all  the  dignity  of  a  sovereign,  he 
conferred  pardon,  on  a  penitent  fellow-suf- 
ferer :  with  a  greatness  of  mind  beyond  ex- 
ample, he  spent  his  last  moments  in  apolo- 
gies and  prayers  for  those  who  were  shed- 
fling  his  blood.  This  was  an  hour' in  which 
Christ  atoned  for  the  sins  of  mankind,  and^ 
accomjilished  our  eternal  redemption.  It  was' 
the  hour  when  that  great  sacrifice  was  of- 
fered up,  the  efhcacy  ijf  which  reaches  back 
to  the  first  transgression  of  man,  and  extends 
forward  to  the  end  of  time  :  the  hour,  when, 
from  the  cross,  as  from,  an  high  altar,  the 
blood  was  flowing  which  washed  away  the 
guilt  of  the  nations.  Iji  this  hour  the  long 
series  of  prophecies,  visions,  types,  and 
fgures  were  accomplished.  This  was  the 
centre  in  which  they  all  met.  You  behold 
the  law  and  the  prophets  standing,  if  we  may 
speak  so,  at  the  fix)t  of  the  cross,  and  doing 
homag^.  You  behold  Moses  and  Aaron  bear- 
ing the  ark  of  the  covenant ;  David  and  Eli- 
jah  presenting  the  oracle  of  testimony  You 
behold  all  the  priests  and  sacrifices,  all  the  ' 
rites  and  ordinances,  all  the  types  and  symbols 
assemi)led  together  to  receive  their  Ci)nsum- 
mation.  This  was  the  hour  of  the  abolition  of 
the  law,  and  the  introduction  of  the  Gospel; 
thehourofterminatvigihe  old  and  beginning 
the  nevj  dispensation,— It  isfnished.  When 
he  uttered  these  words  he  changed  the  state 
of  the  universe.  This  was  theever-mtmora- 
ble  point  of  time  which  separated  the  old  and 
the  new  world  from  each  other.  On  one  side 
of  the  point  of  separation  you  behold  the  law, 
with  its  priests,  its  sacrifices,  and  its  rites, 
retiring  from  sight.  On  the  other  side  you  be- 
hold the  Cospel,  with  its  simple  and  venerable 
institutions,  coming  forward  into  view  Signi- 
ficantly was  the  veil  of  the  temp'e  rent  in  i 
twain  ;  for  the  glory  then  departed  from  be-  | 
tween  the  cherubims.  The  legal  high  priest 
delivered  up  his  Urim  and  Thummim,  his 
breast-plate,  his  robes,  and  his  incense  ;  and 
Christ  stood  forth  as  the  great  high  priest  of 
all  succeeding  generations.  Altars  on  which 
the  fire  had  blazed  fr;r  ages  were  now  to 
smoke  no  mfire.  Now  it  was  also  that  he 
threw  down  the  wall  of  pnitilion  which  had 
so  I'-ng divided  the  (^entile  from  the  .Tew  ;  and 
gathered  into  one  all  the  faithful,  cut  cf  every 


DEC 


118 


DEC 


^1 


kindred  and  people.  This  was  the  hour  of 
Christ's  triumtih  over  all  the  powers  of  dark- 
ness ;  the  hour  in  which  he  overthrew  do 
minions  and  thrones,  led  captivity  captive, 
and  gave  gifts  unto  men  :  then  it  was  that 
the  foundation  of  every  pagan  temple  shook ; 
the  statue  of  every  false  god  tottered  on  its 
base ;  the  priest  tied  from  his  falling  shrine, 
and  the  heathen  oracle  became  dt-ad  for 
ever  ! — This  was  the  hour  when  our  Lord 
erected  that  spiritual  kingdom  which  is  ne- 
ver to  end.  His  enemies  imagined  that  in 
this  hour  they  had  successfully  accomplished 
their  plan  for  its  destruction  ;  but  how  little 
did  they  know  that  the  Almighty  was  at  that 
moment  setting  him  as  a  king  on  the  hill  of 
Sion  t  How  little  did  they  know  that  their 
badges  of  mock  royalty  were  at  that  moment 
converted  into  the  signals  of  absolute  domi- 
nion, and  the  instruments  of  irresistible  pow- 
er !  The  reed  which  they  put  into  his  hands 
became  a  rod  of  iron,  with  which  he  was  to 
break  in  pieces  his  enemies ;  a  sceptre  with 
•which  he  was  to  rule  the  universe  in  righte- 
ousness. The  cross,  which  they  thought  was 
to  stigmatize  him  with  infamy,  became  the 
ensign  of  his  renown.  Instead  of  being  the 
reproach  of  his  followers,  it  was  to  be  their 
boast  and  glory.  The  cross  was  to  shine  on 
palaces  and  churches  throughout  the  earth. 
It  was  to  be  assumed  as  the  distinction  of  the 
most  powerful  raonarchs,  and  to  wave  in  the 
banner  of  victorious  armies,  when  the  memo- 
ry of  Herod  and  Pilate  should  be  accursed ; 
■when  Jerusalem  should  be  reduced  to  ashes, 
and  the  Jews  be  vagabonds  over  all  the 
world."  See  Atonement  ;  Pearson  and 
Barrow  on  the  Creed ;  Oweri's  Death  of 
Death  in  the  Death  of  Christ ;  Charnock^s 
Works,  vol.  ii.  on  the  JVecessity,  Voluntari- 
ness, isfc.  of  the  Death  of  Christ. 

DECALOGUE,  the  ten  commandments 
given  by  God  to  Moses. 

The  ten  commandments  were  engraved  by 
God  on  two  tables  of  stone.  The  Jews,  by 
way  of  eminence,  call  these  commandments 
the  ten  words,  from  whence  they  had  after- 
wards the  name  of  decalogue  ;  but  they  join- 
ed the  first  and  second  into  one,  and  divided 
the  last  into  two.  They  understand  that 
against  stealing  to  relate  to  the  stealing  of 
men,  or  kidnapping ;  alleging,  that  the  steal- 
ing one  another's  goods  or  property  is  forbid- 
den in  the  last  commandment.  The  church 
of  Rome  has  struck  the  second  commandment 
quite  out  of  the  decalogue  ;  and  to  make 
tneir  number  complete,  has  split  the  tenth 
into  two.  The  reason  is  obvious. 

DECEIT  consists  in  passing  any  thing 
upon  a  person  for  what  it  is  not,  as  when 
falsehood  is  made  to  pass  for  truth.  See  Hy- 

POCRISY 

DECEPTION,   SELF.    See   Self-De- 

CEPTION. 

DECLAMATION,  a  speech  made  in  pub- 
lic in  the  tone  and  manner  of  an  oration, 
uniting  the  expression  of  action  to  the  prci- 
priety  of  pronunciation,  in  order  to  give  the 
sentiment  its  full  impression  on  the  mind.  It 


is  used  also  in  a  derogatory  sense ;  as  when 
it  is  said  such  a  speech  was  mere  declama- 
tion, it  hnplies  that  it  was  deficient  in  point 
of  reasoning,  or  had  more  sound  than  sense. 
Declamation  of  the  pulpit.  "The 
dignity  and  sanctity  of  the  place,  and  the 
importance  of  the  subject,  require  the  preach- 
er to  exert  the  utmost  powers  of  his  voice,  to 
produce  a  pronunciation  that  is  perfectly  dis- 
tinct and  harmonious,  and  that  he  observe  a 
deportment  and  action  which  is  expressive 
and  graceful.  The  preacher  should  not  roar 
like  a  common  ci'ier,  and  rend  the  ear  with 
a  voice  like  thunder  ;  for  such  kind  of  decla- 
mation is  not  only  without  meaning,  and  with- 
out persuasion,  but  highly  incongruous  with 
the  meek  and  gentle  spirit  of  the  Gospel. 
He  should  likewise  take  particular  care  to 
avoid  a  monotony  ;  his  voice  should  rise  from 
the  beginning,  as  it  were,  by  degrees,  and  its 
greatest  strength  should  be  exerted  in  the  ap- 
plication. Each  inflexion  of  the  voice  (should 
be  adapted  to  the  phrase  and  to  the  meaning 
of  the  words  ;  and  each  remarkable  expres- 
sion should  have  its  peculiar  inflexion.  The 
dogmatic  requires  a  plain  uniform  tone  of 
voice  only,  and  the  menaces  of  God's  words 
demand  a  greater  force  than  its  promises  and 
rewards ;  but  the  latter  should  not  be  pro- 
nounced in  the  soft  tone  of  a  flute,  nor  the 
former  with  the  loud  soundof  a  tinimpet.  The 
voice  should  still  retain  its  natural  tone  in  all 
its  various  inflexions.  Happy  is  that  preacher 
who  has  a  voice  that  is  at  once  strong,  flexi- 
ble, and  hai'monious.  An  air  of  complacency 
and  benevolence,  as  well  as  devotion,  sliould 
be  constantly  visible  in  the  countenance  of 
the  preacher ;  but  every  appearance  of  affec- 
tation must  be  carefully  avoided ;  for  nothing 
is  so  disgustful  to  an  audience  as  even  the 
semblance  of  dissimulation.  Eyes  constantly 
rolling,  turned  towards  heaven,  and  stream- 
ing with  tears,  rather  denote  a  hypocrite  than 
a  man  possessed  of  the  real  spirit  of  religion, 
and  who  feels  the  true  import  of  what  he 
preaches.  An  airofaiFected  devotion  infallibly 
destroys  the  efficacy  of  all  that  the  preacher 
can  say,  however  just  and  important  it  may 
be.  On  the  other  hand,  he  must  avoid  every 
appearance  of  mirth  or  raillery,  or  of  that 
cold  unfeeling  manner  which  is  so  apt  to 
freeze  the  heart  of  his  hearers.  The  body 
should  in  general  be  erect,  and  in  a  natural 
and  easy  attitude.  The  perpetual  movement 
or  contortion  of  the  body  has  a  ridiculous  ef- 
fect in  the  pulpit,  snd  makes  the  figure  of  a 
preacher  and  a  harlequin  too  similar :  on  the 
other  hand,  he  ought  not  to  remain  constantly 
upright  and  motionless  like  a  speaking  statue. 
The  motions  of  the  hands  give  a  strong  ex- 
pression to  a  discourse  ;  but  they  thould  be 
decent,  grave,  noble,  and  expressive.  The 
preacher  who  is  incessantly  in  action,  who  is 
I)erpetually  clasping  his  hands,  or  who  mena- 
ces with  a  clenched  fist,  or  counts  his  argu- 
ments on  his  fingers,  will  only  excite  mirth 
among  his  auditory.  In  a  word,  declamation 
is  an  art  that  the  sacred  orator  shculd  study 
\yith  assiduity.  The  design  of  a  sermon  is  lo 


DEC 


119 


DEF 


convince,  to  affect,  and  to  persuade.  The 
voice,  the  countenance,  and  the  action,  which 
are  to  produce  the  triple  effect,  are  there- 
fore objects  to  which  the  preacher  should 
particularly  apply  himself."  See  Sermon. 

DECREES  OF  GOD  are  his  settled  pur- 
poses, whereby  he  foreordains  whatsoever 
comes  to  pass,  Dan.  iv.  24.  Acts  xv.  18.  Eph. 
i.  11.  This  doctrine  is  the  subject  of  one  of 
the  most  perplexing  controversies  that  has 
occurred  among  mankind ;  it  is  not,  however, 
a-  some  think,  a  novel  doctrine  The  opinion, 
that  whatever  occurs  in  the  world  at  large, 
or  in  the  lot  of  private  individuals,  is  the  re- 
sult of  a  previous  and  unalterable  arrange- 
ment by  that  Supreme  Power  which  presides 
over  Nature,  has  always  been  held  by  many 
of  the  vulgar,  and  has  been  believed  by  spe- 
culative men.  The  ancient  stoics,  Zeno  and 
Chrysippus,  whom  the  Jewish  Essenes  seem 
to  have  followed,  assei-ted  the  existence  of  a 
Deity,  that,  acting  wisely  but  necessarily, 
contrived  the  general  system  of  the  world; 
from  which,  by  a  series  of  causes,  whatever 
is  now  done  in  it,  unavoidably  results.  Maho- 
met introduced  into  his  Koran  the  doctrine 
of  absolute  predestination  of  the  course  of  hu- 
man affairs.  He  represented  life  and  death, 
prosperity  and  adversity,  and  every  event 
that  befalls  a  man  in  this  world,  as  the  result 
of  a  previous  determination  of  the  one  God 
who  rules  over  all.  Augustine  and  the  whole 
of  the  earliest  reformers,  but  especially  Cal- 
vin, favoured  this  doctrine.  It  was  generally 
asserted,  and  publicly  owned,  in  most  of  the 
confessions  of  faith  of  the  reformed  churches, 
and  particularly  in  the  church  of  England ; 
and  to  this  we  may  add,  that  it  was  main- 
tained by  a  great  number  of  divines  in  the 
two  last  centuries. 

As  to  the  nature  of  these  decrees,  it  must 
be  observed,  that  they  are  not  the  result  of ! 
deliberation,   or  the    Almighty's    debating ' 
matters  within  himself,  reasoning  in  his  own 
mind  about  the  expediency  or  inexpediency 
of  things,  ascreatures  do;  norare  they  merely  I 
ideas  of  things  future,  but  settled  determina- ; 
tions  founded  on  his  sovereign  v/ill  and  plea-  I 
sure,  Is.  xl.  14   They  are  to  be  considered  as  ' 
eternal :  this  is  evident ;  for  if  God  be  eter- 
nal,  consequently  his  purposes  must  be  of 
equal  duration  with  himself:  tosuppose  other- 
wise, would  be  to  suppose  that  there  v/as  a 
time  when  he  was  undetermined  and  muta- 
ble ;  whereas  no  new  determinations  or  after 
thoughts  can  arise  in  his  mind,  Jobxxiii.  13, 
14. — 2  They  ^vefree,  without  any  compul- 
sion, and  not  exci'.ed  by  any  motive  out  of 
himself,  Rom.  ix..l5. — 3.  They  are  bifinitely 
ivise,  displaying  his  glory,  and  promoting  the 
general  good,  Rom.  xi  33  — 4.  They  are  im- 
mutable,  for  this  is  the  result  of  his  being  in- 
finitely perfect ;  for  if  there  were  the  lea«t 
change  in  God's  understanding,  it  would  be 
an  instance  of  imperfection.  Mai.  iii.  6. — 5 
They  are  ej^tensive  or  universal,  relating  to 
all  creatures  and  things  in  heaven,  earth,  and 
hell,  Eph.  i.  11.  Prov   xvi.  4 — 6.  They  are 
secret,  or  at  least  cannot  be  known  till  he  be 


pleased  to  discover  them.  It  is  therefore  pre- 
sumption for  any  to  attempt  to  enter  into  or 
judge  of  his  secret  purpose,  or  to  decide  upon 
what  he  has  not  revealed,  Deut.  xxix.  29. 
Nor  is  an  unknown  or  supposed  decree  at 
any  time  to  be  the  rule  of  our  conduct.  His 
revealed  will  alone  must  be  considered  as  the 
rule  by  which  we  are  to  judge  of  the  event 
of  things,  as  well  as  of  our  conduct  at  large, 
Rom.  xi.  34. — 7.  Lasdy,  they  are  effectual; 
for  as  he  is  infinitely  wise  to  plan,  so  he  is 
infinitely  powerful  to  perform :  Ma  counsel 
shall  stand,  and  he  nvill  do  all  his  pleasure^ 
Is.  xlvi.  10. 

This  doctrine  should  teach  us,  1.  AdmirU' 
tion.  "  He  is  the  rock,  his  work  is  perfect, 
for  all  his  ways  are  judgment;  a  God  of  tinith, 
and  without  iniquity ;  just  and  right  is  he." 
Deut.  xxxii.  4. — 2.  iReverence.  "  Who  would 
not  fear  thee,  O  King  of  nations  I  for  to  thee 
doth  it  appertain,"  Jer.  x.  7. — 3.  Humility. 
"■  O  the  depth  of  the  riches,  both  of  the  wis- 
dom and  knowledge  of  God  ! — how  unsearch- 
able are  his  judgments,  and  his  ways  past 
finding  out!"  Rom.  xi.  33. — 4.  Submission. 
"  For  he  doeth  according  to  his  will  in  the 
armies  of  heaven,  and  among  the  inhabitants 
of  the  earth  ;  and  none  can  stay  his  hand,  or 
say  unto  him  what  doest  thou  ?"  Dan.  iv. 
35. — 5.  Desire  for  heaven,  "  What  I  de, 
thou  knowest  not  now ;  but  thou  shalt  know 
hereafter,"  John  xiii.  7.  See  NECEssirr, 
Predestination. 

Decrees  of  Councils,  are  the  laws  made 
by  them  to  regulate  the  doctrine  and  policy 
of  the  church.  Thus  the  acts  of  the  Chris- 
tian council  at  Jerusalem  are  called,  ActB 
xvi.  4. 

DECRETAL,  a  letter  of  a  pope,  deter- 
mining some  point  of  question  in  the  ecclesi- 
astical law.  The  decretals  compose  the  se- 
cond part  of  the  canon  law.  The  first  genu- 
ine one,  acknowledged  by  all  the  learned  as 
such,  is  a  letter  of  Pope  Siricius,  written  in 
the  year  385,  to  Himerus,  bishop  of  TaiTa- 
gona,  in  Spain,  concerning  some  disorders 
which  had  crept  into  the  churches  of  Spain. 
Gratian  published  a  collection  of  decretals^v 
containing  all  the  ordinances  made  by  the 
popes  till  the  year  1150.  Gregory  IX.  in  1227, 
following  the  example  of  Theodosius  and 
Justinian,  formed  a  constitution  of  his  own, 
collecting  into  one  body  all  the  decisions  and 
all  the  causes  which  served  to  advance  the 
papal  power  ;  which  collection  of  decretals 
was  called  the  Pentateuch.,  because  it  con- 
tained five  books. 

DEDICATION,  a  religious  ceremony, 
whereby  any  person  or  thing,  is  solemnly 
consecrated,  or  set  apart  to  the  service  of 
God  and  the  purposes  of  religion. 

The  use  of  dedications  is  very  ancient, 
both  among  the  worshippers  of  the  true  God, 
and  among  the  heathens.  In  the  Scriptm'e 
we  meet  with  dedications  of  the  tabernacle, 
altars.  8cc.  Under  Christianity  dedication  is 
only  applied  to  a  church,  atid  is  properly  the 
consecration  thereof   See  Consecration, 

DEFENCE.   See  Self  uefence. 


DEI 


120 


DEI 


DEFENDER  OF  THE  FAITH  {Fidei 
Df/ensor,)  a  peculiar  title  belonging  to  the 
king  of  England ;  as  L'atholkus  to  the  king 
of  Spain,  and  C/iristianissimus  to  the  king  of 
France.  These  titles  were  given  by  the  popes 
of  Rome.  That  of  Fidei  l3efensor  was  first 
conferred  by  Leo  X  on  king  Henry  VIII. 
for  writing  against  Martin  Luther ;  and  the 
bull  for  it  bears  date  quinto  idus,  October 
1521.  It  was  afterwards  confirmed  by  Cle- 
ment VII  But  the  pope  on  Henry's  suppres- 
sing the  houses  of  religion,  at  the  time  of  the 
reformation,  not  only  deprived  him  of  his  ti- 
tle, but  deposed  him  from  his  crown  also ; 
though,  in  the  35th  year  of  his  reign,  his  ti- 
tle. Sec.  was  confirmed  by  Parliament,  and 
has  continued  to  be  used  by  all  his  successors. 
Chamberlayne  says,  the  title  belonged  to  the 
kings  of  England  before  that  time,  and  for 
proof  hereof  appeals  to  several  charters 
granted  to  the  University  of  Oxford  :  so  that 
pope  Leo's  bull  was  only  a  renovation  of  an 
ancient  right. 

DEGRADATION  Ecclesiasiical,  is  the 
deprivation  of  a  priest  of  his  dignity  We 
have  an  iristance  of  it  in  the  eighth  century 
at  Constantinople,  in  the  person  of  the  patri- 
arch Constantine,  who  was  made  to  go  out 
of  the  church  backwards,  stripped  of  his  pal- 
lium, and  anathematized.  In  our  own  coun- 
try, Cranmer  was  degraded  Iiy  order  of  the 
bloody  queen  Mary.  They  dressed  him  in 
episcopal  robes,  made  only  of  canvass;  put 
the  mitre  on  his  head,  and  the  pastoral  staff 
in  his  hand,  and  in  this  attire  shtwtd  him 
to  the  people,  and  then  stripped  him  piece 
by  piece. 

Deists,  a  class  of  people  whose  distin- 
guishing character  it  is,  not  to  profess  any 
particular  form  or  system  of  religion  ;  but 
only  to  ac!;nowledge  the  existence  of  a  God, 
and  to  follow  the  light  and  law  of  Nature, 
rejecting  revelation  and  opposing  Christian- 
ity. The  name  of  deists  seems  to  have  been 
first  assumed  as  the  denominations  of  a  par- 
ty, about  the  middle  of  the  16th  century,  by 
some  gentlemen  in  France  and  Italy,  wlio 
\Vere  desirous  of  thus  disgiiisina;  their  opposi- 
tion to  (Christianity  by  a  more  honourable  ap- 
pellation than  that  of  atheists.  Viret,  an  emi- 
nent reformer,  mentions  certain  persons  in 
his  epistle  dedicatory,  prefixed  to  the  second 
volume  of  his  Inf,truction  C/:re/!im?e,  pub- 
lished in  1653,  who  called  themselves  by  a 
new  name,  that  of  deists.  These,  he  tells  us, 
professed  to  believe  in  Grd,  but  shewed  no 
regard  to  Jesus  Christ,  and  considered  the 
doctrine  of  the  apostles  and  evangelists  as 
fal)les  and  dreams.  He  adds,  that  they  laugh- 
ed at  all  religion,  though  they  outwardly 
conformed  to  the  religion  of  those  with  whom 
they  livt  d,  or  whom  they  wished  to  please, 
or  feared  to  offend  Some,  he  obser^  ed,  pro- 
fessed to  believe  the  immortality  of  the  soul ; 
others  denied  both  this  doctrine  and  that  of 
providence.  Many  of  them  were  considered 
as  persons  of  acute  and  subtile  genius,  and 
tof'li  jiains  in  disseininaiir  g  tl'.eir  notions.  Tt.c 
deists  hold,  that,  considering  the  multiplicity 


of  religions,  the  numerous  pretences  to  re- 
velation, and  the  precarious  arguments  gene- 
rally advanced  in  proof  thereof,  the  best  and 
surest  way  is  to  return  to  the  simplicity  of 
nature,  and  the  belief  of  one  Got! ;  wliich  is 
the  only  truth  agreed  to  by  all  nations.  They 
complain,  that  the  freedom  of  thinking  and 
reasoning  is  oppressed  under  the  yoke  of  re- 
ligion, and  that  the  minds  of  men  are  tyran- 
nized over,  by  the  necessity  imposed  on  them 
of  believing  inconceivable  mysteries ;  and 
contend  that  nothing  should  be  required  to 
be  assented  to  or  believed  but  what  their 
reason  clearly  conceives.  The  distinguishing 
character  of  modern  deists  is,  that  they  dis- 
card all  pretences  to  revelation  as  the  effects 
ot  imposture  or  enthusiasm.  They  profess  a 
regard  for  natural  relisjion,  though  they  are 
far  from  being  agreed  in  their  notions  con- 
cerning it. 

Thty  are  classed  by  some  of  their  own 
writers  into  mortal  and  immortal  deists  ;  the 
latter  acknowledging  a  future  state  ;  and  the 
former  den\  ing  it,  or  representing  it  as  very 
uncertain  Dr  Clarke  distinguishes  four  sorts 
of  deists.  1.  1  hose  who  pretend  to  believe 
the  existence  of  an  eternal,  infinite,  independ- 
ent, intelligent  Being,  who  made  the  woild, 
without  concerninghimself  in  the  government 
of  it. — 2.  Those  who  believe  the  being  and 
natural  providence  of  God,  but  deny  the  dif- 
ference of  actions  as  morally  good  or  eA  il,  re- 
solving it  into  the  arbitrary  constitution  of 
human  laws ;  and  therefore  they  suppose  that 
God  takes  no  notice  of  them.  With  respect 
to  both  these  Classt  s,  he  observes  that  their 
opinions  can  consistently  terminate  in  nothing 
but  downright  atheism. — 3  Those  who,  hav- 
ing right  apprehensions  concerning  the  na- 
ture, attributes, and  all-governing  providence 
of  God,  seem  also  to  have  some  notion  of  his 
moral  perfections ;  though  they  consider  them 
as  transcendent,  and  such  in  nature  and  de- 
gree, that  we  can  fenn  no  true  judgment, 
nor  argue  with  any  certainty  concerning 
them  :  but  they  deny  the  immortality  of  hu- 
man s(^uls.  alleging  that  men  perish  at  death, 
and  that  the  present  life  is  the  whole  of  hu- 
man existence. — 4.  Those  who  believe  the 
existence,  perfections,  and  providence  of 
God,  the  obligations  of  natural  religion,  and 
a  state  of  future  retribution,  on  the  evidence 
of  the  light  of  Nature,  without  a  divine  re- 
velation ;  such  as  these,  he  says,  are  the  only 
true  deists:  but  their  principles,  he  appre- 
hends, should  lead  them  to  embrace  Chris- 
tianity ;  and  therefore  he  conchides  that  there  A 
is  now  no  consistent  .scheme  of  deism  in  the  ■ 
world.  The  fir.st  deistical  writer  of  any  note 
that  appeared  in  this  country  was  Herbert, 
baron  of  Cherburg.  He  lived  and  wrote  in 
the  seventeenth  century.  His  brok  De  Vcri- 
late  was  first  published  ^X.  Paris  in  1624. 
This,  together  with  his  !50(.k  De  Cau&is  Er- 
rorum,  and  his  treatise  De  Riligione  Lcid, 
were  afterwards  published  in  London.  His 
Cekiirated  work  De Rcl'gione  (icnfWum-w&s  j 
published  at  Amsterdam  in  1663  in  4to,  and  ■ 
in  1700  in  Svoj  and  an  English  translation^ 


DEL 


121 


DEL 


of  it  was  published  at  London  in  1705.  As  he 
wasoneof  tlie  first  that  formed  deism  into  a 
sybteni,  and  asserteil  the  Mitliciency,  univL-r- 
Sality,  and  ahs«)lute  perfection  of  natural  reh- 
gioni  with  a  view  to  discard  all  f  xtraordiioa- 
ry  revelation  as  useless  and  needless,  we 
shall  sul;j')in  the  five  fundamental  articles  of 
this  universal  reliijion.  They  arc  these :  1. 
There  is  one  supreme  God — '2.  Tliat  he  is 
chiefiv  tobj  worshii5[)ed. — 3.  'liiat  piety  and 
virtue  are  the  princi])al  paitof  his  worship 
— 4  That  we  luust  repent  nf  our  sins  ;  and 
if  we  d<i  so,  God  will  pardon  ihem  — '■>.  Thut 


ty. — 2.  The  apparent  impossibility  of  ac 
countini;  for  the  quantity  of  water  neccssar 
to  overflow  the  wUole  earth  to  such  a  dept. 
as  it  is  said  to  have  been. — And,  3.  Thei 
appearing  no  necessity  for  an  universal  di 
lui^e,  as  the  same  end  might  have  been  a 
coniplis'.ied  l)y  a  partial  one. 

To  tlie  above   arguments  we  opjjose  th 
|)liin  declarations  ot  Scripture.  God  declan 
lu  Noah  that  he  was  resoh'ed  to  destroy  e\ 
ly  tliinj;  that  had   breath  under  heaven, 
had  life  on  the  earth,  by  a  flood  of  wat( 
such  was  tlie  threatening,  such  was  the  e^ 


thjre  are  rewards  for  ;^ood  men  and  punish-  \\  cion.  'I'he  waters,  Moses  a'  surcs  us,  cv.v 


liients  fur  bad  men,  boih  here  and  herealter. 
A  number  of  advocates  have  appeared  in  the  ;[ 
same  cause  ;  and  however  tney  m.iv  have  '.< 
tlifF'^red  among  themselves,  tliey  have  been  ( 
agreed  in  their  attempts  of  iuvalidatiiig  the  '■. 
evidence  and  authoritv  of  divine  reveiation.  ' 


the  wluilc  e;ii*th,  buried  p.li  the  monr.tM 
every  tiling  i)erished  therein  that  had 
excejuing  Noah  and  those  with  him  in 
ark.  Can  an  un.iversal  deluge  lie  moi'c  c! 
ly  expressed?  If  tiie  deluge  had  only  1 
pai'tial,  there  had  been  no  necessity  to  s| 


We  alight  mention  Hobbes,  Blount,  Toland,  j|  an  hundred  years  in  the  building  of  an  ; 
Collins,  VVnolston,    Tindal,  Morgan, ,Chnijb,  jj  and  shutting  up  all  sorts  of  animals  the 
lor  1  B.-'lingbrokc,  Hume,  Gibbon,  Paine,  and  Ij  in  order  to  re-st(  ck  the  world  ;  they  had  I: 
some  add   lord  Shal'tesb;ny  to  tl^e   numl)er.  |i  easily  and  re.adily  brought  from  those  p- 
Among  foreigners,  Voltaiiv,  Rousseau,  Con- i;  of  the  world  not  overflowed  into  tiiose  t 
dorcet,    and  many  other  celebrated  French  I  were;  at  least,  all  the  birds  never  would  h 
authors, have  rendere>d  themselves  conspicu- 
ous by  their  deistical  writings.     "  But,"  as 
one   observes,    "  the   friends  of  ChriKtianity 
liave  no  reason  to  i-egret  the  free  and  unre- 
served discussion   which   their  religion  has 
undergone.  Objections  have  been  stated  and 
urged  in  their  full  force,  and  as  folly  answer- 
ed ;  arguments  and  raillei-y  have  been  repel- 
led; and  the  controversy  between  Christians 
and  deists  has  called  forth  a  great  number  of 
excellent  Avriters,  who  have  iilustraterl  both 
the  doctrines   and  evidences  rf  Cliristianlty 
in  a  manner  that  wid  ever  reflect  honour  on 
their  names,  and  be  of  lasting  service  to  the 
cause  of  genuine  religion,  and  the  best  inter- 
t.sts  fif  mankind."  Seearticles  Christiani- 
ty, Infidklity  Inspir.vtion.  andScRip- 
TL'RK,   in    this   work.      LchnuPs    Vienv    of 
fJiisticul  Jl'rUer.s;  •Scrnions  ut  lioi/li:'/}  I.rc- , 
nivf  ;    Ha[yburton\'i  A'a^nral   Jictii^ion  in- 
suj/ii-ie72t  ;  Leslie'/}  Short  AL'!.hod  \ivh  the 
JJtists  ;   I'-i.shofi  JVarnon'a  ^Ifi  y^  igij  for  the 
Bible  ;    Fuller's  Gonfiel  of  Chrmt  iis  ovjh 
IVuness  ;     liifi/ioli  Portna'  (.  liarge  to  the 
Clercfy,  for  1791;  and  /lis  Sununari/^  of  the 
Kx'idcyicef!  of  Chrinlianicv. 

Dl':iTY  OF  CHlHSr.  See  Jiisrs 
Christ. 

DELUGE,  the  Hood  which  overflowed  atid 
destroyed  Uie  e.utli.  This  ilood  auikes  one  of 
the  most  considerable  e])oci\asin  chronologv. 
Its  history  is  given  by  .Mnses,  (ien.  vi.  and 
vil.  Its  time  is  fixed  by  the  best  clironologer.s 
to  the  year  fmiii  the  creation  16.56,  answering 
to  the  year  l)efore  Christ  2293.  From  this 
tlood,  the  state  of  the  world  is  divided  into 
diluvian  and  anted/luviafi. 

Men,  who  have  not  i)aid  that  regard  to'j  Various  have  been  the  cotjccturcs  of  lear. 
sacred  history  as  it  deservt's,  have  cavilleil  I  cd  men  as  to  the  natural  causa  of  ike  deluge 
-"■  '^-  accouiit  given  of  an  universal  deluge.  |l Some  have  sup.posed  that  a  quaiiiity  of  wate 


been  destroyed,  as  Moses  says  they  were, 
long  as  they  had  wings  to  bear  them  to  th< 
parts  where  the  flood  did  not  reach.    If  t 
waters  had  only  o\erflowed  the  neighboi 
hood  of  the  Euphrates  and  the  Tigris,  tli 
could  not  be  fifteen  cubits  above  the  highi 
mountains ;  there  v/as  no  rising  that  heig 
but  they  must  spread  themselves,  by  the  la\ 
of  gravity,  over  the  rest  of  the  earth  ;  un'e 
perhaps  they  had  been  retained  there  by 
miracle;  in  that  case,  Moses,  no  doubt,  woul 
have  related  the  miracle,  as  he  did  that  c 
the  waters  of  the  Red  Sea,  &c.  It  may  als 
be  observed,  that  in  regions  far  remote  froui 
the  Euphrates  and  Tigris.  \\z.  Italy,  I'rancc, 
Switzerland,  Germany,  England,  &c.,  there 
are  frequently  found  in  places  many  score's 
of  leagues  from  the  sea,  and  even  in  the  tops 
of  higli  mountains,  whole   trees  sunk  deep 
under  ground,  as  also  teeth  and  bones  ni  ani- 
mals, fishes  entire,  tea  shells,  ears  cf  corn, 
&c.,  petrified ;  which  the  be.st  natmv.lists  are 
agreed  could  never  have  come  there  but  by 
the  deluge.     That  the  Greeks  aiul  western 
nations  had  some  knowledge  of  t!ie  flood,  has 
never  been  denied  ;  and  the  Mtus'ulmen,  Chi- 
nese, and  Americans,  have  traditions  of  the 
deluge.     The  ingenious  Mr.  Bryant,  in  his 
Mythology,   has   pretty  clearly  j^roved  that 
tlie  deluge,   so   far  from  being  unknown  to 
the  heathen  world  at  large,  is  in  realitvcon- 
s'picuou.'i  through.out  every  one  of  their  acii 
of  religious  woi-shij).  In  India,  also.  Sir  Wil- 
liam Jones  has  discovered  that  in  the  oldest 
mythological  books  of  that  country,  there-  i.-. 
such  an  account  r^f  the  deluge  as  corre.-.ponds 
flicicntlv  with  that  fif  Me.ses. 


at  thi 


Their  objections  principally  turn  upon  three  ij  was  created  on  pm'j)ose,  and  at  a  propci.- 
points :  1.  The  want  of  any  direct  history  of  ],  time  annihilated  !)y  Divine  power.  Dr.  Eur-' 
that  event  bv  the  profan'e  Avriters of  antinui-    net   snnnoscs  t'l^-  nrimi'i-.f-   ^-..is  tr,  '.^t  .. 

O 


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122 


DES 


been  no  move  than  a  cnist  invesling  ihe  wa- 
ter contained  in  the  ocean;  and  in  the  cen- 
tral abyss  which  he  and  others  suppose  to 
exist  in  the  bowels  of  tlie  eartli  at  the  time 
ct"  tile  flood,  tills  outward  crust  broke  in  a 
tliousand  pieces,  and  sunk  (fown  among  the 
water,  which  thus  spouted  up  in  vast  cata- 
ricts,  and  overflowed  the  whole  surface. 
Oiliers,  supposing  a  sufficient  fund  of  water 
in  the  sea  or  abyss,  thin!;  that  the  shifting 
of  the  earth's  C(  nti-e  of  gravity  drew  after  it 
the  wateroutdf  the  channel,  and  overwhelm- 
ed the  several  parts  of  tiie  eaiih  successively. 
Others  ascribe  it  to  the  shock  of  a  comet, 
and  Mr.  King  supprses  it  to  arise  from  sub- 
terraneous fires  bursting  forth  with  great  vio- 
lence under  the  sea.  But  are  not  most,  if  not 
all,  tliese  hypotheses  quite  arljitrarv,  and 
Avithcnt  foundation  from  tiie  words  of  Aluses  ? 
It  is,  perhaps,  in  vain  to  attempt  accoimting 
for  this  event  by  natural  causes,  it  being  al- 
together niiraculcus  and  supernatural,  as  a 
])unisliment  to  men  for  the  cerrupiion  then 
in  the  world  Let  us  be  satisfied  with  the 
sources  which  Moses  gives  us,  namelv,  the 
fountains  of  the  great  deep  broken  up,  and 
the  windows  of  heaven  ojaened  ;  that  is,  the 
waters  rushed  out  from  the  hidden  abyss  of 
the  bowels  of  the  earth,  and  the  clouds  pi"ur- 
ed  down  their  rain  incessantly.  Let  it  suffice 
us  to  know,  that  all  th.e  elements  are  under 
€rod's  power;  that  he  can  do  with  them  as 
lie  pleases,  and  frequently  in  wa)  s  we  are 
ignorant  of,  in  order  to  accomplish  his  own 
purposes. 

The  principal  writers  on  this  subject  have 
been  IVoodyard,  Cockbtirn,  Bryant ^  Burnet, 
Whist  on,  Stillingjieet,  King,  Cat  cot  t,  and 
Tytlrr. 

DEPRAVITY,  corruption,  a  change  from 
perfection  to  imperf;ction.   See  Fall,  Sin. 

DEPRECATORY,  a  term  applied  to  the 
manner  of  performing  snme  ceremonies  in 
the  form  of  prayer.  'I'he  form  of  absolution 
irt  the  Greek  church  is  deprecative,  thus  ex- 
pressed— May  God  absolve  ytu  ;  whereas 
in  the  Latin  chmxh  it  is  declarative — I ub- 
solvr  1/071. 

D'E^CF.^T  cfC/iri  it  into  Hell.  See  Hf.ll. 

DESERTION,  a  term  made  use  of  to  de- 
note an  unhappy  state  of  mind,  occasioned 
by  the  sensible  inHuences  of  the  Divine  favour 
being  withdrawn.  Some  of  the  Ix  st  men  in  all 
ages  have  suffered  a  temporary  su'-pension  of 
Divine  enjoyments,  J(-b.  xxix.  2.  Ps.  li.  Isa. 
xlix.  14,  Lam.  iii.  1.  Isa.  i.  10.  The  catises 
of  this  must  not  be  attriljuted  to  the  Almigh- 
ty, sjtK^e  he  is  always  the  sanu\  but  must 
arise  from  ourselves.  Keglect  <if  duty,  impro- 
per views  of  Providence,  self-cunfidence,  a 
worldly  spirit,  lukewarmness  of  mind,  inat- 
tention to  the  means  of  grace,  or  open  trans- 
gression, may  be  c';nsideix"d  as  leading  to  this 
state.  As  all  things,  however,  are  under  the 
Divin.e  controul,  so  even  dcftrrtion,  or,  as  it 
is  sometimes  expressed  in  Scripture,  "  the 
hidings  of  God's  face,"  may  be  useful  to  cx- 
d'.e  humility,  exercise  faith  and  patience, 


detach  us  from  the  world,  prompt  to  more 
vigorous  action,  bring  us  to  look  more  to  God 
as  tl.e  fountain  of  happiness,  confcrm  us  to 
his  woi'd,  and  increase  our  desires  for  that 
state  of  blessedness  which  is  to  conic  Her- 
vey'si  Th'T.  and  Asp,  dial.  xix.  ;  Watta^ 
Medil.  on  Job  xxiii.  3.  Lambtrl's  Strm., 
vdl.  i.  ser.  16;  FlavtCs  Works,  vol.  i.  p. 
167.  folio. 

DESIRE  is  an  eagerness  to  obtain  or  en- 
jry  an  object  which  we  suppose  to  be  good. 
Tiiose  dt  sires,  says  Dr.  Watts,  that  ari.^^e 
without  any  express  ideas  of  the  goodness  or 
agreeableness  of  their  (ibject  to  the  mind 
beforehand,  such  as  hunger,  thirst,  £cc.;  are 
C'dWei]  appetites.  Thf'se  which  arise  from  our 
perception  or  c^pinim  of  an  object  as  good  (  r 
agreeable,  are  most  pr(  perly  cnWiid passions. 
Sometimes  both  these  are  united.  If  our  de- 
sire to  do  or  receive  good  be  not  violent,  it 
is  called  a  simple  inclination  iv  propensity. 
VVhenjt  rises  high,  it  is  term.ed  longin^^ : 
when  our  desires  set  or.r  active  powers  at 
work  to  obtain  the  very  same  good,  or  the 
same  sort  of  good,  which  another  desires, 
it  is  called  emulation.  Desire  of  pleasures  of 
sense,  is  called  sensriality  ,  of  honour,  is  call- 
ed anibitioii  ;  of  riches,  covetousness  The 
objects  cf  a  good  man's  desires  are,  that  Grd 
may  be  glorified,  his  sins  forgiven  and  sub- 
dued, his  affections  enlivened  and  placed  on 
God  as  the  supreme  object  of  love,  his  af- 
flictions sanctified,  and  his  life  devoted  to  the 
service  of  God,  Prov.  xi.  23.  Ps.  cv.  19. 

DESPAIR.  l(ss  of  hope;  that  state  of 
mind  in  which  a  persr.n  loses  his  confidence 
in  the  Divine  mercy. 

Some  of  the  best  antidotes  against  despair, 
says  one,  may  be  taken  from  the  considera- 
tion, 1.  Of  the  nature  of  God,  his  irocdness, 
mercy.  &c. — 2  The  testimony  of  God  :  he 
hath  said,  he  desiretii  not  the  death  of  the 
sinner. — 3  From  the  woiks  of  Ci(  d:  lie  hath 
given  his  Si:n  to  die. — 4.  From  his  promises, 
Heb.  xiii  5. — .'i  From  his  command:  lie  hath 
commanded  vis  to  confide  in  mercy. — 6.  Fn  m 
his  expostulations,  &;c.  Baxter  on  Ncligiou.f 
Melancliohjf  L' landers  Essays,  p.  3f'8,  Robin- 
son's edit.;  (Jisborne's  Sern.on  on  Religioua 
Despondency. 

DES  TRUCTIONISTS,  those  who  believe 
that  the  final  [)unishment  threatened  in  the 
Gospel  to  the  Wicked  and  impenitent  con- 
sists not  in  an  eternal  preservation  in  misery 
and  torment,  but  in  a  total  extinction  ot  be- 
ing ;  and  that  the  sentence  of  annihilation 
shall  be  executed  with  more  or  less  torment, 
|)receding  or  attending  the  final  i)ericd,  in 
proportion  to  the  greater  or  less  guilt  of  the 
criminal. 

The  name  assumed  Iiy  this  denomination, 
like  these  of  many  others,  takes  for  granted 
the  question  in  dispute  ;  viz.,  that  the  Scrip- 
ture \vorddcstructio7j  means  annihilation  :  in 
strict  propriety  of  speech,  they  should  i;e 
called  Anni/tilationists.  The  doctrine  is 
largely  maintained  in  the  sermons  of  Mr. 
Samuel  Bourn,  of  Birmingham  ;  it  washtld 


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123 


DES 


also  by  Mr  J.  N.  Scott ;  Mr.  John  Taylor,  of 
Norwich  ;  Mr.  Marsom,  and  many  others 

In  defence  of  the  system,  Mr.  Bourn  ar- 
gues as  follows  :  there  are  many  passages  of 
Scripture  in  which  the  ultimate  punishment 
to  which  wicked  men  shall  be  adjudged  is 
defined,  in  the  most  precise  and  intelligible 
terms,  to  be  an  everlasting  destruction  from 
the  power  of  God,  which  is  equally  able  to 
destroy  as  to  preserve.  So  when  our  Saviour 
is  fortifying  the  minds  of  his  disciples  against 
the  power  of  men,  by  an  awe  of  the  far 
greater  power  of  God,  and  the  punishment 
of  his  justice,  he  expresseth  himself  thus  ; 
Fear  7ioC  thein  that  kill  the  body^  and  afttr 
th»t  have,  no  more  that  they  can  do  ;  fear 
Him  who  is  able  to  destroy  both  soul  arid 
body  in  hell.  Here  he  plainly  proposes  the 
destruction  of  the  soul  (not  its  endless  pain 
and  nns';ry)  as  the  ultimate  object  of  the 
divine  displeasure,  and  the  greatest  objtct 
of  our  fear.  And  when  he  says.  These  shall 
go  anvaii  into  everlasting  punishinent,  but 
the  righteous  into  life  eternal,  it  appears 
evident  that  by  that  eternal  jiunisJimcni 
which  is  set  in  opposition  to  eternal  life,  is 
not  meant  any  kind  of  life,  however  misera- 
ble, but  the  same  whica  the  apostle  ex;)res- 
ses  by  everlasting  desiructio7i  from  the  pre- 
sence and  fiower  of  the  Lord.  The  very 
term,  death,  is  most  frequently  made  use  of 
to  signify  the  end  of  wicked  men  in  another 
world,  or  the  final  effect  of  divine  justice  in 
their  punishment.  The  wages  of  sin  (saith 
the  apostle)  is  death  ;  but  eternal  life  is  the 
gift  of  God,  through  Christ  Jcsiis  our  Lord. 
See  also  Rom.  viii.  6. 

To  imagine  that  !)y  the  term  death  is 
meant  an  eternal  life,  though  in  a  condition 
of  extreme  misery,  seems,  according  to  him, 
to  be  confounding  all  propriety  and  meaning 
of  words.  Death,  when  applied  to  the  end 
of  wicked  men  in  a  future  state,  he  says, 
properly  denotes  a  total  extinction  of  hfe  and 
b?ing.  It  mav  contriljute,  he  adds,  t«  fix 
this  meaning,  if  we  observe  that  the  state  to 
which  temporal  death  reduces  men  is  usual- 
ly termed  by  our  Sniour  and  liis  apostles, 
sleep  ;  because  from  this  death  the  soul  shall 
be  raised  to  life  again  :  but  from  the  other, 
which  is  fully  and  properly  death,  and  of 
which  the  former  is  but  an  image  <  r  shadow, 
there  is  no  recovery  ;  it  is  an  eternal  death, 
an  everlasting  destruction  from  the  presence 
of  the  Lord  and  the  glory  of  his  powt  r. 

He  next  procreds  to  the  figures  liy  which 
the  eternal  ]junishment  of  wicked  men  is 
described,  aiid  finds  them  p'rfectly  agree- 
ing to  establish  the  same  doctrine.  One 
figure  or  comparis'in,  often  used,  is  that  of 
Lonil)usti!vie  inat.  i"ials  thrown  into  a  fire, 
which  vvili  consequently  be  entirelv  cnnsum- 
ed,  if  the  fire  be  not  quenched.  Depart  from 
me.  ye  cursed,  into  everlasting  f  re,  prepar- 
ed for  the  devil  and  his  angels.  The  mean- 
ing is,  a  total,  irrevocable  destruction ;  for, 
a.i  the  free  that  bringeth  not  forth  good  fruit 
is  hewn  down  and  cast  into  the  f  re,  and  is 
destroyed  ;  as  the  useless  chaff,  when  sepa- 


rated from  the  good  grain,  is  set  on  fire^ 
and,  if  the  fire  be  not  quenched,  is  consum- 
ed ;  so,  he  thinks,  it  plainly  appears,  that 
the  imageof  unquenchable  or  everlasting  fire 
is  not  intended  to  signify  the  degree  or  dura- 
tion of  torment,  but  the  absolute  certainty  of 
destruction,  beyond  allpossibility  of  recovery.. 
So  the  cities  of  Sndom  and  Gomorrah  are 
sajd  to  ha\e  suffered  the  vengeance  of  an 
eternal  f  re  :  that  is,  they  were  so  effectu- 
ally consumed,  or  destroyed,  that  they  C(>uld 
never  be  rebuilt ;  the  phrase,  eternal  fre, 
signifying  the  irrevocable  destruction  of  tliosi- 
cities,  not  the  degree  or  duration  of  the 
misery  of  the  iniiabitants  who  perished. 

The  ir^ages  of  the  worm  that  dicih  nor, 
and  the  fte  that  is  not  que7ichcd,  used  in 
-Vlark  ix.  43,  are  set  in  oppo.sition  to  enter- 
ing into  life,  and  intended  to  denote  a  period 
of  life  and  existence. 

Our  Saviour  expressly  assigns  different 
degrees  of  future  misery,  in  proportion  to 
men's  respective  degrees  of  guilt,  Luke  xii. 
47,  4S.  But  if  all  wicked  men  shall  suffer 
torments  without  end,  liow  can  any  of  them 
be  said  to  suffer  but  a  few  stripes  *  All  de- 
grees and  distinctinns  of  punisliment  seem 
swallowed  up  in  tlie  notion  of  never-ending 
or  infinite  misery. 

Finally,  death  and  eternal  destruction,  or 
annihilation,  is  properly  styled  in  the  New 
Te.stament  an  everlasting  punishment,  as  it 
is  irrevocable  and  unaltei-abie  forever;  and 
it  is  most  strictly  and  literally  stylrd,  an 
everlasting  desiriicticn  from  the  presence  of 
the  Lord,  and  from  the  glory  oj  his  power. 

Dr.  lulwards,  in  his  answer  to  Dr.  Chaiui  - 
cey,  on  the  salvation  of  all  men,  says  that 
this  scheme  was  provisionally  retained  bv 
Dr.  C  ;  i.  e.  in  case  of  the  scheme  of  univer- 
sal salvation  should  fail  him  ;  and  therefore 
Dr.  E.  in  his  examination  of  that  w(  rk,  ap- 
]U*oi)riates  a  chapter  to  the  consideration  of 
it.  Among  other  reasonings  again.st  it  are 
the  f  illowing : 

1.  The  different  degrees  of  punishment 
which  the  wicked  will  suff-M'  according  to 
their  works,  pmves  that  it  d'les  not  consist 
in  annihilation,  which  admits  of  no  degrees, 

2.  11  it  l)e  said  that  tlu-  punishmcrit  of  tho 
wicked,  though  it  will  end -in  anniliilation, 
yet  sliall  be  i^recr  ded  by  torment,  and  (hnt 
this  will  be  of  different  degrees  according  to 
the  degrees  of  sin;  it  may  b?  replied,  tliis 
is  making  it  to  be  compounded  ])artly  of  tor  • 
ment,  and  partly  of  anniliilation.  The  lattir 
also  api)ears  to  he  but  a  small  part  of  fiUure 
punisliment,  fi>r  that  alone  will  i)e  inflicted 
on  the  least  sinner,  and  on  account  of  the 
least  sin;  and  tiiatall  punishment  which  wi;i 
hi'  inflicted  on  any  person  above  t1iat  wliicii 
is  due  to  the  least  sin,  is  to  consist  in  tor- 
ment. Nay,  if  we  can  form  any  idea  in  the 
y)resent  state  of  what  would  be  dreadful  oi 
miserable  in  another,  instead  of  its  being  anj- 
punishment  to  be  annihilated  after  a  long 
series  of  torment,  it  must  be  a  deliveraiice, 
to  which  the  sinner  would  look  forward  with 
anxious  desire.    And  is  it  credible  tliat  tliis 


DE  S 


124 


DE  V 


.vaslhe  terminatioR  of  torment  that  cur  Lord 

leid  up  to  his  disciples  as>  an  object  of  dread? 

J^an  this  be  the  destruction  of  tlie  bcxly  and 

•oul  in  hell  ?    Is  it  credible  that  everlasting 

estruction  from  the  presence  of  the  Lord, 

id  from  the  glory  of  liis  power,  should  con- 

tute  onlv  a  part,   and  a  small  part,  of  fu- 

re  punishment ;    and  such  too,  as,  after  a 

•ries  of  torment,  must,  next  to  being  made 

appy,  be  tlie  most  acceptable  thing   tViat 

:ould  befal  them  ?    Can  this   be  the  object 

tlireatened  by  such  language,  as  recompensing 

tribulatioji,  and  taking  x'ewg'fa?jcf  in  flaming 

-  fire  ?  2  Thes.  i.  Is  it  possible  that  God  should 

<•  threaten  them  wiih   putting  an  end  to  their 

'.  miseries '  IMore  over,  this  dcsirnctlon  is  not 

described  as  the  conclusion  of  a  succession  of 

jiorments,  but  as  taking  place   immediately 

'after  the  last  judgaient.  When  Christ  shall 

come  to  be  glorified  in  his  saints,  then  shall 

,  the  Avicked  be  destroyed. 

3-  Everlasting  destruction  from  the  firc- 
\  sence  of  the  Lord  and  from    the  glory  of 
'  his  Jioiver,  cannot  mean  annihilation,  for  that 
!  would  be  no  exertion  ot   divine  power,  but 
merelv  the  suspension  of  it :  but  let  the  up- 
holding power  of  God  be  witiihcld  for  one 
moment,  and  the  whole  creation  would  sink 
into  nothing. 

4.  The  punisliment  of  wicked  men  will  be 
the  same  as  that  of  wicked  angels.  Matt. 
XXV.  41.  Depart  ye  cursed, into  everlasting 
fire,  prepared  for  the  devil  and  his  angels. 

But  the  punishment  of  wicked  angels  consists 
not  in  annihilation,  but  torment.  Such  is  their 
present  punishment  in  a  degree,  and  such  in 
a  greater  degree  will  be  their  punishment 
fiereafter.  Thev  are  "  cast  down  to  hell ;" 
ihey  *'  believe  and  tremble  :''  they  are  re- 
served in  chains  under  darkness  to  tlie 
judgment  of  the  great  day  ;  they  cried,  say- 
ing. What  have  we  to  do  with  thee?  Art 
ihou  come  to  torment  us  before  our  time  ?"' 
Could  the  devils  but  persuade  themselves 
ihey  should  be  annihilated,  -they  would  be- 
iiev'e  and  l^e  at  ease  rather  thaii  ti-emble. 

5.  The  Scriptures  explain  theirown  mean- 
ing in  the  use  of  such  terms  as  death,  de- 
struction, &c.  'i'he  second  tltath  is  express- 
ly said  to  consist  in  l;eing  cast  into  the  lake 
(ffire  and  biinisione,  and  as  having  a  part 
in  that  lake.  Rev.  xx  14.  xxi.  <S :  wliicli 
docs  not  describe  annihilation,  nor  can  it  l)e 
made  to  c^'nsist  with  it.  The  jihvase,  cut  him 
asunder.  Matt.  xxiv.  51.  isasstrong  as  these  of 
dtuth.  ciY destruction  :  ytt  that  is  made  locon- 
^ist  vi  having  their  f:ortio7i  with  hypocrites, 
ivhere  shall  Se  iveeping  and  gnashing  of  teeth. 

6  Tlie  happiness  of  the  lightei'us  does 
net  consist  in  eternal  bfing,  but  eternal  vjell- 
bcing  ;  and  as  the  jjunlahmcnt  of  the  v.icked 
stan.ds  every  wiiere  c]~'p"^sid  to  it,  if  nnist 
consist  not  in  the  Ir^ss  of  being,  but  of  well- 
Icing,  and  in  sulU'ring  the  contrary." 

IMie  great  Dr.  Watts  mav  be  considered, 
M  some  measure  a  ricstruciirnist ;  since  it 
was  his  opinion  that  the  children  of  ung(dly 
tiarents  who  died  in  infancy  are  annihilated. 
iSjc  Ara.iuiL.fnoN,  Uhlz.;  bourn's  Ser- 


mons ;  Dr.  Edwards  on  the  salvation  of  all 
men  strictly  examined;  Adajns*  view  of 
Religions- 

DETRACTION,  m  the  native  impor- 
tance of  the  word,  signifies  the  withdrawing 
or  taking  off  from  a  thing;  and  as  it  is  ap- 
plied to  the  reputation,  it  denotes  the  impair- 
ing or  lessening  a  man  in  jjoint  of  fame,  ren- 
dering him  less  valued  and  esteemed  by 
others,  Dr.  Barrow  observes  (Works,  vol  i. 
ser.  19,)  that  it  differs  from  slander,  which 
involves  an  imputation  of  falsehood  ;  from 
rcvili?ig,  which  includes  bitter  and  foul  lan- 
guage ;  and  from  censuring,  which  is  of  a 
uiure  general  purport,  extending  indifferent- 
ly to  ail  kinds  of  ])erso!is,  qualities,  and  .ac- 
tions; but  detraction  especially  respects  wor- 
thy persons,  g0(jd  qualities,  and  laudable  ac- 
tions, the  reputation  of  which  it  aimeth  to 
destroy.  It  is  a  fault  opposeil  to  ca?idour. 

Nothing  can  be  more  incongruous  with  the 
spirit  of  the  Gospel,  the  example  of  Christ, 
the  command  of  God,  and  the  love  of  man- 
kind, than  a  spirit  of  detraction  ;  and  yet 
tliere  are  many  who  never  seem  happy  but 
when  they  are  employed  in  this  work:  they 
feed  and  live  upon  the  supposed  infirmities 
of  clhers  ;  they  allow  excellence  to  none : 
they  depreciate  every  thing  that  is  praise- 
worthy ;  and  possessed  of  no  good  them- 
selves, they  think  all  others  are  like  them. 
"  O  1  my  soul,  come  thou  not  into  their  se- 
cret ;  unto  their  assembly,  mine  honour  be 
not  thou  united." 

DEVIL,A(«o'aA^,  calumniator,  or  slan- 
derer ;  a  fallen  angel,  especially  the  chief 
of  them.  He  is  called  Abaddon  in  HebreAv, 
ApoUyon  in  Greek,  that  is,  destroyer. — An- 
gel of  the  bottomless  pit.  Rev.  ix.  11. — Prince 
of  the  world,  John  xii-  31. — Prince  of  dark- 
ness, Eph.  vi.  12 — A  roaring  lion,  and  an  ad- 
\ersary,  1  Pet.  v.  8  — A  sinner  from  the  be- 
ginning, 1  John  iii.  8 — Beelzebub,  Matt  xii. 
24. — Accuser,  Rev.  xii.  10. — Belial,  2  Cor. 
vi.  15. — Deceiver,  Rev.  xx.  10 — Dragon, 
Rev.  xii.  3 — Liar,  John  viii.  44. — Leviathan, 
Isa.  xxvii.  1. — Lucifer,  Isa.  xiv,  12. — Mur- 
derer, jiihn  vii.  44. — Serpent,  Isa.  xxvii.  1. 
— Satan,  Job  ii.  G. — Tormentor,  Matt,  xviii. 
.34 — the  god  ui  this  v.orld,  2  Cor.  iv.  4.  See 
Sa  tan. 

DE\'OrEE,  in  the  primary  sense  of  the 
word,  means  a  person  wliol'y  civen  \\\)  to 
acts  of  ])itty  and  devotion  ;  but  it  is  usually 
understood,  in  a  bad  sense,  to  denote  a  bigot, 
or   suiiei-stiti(>us  jjcrscn. 

DEVOTION,  a  religious  and  fei-veiit  ex- 
ercise of  some   ])ul)lic  act  of  religi'in.   tr   a 
tcii^per  anfl  di.^K  sitionof  the  mind  rightly  at- 
fected  v.ith  such  exercises.    It  is  also  taken 
f'/rcerlnin  religioiis  practices  A^hich  a  person 
i  m:ds"es    it    a    rule  to   discliaige    regularly. 
I  '•  Wiierivt  r    the    vital    and    una'Uiltcratcd 
j  sj'irit  of  Ciiristian  devotion  prevails,  its  im- 
1  ms-diate  objects  will  be  to  ador^  the  ptifec- 
j  till  s  of  God  ;    to  entertain   with    reverence 
and  complacence   the    various  imitati'  ns  «f 
his  pleasure,  especially   those   contained  in 
holy  writ ;  to  acknowledge  our  absolute  de- 


DE  U 


125 


DIE 


pendence  on  and  infinite  cbligatinns  to  him ; 
to  Confess  and  lament  the  disorders  of  our 
nature,  and  the  transgressions  of  our  Uves  ; 
to  impNirc   his   grace   and   mercy  through 
Jesus  Cliiibt;  to  intercede  for  our  brethren 
of  mankind  ;  to  pray  for  the  jjropagation  and 
establishment  uf  truth,   rigliteousiiess,   and 
peace,  on  eartli ;  in  tine,  to  long  for  a  more  I 
entire  conformity  to  the  will  of  God,   and  to! 
breathe  afier  the  everlasting  enjoyment  of] 
hissfriendship.     The  effects  of  such  a  spirii  i 
habitually  ciierished,   and  feelingly  express- 
ed before  him  must  surely  be  important  and| 
happy.     Among  these  maybe  reckoned  a| 
profound  lumiility  in   the   sigiit  of  God,  a' 
Iiigh  veneration  for  his  presence  and  attri-t 
iHites,  an  ardent   zeal  for  his  worship   and  I 
]ionour,  a  constant  imitation  of  our  Saviour  s  i 
divine  example,  a  diffusive  charity  fur  men  I 
of  all  denominations,  a  generous  and  unwea- 
ried self-denial,  a  total  resignation  to  Provi- 
dence, an  increasing  esteem  for  the  Gospel, 
with  clearer  and  firmer  hopes  of  that  im- 
mortal life  which  it  has  brought  to  light." 

DEUTEROCANONICAL,  in  the  school 
theology,  an  appellation  given  to  certain 
books  of  holy  Sci'ipture,  which  were  added 
to  the  canon  after  the  rest,  either  by  reason 
they  wei'e  not  wrote  till  after  the  compila- 
tion of  the  canon,  or  by  reason  of  some  dis- 
])ute  as  to  their  canonicity.  The  word  is 
Greek,  being  compounded  of  ^evrepoc,  se- 
cond; and  x.ccvo)itKO(;,  canonical. 

The  Jews,  it  is  certain,  acknowledged 
several  books  in  tlieir  canon,  which  were 
put  there  later  than  the  rest.  They  say  tliat, 
under  Esdras,  a  great  assembly  of  their 
doctors,  which  they  call,  by  Avay  of  emi- 
nence, the  great  synagogjie,  made  the  col- 
lection of  the  sacred  books  which  we  now 
have  in  the  Hebrew  Old  Testament ;  and 
they  agree  that  they  put  bonks  therein  which 
had  not  been  so  before  the  Babylonish  capti- 
vity ;  such  as  those  of  Daniel,  Ezekiel,  Hag- 
gai,  &c.;  and  those  of  Esdras  ar,d  Nehemiah. 
And  the  Romish  church  has  since  added 
othei-s  to  the  canon,  that  were  not,  and  could 
not,  be  in  tlie  canon  of  the  Jews,  by  reason 
some  of  them  were  not  composed  till  after. 
Such  as  the  book  of  Ecclesiasticus,  witti  se- 
veral of  the  apociyphal  books,  as  the  Mac- 
cabees, Wisdom,  &c.  Others  were  added 
still  later,  by  reason  their  canonicity  had  not 
been  yet  ezamined  ;  and  till  sucii  examen 
and  judgment  tiiey  might  be  set  aside  at 
]ileasure.  But  since  tliat  church  has  pro- 
nounced as  to  the  canonicity  of  those  books, 
there  is  no  more  room  now  for  her  members 
to  doubt  of  them  than  there  was  for  the 
Jews  to  doubt  of  those  of  the  canon  of  Esdras 
And  the  deuterocanoincal  books  are  with 
them  as  canonical  as  the  proto-canonical  ; 
the  only  difference  betw^een  them  consisting 
in  this,  that  the  canonicity  of  the  one  was 
not  generally  known,  examined,  and  settled, 
as  sot.n  as  that  of  the  others.  The  dcutero- 
Canonical  .books  in  the  modern  canon  are,  the 
book  of  Esther,  "either  the  whole,  or  at  least 
the  seven  last  chapters  thereof;  the  epistle 


to  the  Hebrews;  that  of  James,  and  that  of 
Jude  ;  the  second  of  St.  Peter,  the  second  and 
third  of  St.  John,  and  the  Revelation.  The 
deuterocanonical  parts  of  bonks  are,  the 
hymn  of  the  three  cliildren  ;  the  jjrayer  of 
Azariah;  the  histories  of  Susannah,  of  Bel 
and  the  Dragon;  the  last  chapter  of  St. 
Mark  ;  the  bloody  sweat ;  and  the  appear- 
ance of  die  angel  related  in  St.  Luke,  chap, 
xxii.  and  the  history  of  the  adulterous  wo- 
man in  St.  John,  chap.  viii.  See  Canon. 
DIET,  an  assembly  of  tiie  states  of  Ger- 
many. We  shall  only  take  notice,  in  this 
place,  of  the  nuire  remarkable  of  those  v,  hich 
have  been  held  on  the  affairs  of  religif.ri.  1. 
The  diet  of  Augsburgh,  in  the  year  1530, 
was  assembled  tu  re-unite  the  princes  of  the 
empire,  in  relation  to  some  rtligi*  us  matters. 
The  emperor  himself  presided  in  this  assem- 
bly with  the  greatest  magnificence  imagin- 
able. The  elector  of  Saxon v,  followed  by  se- 
veral princes,  presented  tlie  conft.«>sion  of 
faith,  called  the  confession  of  Augsburgh. 
The  emperor  ended  the  diet  with  a  decree, 
that  no  akei-ation  should  be  made  in  the  doc- 
trines and  ceremonies  of  the  Romish  church 
till  the  council  should  order  it  C)therwibe  — 
2.  The  diet  of  Augsburgh,  in  1347,  was  held 
on  account  of  the  electors  being  divided  con- 
ceriiing  the  decisions  of  the  council  of  Trent. 
The  emperor  demanded  that  the  manage- 
ment of  that  affair  should  be  referred  to  him ; 
and  it  was  resolved,  that  every  one  should 
conform  to  the  decisions  of  the  council. — 3. 
The  diet  of  Augsburgh,  in  1548,  was  assem- 
bled to  examine  some  memorials  relating  to 
the  confession  of  faith  ;  but,  the  commission- 
ers not  agreeing  together,  the  emperor  nam- 
ed three  divines,  who  drew  the  design  of  this 
famous  interim,  so  well  known  in  Germany 
and  elsewhere.  See  Interim. — 4.  The  diet 
of  Augsburgh,  in  1550.  In  this  assembly,  the 
emperor  complained  that  the  interim  was  not 
observed,  and  demanded  that  all  should  sub- 
mit to  the  csuncil,  which  they  were  going  to 
renew  at  Trent ;  which  submission  was  re- 
solved upon  by  a  plurality  of  \otes. — 5.  The 
diet  of  Nuremberg,  in  1523.  Here  pope  Ad- 
rian Vlth's  nuncio  demanded  the  execution 
of  Leo  Xth's  bull,  and  Charles  Vth's  edict 
against  Luther.  But  the  assembly  drew  up  a 
list  of  grievances,  which  were  reduced  to 
an  hundred  articles,  some  whereof  aimed  at 
the  destruction  of  the  pope's  authf.rjty,  and 
the  discipline  of  the  Romish  chinch  ;  how- 
ever, they  consented  that  the  Lutherans 
should  be  conunanded  not  to  write  against 
the  Roman  Catholics. — 6.  The  diet  of  Nu- 
remberg, in  1524.  In  this  assembly,  the  Lu- 
therans having  the  advantage,  it  was  decreed 
that  the  jiope  should  call  a  council  in  Ger- 
many ;  but  that,  in  the  mean  time,  an  assem- 
bly should  be  held  at  Spire,  to  determine  W'hat 
was  to  be  believed  and  practised;  but  Charles 
IV.  prohibited  the  holding  this  assembly — 7. 
;  The  diet  of  Ratisbon,  in  1541,  was  held  for 
re-um'ting  the  Protestants  with  the  Roman 
\  Catholics.  The  emperor  named  three  Ro- 
■  man  Catholics  and  three  Protestant  divincsj 


DIL 


126 


DIR 


to  agree  upon  articles.  The  Roman  catholics 
•were,  Julius  Phlug,  John  Gropper,  and  John 
Eckius ;  the  Protestants  were,  Philip  Me- 
lancthon,  Martin  Bucer,  and  John  Pistorius ; 
but,  after  a  whole  month's  consultation,  they 
could  agree  upon  no  more  than  live  or  six 
articles ;  which  the  emperor  consented  the 
Protestants  should  retain,  forbidding  them  to 
solicit  any  body  to  change  the  ancient  religion. 
— 8.  The  diet  of  Ratisbon,  in  1546,  decreed 
that  the  council  of  Trent  was  to  be  followed, 
which  was  opposed  by  the  Protestant  depu- 
ties ;  and  this  caused  a  war  against  them  — 
9.  The  diet  of  Ratisbon,  in  1557,  demanded  a 
conference  bertween  some  famous  doctors  of 
both'  parties ;  which  conference  was  held  at 
Worms,  in  September,  between  twelve  Ro- 
man Catholic  and  twelve  Lutheran  divines ; 
but  was  soon  dissolved  by  the  Lutherans  be- 
ing divided  among  themselves — 10.  The  diet 
of  Spire,  in  1526.  In  this  assembly  (wherein 
jn'esided  the  archduke  Ferdinand)  the  duke 
uf  Saxony,  ajid  the  landgrave  of  Hesse,  de- 
manded tine  free  exercise  of  the  Lutheran 
religion :  upon  which  it  was  decreed,  that, 
the  emperor  should  be  desired  to  call  a  ge- 
neral, or  national,  council  in  Germany  within 
a  year,  and  that,  in  the  mean  time,  every  one 
should  have  liberty  of  conscience. — 11.  The 
diet  of  Spire,  in  1529,  decreed,  that  in  the 
countries  which  had  embraced  the  new  re- 
ligion, it  should  be  lawful  to  continue  in  it  till 
the  next  council ;  but  that  no  Roman  Catho- 
lic should  be  allowed  to  turn  Lutheran. 
Against  this  decree  six  Lutheran  princes,  viz. 
the  elector  of  Saxony,  the  marquis  oi  Bran- 
denbourg,  the  two  dukes  of  Lunenbourg,  the 
landgrave  of  Hesse,  and  the  prince  of  An- 
hSit,  with  the  deputies  of  fourteen  imperial 
towns,  protested  in  writing;  from  which  so- 
lemn protestation  came  the  famous  name  of 
I'rotestants,  wliicli  tlie  Lutherans  presently 
after  took.  12.  The  diet  of  Worms,  in  1521. 
In  this  assembly,  Luther,  being  charged  by 
the  pope's  nuncio  with  heros>',  and  refusing 
to  recaiit,  the  emperor,  by  his  edict  of  May 
26,  before  all  the  princes  of  Germany,  pub- 
licly ovitlawed  him. 

DIFFIDENCE,  distrust,  want  of  confi- 
flence  in  ourselves.  Diffidence,  says,  Dr. 
Johnson,  m^y  check  resolution  and  obstruct 
jjcrformance,  but  compensates  its  embar- 
rassment by  more  important  advantages:  it 
conciliates  the  ])roud,  and  softens  the  se- 
vere ;  averts  envy  from  excellence,  and  cen- 
sure rr<-,m  n)iscarriage. 

DIGGERS,  a  denamination  which  sprung 
up  in  (Jermany,  in  the  hfteenth  centm-y;  so 
called  because  they  dug  their  assembli'.  sun- 
der ground  in  caves  and  forests.  They  derid- 
td  the  rhiu'ch,  its  ministers  and  sacraments. 

DILIGENCE,  Christian,  is  constancy  in 
the  performance  of  all  those  duties  enjoined 
us  in  God's  sacred  word.  It  includes  activity 
and  vigour — watchfulness  against  intruding 
objects — firmness  and  resolution — patience 
and  perseverance.  The  shortness  of  our. 
time ;  the  importance  of  our  work ;  the  plea- 


sure which  arises  from  discharging  duly; 
the  uncertainty  of  the  time  of  our  dissolution ; 
the  consciousness  we  do  not  labour  in  vain  ; 
together  with  the  example  of  Christ  and  all 
good  men,  should  excite  us  to  the  mosWin- 
weariul  diligence  in  the  cause  of  God,  of 
truth,  and  our  own  souls. 

DIMISSORY  LETTER,  a  letter  given  by 
a  bishop  to  a  candidate  for  holy  orders,  leav- 
ing a  title  in  his  diocese,  directed  to  some 
other  bishop,  and  giving  leave  for  the  bearer 
to  be  ordained  by  him. 

DIOCESE,  the  ciicuit  of  every  bishop's 
jurisdiction.  It  is  formed  from  the  Greek 
^/oocjjT/?,  government. 

DIRECTORY,  a  kind  of  regulation  for  the 
performance  of  religious  worship,  drawn  up 
by  the  assembly  of  divines  in  England,  at  the 
instance  of  the  parhament,  in  1644.  It  was 
designed  to  supply  the  place  of  the  Liturgy, 
or  Book  of  Common  Prayer,  the  use  of  which 
they  had  abolished.  It  consisted  of  some  ge- 
neral heads,  which  were  to  be  managed  and 
filled  up  at  discretion ;  for  it  prescribed  no 
form  of  prayer,  or  circumstances  of  external 
worship,  nor  obliged  the  people  to  any  re- 
sponses, excepting  Amen.  The  substance  of 
it  is  as  follows: — It  forbids  all  salutations  and 
civil  ceremony  in  the  churches  ; — the  read- 
ing the  scriptures  in  the  congregatir.ii  is  de- 
clared to  be  part  of  the  pastoral  office : — all 
the  canonical  books  of  the  Old  and  New 
Testament  (but  not  of  the  Apc:crypha)  are 
to  be  publicly  read  in  the  vulgar  tongue :  how 
large  a  portion  is  to  be  read  at  once,  is  left 
to  the  minister,  who  has  likewise  the  liberty 
of  expounding,  Avhen  he  judges  it  necessary. 
It  prescribes  heads  for  the  prayer  before  ser- 
mon; it  delivers  rules  for  preachingthe  word; 
the  introduction  to  the  text  must  be  short 
and  clear,  drawn  from  the  words  or  context, 
or  some  parallel  place  of  scripture.  In  divid- 
ing the  text,  the  minister  is  to  regard  the 
order  of  the  matter  more  than  that  of  the 
words :  he  is  not  to  burden  the  memory  of 
his  audience  with  too  many  divisions,  nor 
perplex  their  understandi'igs  with  logical 
phrases  and  terms  of  arts ;  he  is  not  to  start 
unnecessary  objections ;  and  he  is  to  be  very 
sparing  in  citations  from  ecclcsiastioal  or 
other  human  writers,  ancient  or  modern,  &c. 
The  Directory  recommends  the  use  of  the 
Lord's  Prayer,  as  tlie  most  perfect  model  of 
devotion ;  it  forbids  private  or  lay  persons  to 
administer  baptism,  and  enjoins  it  to  be  per- 
formed in  tlie  face  of  the  congregation :  it 
orders  the  connnunion-table  at  the  Lord's 
supper  to  be  so  placed,  that  the  communi- 
cants mav  sit  about  it.  It  also  orders,  tliat  the 
SHl)bath  be  kept  with  the  greatest  strictness, 
both  publicly  and  ])rivately  ;  that  marriage 
be  solemnized  by  a  lawful  minister  of  the 
werd,  who  is  to  give  counsel  to,  and  pray  for 
the  parties ;  that  the  sick  be  visited  by  the 
minister  inider  whose  charge  they  are  ;  the 
dead  to  be  buried  without  any  j)T"iyers  or  re^ 
ligious  ceremonies ;  that  days  of  fasting  are 
to  be  observed  wlicn  the  judgments  of  God 


DIS 


127 


DIS 


are  abroad,  or  when  some  important  blessings 
are  desired ;  that  days  of  thanksgiving  for 
mercies  received  be  also  observed  ;  uiid,  last- 
ly that  singing  of  psalms  together  in  the 
congregation  is  the  duty  of  Christians.  In  an 
appendix  to  this  Directoiy  it  is  ordered,  that 
all  festivals,  vu'garly  called  holy  days,  are  to 
be  abolished  ;  that  no  day  is  to  be  kept  but 
the  Lord's  day  ;  and  that  as  no  place  is  ca- 
pable of  any  holiness  under  pretence  of  con- 
secration, so  neither  is  it  subjt-ct  to  pollution 
by  any  superstition  formerly  used ;  and 
therefore  it  is  held  requisite,  that  the  places 
of  public  worship  now  used  should  still  be 
continued  and  employed.  Should  the  reader 
be  desirous  of  perusing  this  Directory  at 
large,  he  may  hnd  it  at  the  end  of  JVcal's 
History  of  the  Puritans. 

DISCIPLE,  a  scholar,  crone  who  attends 
the  lectures  and  professes  the  tanets  <^f  an- 
other. A  Discifi'e  of  Christ  is  one  w'.io  be- 
lieves his  doctrines,  imbibes  his  spirit,  and 
follows  his  example.    See  Christian. 

DISCIPLINE,  Church,  consists  in  putting 
cliurch  laws  in  execution,  and  inflicting  the 
penalties  enjoined.    See  Church. 

DISCIPLINE,  Book  of,  in  the  history  of 
the  church  of  Scotland,  is  a  common  order 
drawn  up  by  Ciie  assembly  of  ministers  in 
1650,  for  the  reformation  and  uniformity  to 
be  observed  in  the  discipline  and  policy  of 
the  chu-  ch.  In  this  book  the  government  of 
the  church  by  prelates  is  set  aside ;  kirk 
sessions  are  established ;  the  superstitious 
observation  of  fast  days  and  saint  days  is 
condemned,  and  other  regulations  for  the 
government  of  the  church  are  determined. 
This  book  was  approved  by  the  privy  coun- 
cil, and  is  called  the  first  book  of  discipline. 

DISCONrENT,  uneasiness  at  our  pre- 
.sent  state. 

Man  never  appears  in  a  worse  light  than 
when  he  gives  way  to  this  disposition.  It  is 
at  once  the  strongest  procjf  of  his  pride,  ig- 
norance, unbelief,  and  rebellion  against  God. 
Let  such  remember,  that  discontent  is  a  re- 
flection on  God's  government  ;  that  it  cannot 
alter  the  state  of  things,  or  make  them  bet- 
ter ;  that  it  is  the  source  of  tlie  greattst 
misery  ;  that  it  is  an  absolute  violation  of 
God's  law,  Heb  xiii  5.  ;  and  that  God  has 
often  punished  it  with  the  most  signal  judg- 
ments. Numb.  xi.  Ps.  cvii.  See  Content- 
ment. 

DISCRETION,  prudent  behaviour,  aris- 
ing from  a  knowledge  of  and  acting  agree- 
able to  the  difference  of  things.  "  There 
are,"  says  Addison,  No.  225,  Spect.,  "  many 
more  shining  qualities  in  the  mind  of  man, 
but  there  is  none  so  useful  as  discretion:  it  is 
this  indeed,  which  gives  a  value  to  all  the 
rest ;  which  sets  them  at  work  in  their  pro- 
per times  and  places,  and  turns  them  to  the 
advantage  of  the  person  who  is  possessed  of 
them.  Without  it,  learning  is  pedantry, 
and  wit  impertinence  ;  virtue  itself  looks  like 
weakness :  the  best  parts  only  qualify  a  man 
to  be  more  sprightly  in  errors,  and  active  to 
his  own  prejudice.  ^ 


"  Discretion  is  a  very  different  thing  from 
cunning:  cunning  is  only  an  accomplishment 
of  little,  mean,  ungenerous  minds.  Disci  ttion 
points  out  the  noblest  ends  to  us,  and  pursues 
the  most  proper  and  laudable  methods  of  at- 
taiiiing  them  ;  cunning  has  i<nly  private  sel- 
fish aims,  and  sticks  at  nothing  which  may 
make  them  succeed.  Discretion  has  large 
and  extended  views,  and,  like  a  well  formed 
eye,  commands  a  whole  horizon  ;  cunning  is 
a  kind  of  short-sightedness  that  discovers  the 
minutest  objects  which  are  near  at  hand, 
but  not  able  to  discern  things  at  a  distance. 
Discretion,  the  more  it  is  discovered,  gives  a 
great  authority  to  the  person  who  possesses 
it  ;  cuiuiing,  when  it  is  once  detected,  loses 
its  force,  and  makes  a  man  incapable  cf 
bringing  about  even  those  events  which  he 
might  have  done,  had  he  passed  only  for  a 
plaui  man.  Discretion  is  the  perfection  cf 
reason,  and  a  guide  to  us  in  all  the  duties  of 
life  ;  cunning  is  a  kind  of  instinct,  thai  only 
looks  out  after  our  immediate  interest  and 
welfare.  Discretion  is  only  found  in  men  of 
strong  sense  and  good  understandings:  cun- 
ning is  often  to  be  met  with  in  brutes  them- 
selves, and  in  pers(«ns  who  are  but  the  few- 
est removes  from  them.  In  short,  cunning 
is  only  the  mimic  of  discretion,  and  may  pass 
I  upon  weak  men,  in  the  same  manner  as 
vivacity  is  often  mistaken  for  wit,  and  gra- 
vity for  wisdom."    See  Prudence. 

DISDAIN,  contempt,  asunworthy  of  one's 
choice.  It  is  distinguished  from  haughtiness 
thus:  Haughtiness  is  founded  on  the  high 
opinion  we  have  of  ourselves  ;  disdain  on  the 
low  opinion  we  have  of  others. 

DISINTERESTED  LOVE.  See  Self- 
love. 

DISPENSATION,  the  act  of  dealing  out 
anything.  The  two  different  methods  of 
revealing  the  truths  of  the  Gospel  before  and 
after  Christ's  death  are  called  the  Old  and 
New  Testament  dispeiisations.  The  dealing 
of  God  with  his  creatures  in  his  pro^  idence 
is  called  a  dispensation.  The  state  of  super- 
natural or  revealed  theology  may  also  be 
divided  into  six  dispensations.  1.  From  the 
fall  of  Adam  to  the  flood. — 2.  From  Noah  to 
the  giving  the  law. — 3.  From  that  time  to 
the  time  of  David  and  the  prophets. — 4. 
From  David  to  the  Babylonish  captivity. — 
5.  The  period  from  that,  to  the  time  of 
Christ,  finishes  the  Old  Testament  dispen- 
sation.— 6.  From  Christ  to  the  end  of  time, 
the  Gospel  dispensation.  The  superiority  cf 
the  last  dispensation,  as  Dr.  Watts  observes, 
appears,  if  we  consider  that  it  contains  the 
fairest  and  fullest  representation  cf  the  mo- 
ral law  ;  and  which  is  more  particularly 
explained  here  than  in  any  of  the  former 
dispensations. — 2.  In  this  dispensation  the 
Gospel  or  covenant  of  grace  is  revealed  more 
perfectly  and  plainly  than  ever  before ;  not 
in  obscure  expressions,  in  types  and  carnal 
metaphors,  but  in  its  own  proper  form  and 
language. — 3.  The  lites  and  ceremonies  un- 
der this  dispensation  are  preferable  to  those 
^  in  former  times,  and  that  in  this  respee.*- 


DI  S 


128 


DI  V 


they  are  fewer,  clearer,  and  much  more 
easy. — 4.  The  Son  of  God,  who  was  the  real 
mediator  throui^h  all  former  dispensations, 
has  condescended  to  become  the  visible  me- 
diator uf  this  dispensation — 5.  This  dispen- 
sation is  nit  cnntnied  to  one  family,  or  to  one 
nation,  or  to  a  few  agts  of  men,  but  it  spreads 
r.hrout^h  all  tiie  natums  of  the  earth,  and 
reaclit'S  to  the  end  of  lime. — ^6.  The  encou- 
lagcments  and  persuasive  helps  which  Chris- 
tianity gives  us  to  fuHil  the  duties  of  the 
covenant,  are  nnich  superior  to  those  which 
were  enj(.yed  uni.ler  any  of  the  former  dis- 
pensations. lVatt\s  IVoi'ks,  vol.  i.  ser.  47. 
8vo.  :  Gill's  Body  of  Div.,  Introd.;  Robin- 
son's Hermcns,  p.  174.  ;  Jucl^eli/'s  Uiz>., 
qu    35. 

DISPERSION  (:i  mankind  was  occasioned 
by  the  confusion  <>!:'  tongues  at  the  overthrow 
of  Babel,  Gen  xi.  9.  As  to  the  manner  of 
the  dispersion  of  the  pnsttrriiy  of  Noah  from 
tlie  plain  of  Shinar,  it  was  undoubtedly  con- 
ducted with  the  utmost  regularity  and  order. 
The  sacred  historian  informs  us,  that  they 
were  divided  in  their  lands:  every  one,  ac- 
cording to  his  tongue,  according  to  his  fami- 
ly, and  according  to  his  nation,  Gen.  x.  5.  20. 
31.  The  ends  ot  this  dis/iersion  were  to  po- 
pulate the  earth,  to  prevent  idolatry,  and  to 
display  the  divine  wisdom  and  power.  See 
Confusion  of  Tongues. 

DISPOSITION,  that  temper  of  mind, 
which  any  person  possesses. 

In  every  man,  says  lord  Kames,  there  is 
something  original  that  serves  to  distinguish 
him  from  othei  s,  that  tends  to  form  a  cha- 
racter, and  to  m  tke  him  meek  or  fiery,  can- 
did or  deceitful,  resolute  or  timorous,  cheer- 
ful or  morose.  This  original  bent,  termed 
dis/wsi'ion,  must  be  distinguished  from  a 
prmcijile  :  the  latter  signifying  a  law  of  hu- 
man nature  makes  part  of  the  common 
nature  of  man  ;  the  former  makes  part  of 
the  nature  of  this  or  that  man. 

DISPUTATION,  Religious,  is  the  agita- 
tion of  any  religious  question,  in  order  to 
obtain  clear  and  adequate  ideas  of  it.  The 
propriety  of  religious  disputation  or  contro- 
vei*sial  divinity  has  been  a  matter  of  doubt 
with  many.  Some  artfully  decry  it,  in  order 
to  destroy  free  enquiry.  Some  hate  it,  be- 
cause they  do  not  like  to  be  contradicted. 
Others  declaim  against  it,  to  save  themselves 
the  disgrace  of  exposing  thdr  ignorance,  or 
the  labour  of  examining  and  defending  their 
own  theses.  There  are  others  who  a\  oid  it, 
not  because  they  areconvincecl  of  tlic  impro- 
priety of  the  thing  itself,  but  because  of  the 
evil  temper  with  which  it  is  genei-ally  con- 
ducted. 

The  propriety  of  it,  however,  will  appear, 
if  we  consider  that  every  article  of  religion 
is  denied  by  some,  and  cannot  well  be  believ- 
ed, without  examination,  by  any.  Religim 
empowers  us  to  investigate,  debate,  and  ccn- 
trovert  each  article,  in  order  to  ascertain 
the  evidences  of  its  truth.  The  divine  ^^  ri- 
tings,  many  of  them,  ai'c  controversial  ;  the 
iiook  of  Job,  and  Paul's  epistles,   especially. 


The  ministry  of  our  Lord  was  a  perpetual 
controversy,  and  the  apostles  came  at  truth 
by  much  disputing.  Acts  xv.  7.  xvii.  17.  xix. 
8.  To  attend,  howevtr,  to  religions  ccintrc- 
versy  M'ith  advantage,  t!ie  following  rules 
should  be  observed:  1.  The  question  sliorjd  be 
cleared  from  all  doubtful  terms  aiid  needless 
additions — 2.  The  prcc-i^^e  point  of  enquiry 
should  be  fixed. — .3.  That  the  object  cumtd 
at  be  truth,  and  not  the  mere  love  of  victo- 
ry.— 4.  Beware  of  a  dogmatical  spirit,  and  a 
supposition  that  yon  arc  always  right  — 
5.  Let  a  strict  i-eiii  be  kt'[)t  on  the  pas?ioiis 
when  you  are  liard  pushed.  Vide  Robinaoji'a 
Claude,  p.  24.5,  vol.  ii.  ;  li'alts  oji  ihe  wind, 
chap.  10.;  I'euttie  on  Trul/i,  347,  &c.  ;  I,Gcfcc 
on  the  Un dersi anding,  chap.  10.  vol.  iii. 

DISSEN  TEKS,  these  who  separate  from 
the  established  church.  The  numbtr  ofDis- 
sentersin  this  kingdom  is  very  considerable. 
They  are  divided  into  several  parties  ;  tlie 
chief  of  wliich  are  the  Presbytirians,  Inde- 
pendents, B.iptists,  (,iuakcrs,  and  Methodists. 
See  those  articles,  as  also  Noncon  for  justs 
and  Puf?iTANs. 

DISSIDENTS,  a  denomination  applied  in 
Poland  to  those  of  the  Lutheran,  Calvinistic, 
and  Greek  profession.  The  king  of  Poland 
engages  by  the  facta  con~venta  to  tolerate 
them  in  the  free  exercise  of  their  religion, 
but  they  have  often  had  reason  to  complain 
of  the  violation  of  these  promises. 

DISSIMULATION,  the  act  of  dissem-  ' 
bling.  It  has  been  distinguished  from  simu- 
lation thus:  Sinnilatio7i  is  making  a  thing 
appear  which  does  not  exist ;  dissimulation 
is  keeping  that  which  exists  from  appearing.  ' 
Moralists  have  ob.served,  tlmt  all  dissimula- 
tion is  not  hypocrisy.  A  vicious  man,  who 
endeavours  to  throw  a  veil  over  his  bad  con- 
duct, th.1t  he  may  escape  the  notice  of  men, 
is  not  in  the  strictest  sense  of  the  word  a 
hyp(  crite,  since  a  man  is  no  more  djligcd  to 
prcclainj  his  secret  vices  than  an_v  other  .  f 
liis  secrets.  The  hypocrite  is  one  who  dis 
sembles  for  a  bad  end,  and  hides  the  sran- 
that  he  may  be  more  sure  of  his  prey  ;  and. 
not  content  with  a  negative  virtue,  or  ni  • 
appearing  the  ill  man  he  is,  makes  a  shew 
of  positive  virtue,  and  a])pears  the  ma»  he 
is  not.    Sec  Hvpocrisv. 

DISSOLUTION,    death,  or  the  scparn 
tion  of  the  body  and  soul.    The  dissoluti:j:. 
of  the   world  is  an  awful  event,  which  we 
liave  reason  to  believe,  l)Oth  tVrai    the   Old  ' 
Testament  and  the  New,  will  certainly  t:kc 
place.     1    It  is  not  an  ir.credible  tiling,  sinr( 
nothing  of  a    material  nature  is  formed  toi 
perpetual  duration. — 2.   It  wiil  doubtless  1)> 
under  die  direction  of  the  Supreme  Bcini;,, 
as  its  creation  was — 3.  The  soul  of  man  will 
remain  unhurt  aniidst  this  general  desola- 
tion — 4.  It  will  be  an  introduction  to  a  greater 
and  nobler    system    in    the    governnit'nt   of 
God,  2  Pet.  iii.  13 — 5.  The  consideration  of 
it  ought  to  have  a  great  influence  on  us  while 
in  the  present  state,  2  Pet.  iii.  11,  12.    Se< 
Conflagration. 

DIVERSION,  something  tjiat  unbends  the 


DI  V 


129 


DIV 


mind,  by.  turning  it  off  from  care.  It  seems 
■  to  be  something  lighter  than  amusement, 
and  less  forcible  than  pleasure.  It  is  an  old 
simile,  and  a  v(;ry  just  one,  that  a  buw  kept 
always  bent,  will  grow  t'eeblti,  and  lose  its 
force.  The  alternate  succession  (it  business 
and  diversion  preserve  the  b<.)dy  and  soul  in 
tiie  happiest  temper.  Diversions,  must,  how- 
ever, be  lawful  and  good.  The  play-house, 
the  gaming  table,  the  masquerade,  and  mid- 
night assemblies,  must  be  considered  as  ini- 
mical  to  the  morals  and  true  hajipinebs  ui 
man.  The  most  rational  diversions  art  con- 
versation, reading,  singing,  music,  ric'.ing, 
&c.  They  must  be  modenae  as  to  the  time 
spent  in  them,  and  expence  t)f  them.  Sea- 
sonable, when  we  have  (as  Cicero  observes; 
despatched  our  serious  and  imjjurtant  affairs 
■See  Grove's  Regulatioufi  of  JJivtrsions  .• 
JTatls'  Imfiroveine72t  of  tht  Mind,  vd.  ii. 
sec.  9.  Elairs  tiermons  vol.  ii.  p.  17.  liur- 
der^is  Sfrnioii  on  ylniuscmeJiis  :  J''ricnd'ii 
iLven'mg  Arnuscmtnts. 

DiVlNA  I'KJN,  is  a  conjecture  or  sur- 
mise termed  concerning  some  future  event 
from  something  which  is  supposed  to  be  a 
presage  of  it ;  but  between  wliich  there  is 
no  real  connection,  only  what  the  imagma- 
tion  of  the  diviner  is  pleased  to  assign  ;n  or- 
der to  deceive. 

Divination  of  all  kinds  being  the  oftspring 
of  credulity,  nursed  by  imposture,  and 
strengthened  by  superstition,  was  necessarily 
an  occult  science,  retained  in  the  hands  cf 
the  priests  and  priestesses,  the  magi,  the 
soothsayers,  the  augurs,  the  visionaries,  the 
priests  of  the  oracies,  the  false  prophets, 
and  other  like  professors,  till  the  coming  of 
Jesus  Christ,  when  the  light  of  the  Gospel 
dissipated  much  of  this  darkness.  Tiie  vogue 
for  these  pretended  sciences  and  arts  is 
nearly  past,  at  least  in  the  enlightened  parts 
of  the  world.  There  are  nine  different  kinds 
of  divination  mentioned  in  Scripture.  These 
are,  1.  Tiiose  whom  Moses  calls  Meonen  of 
Anan,  a  cloud.  Dent,  xviii.  iO. — 2.  Tijose 
whom  the  prophet  calls,  in  the  same  place, 
JMtmacheseh,  which  the  Vulgate  and  gene- 
rality of  interpreters  render  Augur. — 3. 
Those  who  in  the  same  place  are  called 
Mecaacheph,  which  the  Septuagint  and  Vul- 
gate translate  "  a  man  given  to  ill  practices." 
— 4.  Those  in  the  same  chapter,  ver.  ]  1.  he 
calls  Hhobcr. — 5.  Those  who  consult  the 
spirits, called  Python. — 6.  Witches,  or  magi- 
cians, called  Judeoni. — 7.  .N'ecrommiccrs. 
who  consult  the  dead. — 8.  Such  as  consult 
staves,  Hosea  iv.  12  ;  called  by  some  R/iab- 
domancy. — 9.  Hefiatoscofiy ,  or  the  conside- 
ration of  the  liver. 

Different  kinds  of  divination  which  have 
passed  for  sciences,  we  have  had:  1.  Aero- 
mancy,  divining  by  the  ail'. — 2.  Astrology  by 
the  heavens. — 3.  Augury  by  the  flight  and 
singing  of  birds,  &c  — 4.  Chiromancy,  by  in- 
specting the  hand. — 5.  Geomancy.  by  observ- 
ing of  cracks  or  clefts  in  the  earth. — 6.  Ha- 
ruspacy,  by  inspectmg  the  bowels  of  animals. 
— 7.  Horoscopy,  a  branch  of  astrology,  mark- 

R 


iiig  the  position  of  the  heavens  when  a  man 
is  Ijorn. — 8.  Hydi'omancy,  i)y  v.'atcr. — 9  Phy- 
siognomy, by  the  countenance.     (This,  how- 
ever, is  considered  by  some  as  of  a  different 
nature,  and  worthy  of  being  rescutd  from 
the  I'libbish  of  superstition,  and  placed  among 
tlie  useful  sciences.    Lavaier  has  written  a 
I  celebrated  treatise  on  it. — 10.  Pyromancy,  a 
1  divination  made  by  lire.    Thus  we  see  v.hat 
I  arts  have   bL-eu  practised    to    deceive,    and 
j  liow  designing  men  have  made  use  of  ail  the 
1  four  eleinenls  to  ioipuse  upon  weak  minds. 

DiVlJSE,  something  relating  to  God.  The 
word  is  also  used 'figuratively  fur  any  thing 
that  is  excellent,  extraindinary,  and  that 
s'-ems  to  go  beycjnd  the  power  of  nature  and 
■-lie  capacity  of  man.  It  alsu  signifies  a  min- 
i.3t(  r,  ur  cK-riryman.  See  Minister. 

DIVIKITV,  the  science  of  theology.  See 

rHEOLOGY. 

DIVlblONS,  ECCLESIASTICAL.  See 

Schism. 

i>ilV()RCE,  is  the  dissolution  of  marriage, 
or  separation  of  man  and  wife.  Divorce  a 
meniiCi  et  tlioro,  \  e.  from  bed  and  boaro.  In 
this  case  the  wife  has  a  suitable  maintenance 
allowed  her  out  of  her  husband's  effects.  Di- 
vorce a  vinculo  mairiTiicnii,  i  e.  from  the 
bonds  of  matrimon}',  is  strictly  and  properly 
divorce.  This  hapj)eiis  either  in  consequence 
of  criminality,  as  in  the  case  of  adultery,  or 
through  some  essential  impetliment;  as  con- 
sanguinitj',  or  affmity  within  the  degrees  for- 
bidden, pre-C(,ntract,  impotency,  Sec  of 
which  impcdimc'its  the  canon  law  allows  no 
less  than  i4.  In  these  cases  the  woman  re- 
ceives again  only  wliat  she  brought.  Senten- 
ces which  release  the  parties  a  vinculo  7na- 
trimonii,  on  account  of  inipubcrty,  frigidity, 
consanguinity  witliin  the  prohibited  degrees, 
prior  marridge,  or  the.want  of  the  requisite 
consent  of  parents  or  guardians,  are  not  pro- 
perly dissolutions  of  tiie  marriage  contract, 
butjudicial  declarations  that  there  neverwas 
any  marriage  ;  such  impediment  subsisting  at 
the  time  as  rendered  the  celebration  of  the 
marriage  right  a  mere  nullity.  And  the  rite 
itself  contains  an  exception  of  these  impedi- 
ments. 

The  law  of  Moses,  says  Mr.  Paley,  for 
reasons  of  local  expediency,  permitted  the 
Jewish  husl)and  to  put  away  his  wife  ;  but 
whether  for  every  cause,  or  for  what  cause, 
appears  to  have  been  controverted  amongst 
the  interpreters  of  those  times.  Christ,  the 
precepts  of  v/iiose  religion  were  calculated 
for  more  general  use  and  observation,  re- 
vokes his  permission  as  given  to  the  Jews 
for  their  hardness  of  heart,  and  promulges  a 
law  which  was  thenceforward  to  confine  di- 
vorces to  the  single  cause  of  adultery  in  the 
wife,  Matt.  xix.  9  Inferior  causes  may  jus- 
tify the  separation  of  husband  and  wife  al- 
though they  will  not  authorise  such  a  disso- 
lution of  the  marriage  contract  as  would 
leave  either  at  liberty  to  marry  again  ;  for  it 
is  that  liberty  in  which  the  danger  and  mis- 
chief of  divorces  principally  consist.  The  law 
of  tliis  country,  in  confcaroity  to  our  Savlcur'*> 


DOM 


130 


DOM 


-injunction,  confines  the  dissolution  of  the  mar- 
riage contract  to  the  single  case  of  adultery 
in  the  wife  ;  and  a  divorce  even  in  that 
case  can  only  be  brought  about  l)y  an  act  of 
jDarliament,  founded  upon  a  previous  senti- 
ment in  tlie  spiritual  court,  and  a  verdict 
against  the  adulterer  at  common  law;  which 
proceedings,  taken  together,  compose  as 
complete  an  investigation  of  the  complaint 
as  a  cause  can  receive.  See  Paley's  Mor. 
and  Fol.  Fhilosojihy,  p.  273  ;  Doddridge's 
Lectures,  hct.  75. 

■  DOCET/E,  the  followers  of  Julius  Cassi- 
anus,  one  of  the  Valentinian  sect,  towards 
the  close  of  the  second  century.  They  be- 
ireved  and  taught  that  the  actions  and  suffer- 
ings of  Jesus  Christ  were  not  in  reahty,  but 
only  in  appearance. 

DOCTRINE,  the  principles  or  positions 
of  any  sect  or  master.  As  the  doctrines  of 
the  Bible  are  the  first  principles,  and  the 
foundation  of  religion,  they  should  l)e  care- 
fully examined  and  well  understood.  The 
Scriptures  preswit  us  with  a  copious  fund  of 
evangelic  truth,  which  thougii  it  has  not 
the  form  of  a  regular  system,  yet  its  parts 
are  such,  that,  wlien  united,  make  the  most 
complete  body  of  doctrine  that  we  can  pos- 
sibly luive.  Every  Christian,  but  divines  es- 
pecially, should  make  it  their  study,  because  [ 
all  the  various  doctrines  should  be  insisted  on 
in  public,  and  explained  to  the  people.  It  is 
not,  however,  as  some  suppsse,  to  fill  up  eve- 
ry part  of  a  minister's  sermon,  but  consider- 
ed as  the  basis  upon  wliich  the  practical  part 
is  to  be  built.  Some  of  the  divines  in  the  last 
century  overcharged  their  discourses  with 
doctrine,  especially  Dr.  Owen  and  Dr.  Good- 
win. It  was  common  in  that  day  to  make 
thirty  or  forty  remarks  before  the  immediate 
consideration  of  the  text,  each  of  which  was 
just  introducerl,  and  which,  if  enlarged  on, 
would  liave  afforded  matter  enough  for  a 
whole  sermon.  A  wise  preacher  will  jdin 
doctrine  and  practice  together. 

Doctrines,  though  abused  by  some,  yet, 
prop^rlv  considered,  will  influence  the  heart 
and  life.  Thus  the  idea  of  (Tod's  sovereignty 
excites  submissif^n  ;  his  power  and  justice 
promote  fear;  his  holiness,  humility  and  pu- 
rity ;  his  goodp.ess,  a  ground  of  hope  ;  his 
love  excites  joy  ;  the  obscurit}'  of  his  provi- 
dence i-equires  patience ;  his  faithfuir  ss, 
confidence,  &c. 

DOMINICANS,  a  religions  order ;  in 
some  places  called  Jacobins,  and  in  others 
Predicants,  or  fireaching  friars.  The  Domi- 
nicans take  their  name  from  their  founder, 
Dominic  de  Guzman,  a  Spaniard,  born  in 
3170,  at  Calaroga,  in  Old  Castile:  he  was 
first  caiAon  and  archdt^acon  of  Ossuna  ;  and 
afterwards  jH'cached  with  great  zeal  and  ve- 
hemence against  the  Albigenses  in  Langue-  j 
doc,  where  he  laid  the  first  foundation  of  his  i 
order.  It  was  approved  of  in  1215  by  Inno-  i 
cent  III.  and  confirmed  in  1316,  by  a  bull  of  j 
Honorius  III.  under  the  title  of  -S"^.  Jugiistin ;  I 
to  which  Dominic  added  several  austere  pre-  j 
cepts  and  observances,  obhging  the  brethren  ' 


to  take  a  vow  of  absolute  poverty,  and  to 
abandon  entirely  all  their  revenues  and  pos- 
sessions, and  also  the  title  uf  preaching  friars, 
because  public  instruction  was  the  main  end 
of  their  institution.  The  iirst  convt-nt  was 
founded  at  Thoulouse,  by  the  bishop  thereof 
and  Siman  de  Montfort.  'i'wo  years  after- 
wards they  had  another  at  Paris  near  the 
bishc  p's  house ;  and  sometime  aft»i^%  a  third 
in  the  Rue  St.  Jaques  (bt.  James'-street,) 
whence  the  denomination  of  Jacobins.  Just 
beibre  his  death,  Dominic  sent  Gilbert  de 
Fresney,  with  twelve  of  the  brethren,  into 
England,  where  they  founded  their  fir.st 
I  monastery  at  Oxford,  in  the  year  1221,  and 
I  so(  n  afier  another  at  Loi  don.  In  the  year 
rj76,  the  mayor  and  aldermen  of  the  city  of 
London  gave  them  two  whole  streets,  bv  the 
river  Thames,  where  they  erected  a  very 
commodious  convent;  whence  that  place  is 
still  called  Black/riars,  from  the  narie  bv 
which  the  Dominicans  were  called  in  Eli- 
gland,  St.  Dominic  at  first  only  took  the  ha- 
bit of  the  regular  canons  ;  that  is.  a  black 
cassock  and  rochet :  but  this  he  quitted,  in 
1219,  for  that  winch  they  have  ever  since 
worn,  which,  it  is  pretended,  was  shewn  by 
tite  blessed  Virgin  herself  to  the  beatified 
Renaud  d'Orleans.  This  order  has  been  dif- 
fused throughout  the  vv^hole  known  world. 
They  reckon  three  popes  of  this  order,  above 
sixty  cardinals,  several  patriarchs,  a  hun- 
dred and  fifty  archbishops,  and  about  eight 
hundred  bishops,  besides  masters  of  the  sa- 
cred palace,  whose  office  has  been  constant- 
ly discharged  by  a  religious  of  this  order 
ever  since  St.  Dominic,  who  held  it  under 
Honorius  III.  in  1218. 

Of  all  the  monastic  orders,  none  enjoyed  a 
higher  degree  of  power  and  authoritv  than 
the  Dominican  friars,  whose  credit  was 
great,  and  their  influence  universal.  But  the 
measures  they  used  in  order  to  maintain  and 
extend  their  authority  were  so  y^ei-fidious 
and  cruel,  that  their  influence  began  to  de- 
cline towards  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth 
century.  The  tragic  story  of  Jetzcr,  cor.duct- 
ed  at  Bern,  in  1509,  for  determining  an  un- 
interesting dispute  between  fhem  and  the 
Franciscans,  relating  to  the  invnaculaie  con- 
ce/ition,  will  reflect  indelible  infamy  on  this 
order.  In  order  to  give  the  reader  a  view  of 
the  impious  frauds  which  have  some  times 
been  carried  on  in  the  church  of  Rome, 
we  shall  here  insert  an  account  of  this  stra- 
tagem. 

The  Franciscans  maintained  that  the  Vir- 
gin Mary  was  born  without  the  blemish  rf 
original  sin ;  tlie  Dominicans  asserted  the 
cont  rary. 

The  doctrine  of  the  Franciscans,  in  an  age 
of  darkness  and  superstition,  could  not  but  be 
popular ;  and  hence  the  Dominicans  lost 
ground  from  day  to  day.  To  support  the 
credit  of  their  order,  they  resolved,  at  a 
chapter  held  at  Vimpsen,  in  the  year  1504, 
to  have  recourse  to  fictitious,  visions  and 
dreams,  in  which  the  people  at  that  time 
had  an  easy  faith  ;   and  they  determined  to 


DOM 


131 


DOM 


make  Bspn  the  scene  of  their  operations.  A 
person  named  Jetzer,  wlio  was  extremely 
simple,  and  much  inclined  to  austerities,  and 
whi>  hud  iKken  tht-ir  habit  as  a  lay-brother, 
was  chosen  as  the  instrument  of  the  delu- 
sions they  were  contriviiii?.  One  of  the  four 
Dominicans,  who  had  undertaken  the  man- 
ai^ement  of  tliis  plot,  conveyed  himself  se- 
cretly into  Jttzer's  Ct- 11,  and  about  midnight 
appeared  to  him  in  a  horrid  figure,  surrouiid- 
ed  Vvitii  howling  digs,  and  seeming  to  blow 
fire  from  his  nostrils,  by  the  means  of  a  box 
of  combustibles  whiclihcheld  near  hismoulh. 
In  this  frightful  form  he  approached  Jetzer's 
bed,  told  him  tliat  h^  was  the  ghost  of  a  Do- 
minican, who  had  been  killed  at  Paris,  as  a 
judgment  of  heaven  for  laying  aside  his  mo- 
nastic habit;  that  he  was  condemned  to  pur- 
*gatory  for  his  crime  ;  adding,  at  the  same 
time,  that  by  his  means  he  might  be  rescued 
from  his  misery,  which  was  beyond  expres- 
sion. 'I'liis  stoiT,  accompanied  with  horrible 
cries  and  howlings,  frightened  poor  Jetzer 
out  of  the  little  wits  he  had,  and  engaged  him 
to  promise  to  do  all  that  was  in  his  pow^r  to 
deliver  the  Dominican  from  his  torment. 
Upon  this:  he  impostor  told  him,  that  nothing 
but  the  most  t-xtraordinary  mortifications, 
such  as  the  disci/iliiit'  q/'  /he  w/ii/i  performed 
during  eight  days  by  the  whole  monastery, 
and  Jetzer's  lying  prostrate  in  the  firm  of 
one  crucified  in  the  chapel  during  mass, 
could  contribute  to  his  deliverance.  He  add- 
ed, that  the  performance  of  these  mortifica- 
tions would  drav/  down  upon  Jetzer  the  pe- 
culiar protection  of  the  Blessed  \'irgin  ;  and 
concluded  by  sa\  ing,  that  he  would  appear 
to  him  again,  accompanied  witli  two  othtr 
spirits.  Morning  was  no  sooner  come,  than 
JeLzCT  gave  an  account  of  this  apparition  to 
the  rest  of  the  convent,  who  all  unanini'  nsly 
advised  him  to  undergo  the  discipline  that 
was  enjoined  him,  and  every  one  consented 
to  bear  his  share  of  the  task  imposed.  The 
deluded  simpleton  obeyed,  and  was  admired 
as  a  saint  by  the  multitudes  that  crowded 
about  the  convent ;  while  the  four  friars  that 
managed  the  imp'^sture  magnified,  in  the 
most  pompous  manner,  the  miracle  of  this 
apparition  in  their  sermons,  and  in  their  dis- 
courses. The  night  after,  the  apparition  was 
renewed  withthi  addition  of  two  impostors, 
dressed  like  devils,  and  Jetzer's  faith  was 
augmented  by  hearing  from  the  spectre  all 
the  secrets  of  his  life  and  thoughts,  which 
the  impostors  had  learned  from  his  confessor. 
In  this  and  some  subsecjuent  scenes  (the  de- 
tail of  whose  enormities,  for  the  sake  of  Ijre- 
vity,  we  shall  here  omit)  the  impostor  talk- 
ed much  to  Jetzer  of  the  Dominican  order, 
which  he  said  was  peculiarly  dear  to  the 
Blessed  Virgin  :  he  added,  that  the  Virgin 
knew  herself  to  be  conceived  in  original  sin; 
that  the  doctors  who  taught  the  contrary 
were  in  purgatory;  that  the  Blessed  Virgin 
abhoiTcd  the  Franciscans  for  making  her 
equal  with  her  Son  ;  and  that  the  town  of 
Bern  would  be  destroyed  for  harbouring  such 
plagues  within  her  walls.  In  one  of  these  ap- 


paritions Jetzer  imagined  that  tiie  voice  (if 
the  spectre  resembleuthat  of  the  prior  of  the 
con\ent,  and  he  was  not  uiistaken;  but,  not 
susjiicting  a  fraud,  he  gave  little  attention 
to  Uiis.  Tlie  prior  appeared  in  various  forms, 
sometimes  in  that  of  bt.  Barbara,  at  otherj 
in  that  of  St  Bernard  :  at  length  he  assumed 
that  of  the  Virgin  Mary,  and,  for  that  jmi- 
pose,  clothid  himself  in  the  habits  that  wtje 
employed  to  adorn  the  statue  of  the  Virgin 
in  the  great  festivals.  The  httle  images,  that 
on  these  days  are  set  on  the  altars,  were 
made  use  of  for  angels,  which,  being  tied  to 
a  cord  that  passed  through  a  puliy  over 
Jetzer's  head,  rose  up  and  down,  and  danced 
about  the  pretended  Virgin  to  increase  the 
delusion.  The  Virgin,  thus  equipped,  ad- 
dressed a  long  discourse  to  Jetzer,  in  vvhicii, 
among  other  things,  she  told  him  that  she 
was  conceived  in  original  sin,  though  she 
had  remained  but  a  short  time  under  that 
blemish.  She  gave  him,  as  a  miraculous  proof 
of  her  presence,  a/toif.cr  consecrated  wafer, 
which  turned  from  white  to  red  in  a  moment; 
and  after  various  visits,  in  which  the  great- 
est enormities  were  transacted,  tiie  Virgin- 
prior  told  J'  tzer  that  she  would  give  him 
tiie  most  r.t/'Cting  and  undoubted  marks  if 
her  son's  iuve,  by  im])ririting  on  him  the^i;e 
vjounds  that  pierced  Jcsus  on  the  cross,  as 
she  hatd  done  before  to  St.  Lucia  and  St. 
Catharine.  Accordingly  she  took  his  hand  by 
foi'ce,  and  struck  a  large  naii  through  it, 
which  threw  the  poor  dupe  into  the  greatest 
torment.  The  next  night  t'uis  masculine  vir- 
gin brought,  as  he  pi'etended,  some  of  the 
linen  in  v/hich  Clirist  had  been  bnri-d,  to 
soften  the  wound  ;  and  gave  Jetzer  a  sopori- 
fic draught,  wiiich  had  in  it  the  jjlood  of  an 
unbaprized  chi'd,  some  grains  nf  ?:.cense  and 
of  consecrated  salt,  some  quicksilver,  the 
hairs  of  the  eye-brows  of  a  child  ;  all  which 
with  some  stnpifying  and  poismous  ingredi- 
ents, were  ■mingled  togeti.er  by  the  prior- 
with  magic  ceremonies,  and  a  solemn  dedica- 
tion of  himself  to  the  devil  in  hope  of  his 
succour.  The  draught  tiirtw  thepoor  wretch 
in  a  sort  of  lethargy,  during  wliich  the 
monks  imprinted  on  his  body  the  other  four 
wounds  of  C!  ♦'ist  in  such  a  m.anner  that  he 
felt  no  p-iin.  When  he  awakened,  he  found, 
to  his  unspeakai)le  joy,  thuse  impressions  on 
his  body,  and  came  at  last  to  fancy  himself 
a  representative  f  f  Christ  in  the  various 
parts  of  his  passion.  He  was,  in  this  state, 
exposed  to  the  admiring  multitude  on  the 
principal  altar  of  the  convent,  to  the  great 
mortification  of  the  Franciscans.  Tiie  Do- 
minicans gave  him  some  otherdraughts,  that 
threw  him  into  convulsions ;  which  were  fol- 
lowed by  a  pipe  into  the  mouths  of  two  ima-  ■ 
ges,  one  of  Mary,  and  another  of  the  child 
Jesus,  the  former  of  which  had  tears  paint- 
ed upon  its  cheeks  in  a  lively  manner.  The 
little  Jesus  asked  his  mother,  by  means  of 
this  voice  (which  w'as  that  of  the  prior's) 
why  she  wept  .■'  and  she  answered,  that  her 
tears  were  owing  to  the  im]nons  manner  in 
which  the  Franciscans  attributed  to  her  tlie 


DOM 


132 


DON 


honour  that  was  clue  to  him,  in  sayiiig  that 
she  was  c;)ucc;ived  and  born  -witliout  sin. 

The  apparidons,  false  prodigies,  and  abo- 
minable stratagemsot'  d\ese  Dominicans  were  i 
repeated  every  nit^ht;  and  the  matter  wasat  i 
length  so  grossly  over-acted,  that,  simple  as  | 
Jetzer  was,  he  at  last  discovered  it  and  had  i 
almost  killed  the  prior,  who  appeared  to  him 
one  night  in  the  form  of  the  Virgin  with  a 
Crown  on  her  head  TheDoniinicc'.ns  fearing, 
by  this  discovery,  to  lose  the.  fruits  of  their 
imposture,  thought  the  best  method  would  be 
to  cvn  the  whde  matter  to  Jetzer,  and  to 
enga;  e  him,  by  the  most  seducing  promises 
of  opulence  and  glory,  to  carry  on  the  cheat. 
JetZLr  was  persuaded,  or  at  least  apiieared 
to  be  so.  But  the  Dominicans  suspecting  that 
he  was  not  entirely  gained  over,  resolved  to 
poison  him  ;  but  iiis  constitution  was  so  vi- 
gorous, that,  tliough  they  ga.ve  Inm  ])ois(n 
five  several  tunes,  he  was  not  destroyed  by 
it.  One  day  they  sent  !"iim  a  loaf  prepared 
with  some  spices,  which,  growing  tureen  in 
a  day  or  two,  lie  threw  a  piece  of  it  to  a 
wolf's  whelps  that  were  in  the  monastery 
and  it  killed  tiiem  immediately.  At  anrther 
time  they  poisoned  the  host,  or  consecrated 
wafer;  but,  as  he  vomited  it  up  soon  after  he 
liad  swallowed  it,  he  escaped  once  more  In 
short,  there  were  no  means  of  securing  him, 
W'hicii  the  most  detestable  impiety  and  bar- 
barity could  invent,  that  they  did  t:ot  put  in 
practice  ;  till  finding,  at  last,  an  opportunity 
of  getting  out  of  the  convent,  he  threw  him- 
self into  the  hands  rf  the  magistrates,  to 
whom  lie  made  a  full  discovery  of  this  infer- 
nal plot.  The  affair  being  brought  to  Rome, 
commissaries  were  sent  from  th^  nee  to  ex- 
amine the  matter ;  and  the  whole  ch<-at  be- 
ing fully  proved,  the  four  friars  were  solemn- 
ly degraded  from  their  priesthood,  and  were 
burnt  alive  on  the  last  day  of  .May,  1509.  Jet- 
zer died  some  time  after  at  Constance,  hav- 
iiig  poisoned  himself,  as  was  bidieved  by 
some.  Had  his  hfe  been  taken  away  before 
he  had  found  an  opportunity  of  making  the 
discovery  already  me'itioned,  this  ext  crabk- 
and  horrid  plot,  which  in  many  of  its  circum- 
stances was  conducted  with  art,  would  havo 
been  handed  down  to  posterity  as  a  stupen- 
dous miracle. 

The  Dominicans  wereperpetually  employ- 
ed in  stigmatizing  with  the  name  of  heresy 
numbers  of  learned  and  pious  men  :  in  en- 
croaching upon  the  rights  and  properties  of 
others,  to  augment  their  possessions  ;  and  in 
laying  the  most  iniquitous  snares  and  strata- 
gems for  the  destruction  of  their  adversaries 
They  were  the  principal  counsellors  by 
whr-se.  instigation  and  advice  Leo  X.  was  de- 
termined to  the  public  condemnation  of  Lu- 
ther The  papal  see  never  had  more  active 
and  useful  abetters  than  this  order,  and  that 
of  the  Jesuits. 

DOMINION  OF  GOD,  is  Iiis  abs.,luto 
rigiit  to,  and  aulliority  over,  all  his  creatures, 
to  do  with  them  as  he  pleases.  It  is  distin- 
^lished  from  his  power  thus  :  his  domhno7i 
is  a  ri;^ht  of  making  what  he  pleases,  and 


possessing  what  lie  makes,  and  of  disposing 
what  he  doih  possess ;  whereas  his  power  is 
an  ability  to  make  wliat  he  hath  a  right  to 
create,  to  hold  what  he  doth  possess,  and 
to  execute  what  he  has  purposed  or  resolved. 
DONATISIS,  ancient  schismatics,  in  Af- 
rica, so  denominated  from  their  leader,  Do- 
natus  They  had  their  origin  in  the  year  311, 
when,  in  the  room  of  Mensurius,  who  died  in 
that  year,  'on  his  return  to  Rome,  Cacilian 
was  elected  bishop  of  Carthage,  and  conse- 
crated, without  the  concurrtnce  of  the  Nu- 
midian  bishops,  by  those  of  Africa  alone, 
whom  the  people  refused  to  acknowledge, 
and  to  whom  they  opposed  Majorinus,  who 
accord! !iu;ly  was  ordained  by  Donatus  bishop 
'it  CasEe  Nigrse.  They  were  condemned,  in  a 
council  held  at  Rome,  two  years  after  their 
soparatlon ;  and  afterwards  in  anotiier  at 
Aries,  the  year -following  ;  and  again  at  Mi- 
lan, before  Constantino  the  Great,  in  316, 
who  deprived  them  of  their  churches,  and 
sent  their  seditious  bisho]is  into  banishment, 
and  punished  some  of  ihcm  with  death.  Their 
cause  was  espoused  by  another  Donatus,  call- 
ed the  Great,  the  principal  bishop  of  that 
sect,  who,  with  numbers  of  his  followers, 
was  exiled  by  order  of  Constans.  Many  of 
them  werepunished  with  great  severity. --See 
CiRC{'MCELLiONES.  However,  after  the  ac- 
cession of  Jniiaii  to  the  throne  in  362,  thev  were 
permitted  to  return,  and  restored  to  their  for- 
mer liberty  Gratian  published  several  edicts 
against  them,  and  in  377  deprived  them  of 
their  churches,  and  prohibited  all  their  as- 
semblies. But,  notwithstanding  the  s<  verities 
they  sufl'ered,  it  appears  that  they  had  a  ve- 
rv  considerable  number  of  churches  towards 
the  clo  e  of  this  century  ;  but  at  this  time 
tliey  began  to  decline;  on  account  of  a  schism 
among  themselves,  occasioned  liy  the  elect' on 
of  two  bishops,  in  the  room  of  Parmenian, 
the  successor  of  Donatus  :  <ne  party  elected 
Primian.  and  were  called  primianists  ;  and 
another  Maximian,.  and  were  called  Max- 
imiardsts.  Their  decli  iie  w as  also  precipitat- 
ed by  the  zealous  opposition  of  St.  Augustine, 
and  by  the  violent  measures  which  were 
pursued  against  them  by  order  of  the  empe- 
ror Honorius,  at  ttie  solicitation  of  two  ci  un- 
cils  held  at  Carthago,  the  one  in  404,  and 
the  other  in  411.  iMany  (^f  them  weie  fined, 
their  bishops  were  banished,  and  some  jjut 
to  death.  This  sect  revived  and  multiplied 
under  tlie  protection  of  the  Vandals,  who  in- 
vaded Africa  in  427,  and  took  possession  of 
this  province  :  but  it  sunk  again  und^r  new 
severities,  wh(n  their  empire  was  overturn- 
ed, in  5.34  Nevertheless,  thev  remained  in 
a  se])arate  body  till  the  ch  se  of  this  century, 
when  (iregory.  the  Roman  pontiff,  used  va- 
rious metliods  for  suppressing  them  .-  Iiis 
zeal  succeeded,  and  there  are  few  traces  to 
be  found  of  the  Donatists  after  this  period. 
Tltey  were  distinguished  by  other  ap])ella- 
tions,  as  Circumctlltones,  Afonfen.?es  or 
Mouyitainccrs,  <  amfictes,  Rupitts,  8cc  They 
held  three  councils,  that  of  Cita  inNumidia, 
and  two  at  Carthage. 


D  OU 


133 


DRlj 


The  Donatists,  it  is  said,  held  the  baptism, 
cionfcried  out  of  the  church,  that  is,  out  of 
their  sect,  was  null ;  and  accordingly  they  re- 
baptized  thf)se  who  joined  their  party  irom 
other  churches:  they  also  re-ordained  their 
ministers.  Donatus  seems  likewise  to  have 
embraced  the  doctrine  of  the  Arians;  though 
St.  Augustine  affirms  that  the  Donatists  in 
this  point  kept  clear  of  the  errors  of  their 
leader. 

DORT,  Synod  of;  a  national  synod, 
summoned  by  authority  of  the  states-gene- 
ral, the  provinces  of  Holland,  Utrecht,  and 
Overyssei  excepted,  and  held  at  Dort,  1618. 
The  most  eminent  divines  of  the  United 
Provinces,  and  deputies  from  the  churches 
of  England,  Scotland,  Switz.erland,  Bremen, 
Hessia,  and  die  Palatinate,  assembled  o^^  ■ 
this  occasion,  in  order  to  decide  the  contro- 
versy between  the  Cnlvinists  and  Arminians. 
The  synod  had  hardly  commenced  its  deli- 
berations before  a  dispute  on  the  mode  of 
proceeding  drcve  tlie  Arminian  party  from 
tlie  assembly.  The  Arminians  insisted  upon 
beginning  with  a  refutation  of  the  Calvinis- 
tic  doctrines,  especially  that  of  reprobation  ; 
whilst  the  synod  determined,  that,  as  the 
remonstrants  wtre  accused  of  departing 
from  the  reformed  faith,  they  ought  first  to 
justify  tliemselves  by  scriptural  proof  of  their 
own  opinions.  All  means  to  persuade  the 
Arminians  to  submit  to  this  procedure  hav- 
ing failed,  they  were  banished  the  synod  for 
their  refusal.  The  synod,  however,  pro- 
ceeded in  their  examinvition  of  the  A.rmi- 
nian  tenets,  condemned  their  opinions,  and 
exc(v.nmunicated  their  persons:  whether 
justly  or  unjustly,  let  the  reader  determine. 
Surely  no  one  can  be  an  advocate  for  tlie 
persecution  wliich  followed,  and  which  (!rove 
these  men  from  their  churches  and  country 
into  exile  and  priverty.  The  authority  of 
this  synod  was  far  from  being  uni\'ersally 
acknowledged,  eitlier  in  Holland  or  in  Eng- 
land The  provinces  of  Fi'esland,  Zealand, 
Utrecht,  Guelderland,  and  Groningen,  could 
not  be  persuaded  to  adopt  their  decisions ; 
and  they  were  opposed  by  l;ing  James  I.  and 
archbishop  Laud,  in  England. 

DOSITHEANS,  an  ancient  sect  among 
the  Samaritans,  in  the  first  centuiy  of  the 
Christian  Era  ;  so  called  from  Dositheus, 
■who  endeavoured  to  persuade  the  Samari- 
tans that  he  was  the  Messiah  foretold  by 
Moses.  He  had  many  followers,  and  his 
sect  was  still  subsisting  at  Alexanclria  in  the 
time  of  the  patriarch  Eulogius,  as  appears 
from  a  decx"ee  of  that  patriarch  published 
by  Photius.  In  that  decree,  Enlogius  accu- 
ses Dositlieus  of  injuriously  treating  the  an- 
cient pati'iarchs  and  prophets,  and  attribu- 
ting to  himself  the  spirit  of  prophecy.  He 
makes  him  contemporary  with  Simon  Ma- 
gus; and  accuses  him  of  cormpting  the 
Pentateuch,  and  of  composing  several  books 
directly  contrary  to  the  law  of  God. 

DOUBTS  and  Fears,  are  terms  frequently 
tised  to  denote  the  uncertainty  of  mind  we 
are  in  respecting  our  interest  in  the  Divine 


favour.  The  causes  of  our  doubts  may  be 
such  as  these :  personal  declension ;  not 
knowing  the  exact  time,  place,  or  means  of 
our  com  ersion  ;  improp^'r  views  of  the  cha- 
racter and  decrees  of  God ;  the  fluctuation  of 
religious  experience  as  to  the  enjoyment  of 
God  in  i:)rayer,  hearing,  &c.;  the  depth  of 
our  afRiction  ;  relapses  into  sin  ;  the  fall  of 
professors ;  and  the  h.idings  of  God's  face. 
While  some  are  continually  harassed  with 
doubts  and  fears,  there  are  others  who  tell 
us  they  know  not  what  it  is  to  doubt ;  yea, 
v.iio  think  it  a  sin  to  doubt :  so  prone  are 
men  to  rim  to  extremes,  as  if  tliere  were  no 
medium  between  constant  full  assurance  and 
perpetual  doubt.  Tiie  true  Christian,  per- 
haps steers  between  the  two.  He  is  not  al- 
ways doubting,  nor  is  he  always  living  in  the 
full  exercise  of  faith.  It  is  not  unlawful  at 
certain  seasons  to  doubt.  "  It  is  a  sin,"  says 
one,  "  for  a  believer  to  live  so  as  not  to  have 
his  evidences  clear ;  but  it  is  no  sin  for  him 
t«  be  so  honest  and  impartial  as  to  doubt, 
when  in  fact  his  evidences  are  not  clear." 
Let  the  humble  Christian,  however,  beware 
of  an  extreme.  Prayer,  con\ersation  witli 
experienced  Christians,  reading  the  pro- 
mises, and  consideration  of  the  Divine  good- 
ness, will  have  a  tendency  to  remove  unne- 
cessary doubts. 

DOXOLOGY,  a  hymn  used  in  praise  of 
the  Almighty,  distinguished  by  the  titles  of 
the  Greater  and  the  Less-  Both  the  dox- 
ologies  are  used  in  the  church  of  England ; 
the  former  being  repeated  after  every  psalm, 
and  the  latter  used  in  the  communion  ser- 
vice- Doxology  the  Greater,  or  the  angelic 
hymn,  was  of  great  note  in  the  ancient 
church.  It  began  with  the  words  the  angels 
?nng  at  the  birth  of  Christ,  "  Glory  to  God," 
&c.  Doxology  tlie  J^ens  was  anciently  only 
a  single  sentence,  without  a  response,  run- 
ning in  these  words:  "  Glory  be  to  the  Fa- 
ther, and  to  the  Son,  and  to  the  Holy  Ghost, 
world  without  end,  amen."  Part  of  the  lat- 
ter clause,  "  as  it  was  in  the  beginning,  is 
now  and  ever  shall  be,"  &c.  was  inserted 
some  time  after  the  first  composition. 

DRAGOONING,  one  of  the  methods 
used  by  papists  after  the  revocntion  of  the 
edict  of  Nantz,  under  Lewis  XlV,  for  con- 
verting refractory  heretics,  and  bringing 
them  within  the  pale  of  their  church.  If 
the  reader's  feelings  will  suffer  him  to  peruse 
the  account  of  these  barbavites,  he  will  find 
it  under  the  article  Perskcution  in  this 
work. 

DREAD,  is  a  degree  of  permanent  fear, 
and  habitual  and  painful  apprehension  of 
some  tremendous  event.  It  keeps  the  mind 
in  a  perpetual  alarm,  in  an  eager  watchful- 
ness of  every  circumstance  that  bears  any 
relation  to  the  evil  apprehended. 

DRUIDS,  the  priests  or  ministers  of  reli- 
gion amorg  the  ancient  Gauls,  Britons,  and 
Germans.  They  were  chosen  out  of  the 
best  families  :  and  the  honours  of  their  birth, 
joined  with  thcs"  of  their  function,  procured 
them  the  highest  veneration  among  the  peo- 


DRU 


134 


DUN 


}>le.  They  were  versed  in  astrology,  geome- 
tty,  natural  philosophy,  politics,  and  geogra- 
p!iy  ;  they  were  the  interjjreters  of  rcJigions 
and  the  judges  of  all  aftaivs  indifferently- 
Whoever  rtfused  obedience  to  them  was 
tieclared  impious  and  accursed.  We  know 
but  little  as  to  their  peculiar  doctrines,  only 
that  they  believed  tlie  inimortalitv  of  the 
soul,  and,  as  is  generally  also  supposed,  the 
tvansmigration  of  it  to  other  bodies  :  thougli 
a  late  author  makes  it  appear  liighly  prorr 
bable  they  did  not  believe  this  la:it,  at  least 
not  in  the  sense  cf  the  Pythygoreans.  The 
chief  settlement  of  the  Druids  in  Britain 
was  in  the  isle  of  Anglesey,  the  ancient 
JMona,  which  they  might  choose  for  this 
ptu-pose,  as  it  is  well  stored  with  precious 
groves  of  their  favourite  oak.  They  were 
divided  into  several  classes  or  branches, 
such  as  the  /iriests,  the  fwcfs,  the  augnrs, 
the  civil  jiidgps,  and  inatructors  of  youth. 
Strabo,  however,  does  not  comprehend  all 
these  different  orders  under  the  denomina- 
tion of  druids  ;  he  only  distinguishes  three 
kings:  bardie  poets;  the  I'aies,  priests  and 
naturalists;  and  the  druids.  who,  besides 
the  study  of  Nature,  applied  themselves 
likewise  to  morality. 

Their  garments  were  remarkably  long  ; 
and  when  employed  in  religious  ceremonies, 
they  likewise  wore  a  white  surplice.  They 
generally  carried  a  wand  in  their  hands,  and 
wore  a  kind  of  ornament,  enchased  with 
gold,  about  their  necks,  called  the  druid's 
egg.  They  had  one  chief,  or  arch-druid,  in 
every  nation,  who  acted  as  higl>  priests,  or 
Jiontifex,  maximus-  He  had  absolute  au- 
thority over  the  rest,  and  commanded,  de- 
creed, and  punished  at  pleasure.  They  wor- 
shipped the  Supreme  Being  under  the  name 
of  JLsuSy  or  Tlesus,  and  the  symbol  of  the 
oak  :  and  had  no  other  temple  than  a  wood 
or  a  grove,  where  all  their  religious  rites 
were  performed.  Nor  was  any  person  per- 
mitted to  enter  that  sacred  recess  unless  he 
carried  with  him  a  chain  in  token  cf  his  ab- 
solute dependence  on  the  Deity.  Indeed, 
their  whole  religion  originally  consisted  in 
acknowledging  tiiat  the  Supreme  Being,  wh.o 
made  his  abode  in  these  sacred  groves,  go- 
%erned  the  universe  ;  and,  that  every  crea- 
ture ought  to  obev  liislaws,  and  pay  him  di- 
vine homage.  They  considered  the  oak  as 
the  em!)lem,  nr  rather  the  peculiar  residence, 
of  the  Almighty  ;  and  accordingly  chaplets 
of  it  were  worn,  both  by  the  druids  and  peo- 
ple in  their  religions  ceremonies:  the  altars 
were  streWed  with  its  leaves,  and  encircled 
with  its  branches  The  fruit  of  it,  especial- 
ly the  misletoe,  was  thought  to  contain  a 
divine  virtue,  and  to  be  the  peculiar  gift  of 
heaven.  It  was,  therefore,  sought  for  on  the 
sixth  day  of  the  moon  with  the  greatest  ear- 
nestness and  anxiety  ;  and  when  found,  was 
hailed  with  such  rapture  of  joy,  as  almost 
exceeds  imagination  to  conceive.  As  soon 
as  the  diuids  were  informed  of  the  fortu- 
nate discovery,  they  prepared  every  thing 
i-eady  for  tlie  sacrifice  under  the   oak,  to 


which  tiiey  fastened  two  white  bulls  by  the 
horns;  then  the  arch-druid,  attended  by  a 
prodigious  number  of  people,  ascended  the 
tree,  dressed  in  white ;  and,  with  a  conse- 
crated golden  knife,  or  prvuiing  hook,  crop- 
y)ed  the  misletoe,  which  he  received  in  his 
robe,  amidst  the  rapturous  exclamations  of 
the  people.  Having  secured  this  sacred 
plant,  he  descended  the  tree ,  the  bulls 
were  sacrificed  ;  and  the  Deity  invoked  to 
bless  his  own  gift,  and  render  it  efficacious 
in  those  distempers  in  which  it  should  be 
administered. 

DRUNKENNESS,  intoxication  with 
strong  liquor.  It  is  either  actual  or  habitual; 
just  as  it  is  one  thing  to  be  drunk,  and  another 
to  be  a  drunkard.  'I'he  evil  of  drunkenness 
appears  in  the  following  bad  effects;  1.  It 
betrays  most  constitutions  either  to  extrava- 
gance of  anger,  or  sins  of  lewdness. — 2.  It 
disqualifies  men  for  the  duties  of  their  sta- 
tion, both  by  the  temporary  disorder  of  their 
faculties,  and  at  length  by  a  constant  inca- 
pacity and  stupefaction. — 3.  It  is  attended 
with  exj>ence,  which  can  often  be  i\]  spared. 
— 4.  It  is  sure  to  occasion  uneasiness  to  the 
family  of  the  drunkard. — 5.  It  shortens  life. 
— 6.  it  is  a  most  pernicious  awful  example 
to  others. — 7.  It  is  hai-dly  ever  cured.— 8.  It 
is  a  violation  of  God's  word,  Prov.  xx.  1. 
Eph.  v.  18  Is.  V.  11.  Rom.  xiii.  13.  "  The 
appetite  for  intoxicating  liquors  appears  to 
me,"  says  Paley,  "  to  be  almost  always  ac- 
quired. One  proof  of  which  is,  that  it  is  apt 
to  return  only  at  particular  times  and  places; 
as  after  dinner,  in  the  evening,  on  the  mar- 
ket-day, in  such  a  company,  at  such  a  ta- 
vern." How  careful,  then,  should  we  be, 
lest  we  form  habits  of  this  kind,  or  choose 
company  who  are  addicted  to  it;  how  cau- 
tious and  circumspect  should  we  act,  that 
we  be  not  found  guilty  of  a  sin  which  de- 
grades human  nature,  banishes  reason,  in- 
sults God,  and  exposes  us  to  the  greatest 
evils  !  Paley^s  Mar.  Phil.  vol.  ii.  ch.  2.  J-'la- 
vel's  Works,  vol.  ii.  p.  349;  Buck' ft  Jinec- 
dotes,  vol.  i.  p.  82,  5th  edition;  JLajnonl's 
Sn:  vol.  i.  Ser.  15,  16.  / 

DULCINISTS,  the  followers  of  Duki- 
nus,  a  layman  of  Novara  in  Lombardy, 
about  the  beginning  of  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury. He  taught  that  the  law  of  the  Father, 
which  had  continued  till  Moses,  Avas  a  law 
of  grace  and  wisdom  ;  but  that  the  law  of 
the  Holy  Ghost,  which  began  with  himself 
in  130",  was  a  law  entirely  of  love,  which 
would  last  to  the  end  of  the  world. 

DUNKERS,  a  denomination  which  took 
its  rise  in  the  year  1724.  It  was  founded  by 
a  (German,  who,  weary  of  the  world,  reti- 
red to  an  agreeable  solitude  within  fifty 
miles  of  Philadelphia,  for  the  more  free 
exercise  of  religious  contemplation.  Curi- 
osity attracted  followers,  and  his  simple  and 
engaging  manners  made  them  proselytes. 
They  soon  settled  a  little  colony,  called  Eu- 
phrate,  in  allusion  to  the  Hebrews,  who 
used  to  sing  psalms  on  the  borders  of  the 
river  Euphrates.    This  denomination  seem 


E  AS 


135 


EBI 


to  have  obtained  their  name  from  their  bap- 
tizing their  new  converts  by  plungini;.  Tlity 
are  also  called  Tumblers,  from  the  manner 
in  which  they  performed  baptism,  which  is 
by  putting  tiie  person,  while  kneeling,  head 
rirst  utider  water,  so  as  to  resemble  the  mo- 
tion of  the  body  in  the  action  of  tumbling. 
They  use  the  triune  immersion,  with  laying 
on  the  hands  and  prayer,  even  when  the 
person  baptized  is  in  the  water. 

Tlieir  habits  seem  to  be  peculiar  to  them- 
selves, consisting  of  a  long  tunic,  or  cout, 
reaching  down  to  their  heels,  with  a  sasii 
or  girdle  round  the  waist,  and  a  cap,  or  ho(cl, 
hanging  fmm  the  shoulders,  like  the  dress 
of  the  Dfjniinican  friars.  The  men  do  not 
shave  the  liead  or  beard.  The  men  and 
women  liave  separate  habitations  and  dis- 
tinct gove4-nments.  For  these  purposes  they 
erected  two  large  wooden  buildings,  one  of 
which  is  occupied  by  the  brethren,  the  other 
by  the  sistei-s  of  the  society  ;  and  in  each  of 
ihem  there  is  a  banqueting  room,  and  an 
apartment  for  public  worship  ;  for  the  bre- 
thren and  sisters  do  not  meet  together,  even 
at  their  devotions.  They  live  chietly  upon 
roots  and  other  vegetables,  the  rules  of  their 
society  not  allowing  them  flesh,  except  on 
particular  occasions,  when  they  hold  what 
they  call  a  love-feast :  at  which  time  the 
brethren  and  sisters  dine  together  in  a  large 
apartment,  and  eat  mutton  ;  but  no  other 
meat.  In  each  of  their  little  cells  they  haxe 
a  bench  fixed,  to  serve  the  purpose  of  a  bed, 
and  a  small  block  of  wood  for  a  pillow.  The 
Dunkers  allow  of  no  intercourse  between  the 
iirethren  and  sisters,  not  even  by  marriage. 
The  principal  tenets  of  the  Dunkers  appear 
to  be  these  :  that  future  happintss  is  only  to 
be  attained  by  penance  and  outward  morti- 
fication in  this  life  ;  and  that,  as  Jesus  Christ  f 
by  his  meritorious  sufferings,  became  th.e 
Redeemer  of  mankind  in  general,  so  each 
individual  of  the  human  race,  by  a  life  of 
abstinence  and  restraint,  may  work  out  his 


own  salvation.  Nay,  they  go  so  far  as  to 
admit  of  works  of  supererogation,  and  de- 
clare that  a  man  may  do  i  uch  more  than 
he  is  in  justice  or  equity  obliged  to  do,  and 
that  his  sujjeralumdant  works  niay  therefore 
be  apyj'.ied  to  the  salvation  of  otiitrs.  This 
denomination  deny  the  eternity  of  future 
punish ment.s,  arid  believe  that  tliL  dead  have 
the  Gijs])el  preached  to  tlitm  by  our  Saviour, 
and  that  the  souls  of  the  just  are  employed 
to  preach  the  Gospel  to  those  who  have  had 
no  revelation  in  this  lite.  They  supjK)se  the 
Jewish  sabb^ith,  sabbatical  year,  and  year  of 
jubilee,  are  typical  of  certain  periods,  after 
the  general  judgment,  in  wiiich  the  souls  of 
those  who  are  not  then  adinittcd  into  happi- 
ness are  purified  from  tlieir  corruption.  If 
any  within  thoic  smaller  pericds  are  so  far 
humbled  as  to  acknowledge  the  perfections 
of  God,  and  to  own  Christ  as  their  only 
Saviour,  tliey  are  received  to  felicity  ;  while 
those  who  continue  obstinate  are  restrvedin 
torments  until  the  grand  period  typified  by 
the  jubilee  arrives,  in  which  all  shall  be 
made  happy  in  the  endless  fruitifrs  of  the 
Deity.  They  also  deny  the  imputation  of 
Adam's  sin  to  his  posterity.  They  disclaim 
violence  even  in  cases  of  self-defence,  and 
suffer  themselves  to  be  defrauded  or  wrong- 
ed rather  than  go  to  law. 

Their  church  government  and  discipline 
are  the  same  with  the  Enghsh  Baptists,  ex- 
cept that  every  brother  is  allowed  to  speak 
in  the  congregation  ;  and  their  best  speaker 
is  usually  ordained  to  be  the  minister.  They 
have  deacons  and  deaconesses  from  among 
their  anciefit  widows  and  exhorters,  who 
are  all  licensed  to  use  their  gifts  statedly. 

DUTY,  any  action,  or  course  of  actions, 
which  flow  from  the  relations  we  stand  in  to 
God  or  man ;  that  which  a  man  is  boimd  to 
perform  by  any  natural  or  legal  obligation. 
The  various  moral,  relative,  and  spiritual 
duties,  are  considered  in  their  places  in  this 

Wt_Tk. 


E, 


EASTER,  the  day  on  which  the  Christian,' 
churcli  commemni'ates  our  Saviour's  resur-! 
rcction.  It  is  called  by  the  Greeks  Pa^ga  ;\ 
and  by  the  Latins  Pasc/ia,  a  Hebrew  wordi 
signifying  passage,  applied  to  the  Jewish j 
feast  at  the  passover.  It  is  called  Easter  ini 
English,  frcm  the  Saxon  goddess  Eostre, 
whose  festival  was  held  in  April.  The  Asi-| 
atic  churches  kept  their  Easter  upon  thej 
very  same  day  that  the  Jews  oi)served  their 
passover,  and  others  on  the  first  Sunday  after' 
the  first  full  moon  in  the  new  year.  Thisj 
controversy  was  determined  in  the  council  of 
Kice,  when  it  was  ordained,  that  Easter 
should  be  kept  upon  one  and  the  same  day, 
which  should  always  be  Sunday,  in  all' 
Christian  churches  in  the  world. 


EBIONITES,  ancient  hei'etics,  who  rose 
in  the  churc'-i  in  the  veiy  first  age  thereof, 
and  foAied  them.selves  into  a  sect  in  the 
second  century,  denying  the  divinity  of  Jesus 
Christ.  Origen  takes  them  to  have  been  so 
called  froin  the  Hebrew  word  el)io7i,  which 
in  that  language  signifies /^oor;  because,  says 
he,  they  were  i)oor  in  sense,  and  wanting 
understan.ding.  Eusebius,  with  a  view  to  the 
same  etymolosv,  is  of  opinion  they  were 
thus  called,  as  having  poor  thoughts  of  Jesus 
Christ,  taking  him  for  no  more  than  a  mere 
man.  It  is  more  probable  the  Jews  gave 
this  appellation  to  the  Christians  in  general 
out  of  contempt ;  because,  in  the  first  timcij, 
there  were  few  but  poor  people,  that  embra- 
ced the  Christian  religion.     The  Ebionite.s 


E  CC 


136 


ECL 


were  little  else  than  a  branch  of  the  Naza- 
rent-s  ;  only  that  they  altered  and  corrupted 
in  many  things,  the  purity  of  the  faith  held 
among  the  first  adherents  to  Christianity. 
For  this  reason,  Oiigen  distinguishes  two 
kinds  of  Ebionitcs  in  liis  answer  to  Celsus ; 
the  one  believed  tiiat  Jesus  Christ  was  born 
of  a  virgin  ;  and  the  other,  that  he  was  born 
afttr  the  manner  of  other  men.  Tiie  first 
were  orthodox  in  every  thing,  except  that  to 
the  Christian  doctrine  they  joined  the  cere- 
JTionies  of  the  Jewish  law,  with  the  Jews, 
Samaritans,  and  Nazarenes ;  together  Avith 
the  traditions  of  the  Pharisees.  They  differ- 
ed from  the  Nazarenes,  however,  iii  several 
things,  chiefly  as  to  wh:tt  regards  the  autho- 
rity of  the  sacred  writings;  for  the  Naza- 
renes received  all  for  Scripture  contained  in 
the  Jewish  canon ;  whereas  the  Ebonites 
rejected  all  the  prophets,  and  held  the  very 
names  of  David,  Solomon,  Isaiah,  Jeremiali, 
and  Ezekiel,  in  abhorrence.  They  also  re- 
jected all  St.  Paul's  epistles,  whom  tliey 
treated  with  tlie  utmost  disrespect.  They 
received  nothing  of  the  Old  Testament  but 
the  Pentateuch.  They  agreed  with  the  Na- 
zarenes in  using  the  Hebrew  Gospe!  of  St. 
Matthew,  otherwise  called  the  Gospel  of  the 
twelve  apostles ;  but  they  corrupted  their 
copy  in  abundance  of  places  ;  and  particu- 
larly had  left  cmt  the  genealogy  of  our  Sa- 
A'iour,  which  was  preserved  entire  in  that 
of  the  Nazarenes,  and  even  in  those  used  by 
the  Corinthians.  Besides  the  Hebrew  Gospel 
of  St.  Matthew,  the  Ebionites  had  adopted 
several  other  books  under  the  titles  of  St. 
James,  John,  and  the  other  apcstlcs;  they 
also  made  use  of  the  travels  of  St.  Peter, 
which  are  supposed  to  have  been  written  by 
St.  Clement ;  but  had  altered  them  so,  tliat 
there  was  scarce  any  tiling  of  truth  left  in 
them.  They  even  made  that  saint  tell  a 
number  of  falsehoods,  the  better  to  authorise 
their  own  practices. 

ECCLESIASTICAL,  an  appellation  giv- 
en to  whatever  belongs  to  the  clnirch  ;  thus 
we  say  ecclesiastical  polity,  jurisdiction,  his- 
ton^  &c. 

ECCLESIASTICAL  HISTOPvY,  a  nar- 
ration of  the  transactions,  revolutions,  and 
events,  that  relate  to  the  church.  As  to 
the  utility  of  churcii  history.  Dr.  Jort'n,  who 
was  an  acute  writer  on  this  subject,  shall 
here  speak  for  us :  he  observes,  1.  That  it 
will  shew  us  the  amazing  progre.'^s  of  Chris- 
tianity tliroug!\  the  Roman  empire,  through 
the  east  and  west,  altliougli  the  powers  of  the 
world  cruelly  opposed  it — 2.  Connected  witli 
Jewish  and  Pagan  liistory,  it  will  shew  us  the 
total  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  the  ovcrthrov^- 
of  the  Jewish  church  and  state  r  and  the 
continuance  of  that  unhappy  natien  f(n- 1700 
years,  though  dispersed  over  the  face  of  tl^e 
rarth,  and  oppres'^ed  at  different  times  by 
Pagans,  Christians,  and  Mahometans. — 3.  It 
shews  us  that  the  increase  of  Chi'istianity 
produced  in  the  countries  where  it  was  re- 
ceived, the  ovei'throw  and  extinction  of  pa- 
ganism,   which,    after    a  feeble   resistance, 


perished  about  the  sixth  centuiy. — 4.  It 
shews  us  how  Christianity  hath  been  contin- 
Bed  and  delivered  down  from  the  apost'lical 
to  tlie  present  age — 5.  it  shews  us  the  vari- 
ous opinions  which  prevailed  at  different 
times  amongst  tlie  fathers  and  other  Chris- 
tians, and  how  they  departed  more  or  less 
from  tlie  simplicity  of  the  Gospel. — 6.  It 
will  enable  us  to  form  a  true  judgment  of 
tlie  merit  of  the  fathers,  and  of  the  use 
whicli  is  to  l)e  made  of  tiicm. — 7.  It  will  shew 
us  the  evil  of  imposing  unreasonable  terms 
^oi  communion,  and  requiring  Christians  to 
protess  doctrines  not  propounded  in  scriptu- 
ral words,  but  inferred  as  consequences  irom 
passages  of  Scripture,  which  one  may  call 
systems  of  consequential  divinilij  — 8.  It  will 
shew  us  the  erigin  and  progress  of  popery  ; 
and,  lastly  it  will  shew  us, — 9.  The  origin 
and  progress  of  the  reformation.  See  Dr. 
Jorihi's  (/larg-f  on  the  Use  and  Im/iortunce 
of  eccledlasticul  Hisiorij,  hi  his  IVorks,  vol. 
vii.  ch.  2. 

For  ecclesiastical  historians,  see  Eusedius" 
■EccL  //'sc.  ivith  Valesius'  notes  ;  Baronii 
AnrialtH  £,ccl.  ;  Spondani  Armales  Sacri  ^ 
Parti  Uuivn-f^alis  Hist.  Ecc.  ;  Lanifie.  Du- 
/lin,  S/ia7i/icini,  and  Moshelni's  EccL  Hist.  ; 
E'liJer's.  and  IVarncr^s  EccL  Hint,  of  Eln- 
giand ;  Jortin^s  Remarks  on  Ect!.  Hist.  ; 
Millar's  Fro}xagatktn  of  <.  hrislianilu  ;  Gil- 
lie's Historical  Collections  ;  Dr  Erskine's 
S/cetches,  and  Robinson's  Researdh  s.  The 
m(;st  recent  are,  L)r.  Camfibelts,  Gregori/^, 
iMilne7''s,  and  Hatucis'  ;  all  which  have 
tlieir  excellencies.  See  also  Bogue  and  Ben- 
netts History  of  the  Dissenters.  For  tlie 
history  of  the  church  under  the  Old  Te5,ta- 
ment,  the  reader  may  consult  JMiller^s  His- 
tory of  the  Church;  Prideaiix  and  Shuck- 
ford's  Coanect'ons  ;  Dr.  Watts'  Scripture 
History  ;  and  Fluery's  History  of  the 
Israelites. 

ECLECTICS,  a  name  given  to  seme  an- 
cient phiiosopivers,  who,  without  attaching 
them.selves  to  anv  p  irticular  sect,  took  what 
theyjudged  goor-l*an(l  solid  from  each.  One 
Potamon,  of  Alexandria,  who  lived  under 
Augu.stus  and  Tiberius,  and  who,  weary  of 
doubting  of  all  thnigs,  with  the  Sceptics  and 
Pyrrhonians,  was  the  person  who  formed 
this  sect. 

ECLECTICS,  or  modei'n  Platonics,  a  sect 
which  arose  in  the  Christian  church  towards 
the  close  of  the  second  century.  They  pro- 
fessed to  make  truth  the  only  object  of  tlieir 
inquiry,  and  to  be  ready  to  ad<ipt  from  all 
the  different  systems  and  sects  such  tenets 
as  they  thought  agreeable  to  it.  They  pre- 
ferred Plati  to  the  other  philosophers,  .ind 
looked  upon  his  rpinions  concerning  (iod, 
the  human  soul,  ai  d  things  invisible,  as  con- 
formable to  the  spirit  and  genius  of  the 
Christian  doctrine  One  of  the  principal 
patrons  of  this  systi  ro  was  Ammonins  Sac- 
cas,  who  at  this  timi  laid  the  foundation  of 
that  sect,  afterwards  distirguished  by  the 
name  of  the  jYew  Platonics  in  the  Alexan- 
drian school. 


ELD 


137 


ELO 


ECSTACY,  or  Extacy,  a  transport  of 
the  mind,  which  suspends  the  functions  of 
the  senses  by  the  intense  contemplation  of 
some  extraordinary  object. 

ECTHESIS,  a  confession  of  faith,  the  form 
of  an  edict,  published  in  the  year  63«,  by  the 
enipei-or  Heraclius,  with  a  view  to  pacify 
the  troubles  occasioned  by  the  Eutychian 
heresy  in  the  eastern  church.  However,  the 
same  prince  revoked  it,  on  being  informed 
that  pope  Severinus  had  condemned  it,  as 
favouring  the  Monothelites  ;  declaring,  at 
the  same  time,  that  Sergius,  patriarch  ^  of 
Constantinople,  was  the  autlior  of  it.    See 

EUTYCHIANS. 

EDIFICATION  ;  this  word  signifies  a 
building  up.  Hence  we  call  a  building  an 
edifice.  Applied  to  spiritual  things,  it  signi- 
fies the  improving,  adorning,  and  comforting 
the  mind  ;  audi'.  Christian  may  be  said  to  be 
edified  when  he  is  encouraged  and  animated 
in  the  ways  and  works  of  the  Lord.  The 
memis  to  promote  our  own  edification  are, 
prayer,  self-examination,  reading  the  scrip- 
tures, hearing  the  Gospel,  meditation,  attend- 
ance on  all  appointed  ordinances.  To  edify 
others,  there  should  be  love,  spiritual  con- 
versation, forbearance,  faithfulness,  benevo- 
lent exertions,  and  uniformity  of  conduct. 

EFFRONTES,  a  sect  of  heretics,  in  1534 
who  scraped  their  forehead  with  a  knife  till 
it  bled,  and  then  poured  oil  into  the  wound. 
This  ceremony  served  them  instead  of  bap- 
tism. They  are  likewise  said  to  have  denied 
the  divinity  of  the  Holy  Spirit. 

EICETiE,  adenomliiation  in  the  year  680, 
who  affirmed  that,  in  order  to  make  prayer 
acceptable  to  God,  it  should  be  performed 
dancing. 

EJACULATION,  a  short  prayer,in  which 
the  mind  is  directed  to  God  on  any  emergen- 
cy. See  Prayer. 

ELCESAITES,  ancient  heretics,  who 
made  their  appearance  in  the  reign  of  the 
emperor  Trajan,  and  took  their  name  from 
their  leader,  Elcesai.  They  kept  a  mean  be- 
tween the  Jews,  Christians,  and  Pagans:  they 
worshipped  but  one  God,  observed  theJev/ish 
sabbath, circumcision,  and  the  other  ceremo- 
nies of  the  law ;  yet  they  rejected  the  Penta- 
teuch and  the  prophets ;  nor  had  they  any 
more  respect  for  the  writings  of  the  apostles 

ELDEIl  (j3rpea-QvTep(^  )  an  overseer,  ru- 
ler, leader. 

Elders,  or  seniors,  in  ancient  Jewish  polity, 
were  j^ei'sous  the  most  considerable  for  age, 
experience,  and  wisdom.  Of  this  soi-t  were 
the  70  men  whom  Moses  associated  with 
himself  in  the  government;  such  likewise 
afterwards  were  those  who  held  the  first 
mark  in  the  synagogue  as  presidents.7— El- 
ders, in  churcli  history,  were  originally  those 
who  held  the  first  place  in  the  assemblies  of 
the  primitive  Christians.  The  word  presby- 
ter is  often  used  in  the  New  Testament  in 
this  signification  ;  hence  the  first  couTicils  of 
Christians  were  called  Presbyterki,  or  coun- 
cil of  elders — Elders,  in  the  pveshyterian 
discipline,    are  officers  who,  in  conjunction 

s 


with  the  ministers  and  deacons,  eomposethe 
kirk  sessions,  who  formerly  used  to  inspect 
and  regulate  matters  of  rehgien  and  disci- 
pline ;  but  whose  principal  business  now  is 
to  take  care  of  the  poor's  funds.  They  are 
chosen  from  among  the  people,  and  are  re- 
ceived publicly  with  some  degree  of  ceremo- 
ny. In  Scotland  there  is  an  indefinite  number 
of  elders  in  each  parish,  generally  about: 
twelve.  See  Presbytkbians. 

It  has  long  been  a  matter  of  dispute, 
whether  there  are  any  such  officers  as  luy- 
elderij  mentioned  in  scripture.  On  the  one 
side  it  is  observed,  that  these  officers  are  no 
were  mentioned  as  being  alone  or  single, 
but  always  as  being  many  in  every  congrega- 
tiort.  They  are  also  mentioned  separately 
from  the  brethren.  Their  office,  more  than 
once,  is  described  as  being  distinct,  from 
that  of  preaching,  not  only  in  Rom.  xii.  where 
he  that  vuleth  is  expressly  distinguished 
from  him  that  exhorteth,  or  teacheth,  but 
also  in  that  passage,  1  Tim.  v.  17.  On  the 
otlier  side  it  is  said,  that  from  the  above- 
mentioned  passages,  nothing  can  be  collected 
witli  certainty  to  establish  this  opinion  ;  nei- 
ther can  it  be  inferred  from  any  otherpassage 
that  churches  should  be  furnished  with  such 
officers,  though  perhaps  prudence,  in  some 
circumstancjs,  may  make  them  expedient, 
"  I  incline  to  think,"  says  Dr.  Guise,  on  the 
passage,  1  Tim.  v.  17.  "  that  the  apostle  \n~ 
tends  only  /ireaching"  elders,  when  he  directs 
double  honour  to  be  paid  to  the  elders  that 
rule  well,  especially  those  who  labour  in  the 
word  and  doctrine  ;  and  that  the  distinction 
lies  not  in  the  order  of  officers,  but  in  the  de- 
gree of  their  diligence,  faithfulness,  and  emi- 
nence in  laboi'iously  fulfilling  their  ministerial 
work  ;  and  so  the  emphasis  is  to  be  laid  on 
the  word  labour  in  the  word  and  doctrine, 
which  has  an  especially  annexed  to  it." 

ELECTION.  This  word  has  different 
meanings.  1.  It  signifies  God's  taking  a 
whole  nation,  community,  or  body  of  men, 
into  external  covenant  with  himself,  by  giv- 
ing them  the  advantage  of  revelation  as  tiie 
rule  of  their  belief  and  practice,  when  other 
nations  are  without  it,  Deut.  vii.  6. — 2.  A. 
temporary  designation  of  some  person  or  per- 
sons to  the  filling  up  some  particular  station 
in  the  visible  church,  or  office  in  civil  life, 
John  vi.  70.  1  Sam.  x.  24 — 4.  That  gracious 
and  almighty  act  of  the  Divine  Spirit,  where- 
by God  actually  and  visibly  separates  his 
people  from  the  world  by  effectual  calling, 
John  XV.  19. — 3.  That  eternal,  sovereign,  un- 
conditional, particular,  and  immutable  act  of 
God,  whereby  he  selected  some  fixim  among 
all  mankind,  and  of  every  nation  under 
heaven,  to  be  redeemed  and  everlastinglv 
saved  by  Christ,  Eph.  i.  -4.  2  Thes.  ii.  13. 
See  Dkcree  and  Predestination. 

ELOQUENCE,  Pulpit.  "The  chief  cha- 
racteristics of  the  eloquence  suited  to  the  pul- 
pit are  these  two, — gravity  and  warmth. 
The  serious  nature  of  the  subjects  belonging 
to  the  pulpit  requires  gravity  ;  their  import- 
ance to  mankind  requires  \^armth.  It  is  far 


ENE 


138 


ENT 


from  being  either  easy  or  common  to  unite 
these  characters  of  eloquence.  The  grave, 
■when  it  is  predominant,  is  apt  to  run  into  a 
dull,  uniform  solemnity.  The  war?}i,  when  it 
wants  gravity,  borders  on  the  theatrical  and 
light.  The  union  of  the  two  must  be  studied 
by  all  preachers,  as  of  the  utmost  conse- 
5juence»  both  in  the  composition  of  their  dis- 
courses, and  in  their  manner  of  delivery. 
Gravity  and  warmth  united,  form  that  cha- 
racter of  preaching,  which  the  French  cah 
cnction:  the  aflFecting,  penetrating,  interest- 
ing manner,  flowing  from  a  strong  sensibility 
of  heart  in  the  preacher,  the  importance  of 
those  truths  which  he  deUvers,  andan  earnest 
desire  that  they  may  make  full  impression 
on  the  hearts  of  his  hearers."  See  Decla- 
mation, Sermons. 

EMULAllON,  a  generous  ardour,  kin- 
dled by  the  praise-worthy  examples  of  others, 
■which  impels  us  to  imitate,  to  rival,  and,  if 
possible,to  excel  them.  This  passion  involves 
m  it  esteem  of  the  person  whose  attainments 
or  conduct  we  emulate,  of  the  qualities  and 
actions  in  which  we  emulate  him,  and  a  de- 
sire of  resemblance,  together  with  a  joy 
springingfrom  the  hope  of  success.  The  word 
comes  originally  from  the  Greek  ctinXXx, 
contest;  whence  the  Latin  xmulus,  and 
thence  our  emulation.  Plato  makes  emulation 
the  daughter  of  envy  ;  if  so,  there  is  a  great 
difference  between  the  mother  and  the  off- 
spring ;  the  one  being  a  virtue  and  the  other 
a  vice.  Emulation  admires  gi'eat  actions. 
and  strives  to  imitate  them  ;  envy  refuses 
them  the  praises  that  are  their  due  :  emu- 
lation is  generous,  and  only  thinks  of  equal- 
ling or  surpassing  a  rival ;  envy  is  low,  and 
only  seeks  to  lessen  him.  It  would,  therefore, 
be  more  proper  to  supjiose  emulation  the 
daughter  of  admiration  ;  admiration  being 
a  principal  ingredient  in  the  composition  of  it. 

ENCRA.T1TES,  a  sect,  in  the  second 
century,  who  abstained  from  marriage,  wine 
and  animals. 

ENDOWMENT  ECCLESIASTICAL; 
a  term  used  to  denote  the  settlement  of  a 
pension  upon  a  minister,  or  the  building  of  a 
church,  or  the  stvt- ring  a  sufficient  portion 
of  tittles  for  a  vicar,  when  the  benefice  is 
appropriated. 

Among  the  Dissenters,  they  are  benefac- 
tions left  to  their  place  or  congregation,  for 
the  support  of  their  ijiinisters  Where  the 
congregation  is  poor  or  small,  these  have 
been  found  beneficial;  but  in  many  cases  they 
have  been  detrimental.  Too  often  has  it  tend- 
ed to  relax  the  exertions  of  the  people;  and 
when  such  a  fund  has  fallen  into  the  hands 
of  an  unsuitable  minister,  it  has  prevented 
his  removal ;  when,  had  he  derived  no  sup- 
port from  the  people,  necessity  would  have 
caused  him  to  depart,  and  make  room  for 
one  more  worthy. 

ENERGICI,  a  denomination  in  the  six- 
tcentli  centur}' ;  so  called  because  they  held 
that  the  eucharist  was  the  energy  and  virtue 
of  Jesus  Christ  ;  not  his  body,  lior  a  repre- 
sentation thereof. 


ENERGUMENS,  persons  supposed  to  be 
possessed  with  the  devil,  concerning  whom 
there  were  many  regulations  amoTig  the  pri- 
mitive Christians.  They  weredeniedbaptism 
and  the  eucharist;  at  least  this  was  the  prac- 
tice of  some  churches;  and  though  they  were 
under  the  care  of  exorcists,  yet  it  was  thought 
a  becoming  act  of  charity  to  let  them  have 
the  public  prayers  of  tiie  church,  at  which 
they  were  permitted  to  be  present. 

ENTHUSL\SM.  To  obtain  just' defini- 
tions of  words  which  are  promiscuously 
used,  it  must  be  confessed,  is  no  small  diffi- 
culty. This  word,  it  seems,  is  used  both  in 
a  good  and  a  bad  sense.  In  its  best  sense  it 
signifies  a  divine  afflatus,  or  inspiration.  It 
is  also  taken  for  that  noble  ardour  of  mind 
which  leads  us  to  imagine  any  thing  sublime, 
grand,  or  surprising.  In  its  worse  sense  it 
signifies  any  impression  on  the  fancy,  or 
agitation  of  the  passions,  of  which  a  man  can 
give  no  rational  account.  It  is  generally  ap- 
plied to  religious  characters,  and  is  said  to 
be  derived  («t«  t«v  ey6v<not.t<i  /n.ccivcf/.iyay'^ 
from  the  wild  gestures  and  speeches  of  an- 
cient religionists,  pretending  to  more  than  or- 
dinary and  more  than  true  communications 
with  the  gods,  and  particularly  'iiSvTtxi?, 
in  the  act  or  at  the  time  of  sacrificing.  In 
this  sense,  then,  it  signifies  that  impulse  of 
the  mind  which  leads  a  man  to  suppose  he 
has  some  remarkable  intercourse  with  the 
Deity,  Avhile  at  the  same  time  it  is  nothing 
more  than  the  effects  of  a  heated  imagina- 
tion, or  a  sanguine  constitution. 

That  the  Divine  Being  permits  his  people 
to  enjoy  fellowship  with  him,  and  that  he 
can  work  upon  the  minds  of  his  creatures 
when  and  how  he  pleases,  cannot  be  denied. 
But,  then,  what  is  the  criterion  by  which  we 
are  to  judge,  in  order  to  distinguish  it  from 
enthusiasm  ?  It  is  necessary  there  should  be 
some  rule,  for  without  it  the  greatest  extra- 
vagancies would  be  committed,  the  most'^no- 
torious  impostors  countenanced,  and  the  most 
enormous  evils  ensue.  Now  this  criterion  is 
the  word  of  God;  from  which  we  learn,  that 
we  are  to  expect  no  new  regulations,  no  ex- 
traordinary gilts,  as  in  the  apostles'  time  ; 
that  whatever  opinions,  feelings,  vieAvs,  op 
impressions  we  may  have,  if  they  are  incon- 
sistent with  reason,  if  they  do  not  tend  to 
humble  us,  if  they  do  not  influence  our  tem- 
per, regulate  our  lives,  and  make  us  just, 
pious,  honest,  and  uniform,  they  cannot  come 
from  God,  but  are  evidently  the  effusions  of 
an  enthusiastic  brain.  On  the  other  hand,  if 
the  mind  be  enlightened,  if  the  will  which 
was  perverse  be  renovated,  detached  from 
evil,  and  inclined  to  good ;  if  the  powers  be 
roused  to  exertion  for  the  promotion  of  the 
Divine  glor}',  and  the  good  of  men ;  if  the 
natural  corruptions  of  the  heart  be  suppress- 
ed ;  if  peace  and  joy  arise  from  a  view  of 
the  goodness  of  God,  attended  with  a  spiritu- 
al frame  of  mind,  a  heart  devoted  to  God, 
and  a  holy,  useful  hfe:  however  this  maybe 
branded  with  the  name  of  enthusiasm,  it 
certainly  is  from  God,  because  bare  human 


E  O  Q  i39 


EPI 


efforts,  unassisted  by  him,  could  never  pro- 
duce such  efftrcts  as  these.  Thtol.  Misc.  vol. 
ii.  p.  43;  Locke  on  Under ist.  vol.  ii.  ch  19; 
Sfiezt.  No.  201.  vol.  iii.  Wesley's  Ser.  on 
Enthusiasm  ;  Mrs.  H.  Moore's  Hints  to- 
wards forming  the  character  of  a  young 
Princess,  vol.  ii.  p.  246. 

ENVY,  a  sensation  of  uneasiness  and  dis- 
quiet, arising  from  the  advantages  which 
others  are  supposed  to  possess  above  us,  ac 
companied  with  malignity  towards  those  who 
possess  them.  "  This,"  says  a  good  writer, 
"  is  universally  admitted  to  be  one  of  the 
blackest  passions  in  the  human  heart.  No 
one,  indeed,  is  to  be  condemned  for  defend- 
ing his  rights,  and  shewing  displeasure, 
against  a  malicious  enemy  ;  but  to  conceive 
ill  will  at  one  who  has  attacked  none  of  our 
rights,  nor  done  us  any  injury,  solely  be- 
cause he  is  more  prospei-ous  than  we  are,  is 
a  disposition  altogether  unnatural.  Hence 
the  character  of  an  envious  man  is  univer- 
sally odious.  All  disclaim  it ;  and  they  who 
feel  themselv-es  under  the  influence  of  this 
passion,  carefully  conceal  it.  The  chief 
grounds  of  envy  may  be  reduced  to  three  : 
accomplishments  of  mind  ;  advantages  of 
birth,  rank,  and  fortune;  and  superior  suc- 
cess in  worldly  pursuits.  To  subdue  this 
odious  disposition,  let  us  consider  its  sinful 
and  criminal  nature ;  the  mischiefs  it  occa- 
sions to  the  world  ;  the  unhappiness  it  pro- 
•duces  to  him  who  possesses  it;  the  evil  cau- 
ses that  nourish  it,  such  as  pride  and  indo- 
lence :  let  us,  moreover,  bring  often  into 
view  those  religious  considerations  which 
regard  us  as  Christians ;  how  unworthy  we 
are  in  the  sight  of  God ;  how  much  the 
blessings  we  enjoy  are  above  what  we  de- 
serve. Let  us  learn  reverence  and  submis- 
sion to  that  Divine  government  which  has 
appointed  to  every  one  such  a  condition  as 
is  fittest  for  him  to  possess  ;  let  us  consider 
how  opposite  the  Christian  spirit  is  to  envy ; 
above  all,  let  us  offer  up  our  prayers  to  the 
Almighty,  that  he  would  purify  our  hearts 
from  a  passion  which  is  so  base  and  so  cri- 
minal." 

EONIANS,  the  followers  of  Eon,  a  wild 
fanatic,  of  the  province  of  Bretagne,  in  the 
twelfth  century  :  he  concluded,  from  the  re- 
semblance betvveen  eum,  in  the  form  for  ex- 
ercising malignant  spirits,  viz.  "  per  eum, 
qui  venturus  est  judicare  vivos  et  mortuos," 
and  his  own  name  Eon,  tl'.at  he  was  the  son 
of  God,  and  oi'dained  to  judge  the  quick  and 
dead.  Eon  was,  however,  solemnly  condemn- 
ed by  the  council  at  Rheims,  in  1148,  and 
ended  his  days  in  a  prison.  He  left  behind 
him  a  number  of  followers,  whom  persecu- 
tion and  death  so  wickedly  and  cruelly  em- 
ployed, could  not  persuade  to  abandon  his 

;   cause,  or  to  renounce  an  absurdity  which, 
says  Mosheim,  one  would  think,  could  never 

j  have  gained  credit  but  in  such  a  place  as 
Bedlam. 

I       EOQUINIANS,  a  denomination  in  the 

I   sixteenth  century  ;  so  called  from  one  Eoqui- 
nus,  their  master,  who  taught  that  Christ 


did  not  die  for  the  wicked,  but  for  the  faith- 
ful only. 

EPICUREANS,  the  disciples  of  Epicurus, 
who  flourished  about  A.  M.  3700.  This  sect 
maintained  that  the  world  was  formed  not 
by  God,  nor  with  any  design,  but  by  the  for- 
tuitous concourse  of  atoms.  They  denied 
that  God  governs  the  world,  or  in  the  least 
condescends  to  interfere  with  creatures  be- 
low :  they  denied  the  immortality  of  the  soul, 
and  the  existence  of  angels;  they  maintained 
that  happiness  consisted  in  pleasure  :  but 
some  of  them  placed  this  pleasure  in  the 
tranquilhty  and  joy  of  the  mind  arising  from 
the  practice  of  moral  virtue,  and  which  is 
thought  by  some  to  have  been  the  true  prin- 
ciple of  Epicurus ;  others  understood  him 
in  the  gross  sense,  and  placed  all  their  hap- 
piness in  coporeal  pleasure.  When  Paul 
was  at  Athens,  he  had  conferences  with  the 
Epicurean  philosophers,  Acts  xvii.  18.  The 
word  Efiicurean  is  used,  at  present,  for  an 
indolent,  effeminate,  and  voluptuous  person, 
who  only  consults  his  private  and  particular 
pleasure.    See  Academics. 

EPIPHANY,  a  Christian  festival,  other- 
wise called  the  manifestation  of  Christ  to 
the  Gentiles,  observed  on  the  6th  of  January, 
in  honour  of  the  appearance  of  our  Saviour 
to  the  three  magi,  or  wise  men,  who  came 
to  adore  and  bring  him  presents. 

EPISCOPACY,  that  form  of  church  go- 
vernment in  which  diocesan  bishops  are  esta- 
blished as  distinct  from  and  superior  to 
priests  or  presbyters. 

The  controversy  respecting  episcopacy 
commenced  soon  after  the  reformation ;  and 
has  been  agitated  with  great  warmth,  be- 
tw-.  en  the  Episcopalians  on  the  one  side,  and 
the  Presbyterians  and  Independents  on  the 
other.  Among  theProtestant  churches  abroad, 
those  which  were  reformed  by  Luther  and 
his  associates  are  in  general  episcopal;  whilst 
such  as  follow  the  doctrines  of  Calvin,  have, 
for  the  most  part,  thrown  off  the  order  of 
bishops  as  one  of  the  corruptions  of  popery. 
In  England,  however,  the  controversy  has 
been  considered  as  of  greater  importance 
than  on  the  continent.  It  has  been  strenu- 
ously maintained  by  one  party,  that  the  epis- 
copal order  is  essential  to  the  constitution  of 
tlie  church  ;  and  by  others,  that  it  is  a  per- 
nicious encroachment  on  the  rights  of  men, 
for  which  there  is  no  authority  in  scrip- 
ture. We  will  just  briefly  state  their  argu- 
ments. 

I.  Episcopacy,  arguments  for.  1,  Some 
argue  that  the  nature  of  the  office  which 
the  apostles  bore  was  such,  that  the  edifica- 
tion of  the  church  would  require  they  should 
have  some  successors  in  those  ministrations 
which  are  not  common  to  Gospel  ministers- 
— 2  That  Timothy  and  Titus  were  bishops 
of  Ephesus  and  Crete,  whose  business  it 
was  to  exercise  such  extraordinary  acts  of 
jurisdiction  as  are  now  claimed  for  dioce- 
san bishops,  1  Tim.  i.  3.  iii.  19,  22.  2  Tim. 
ii.  2.  Tit.  i.  5,  £cc.  iii.  10. — 3.  Some  have 
argued  from  the  mention  of  angels,  i.  e.  as 


EPI 


140 


EPI 


they  understand  it,  of  diocesan  bisliops,  in 
the  seven  churches  of  Asia,  particularly  the 
angel  of  Ephesus,  though  there  were  many 
ministers  employed  in  it  long  before  the  date 
of  that  epistle,  Acts  xx.  17,  18 — 4.  It  is  ur- 
ged that  some  of  the  churches  which  were 
t(irmed  in  large  cities  during  the  lives  of  the 
apostles,  and  especially  that  at  Jerusalem, 
consisted  of  such  vast  numbers  as  could  not 
possibly  assemble  at  one  place  — 5.  That  in 
the  writers  who  succeeded  the  inspired  pen- 
men there  is  a  multiplied  and  concurring 
Evidence  to  prove  the  apostolic  institution  of 
episcopacy. 

II.  Efiiscopacy,  arguments  against. — 1. 
To  the  above  it  is  answered,  that,  as  the 
office  of  the  apostles  was  such  as  to  require 
extraordinary  and  miraculous  endowments 
for  the  discharge  of  many  pai'ts  of  it ;  it  is 
impossible  that  they  can  have  any  successors 
in  those  services  who  are  not  empowered 
for  the  execution  of  them  as  the  apostles 
themselves  were  ;  and  it  is  maintained,  that 
so  far  as  ordination,  confirmation,  and  ex- 
Communication,  may  be  performed  without 
miraculous  gifts,  there  is  nothing  in  them 
but  what  seems  to  suit  the  pastoral  office  in 
general. 

2.  That  Timnthy  and  Titus  had  not  a 
stated  residence  in  tliese  churches,  but  only 
visited  them  for  a  time,  2  Tim.  iv.  9,  13. 
Tit.  iii.  12.  It  also  appears,  from  otlier 
places  in  which  the  journies  of  Timothy 
and  Titus  are  mentioned,  that  they  were  a 
kind  of  itinerant  officers,  called  evangelists, 
who  were  assistants  to  the  apostles ;  for  there 
is  great  reason  to  believe  the  first  epistle  to 
Timothy  was  written  prior  to  those  from 
Rome  in  the  time  of  Paul's  imprisonment,  as 
some  think  the  second  was  also.  To  which 
we  may  add,  that  it  seems  probable,  at  least, 
that  they  had  very  extraordinary  gifts  to  fur- 
nish them  for  their  superior  offices,  1  Tim. 
iv.  14.  Eph.  iv.  11.  2  Tim.  iv.  5.  And 
though  Timothy  was  with  Paul  when  he  took 
his  leave  of  the  elders  of  Ephesus,  (Acts 
XX.)  the  apostle  gives  not  the  least  hint  of 
any  extraordinary  power  \/\x.\\  which  he  was 
invested,  nor  says  one  word  to  engage  their 
obedience  to  him  ;  which  is  a  very  strong 
presumption  that  no  such  relation  did  sub- 
sist, or  was  to  take  place. 

3.  As  to  the  angels  of  the  seven  ci^uvches 
in  Asia,  it  is  certain  that,  for  any  thint^ 
which  appears  in  our  Lord's  c'i)i!>tles  to  tliem, 
(Kev.  ii.  and  iii)  they  might  be  no  move 
than  the  pastors  of  s  ■  gle  congregations  with 
tiieir  proper  as.ststants. 

4.  To  the  fourd\  argument  it  is  answered, 
.1.  That  the  word  f^vptxS'eg  may' only  signify 
great  numbers,  and  may  not  be  inteiided  to 
express  that  thcie  were  several  times  ten 
thousand,  in  an  exact  and  literal  sense:  com- 
pare Luke  ch.  xii.  ver.  1.  (Greek.) — 2.  That 
no  sufficient  proof  is  brought  from  scripture 
of  there  being  such  numbers  of  people  in 
any  particular  place  as  this  supposes ;  for 
the  myriads  of  believing  Jews  spoken  of  in 
the  preceding  text,  as  well  as  the  numbers 


mentioned.  Acts  ii.  41.  iv.  4.  might  very 
probably  be  those  who  were  gathered  toge- 
ther at  those  great  feasts  from  distant  places, 
of  which  few  might  have  their  stated  resi- 
dence in  that  city.  See  Acts  ch.  viii.  ver. 
1. — 3.  If  the  number  were  so  great  as  the 
objection  supposes,  there  might  be  for  any 
thing  which  appears  in  scripture,  several 
bishops  in  the  same  city,  as  there  are,  among 
those  who  do  not  allow  of  diocesan  episco- 
pacy, several  co-ordinate  pastors,  overseers, 
or  bishops :  and  though  Eusebius  does  in- 
deed pretend  to  give  us  a  catalogue  of  the 
bishops  of  Jerusalem,  it  is  to  be  remembered 
how  the  Christians  had  been  dispersed  from 
thence  for  a  considerable  time,  at  and  after 
the  Roman  war,  and  removed  into  other 
parts,  which  must  necessarily  very  much 
increase  the  uncertainty  which  Eusebius 
himself  owns  there  was,  as  to  the  succession 
of  bishops  in  most  of  the  ancient  sees. 

5.  As  to  the  ancient  w :  iters,  it  is  observed, 
that  though  Clemens  Romanus  i*ecommends 
to  the  Corinthians  the  example  of  the  Jew- 
ish church,  where  the  high  priest,  ordinary 
priest,  and  Levites,  knew  and  observed  their 
respective  offices,  yet  he  never  mentions 
presbyters  and  bishops  as  distinct,  nor  refers 
the  contending  Corinthians  to  any  one  eccle- 
siastical head  as  the  centre  of  unity,  which 
he  would  probably  have  done  if  there  had 
jjeen  any  diocesan  bishops  among  them  ;  nay, 
he  seems  evidently  to  speak  of  presbyters  as 
exercising  the  episcopal  office.  See  sec. 
xxxix.  of  his  epistle. — 2.  As  for  Irenxus,  it 
does  not  appear  that  he  made  any  distinc- 
tion between  bishops  and  presbyters.  He 
does  indeed  mention  the  succession  of  bishops 
from  the  apostles,  which  is  reconcileable 
with  the  supposition  of  their  being  parochial, 
nor  altogether  irreconcileable  with  the  sup- 
position of  joint  pastors  in  those  churches — 
3.  It  is  allowed  that  Ignatus  in  many  places 
distinguishes  between  bishopsand  presbyters, 
and  requires  obedience  to  bishops  from  the 
Avhole  church ;  but  as  he  often  supposes 
each  of  the  churches  to  which  he  wrote  to 
meet  in  one  place,  and  represents  them  as 
breaking  one  loaf,  and  surrounding  one  altar, 
and  charges  the  bishop  to  know  all  his  flock 
by  name,  it  is  most  evident  that  he  must 
speak  of  a  parocliial  and  not  a  diocesan  bi- 
shop.— 4.  Polycar])  exhorts  the  Christians  at 
Philippi  to  be  su'jject  to  the  presbyters  and 
deacons,  but  says  not  one  word  about  any 
bishop. — .5.  Justin  Martyr  speaks  of  the  pre- 
iidait,  but  then  he  reprt-sents  him  as  being 
present  at  every  administration  of  the  eu- 
charist,  wliich  he  also  mentions  as  always 
making  a  part  of  their  public  worship  ;  so 
tliat  the  bisho])  here  must  have  only  been 
the  pastor  of  one  congregation. — 6.  Tertul- 
lian  speaks  of  approved  elders ;  but  there  is 
nothing  said  of  them  that  proves  a  diocesan, 
since  all  he  says  might  be  applied  to  a  paro- 
chial bishop.— ^7.  Though  Clemens  Alexan- 
drinus  speaks  of  bishops,  priests,  and  dea- 
cons, yet  it  cannot  be  inferred  from  hence 
that  the  bishops  of  whom  he  speaks  were 


EPI 


141 


EQU 


any  thing  more  than  parochial. — 8.  Origen 
spealcs  distinctly  of  bishops  and  presbyters, 
but  unites  them  both,  as  it  seems,  under  the 
common  name  of  priests,  saying  nothing  of 
the  power  of  bishops  as  extending  beyond 
one  congregation,  and  rather  insinuates  the 
contrary,  when  he  speaks  of  offenders,  as 
brought  before  the  whole  church  to  be  judg- 
ed by  it, — 9.  The  apostolic  constitutions  fre- 
quently distinguish  between  bishops  and 
presbyters  ;  but  these  constitutions  cannot 
be  depended  on,  as  they  are  supposed  to  be 
a  forgery  of  the  fourth  century. — 10.  It  is 
allowed  that  in  succeeding  ages,  the  differ- 
ence between  bishops  and  presbyters  came 
to  be  more  and  more  magnified,  and  various 
churches  came  under  the  care  of  the  same 
bishop :  nevertheless,  Jerom  does  expressly 
speak  of  bishops  and  presbyters  as  of  tlie 
same  order  ;  and  Gregory  Nazianzen  speaks 
of  tile  great  and  affecting  distinction  made 
between  ministers  in  prerogative  of  place 
and  other  tyrannical  privileges  (as  he  calls 
them,)  as  a  lamentable  and  destructive  thing. 

III.  EliUcofiacijy  hoiv  introduced. — It  is 
easy  to  apprehend  how  episcopacy,  as  it  was 
in  the  primitive  church,  with  those  altera- 
tions which  it  afterwards  received,  might 
be  gradually  introduced.  I'he  apostles  seem 
to  have  taught  cliiefly  in  large  cities ;  they 
settled  ministers  there,  who,  preacliing  in 
country  villages,  or  smaller  towns,  inci-eas- 
cd  the  number  of  converts :  it  would  have 
been  most  reasonable  that  those  new  con- 
verts, which  lay  at  a  considerable  distance 
from  the  large  towns,  should,  when  they 
grew  numerous,  have  formed  themselves 
into  distinct  churches,  under  the  care  of 
their  proper  pastors  or  bishops,  indepen- 
dently on  any  of  tlieir  neighb)ours  ;  but  the 
reverence  which  would  naturally  be  paid  to 
men  who  had  conversed  with  the  apos- 
tles, and  perhaps  some  desire  of  influ- 
ence r'nd  dominion,  from  which  the  hearts 
of  very  good  men  might  not  be  entirely  free, 
and  which  early  began  to  work,  (John  iii.  9. 
2  Tliess.  ii.  7.)  might  easily  lay  a  founda- 
tion for  such  a  subordination  in  the  ministers 
of  neiv  erected  churches  to  those  which 
were  more  ancient ;  and  much  more  easily 
might  the  superiority  of  a  pastor  to  his  as- 
.'.'sta7it  /iresbyters  increase,  till  it  at  lengtli 
came  to  that  great  difference  which  we  own 
was  early  made,  and  probably  soon  canied 
to  an  excess.  And  if  there  were  tliat  de- 
gree of  degeneracy  in  the  church,  and  de- 
fection from  the  purity  and  vigour  of  reli- 
gion, wiiich  the  learned  Vitringa  supposes 
to  have  happened  between  the  time  of  Nero 
and  Trajan,  it  would  be  less  surprising  that 
those  evil  principles,  whicii  nccasioiied  epis- 
copal, and  at  length  the  papal  usurpation, 
should  before  that  time  exert  some  conside- 
rable influence. 

IV.  Rfmcofiacy  reduced,  plan  of.  Arch- 
bishop Usher  projected  a  plan  for  the  reduc- 
tion of  episcopacy,  by  which  he  would  have 
moderated  it  in  such  a  manner  as  to  have 
brought  it  very  near  the  Presbyterian  gov- 


ernment of  the  Scotch  church  ;  the  weekly 
parochial  vestry  answering  to  their  church 
session  ,  the  monthly  synod  to  be  held  by 
the  Chore/iiscopi  answering  to  their  pres- 
byteries ;  the  diocesan  synod  to  their  pro- 
vincial, and  the  national,  to  their  general 
assembly.  The  meeting  of  the  dean  and 
chapter,  practised  in  the  church  of  England, 
is  but  a  faint  shadow  of  the  second,  the  ec- 
clesiastical court  of  the  third,  and  the  con- 
vocation of  the  fourth.  Bingham^s  Origenea 
JEcclesiasticce :  Stilling fleet^s  Origines  Sacra.- 
Boyse  and  Howe  on  Efiis.  :  Benson's  Dis- 
sertation concerning  the  Jirst  Set.  of  the 
ChristiaJi  Church :  King's  Cojist.  of  the 
Church;  Doddridge's  Lectures,  lee.  196; 
Clarkson  and  Dr.  Maurice  on  Episco/iacy  ; 
E?ic.  Brit. 

EPISCOPALIAN,  one  who  prefers  the 
episcopal  government  and  discipline  to  all 
others.    See  last  article- 

EPISTLES  OF  BARNABAS.  See  Bar- 
nabas. 

EQUANIMITY  is  an  even  uniform  state 
of  mind  amidst  all  the  vicissitudes  of  time, 
and  changes  of  circumstances,  to  which  we 
are  subject  in  the  present  state.  One  of 
this  disposition  is  not  dejected  when  under 
advei'sity,  nor  elated  when  in  the  height  of 
prosperity ;  he  is  equally  affable  to  others, 
and  contented  in  himself.  The  excellency 
of  this  disposition  is  beyond  all  praise.  It 
may  be  considered  as  the  grand  remedy  for 
all  the  diseases  and  miseries  of  life,  and 
the  only  way  by  which  we  can  preserve  the 
dignity  of  our  characters  as  men  and  as 
Christians. 

EQUITY  is  that  exact  rule  of  righteou-s- 
ness  or  justice  which  is  to  be  observed  be- 
tween man  and  man.  Our  Lord  beautifully 
and  compreliensively  expresses  it  in  these 
words:  "All  things  whatsoever  ye  would 
that  men  should  do  unto  you,  do  ye  even  so 
to  them,  for  this  is  the  law  and"  the  pro- 
phets," Matt.  vii.  12.  This  golden  rule, 
says  Dr.  Watts,  has  many  excellent  proper- 
ties in  it.  1.  It  is  a  rule  that  is  easy  to  be 
understood,  and  as  easy  to  be  applied  by  the 
meanest  and  weakest  understanding,  Isa. 
XXXV.  8. — 2.  It  is  a  very  short  rule,  and  easy 
to  be  remembered:  the  weakest  memory 
can  retain  it ;  and  the  meanest  of  mankind 
may  carry  this  about  with  them,  and  have 
it  i-eady  upon  all  occasions — 3.  This  excel- 
lent precept  carries  greater  evidence  to  the 
conscience,  and  a  stronger  degrte  of  convic- 
tion in  it,  than  any  other  rule  of  moral  vir- 
tue.— 4.  It  is  particularly  fitted  for  practice^ 
because  it  includes  in  it  a  powerful  motive 
to  stir  us  up  to  do  what  it  enjoins — 5.  It  is 
such  a  rule  as,  if  well  applied,  will  almost 
always  secure  our  neighbour  from  injury, 
and  secure  us  from  guilt  if  we  should  chance 
to 'hurt  him. — 6.  It  is  a  rule  as  much  fitted 
to  awaken  us  to  sincere  repentance,  upon 
the  transgression  of  it,  as  it  is  to  direct  us 
to  o\ir  present  duty. — 7.  It  is  a  most  exten- 
sive rule,  with  regard  to  all  the  stations, 
ranks,  and  characters  of  mankind,  for  it  is 


EST 


142 


EST 


perfectly  suited  to  them  all. — 8.  It  is  a  most 
comprehensive  rule  with  regard  to  all  the 
actions  and  duties  that  concern  our  neigh- 
bours. It  teaches  us  to  regulate  our  tem- 
per and  behaviour,  and  promote  tenderness, 
benevolence,  gentleness,  &c. — 9.  It  is  also  a 
rule  of  the  highest  prudence  with  pegard  to 
ourselves,  and  promotes  our  own  interest  Jij 
the  best  manner. — 10.  This  rule  is  fitted  to 
make  the  whole  world  as  happy  as  the  pre- 
sent state  of  things  will  admit.  See  IValts' 
Sermons,  ser.  33.  v.  1 ;  Evans'  Ser.  ser. 
28 ;  Morning  Exercises  at  Cripfilegate, 
ser    10. 

EQUIVOCATION,  the  using  a  term  or 
expression  that  has  a  double  meaning.  Equi- 
vocations are  said  to  be  expedients  to  save 
telling  tlie  truth,  and  yet  without  telling  a 
falsity ;  but  if  an  intention  to  deceive  con- 
stitute the  essence  of  a  lie,  which  in  general 
it  does,  I  cannot  conceive  how  it  can  be 
done  without  incurring  guilt,  as  it  is  cer- 
tainly an  intention  to  deceive. 

ERA.STIANS,  so  called  from  Erastus,  a 
German  divine  of  the  16th  century.  The 
pastoral  office,  according  to  him,  was  only 
persuasive,  like  a  professor  of  science  over 
his  students,  without  any  power  of  the  keys 
annexed.  The  Lord's  supper  and  other  or- 
dinances of  the  Gospel  were  to  be  free  and 
open  to  all.  The  minister  might  dissuade 
the  vicious  and  unqualified  from  the  com- 
munion ;  but  might  not  refuse  it,  or  inflict 
any  kind  of  censure  ;  the  punishment  of  all 
offences,  either  of  a  civil  or  religious  nature, 
being  referred  to  the  civil  magistrate. 

ERROR,  a  mistake  of  our  judgment,  giv- 
ing assent  to  that  which  is  not  true.  Mr. 
Locke  reduces  the  causes  of  error  to  four. 
1.  Want  of  proofs. — 2.  Want  of  ability  to 
use  them. — 3.  Want  of  will  to  use  them. — 
4.  Wrong  measures  of  probability.  In  a 
moral  and  scriptural  sense  it  signifies  sin. 
See  Sin. 

ESSENES,  a  very  ancient  sect,  that  was 
spread  abroad  through  Syria,  Egypt,  and 
the  neighbouring  countries.  They  maintain- 
ed that  religion  consisted  wholly  in  contem- 
plation and  silence.  Some  of  them  passed 
their  lives  in  a  state  of  celibacy ;  others 
embraced  the  state  of  matrimony,  which 
they  considered  as  lawful,  when  entered  in- 
to with  the  sole  design  of  propagating  the 
species,  and  not  to  satisfy  the  demand  of 
last.  Some  of  tliem  held  the  possibility  of 
appeasing  the  Deity  by  sacrifices,  though 
different  from  that  of  tlie  Jews  ;  and  others 
maintained  that  no  offering  was  acceptable 
to  God  but  that  of  a  serene  and  comjinsed 
mind,  addicted  to  the  contemplation  of  di- 
vine things.  They  looked  upon  the  law  of 
Moses  as  an  allegorical  system  of  spiritual 
and  mysterious  truths ;  and  renounced.,  in 
its  explications  all  regard  to  the  outward 
letter. 

ESTABLISHMENTS  Religious.  By  a 
religious  establishment  is  generally  under- 
stood, such  an  intimate  connection  between 
religion  and  civil  goverament  as  is  supposed 


to  secure  the  best  interests  and  great  end 
of  both.  This  article,  like  many  others, 
has  afforded  matter  of  considerable  dispute. 
In  order  that  the  i-eader  may  judge  for 
himself,  we  shall  take  a  view  of  both  sides 
of  the  question. 

The  partisans  for  religious  establishments 
observe,  that  they  have  prevailed  univer- 
sally in  every  age  and  nation.  The  ancient 
patriarchs  formed  no  extensive  nor  perma-' 
nent  associations  but  such  as  arose  from  the 
relationships  of  Nature.  Every  father  gov- 
erned his  own  family,  and  their  offspring 
submitted  to  his  jurisdiction.  He  presided 
in  their  education  and  discipUne,  in  their 
religious  worship,  and  in  their  general  gov- 
ernment His  knowledge  and  experience 
handed  down  to  them  tlieir  laws  and  their 
customs,  both  civil  and  religious :  and  his 
authority  enforced  them.  The  offices  of 
prophet,  priest,  and  king,  were  thus  united 
in  the  same  patriarch,  (ien.  xviii.  19.  Gen. 
xvii.  and  x^i.  Gen:  xiv.  18.  The  Jews  en- 
joyed a  religious  establishment  dictated  and 
ordained  by  God.  In  turning  our  attention 
to  the  heathei>  nations  we  shall  find  the 
same  incorporation  of  religious  with  civil 
government,  Gen.  xlvii.  22.  2  Kings  xvii. 
27.  29.  Every  one  who  is  at  all  acquainted 
with  the  histoiy  of  Greece  and  Rome, 
knows  that  religion  was  altogether  blended 
with  the  policy  of  the  state.  The  Koran 
may  be  considered  as  the  religious  creed 
and  civil  code  of  all  the  Mahometan  tribes. 
Among  the  Celtes,  or  the  original  inhabi- 
tants of  Europe,  the  druids  were  both  their 
priests  and  their  judges,  and  their  judgment 
was  final.  Among  the  Hindoos,  the  priests  and 
sovereigns  are  of  different  tribes  or  casts, 
but  the  priests  are  superior  in  rank ;  and 
in  China,  the  emperor  is  sovereign  pontiff, 
and  presides  in  all  public  acts  of  religion. 

Again ;  it  is  said,  that,  although  there  is 
no  form  of  church  government  absolutely 
prescribed  in  the  New  Testament,  yet  ivowx 
the  associating  law,  on  which  the  Gospel 
lays  so  much  stress,  by  the  respect  for  civil 
government  it  so  earnestly  enjoins,  and  by 
the  practice  which  followed,  and  finally 
prevailed.  Christians  cannot  be  said  to  dis- 
approve, but  to  favour  religious  establish- 
ments. 

Religious  establishments,  also,  it  is  obsei  v- 
ed,  are  founded  in  the  nature  of  man,  and 
interwoven  with  all  the  constituent  princi- 
ples of  human  society :  ihe  knowledge  and 
profession  of  Christianity  cannot  be  upheld 
without  a  clergy  ;  a  clergy  cannot  be  sup- 
ported without  a  legal  provision  ;  and  a  le- 
gal provision  for  the  clergy  cannot  be  consti- 
tuted without  the  preference  of  one  sect  of 
Christians  to  the  rest.  An  established 
church  is  most  likely  to  maintain  clerical 
respectabiUty  and  usefulness,  by  holding  out 
a  suitable  encouragement  to  young  men  to 
devote  themselves  early  to  the  service  of 
the  church ;  and  likewise  enables  them  to 
obtain  such  knowledge  as  shall  qualify  tiiem 
for  the  imi)oitant  work. 


EST 


143 


E  TE 


They  who  reason  on  the  contrary  side 
observe,  that  the  patriarchs  sustaining  civil 
as  well  as  religious  offices,  is  no  proof  at  all 
that  religion  was  incorporated  with  the  civil 
government,  in  the  sense  above  referred  to; 
nor  is  there  the  least  hint  of  it  in  the  sacred 
scriptures.  That  the  case  of  the  Jews  can 
never  be  considered  in  point,  as  they  were 
under  a  theocracy,  and  a  ceremonial  dispen- 
sation that  was  to  pass  away,  and  conse- 
quently not  designed  to  be  a  model  for 
Christian  nati-ns.  That  whatever  was  the 
practice  of  heathens  in  this  respect,  this 
ibrms  no  argument  in  favour  of  that  system 
which  is  the  verj^  opposite  to  paganism. 
The  church  of  Christ  is  of  a  spiritual  nature, 
and  ought  not,  yea  cannot,  in  fact,  be  incor- 
porated with  the  state  without  sustaining 
material  injury.  In  the  three  first  and  purest 
ages  of  Christianity,  the  church  was  a 
stranger  to  any  alliance  with  temporal  pow- 
ers ;  and,  so  far  from  needing  their  aid,  re- 
ligion never  flourished  so  much  as  while 
they  were  combined  to  suppress  it.  As  to 
the  support  which  Chi-istianity,  when  united 
to  civil  government,  yields  to  the  peace 
and  good  order  of  society,  it  is  observed, 
that  this  benefit  will  be  derived  from  it,  at 
least,  in  as  great  a  degree  without  an  esta- 
blishment as  with  it.  Religion,  if  it  have 
any  power,  operates  on  the  conscierice  of 
men  ;  and,  resting  solely  on  the  belief  of  in- 
visible realities,  it  can  derive  no  weight  or 
solemnity  from  human  sanctions.  Human 
establishments,  it  is  said,  have  been,  and 
are,  productive  of  the  greatest  evils  :  for  in 
this  case  it  is  requisite  to  give  the  prefer- 
ence to  some  particular  system;  and  as  the 
magistra'e  is  no  better  judge  of  religion  than 
others,  the  chances  are  as  great  of  his  lend- 
ing his  sanction  to  the  false  as  the  true. 
The  thousands  that  have  been  persecuted 
and  suffered  in  consequence  of  establish- 
ments, will  always  form  an  argunaent  against 
them.  Under  establishments  also,  it  is  said, 
corruption  cannot  be  avoided.  Emolument 
must  be  attached  to  the  national  church, 
which  may  be  a  strong  inducement  to  its 
ministers  to  defend  it,  be  it  ever  so  remote 
from  the  truth.  Thus  also,  error  becomes 
permanent ;  and  that  set  of  opinions  which 
happens  to  prevail  when  the  establishment 
is  formed,  continues,  in  spite  of  superior 
light  and  improvement,  to  be  handed  down, 
without  alteration,  from  age  to  age.  Hence 
the  disagreement  between  the  public  creed 
of  the  church  and  the  priv^ate  sentiments  of 
its  ministers.  As  to  the  provision  made  for 
the  clergy,  this  may  be  done  without  an 
establishment,  as  matter  of  fact  shews  in 
hundreds  of  instances.  Dissenting  ministers, 
or  tho.se  who  do  not  hold  in  establishments, 
it  is  observed,  are  not  without  means  of  ob- 
taining knowledge ;  but,  on  the  cnntrar\-, 
many  of  them  are  equal  to  their  brethren  in 
the  establishment  for  erudition  and  sound 
learning.  It  is  not  to  be  dissembled  neither, 
that  among  those  who,  in  general,  cannot 
agree  with  human  establishments,-they  are 


as  pious  and  as  useful  members  of  society 
as  others.  Finally,  though  all  Chrisjtians 
should  pay  respect  to  civil  magistrates  as 
such,  and  all  magistrates  ought  to  encourage 
the  church,  yet  no  civil  magistrates  have 
any  power  to  establish  any  particular  form 
of  religion  binding  upon  the  consciences  of 
the  subject ;  nor  are  magistrates  even  re- 
presented in  scripture  as  officers  or  rulers 
of  the  church.  6hould  the  reader  be  desi- 
rous of  prosecuting  this  subject  farther,  he 
may  consult  Warbiirtoii's  Alliance  beliveen 
Church  and  State  ;  Christie's  £ssay  on  Es- 
tablishments ;  Paley's  Mor.  Phil.  v.  ii. 
c.  10 ;  Bjshoji  Laiv's  Theory  of  Religion  ; 
IVatts'  Ci-vil  Power  in  things  sacred,  third 
volume  of  his  works  ;  Hall's  Liberty  of 
the  Press,  sec.  5;  Mrs  Hannah  Moore's 
Hints  on  forming  the  Character  of  a  young 
Princess,  vol.  ii.  p.  350  :  but  especially  Ran- 
ken  and  Graliam  s  pieces  on  the  subject ; 
the  former  for,  and  the  latter  against  esta- 
blishments. 

ESTEEiM  is  that  high  and  exalted 
thought  of,  and  value  for  any  thmg  which 
arises  from  a  sense  of  its  own  intrinsic 
worth  and  excellency.  Esteem  is  higher 
tha'n  simple  approbation,  which  is  a  decision 
of  the  judgment ;  it  is  the  commencement 
of  affection  ;  it  is  a  degree  of  love  for  others, 
on  account  of  their  pleasing  qualities,  though 
they  should  not  immediately  interest  our- 
selves ;  by  which  it  is  distinguished  from 
gratitude.  Our  esteem  of  God  manifests 
itself  in  never  mentioning  his  name  without 
reverence ;  in  bowing  the  knee ;  in  prayer 
and  praise  ;  in  all  the  several  forms  of  out- 
ward devotion,  and  in  quick  resentment  of 
any  dishonour  done  to  him.  Our  high  es- 
teem or  veneration  of  any  man  appears  in 
an  humble,  respectful  behaviour  toward, 
him,  speaking  his  praises,  imitating  his 
excellencies,  and  resenting  his  dishonour. 

ETERNITY,  with  respect  to  God,  is  a 
duration  without  beginning  or  end.  As  it  is 
the  attribute  of  human  nature,  it  is  a  dura- 
tion that  has  a  beginning,  but  will  never 
have  an  end.  "  It  is  a  duration,"  says  a 
lively  writer,  "  that  excludes  all  number 
and  computation:  days,  and  months,  and 
years,  yea,  and  ages,  are  lost  in  it,  like  drops 
in  the  ocean  !  Millions  of  millions  of  years, 
as  many  years  as  there  are  sands  on  the  sea- 
sliore  or  particles  of  dust  in  the  globe  of 
the  earth,  and  those  multiplied  to  the  high- 
est reach  of  number,  all  these  are  nothing 
to  eternity.  They  do  not  bear  the  least 
imaginable  proportion  to  it,  for  these  will 
come  to  an  end,  as  certainly  as  a  day  ;  but 
eternity  will  never,  never,  never,  come  to  an 
ftid  '  It  is  a  line  without  end  !  it  is  an  ocean 
without  a  shore  ?  Alas  !  what  shall  I  say  of 
it !  it  is  an  infinite,  unknown  something,  that 
neither  human  thought  can  gi-asp,  nor  hu- 
man language  describe !"  Orton  on  Eter- 
nity ;  Shower  on  ditto  ;  Davis*  Sermons, 
ser.  11  ;  Sa^trin's  Sermons,  vol.  iii.  p.  370. 

ETERNITY  OF  GOD  is  the  perpetual 
continuance  of  his  being,  without  beginning, 


ETE 


144 


EtIC 


end,  or  succession.  Tliat  he  is  without  be- 
ginning, says  Dr.  Gill,  may  be  proved  from, 
1.  His  necessary  self-existence,  Exod.  iii. 
14. — 2.  From  his  attril)utes,  several  of 
which  are  said  to  be  eternal,  Rom.  i.  20. 
Acts  XV.  18.  Psalm  ciii.  17,  Jer.  xxxi.  3. 
— 3.  From  his  purposes,  which  are  also 
said  to  be  from  eternity,  Isa.  xxv.  1  Eph. 
iii.  11.  Rom.  ix.  11.  Eph.  i.  4. — 4.  From 
the  covenant  of  grace,  which  is  eternal, 
2  Sam.  xxiii.  5.     Mic.  v.  2. 

That  he  is  tvithoitt  end,  may  lie  proved 
from,  1.  His  spirituality  and  simplicity,  Rom. 
i.  23 — 2.  From  his  independency,  Rom.  ix. 
5. — 3.  From  his  immutability,  2  Pet.  i.  24, 
25.  Mai.  iii.  6.  Psalm  iii.  26,'  27. — 4.  From 
his  dominion  and  government,  said  never 
to  end,  Jer.  x.  10.  Psalm  x.  16.  Dan.  iv.  3. 

That  he  is  without  succession,  or  any  dis- 
tinctions of  time  succeeding  one  to  another, 
as  moments,  minutes,  &c.  may  be  proved 
from,  1.  His  existence  before  such  were  in 
being,  Isa.  xliii.  13. — 2.  The  distinctions  and 
differences  ol  time  are  together  ascrited  to 
him,  and  not  as  su^xeeding  one  another: 
he  is  the  same  yesterday,  to-day,  and  for 
ever,  Heb.  xiii.  3.  Rev.  i.  4. — 3.  If  his  du- 
ration were  successive,  or  proceeded  by  mo- 
ments, days,  and  years,  then  there  must 
have  been  some  first  moment,  day,  and  year, 
■when  he  began  to  exist,  which  is  incompati- 
ble with  the  idea  of  his  eternity :  and, 
besides,  one  day  would  be  but  one  day  with 
him,  and  not  a  thousand,  contrary  to  the 
express  language  of  scripture,  2  Pet.  iii.  8. 
— 4.  He  would  not  be  immense,  immutable, 
and  perfect,  if  this  were  the  case  ;  for  he 
would  be  older  one  minute  than  he  was 
before,  which  cannot  be  said  of  him — 5. 
His  knowledge  proves  him  without  succes- 
sive duration,  for  he  knows  all  things  past, 
present,  and  to  come:  "  he  sees  tlie  pre- 
sent without  a  medium,  the  past  without 
recollection,  and  the  future  without  fore- 
sight. To  him  all  truths  are  but  one  idea, 
all  places  but  one  point,  and  all  times  but 
one  moment."  Gil/'s  fiodii  of  Divinity  ; 
Palei/s  .Vat.  Theol.  p.  480;  Charnock  on 
the  Drinne  Perfections  ;  Clarke  on  ditto  ; 
IP'afts'  Ontoloi^y,  chap.  iv. 

ETERNITY  OF  THE  WORLD.  It 
was  the  opinion  of  Aiistotle  and  others, 
that  the  world  was  eternal.  But  that  the 
present  system  of  tilings  had  it  beginning, 
seems  evident,  if  we  consider  the  following 
things.  1.  We  may  not  only  conceive  of 
many  possible  alterations  which  might  be 
made  in  the  form  of  it,  but  we  see  it  inces- 
santly changing:  whereas  an  eternal  being, 
for  as  much  as  it  is  self-existent,  is  always 
the  same. — 2.  We  have  nocredil)le  iiistcry 
of  transactions  move  remote  than  six  thou- 
sand years  from  the  present  time  ;  for  as  to 
the  ])retence  that  some  nations  have  made 
to  hi'storics  of  greater  antiquity,  as  the 
Egyfttians,  Chaldeans,  Phinicians,  Chi- 
nese, &c.  they  are  evidently  convicted  of 
falsehood  in  the  works  referred  to  at  the 
bottom  of  this  article. — 3.  We  can  trace  the 


invention  of  the  most  useful  arte  and  scien- 
ces :  which  had  probably  been  carried  far- 
ther, and  invented  sooner,  had  the  world 
been  eternal. — 4.  The  origin  of  the  most 
considerable  nations  of  the  earth  may  be 
traced,  i.  e.  the  time  when  they  first  inha- 
bited the  countries  where  they  now  dwell ; 
and  it  appears  that  most  of  the  western 
nations  came  from  the  east. — 5.  If  the 
world  be  eternal,  it  is  hard  to  account  for 
the  tradition  of  its  beginning,  which  has 
almost  e\eiy  where  prevailed,  though  under 
different  forms,  among  both  polite  and  bar- 
barous nations. — 6.  We  have  a  most  ancient 
and  credible  history  of  the  beginning  of  the 
world  ;  I  mean  the  history  of  Moses,  with 
which  no  book  in  the  world,  in  point  of  an- 
tiquity, can  contend.  StillingJJeet's  Orig. 
Sacrae,  p.  15.  106.  Winder's  Hist,  of  Know- 
ledge, vol.  ii.  passim;  Pearson  on  the  Creed, 
p.  58. :  Doddridge''s  Lectures,  1.  24. ;  Tillot- 
son's  Sermons,  serm.  1.;  Clarke  at  Boyle's 
Lectures,  p.  22,  23.  Dr.  Collyer's  Scrifiture 
Facts,  ser.  2. 

ETHICS,  the  doctrine  of  manners,  or  the 
science  of  moral  philosophy.  The  word  is 
formed  from  sj-9-^,  mores,  "  manners,"  by 
reason  the  scope  or  object  thereof  is  to  form 
the  manners.    See  Morals. 

ETHNOPHRONES,  a  sect  of  heretics  in 
the  seventh  centur)',  who  made  a  profession 
of  Christianity,  but  joined  the'reto  all  the 
ceremonies  and  follies  of  Paganism,  as  judi- 
cial astrology,  foitileges,  auguries,  and  other 
divinations. 

EVANGELIST,  one  who  publishes  glad 
tidings;  a  messenger,  or  preacher  of  good 
news.  The  persons  denominated  evangt- 
gelists  were  next  in  order  to  the  apostles, 
and  were  sent  by  them  not  to  settle  in  any 
particular  place,  but  to  travel  among  the 
infant  churches,  and  ordain  ordinary  officers, 
and  finisli  what  the  apostles  had  begun. 
Of  this  kin'd  were  Philip  the  deacon,  Mark, 
Silas,  6<;c.  Acts  xxi.  8.  The  title  of  evan- 
gelist is  more  particularly  given  to  the  four 
inspired  writers  of  our  Saviour's  life. 

EVANGELICAL,  agreeable  to  the  doc- 
trines of  Christianity.  The  term  is  fre- 
quently applied  to  those  who  do  not  rely 
upon  moral  duties  as  to  their  acceptance 
with  God  ;  but  are  influenced  to  action  from 
a  sense  of  the  love  of  God,  and  depend 
upon  the  merits  of  Christ  for  their  everlast- 
ing salvation. 

EUCHARIST,  the  sacrament  of  the 
Lord's  supper.  'I'he  word  properly  signifies 
giving  thanks.  As  to  the  manner  of  cele- 
brating the  eucharist  amongst  the  ancient 
Christians,  after  the  customary  oblations 
were  made,  the  deacon  brought  water  to  the 
bishops  and  preshyteis  standing  round  .tlie 
tab'e  to  wash  their  hands ;  according  to 
that  passage  of  the  Psalmist,"  I  will  wash 
my  hands  in  innocencv,  and  so  will  1  com- 
pass thy  altar,  O  Lord  "  Then  the  deacon 
cried  out  aloud,  "  Mutually  embrace  and 
kiss  each  other;"  which  being  done,  the 
wliole  congregation  prayed  for  the  universal 


EUD 


145 


E  VI 


peace  and  welfare  of  the  church,  for  the 
tranquillity  and  repose  of  the  world,  for  the 
prosperity  oi  the  age,  for  wholesome  wea- 
ther, and  tor  all  lanks  and  degrees  of  men 
After  this  foUowed^mulual  salutations  of  the 
minister  and  peoplt?^;  and  then  the  bishop  or 
presbyter,  having  sanctified  the  elements  by 
a  solemn  benediction,  broke  the  bread,  and 
delivered  it  to  the  deacon,  who  distributed 
it  to  the  communicants,  and  after  that  the 
cup.  The  sacramental  wuie  was  usually 
diluted  or  mixed  with  water.  During  the 
time  of  administration  they  sang  hymns  and 
psaims;  and  having  concluded  with  prayer 
and  thanksgiving,  the  people  saluted  each 
other  with  a  kiss  of  peace,  and  so  the  as- 
sembly broke  up. 

EUCHITES,  or  EuchitjE,  a  sect  of  an- 
cient heretics,  who  were  first  formed  into 
a  religious  body  towards  the  end  of  the  4th 
century,  though  their  doctrine  and  discipline 
subsisted  in  Syria,  Egypt,  and  other  eastern 
countries,  before  the  birth  of  Christ :  they 
were  thus  called,  because  they  prayed  with- 
out ceasing,  imagining  that  prayer  alone  was 
sufficient  to  save  them.  They  were  a  sort 
of  mystics,  who  imagined,  according  to  the 
oriental  notion,  that  two  souls  resided  in  man, 
the  one  good,  and  the  other  evil ;  and  who 
were  zealous  in  expelling  the  evil  soul  or 
demon,  and  hastening  the  return  of  the  good 
spirit  of  God,  by  contemplation,  prayer,  and 
singing  of  hymns.  They  also  embraced 
opinions  nearly  resembling  the  Manichean 
doctrine,  and  which  they  derived  from  tlie 
tenets  of  the  oriental  philosophy.  The  same 
denomination  was  used  in  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury to  denote  certain  fanatics  who  infested 
the  Greek  and  eastern  churches,  and  who 
were  charged  with  believing  a  double  trini- 
ty, rejecting  wedlock,  abstaining  from  flesh, 
treating  with  contempt  the  sacraments  of 
baptism  and  the  Lord's  supper,  and  the 
various  branches  of  external  worship,  and 
placing  the  essence  cf  religion  solely  in  ex- 
ternal prayer;  and  maintaining  the  efficacy 
of  perpjituai  supplications  to  the  Supreme 
Being  tor  expelling  an  evil  being  or  genius, 
wliich  dwelt  in  the  breast  of  every  mortal. 
This  sect  is  said  to  have  been  founded  by  a 
'  person  called  Lucojwtrus,  whose  chief  dis- 
'<  ciple  was  named  Tychkus.  By  degress  it 
became  a  general  and  invidious  appellation 
for  persons  of  eminent  piety  and  zeal  for 
.  genuine  Christianity,  who  ojiposed  the  vi- 
cious practices  and  insolent  tyranny  of  the 
Eriesthood,  much  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
atins  comprehended  all  the  adversaries  of 
i  tile  Roman  pontiff  under  ihie  general  terms 
:  of  Alhiv;enses  and  VValdens'.'s. 

EUDDXIANS,  a  sect  in  the  fonith  cen- 

:  tury  ;  so  called  from  tlteir  leader  Eudoxins, 

,  patriarcli  of  Antioch  and  Constantinople,  a 

great  defender  of  the  .\rian  doctrine.    Tiie 

Eudoxians  believed  thai  the  Son  vvas  creu- 

\.*t'A  out  of  nothing:  thuf  he  had  a  will  dis- 

,  tliict  and  different  from  that  of  the  Father, 

I  &c.  They  held  many  other  tenets  of  the 

i  Arlans  and  Ejnomia:\s. 

T 


EVIDENCE,  is  that  perception  of  truth 
which  arises  either  from  the  testimony  of 
the  senses,  or  from  an  induction  of  reason. 
The  evidences  of  revelation  are  divided  into 
inteiTial  and  external.  That  is  called  inter' 
nal  evidence  which  is  drawn  from  tht-  con- 
sideration of  those  declarations  and  doctrines 
which  are  contained  in  it ;  and  that  is  call- 
ed external  which  arises  from  some  other 
circumstances  refening  to  it,  such  as  pre- 
I  dictions  concerning  it,  miracles  wrought  by 
I  those  who  teach  it,  its  succt-ss  in  the  world, 
I  &c.  See  Evidences  of  Christianity y  art. 
IChristianity. 

j  Moral  e-uid€?ice  is  that  which,  though  it 
j  does  not  exclude  a  mere  abstract  possibility 
of  things  being  otherwise,  yet  shuts  out 
every  reasonable  ground  of  suspecting  that 
I  they  are  so. 

Evidences  of  Grace  are  those  dispositions 
and  acts  which  prove  a  person  to  be  in  a 
'  converted  state ;  such  as  an  enlightened  un- 
derstanding ;  love  to  God  and  his  people ; 
a  delight  in  God's  woi'd;  worship  of  and 
!  dependence  on  him  ;  spirituality  of  mind  ; 
j  devotedness  of  life  to  the  service  of  God,  &c. 
I  Seed's  Post.  Ser.,  ser.  2,  Ditton  on  the  Re- 
surrection ;  Bellamy  on  Religion.,  p.  184, 
Gambear^s  Introduction  to  the  Study  of 
I  Moral  evidence,  163. 

j  EVIL  is  distinguished  into  natural  and 
!  moral.  jVatural  evil  is  whatever  destroys 
or  any  ways  disturb  the  perfections  of  natur- 
al beings ;  such  as  blindness,  diseases,  death, 
l&c.  Moral  evil  is  the  disagreement  be- 
jtween  the  actions  of  a  moral  agent,  and  the 
j  rule  of  those  actions,  whatever  it  is.  Ap- 
;  plied  to  a  choice,  or  acting  contrary  to  the 
!  moral  or  revealed  laws  of  the  Deity,  it  is 
termed  vickedness  or  sin.  Applied  to  act- 
ting  contrary  to  the  mere  rule  of  fitness,  a 
\ fault.  See  article  Sin. 
I  EVIL  SPEAKING,  the  using  language 
[either  reproachful  or  untrue  respecting 
others,  and  thereby  injuring  them.  It  is  an 
I  express  command  of  scripture,  "  To  speak 
!  evil  of  no  man,"  Titus  iii.  2.  James  iv.  11. 
1  By  which,  however,  we  are  not  to  under- 
I  stand  that  there  are  no  occasions  on  which 
;  v/e  are  at  liberty  to  speak  of  others  that 
I  which  may  be  considered  as  evil.  1.  Per- 
Isons  in  the  administration  of  justice  may 
I  speak  words  which  in  private  intercourse 
I  would  be  reproachful — 2.  God's  minister.*; 
I  may  inveigh  against  vice  with  sharpness  and 
j  severity,  both  privately  and  publicly.  Is. 
I  Ivlii.  1.  Tit.  i.  13 — 3.  Private  persons  may  re- 
j  prove  others  when  they  commit  sin,  Lev.  xix. 
i  \7. — 4.  Some  vehemency  of  speech  may  be 
-  used  in  defence  of  truth,  and  impugning  errors 
■of  bad  consequence,  Jude  3 — 5.  It  may  be 
,  necessary  upon  some  emergent  occasions, 
i;  witii  some  heat  of  language  to  express  disap- 
i  prob.aT'.>);i  of  notorious  wickedness.  Acts  viii. 
j  :' >.  Vet  in  all  these  the  greatest  equity, 
i  mr.deration  and  candout",  should  be  used  ; 
■  and  wc  should  take  care,  1.  Never  to  speak 
;:in  severe  terms  witlicut  reasonable  v/arrant 
' 'iv  apparent  just    cav^sej— '2-  Nor   beyond 


EUN 


146 


EUT 


measure; — 3.  Nor  out  of  bad  principles  or 
wrong  ends ;  for  ill  will,  contempt,  revenge 
envy,  to  compass  our  own  ends  ;  from  wan- 
tonness or  negligence,  but  from  pure  charity 
for  the  good  of  those  to  whom  or  of  whom 
we  speak. 

This  is  an  evil,  however,  which  greatly 
abounds,  and  which  is  not  sufficiently  watch- 
ed against ;  for  it  is  not  Avhf-n  we  openly 
speak  evil  of  others  only  that  we  are  guil- 
ty, but  even  in  speaking  what  is  true  we  are 
in  danger  of  speaking  evil  of  others.  There 
is  sometmies  a  malignant  pleasure  manifest- 
ed ;  a  studious  recollection  of  every  tiling 
that  can  be  brought  forward ;  a  delight  in 
hearing  any  thing  spoken  against  others ;  a 
secret  rejoicing  in  knowing  that  another's 
fall  will  be  an  occasion  of  our  rise.  All  this 
is  base  to  an  extreme. 

The  improjiritfty  and  sinfulness  of  evil 
speaking  will  appear,  if  we  consider,  1.  That 
it  is  entirely  opposite  to  the  whole  tenor  of 
the  Christian  religion. — .-'.  Expressly  con- 
demned and  prohibited  as  evil,  Ps.  Ixiv.  3 
James  iv.  1 1. — 3.  No  practice  hath  more  se- 
vere punishments  denounced  against  it,  1. 
Cor.  V.  11.  1  Cor.  vi.  10 — 4.  It  is  an  evi- 
dence of  a  weak  and  distempered  mind. — 
5.  It  is  even  indicative  of  ill  breeding  and 
bad  manners — 6  It  is  the  abhorrence  of  all 
wise  and  good  men,  Ps.  xv.  3. — 7.  Itn^  ex- 
ceedingly injurious  to  society,  and  inconsis- 
tent with  the  relation  we  bear  to  each  other 
as  Christians,  James  iii  6 — 8.  It  is  brand- 
ed with  the  epithet  of  folly,  Prov  xviii  6, 
T.^:-^.  It  is  perverting  the  design  of  speech. 
— 10.  It  is  opposite  to  the  example  of  Christ, 
whom  vvje  pre  fess  to  follow.  See  Slander. 
Barrow's  Works,  vol.  i.  ser  16.  Tillot- 
sori's  Ser  ser.  42 ;  Jack's  Ser.  on  Evil 
Speaking 

EULOGY,  eulogia,  a  term  made  use  of 
in  reference  to  the  consecrated  bread.  When 
the  Greeks  have  cut  a  loaf  or  piece  of  bread 
to  consecrate  it,  they  break  the  rest  into 
little  bits,  and  distribute  it  among  the  per- 
sons who  have  not  yet  communicated,  or 
send  it  to  persons  that  are  absent ;  and  these 
pieces  of  bread  are  what  they  call  eulogies 
The  word  is  Greek,  ivXoyict,,  formed  of  £f, 
bene,  "  well,"  and  A£7<*'>  dico,  "  I  say, 
speak  ;"  q.  d.  6enedicru7n,  "  blessed." 

The  Latin  churcti  has  had  something  like 
eulogies  for  a  great  many  ages  ;  and  thence 
arose  the  use  of  their  holy  bread.  The  name 
eulogif  was  likewise  given  to  loaves  or  cakes 
brought  to  church  by  the  faithful  to  have 
them'  blessed.  Lastly,  the  use  of  the. term 
passed  hence  to  mere  presents  made  to  a 
person  without  any  benediction. 

EUNOMIANS,  a  sect  in  the  fourth  cen- 
tury Tlicy  wore  a  branch  of  Arians,  and 
took  their  name  from  Eunoniius,  bishrp  of 
Cyzicus  Cave,  in  his  Historia  Literaria, 
vol.  i.  p.  223,  gives  the  following  account  of 
their  faith.  "  There  is  one  God,  uncreated 
and  without  beginning;  who  hasnothnigex 
isting  before  him,  for'  nothing  can  exist  be- 
fore Svliat  is  uncreated;  nor  with  him,  for 


what  is  uncreated  must  be  one :  nor  in  him, 
for  God  is  a  simple  and  uncompounded  be- 
ing. This  one  simple  and  eternal  being  is 
God,  the  creator  and  ordainer  of  all  things ; 
first,  indeed,  and  principally  of  his  tnly  be- 
gotten Son ;  and  then  through  him  of  all 
other  things.  For  God  begat,  created,  and 
made  the  Son  only  by  his  direct  operation 
and  power,  before  all  things,  and  every 
other  creature;  not  producing,  however, 
any  being  like  himself,  or  imparting  any  of 
his  own  proper  substance  to  the  Son :  for 
God  is  immortal,  uniform,  indivisible ;  and 
therefore  cannot  communicate  any  part  of 
his  own  proper  substance  to  another.  He 
alone  is  un begotten  ;  and  it  is  impossible  that 
any  other  being  should  be  formed  of  an  un- 
begotten  substance.  He  did  not  use  his  own 
substance  in  begetting  the  Son,  but  liis  will 
only  ;  nor  did  he  beget  him  in  the  likeness 
of  his  .substance,  but  according  te  his  own 
good  pleasure :  he  then  created  the  Holy 
Spirit,  the  first  and  greatest  of  all  spirits,  by 
his  own  power,  in  deed  and  operation  me- 
diately ;  yet  by  the  immediate  power  and 
operation  of  the  Son.  After  the  Holy  Spirit, 
he  created  all  other  things,  in  heaven  and 
in  earth,  visible  and  invisible,  corporeal  and 
incorporeal,  mediately  by  himself,  by  the 
power  and  operation  of  the  Son,"  &c.  The 
reader  will  evidently  see  how  near  these 
tenets  are  to  those  of  Arianism.  See 
Arians. 

EUSEBIANS,  a  denomination  given  to 
the  Arians,  on  account  of  the  favour  and 
countenance  which  Eusebius,  bishop  of  Cx- 
sarea,  shewed  and  procured  for  them  at 
their  first  rise 

EUSTATHIANS,  a  name  given  to  the 
Catholics  of  Antioch,  in  the  fourth  century, 
on  occasion  of  their  refusinc;  to  acknowledge 
any  other  bishop  beside  St.  Eustathius,  de- 
posed by  the  Arians. 

EUSTATHIANS,  a  sect  in  the  fourth 
century,  so  denominated  from  their  founder, 
Eustathius,  a  monk  so  foolishly  fond  of  his 
own  profession,  that  he  condemned  all  other 
conditions  of  life.  Whether  this  Eustathius 
were  the  same  with  the  bishop  of  Sebastia, 
and  chief  of  tlie  Semi-arians,  is  not  easy  to 
determine.  He  excluded  married  people 
from  salvation ;  prohibited  his  followers 
from  praying  in  their  houses,  and  obliged 
them  to  quit  all  they  had,  as  incompatible 
with  the  hopes  of  heaven.  He  drew  them 
(  ut  of  the  other  assemblies  of  Christians,  to 
hold  secret  ones  with  him,  and  made  them 
wear  a  particular  habit:  he  appointed  them 
to  fast  on  Sundays ;  and  taught  them  that 
the  ordinary  fasts  of  the  cliurch  were  need- 
less after  they  had  attained  to  a  certain  de- 
gree of  pm-ity  which  he  pretended  to.  He 
shewed  great  horror  for  chapels  built  in  hon- 
our of  martyrs,  and  the  assemblies  he  d 
therein.  He  was  conden.ned  at  the  coun- 
cil of  gangra,  in  Paphlagonia,  held  between 
the  years  ."^SG  and  341. 

EUTUCHITES,   a  denomination  in  the 
third  century ,  so  called  from  the  Greek 


EXA 


147 


EXC 


tvTv^ity,  which  signifies  to  live  ■without 
pain,  or  in  pleasure.  Among  other  senti- 
ments, they  held  that  our  souls  are  placed 
in  our  bodies  only  to  honour  the  angels  who 
created  them ;  and  that  we  ought  to  rejoice 
equally  in  all  events,  because  to  grieve  ^Y<juld 
be  to  dish;inour  the  angels,   their  creators. 

EUrYCHIANS.  ancient  heretics,  who 
denied  the  duplicity  of  natures  in  Christ ; 
thus  denominated  from  Eutyches,  the  arch- 
imandrite, or  abbot  of  a  monastery,  at  Con- 
stantinople, who  began  to  propagate  his 
opinion  about  A.  D.  448.  H-;  did  not,  how- 
ever, seem  quite  steady  and  consistent  in 
his  sentiments ;  for  he  appeared  to  allow  of 
two  natures,  even  before  the  union,  which 
was  apparently  a  consequence  he  drew 
from  the  principles  of  the  Platonic  philoso- 
phy, which  supposes  a  pre-existence  of  souls; 
accordingly  he  believed  that  the  soul  of  Jesus 
Christ  had  been  united  to  the  Divinity  be- 
fore the  incarnation ;  but  then  he  allowed 
no  distinction  of  natures  in  Jesus  Christ  since 
his  incarnation.  This  heresy  was  first  con- 
demned, in  a  synod  held  at  Constantinople, 
by  Flavian,  in  448;  approved  by  the  coun- 
cil of  Ephesus,  called  coriventus  latronum, 
in  449;  and  re-examined  and  fuhuinated  in 
the  general  council  of  Chulcedcn,  in  451. 
The  Eutychians  were  divided  into  several 
branches,  as  the  Agnoetx,  Theodosians,  Se- 
verians,  is'c.  isfc.  '<Sfc.  Eutychians  was  ~also 
the  name  of  a  sect,  half  Arian  and  half  Eu- 
nomian,  which  arose  at  Constantinople  in 
the  fourth  century. 

EXALTATION  OF  CHRIST  consisted 
in  his  rising  again  from  the  dead  on  the 
third  day  in  ascending  up  into  heaven ;  in 
sitting  at  the  right  hand  of  God  the  Father, 
and  in  coming  to  judg;e  the  world  at  the  last 
day.  See  articles  Resurrection,  As- 
cension, InTERCES  SIGN,  and  JUDGMEXT- 

Day 
EXAMINATION  Self.    See  Self-Ez- 

AMINATION. 

EXAMPLE,  a  copy  or  pattern.  In  a 
moral  sense,  is  either  taken  for  a  type,  in- 
stance, or  precedent  for  our  admonitifn,  that 
•we  may  be  cautioned  against  the  faults  or 
crimes  which  others  have  committed,  Ijy  the 
bad  consequences  which  have  ensued  from 
them ;  or  example  is  taken  for  a  pattern  for 
our  imitation,  or  a  model  for  us  toCopy  after. 

That  good  examfiks  have  a  peculiar  pow- 
er above  naked  ])recepts  to  dispose  us  to  the 
practice  of^irtue  and  holiness,  may  appear 
by  considering,  "  1.  That  tht-y  mo.st  clearly 
express  to  us  the  nature  of  our  duties  in 
their  subjects  and  sensible  effects.  General 
precepts  form  abstract  ideas  of  virtue  ;  but 
in  examples,  virtues  are  nac^st  visible  in  al! 
their  circumstances — 2  Precepts  instruct 
us  in  what  things  are  our  duty,  but  exam- 
ples assure  us  that  they  are  possible.  3.  Ex- 
amples, by  secrt-t  and  li^-'c-ly  incentive,  urgr 
us  to  imitation.  We  are  touched  in  anoth'M 
manner  by  the  visible  practice  of  good  men, 
which  reproaches  our  defects,  and  obliges 


us  to  the  same  zeal,  which  laws,  though 
wise  and  good,  will  not  effect." 

The  life  of  Jesus  Christ  forms  the  most 
ijeautiful  example  the  Christian  can  imitate. 
Unlike  all  others,  it  was  absolutely  fitrftcl 
and  uniform,  and  every  way  accommodated 
tc  our  present  state.  In  him  we  bi-hold  all 
liglit  Avithout  a  shade,  all  beauty  v/ithout  a 
spot,  all  the  purity  of  the  law,  and  the  ex- 
cellency of  the  Gospel.  Here  we  see  piety 
without  suj)erstition,  and  morality  without 
ostentation  ;  humility  widiout  meanness,  and 
fortitude  vy'ithout  temei'ity;  patience  with- 
out apathy,  and  compassion  u  ithout  weak- 
ness ;  zeal  without  I'ashness,  and  beneficence 
without  prodigality.  The  obligation  we  are 
under  to  imitate  this  example  arises  from 
duty,  relationship,  engagement,  interest,  and 
gratitude.     See  article  Jesus  Christ. 

Those  who  set  bad  examples  should  con- 
sider, 1.  That  they  are  the  ministers  of 
the  devil's  designs  to  destroy  souls — That 
they  are  acting  in  direct  opposition  to 
Christ,  who  came  to  save,  and  not  to  de- 
destroy. — 3.  That  tliey  are  adding  to  the 
misery  and  calamities  which  are  aiready  in 
the  world  — 4.  That  the  effects  of  their  ex- 
ample may  be  incalculable  on  society  to  the 
end  of  time,  and  pei'haps  in  eternity;  for 
who  can  tell  what  may  be  the  consequence 
of  oPtC  sin,  on  a  family,  a  nation,  or  posterity? 
— 5.  Tiiey  are  acting  contrary  to  the  divine 
command,  and  thus  exposing  themselves  to 
final  ruin.  Massillon' s  Ser.,  vol  ii.  ser.  9. 
Eng.  Tran.;  Llarke's  Looking-  Glass,  ch. 
48;  Tilloison's  Ser.  ser.  189, 190;  Barrow's 
J  Forks,  vol.  iii  ser.  2  and  3;  FlaveCs 
Works,  vol.  i.  p  29,  30;  Mason's  iter.  vol. 
ii  ser   17. 

EXARCH,  an  officer  in  the  Greek  church, 
whose  business  it  is  to  visit  the  provinces  al- 
lotted to  him,  in  order  to  inform  himself 
of  the  lives  and  manners  of  the  clergy ; 
take  cognizance  of  ecclesiastical  causes  ;  the 
manner  of  celebrating  divine  service;  the 
administration  of  the  sacraments,  particu- 
larly confession  ;  the  ishservance  of  the  ca- 
nons, monastic  discipline ;  affairs  of  mar- 
riages, div(/rces,  Sec  ;  but,  above  all,  to  take 
an  account  of  tlie  several  revenues  which 
the  patriarch  receives  trom  several  churc  jes 
and  particularly  as  to  what  regards  Collect- 
ing the  same.  The  exarch,  after  having 
i.nrichf*d  himself  in  his  post,  frequently  rises 
to  the  patriarchate  himself.  Exaich  is  also 
used,  in  the  Eastern  church  antiquity,  for 
a  general  or  superior  over  several  monaste- 
ri  s,  the  same  that  we  call  archimandrite; 
being  exempted  by  the  patriarch  of  Con- 
stantinople from  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
')ishop. 

EXCISION,  the  cutting  off  a  person  from 
fellowship  Willi  the  community  to  which  he 
x'longs,  by  Avay  of  pnnisliment  f  r  some  sin 
!)mmitted.  The  Jews,  belden  informs  us, 
•eckon  up  thirtv-six  crimes,  to  which  they 
:>retend  this  punishment  is  due.  The  rab- 
)ius  reckon  three  kinds  of  excision ;  one 


EXC 


148 


EXC 


which  destroys  only  the  body;  another, 
•which  destroys  the  soul  only  ;  and  a  third 
•which  destroys  both  biuly  and  soul.  The 
first  kind  of  excision  they  pretend  is  untime- 
ly death  :  the  second  is  an  utter  extinction 
of  the  soul  ;  and  the  third  a  compouncl  of 
the  two  former  :  thus  making  tlie  soul  mor- 
tal or  immortal,  says  Selden,  according  to 
the  degree  of  misbehaviour  and  wicked- 
ness of  the  people.    See  next  article. 

EXCOMMUNICATION,  a  penalty,  or 
censure,  whereby  persons  who  are  guilty  of ' 
any  notorious  crime  or  offence,  are  separa- ! 
ted  from  the  communion  of  the  church,  andj 
deprived  of  all  spiritual  advantages. 

Excommunication  is  founded  upon  a  natu- 
ral right  which  all  societies  have,  of  exclud- 
ing out  of  their  body  such  as  viiiate  the  laws 
thereof,  and  it  was  originaliy  instituted  for 
preserving  the  purity  of  the  church  ;  but 
ambitious  ecclesiastics  converted  it  by  de- 
grees into  an  engine  for  promoting  dieir 
own  power,  and  inflicted  it  on  the  most  fri- 
volous occasions. 

In  the  ancient  cliurch  the  power  of  ex- 
communication was  lodged  in  the  hands  of  the 
cleify,  who  distinguished  it  into  the  greater 
and  less.  The  less  consisted  in  excluding 
persons  from  the  participation  of  the  eucha- 
rist,  and  the  prayers  of  the  faithful ;  but 
they  were  not  expelled  the  church.  The 
greater  excommunication  consisted  in  abso- 
lute and  entire  seclusion  from  the  church, 
and  the  participation  of  all  its  rights  :  notice 
of  which  w-is  given  by  circular  letters  to 
the  most  eminent  chui-ches  all  ovei-  the 
•world,  that  they  might  all  confirm  this  act 
of  discipline,  by  refusing  to  admit  the  de- 
linquent to  tlieir  communion.  The  conse- 
quences were  veiy  terrible.  The  person  so 
excommunicated  was  avoided  in  all  civil 
commerce  and  outward  conversation.  No 
one  was  to  receive  him  into  his  house,  nor 
eat  at  the  same  tal)le  with  him  ;  and,  when 
dead,  he  was  denied  the  solemn  rites  of 
burial. 

The  Jews  expelled  from  their  synagogue 
such  as  had  committed  any  grievous  crime. 
See  John  ix-  22.  Joiin  zii-  42.  John  xvi.  2. 
and  J'lseph.  Antiq.  Jud.  lb.  9.  cap.  22.  -and 
lib.  16  cap  2.  Godwyn,  in  his  Moacs  and 
Aaron,  distinguishes  three  degrees  or  kinds 
of  excommunication  among  tlie  Jews.  The 
first  he  finds  intimated  in  Jolin  ix  22.  the 
second  in  1  Cor.  v.  5.  and  the  third  in  1 
Cor  xvi.  22. 

The  Romish  Pontifical  takes  notice  of 
three  kinds  of  excommunication.  1.  The 
minor,  incurred  Ijy  those  wiio  liave  any  cor- 
respondence with  an  excommmiicated  per- 
son. 2.  The  major,  wh.ich  falls  upon  those 
who  disobey  the  commands  of  the  holy  see, 
or  refuse  to  submit  to  certain  points  of  disci- 
pline ;  in  consequence  of  which  thoy  are  ex- 
cluded from  the  church  militant  and  tiium- 
phant,  and  delivered  over  to  the  devil  and 
nis  angels.  3.  Anathema,  wlvich  is  properly 
that  pronounced  by  the  pope  against  hereti- 
cal princes  and  countries.    In  former  ugcs> 


these  papal  fulminations  were  most  terrible 
things  ;  but  latterly  they  were  formidable 
to  none  but  a  few  petty  states  of  Italy. 

Excommunication  in  the  Greek  church 
cuts  oft"  the  otFender  from  all  communion 
with  the  three  hundred  and  eighteen  fa- 
thers of  the  first  council  of  Nice,  and  with 
the  saints  ;  consigns  him  over  to  the  devil 
and  the  traitor  Jud  is,  and  condemns  his  bo- 
dy to  remain  after  death  as  hard  as  a  flint 
or  a  piece  of  steel,  unless  he  humble  him- 
self, and  make  atonement  for  his  sins  by  a 
sincere  repentance.  The  form  abounds 
with  dreadful  imprecations;  and  the  Greeks 
assert,  tliat,  if  a  person  dies  excomnmni- 
cated,  the  devil  enters  into  the  lifeless 
corpse ;  and,  therefore,  in  order  to  prevent 
it,  the  relations  of  the  deceased  cut  his  body 
in  pieces,  and  boil  them  in  wine.  It  is  a 
custom  with  the  patriarch  of  Jerusalem  an- 
nually to  excommunicate  the  pope  and  the 
church  of  Rome ;  on  which  occasion,  to- 
gether with  a  great  deal  of  idle  ceremony, 
he  drives  a  nail  into  the  ground  with  a  ham- 
mer, as  a  mark  of  malediction. 

The  form  of  excommunication  in  the 
church  of  England  anciently  ran  thus :  "  By 
the  authority  of  God  the  Father  Ahnighty, 
the  Son,  and  Holy  Ghost,  and  of  Mary  the  . 
blessed  mother  of  God,  we  excommunicate, 
anathematize,  and  sequester  from  the  holy 
mr'liir  church,  &c."  The  causes  of  ex- 
communication in  England  are,  contempt  of 
the  Bishops'  court,  heresy,  neglect  of  public 
worship  and  the  sacraments,  incontinency, 
adultery,  simony,  &;c.  It  is  described  to  be 
twofold  ;  the  less  is  an  ecclesiastical  censure, 
excluding  the  party  from  the  participation 
of  the  sacrament ;  the  greater  proceeds  far- 
ther, and  excludes  him  not  only  from  these, 
I  but  from  the  company  of  all  Christians ; 
j  but  if  the  judge  of  any  spiritual  court  ex- 
communicates a  man  for  a  cause  of  which 
he  has  not  the  legal  cognizance,  the  party 
may  have  an  action  against  him  at  common 
law,  and  he  is  also  liable  to  be  indicted  at% 
the  suit  of  the  king. 

Excommunication  in  the  church  of  Scot- 
land consists  only  in  an  exclusion  of  openly 
profane  rmd  immoral  persons  from  baptisai 
and  the  Lord's  supper  ;  but  is  seldom  pui> 
licly  denoimced,  as,  indeed,  sucli  persons 
generally  exclude  themsehes  from  the  lat- 
ter ordinance  at  least ;  but  it  is  attended 
with  no  civil  incapacity  whatevt-r. 

Among  the  Independents  and  Baptists, 
the  ])e!'son3  who  are  or  should  be  excom- 
municated, are  such  as  are  quarrelsome  and 
litigious.  Gal.  v.  12.  such  as  desert  their 
pvi\  ileges,  withdraw  themselves  from  the 
ordinances  of  Gcd,  and  fcn'sake  his  people, 
Jude  19.  ;  such  as  are  irregular  and  im- 
moral in  their  lives,  railers,  drunkards,  ex- 
tortioners, fornicators,  and  covetous,  Eph. 
v.  5.  1  Cor.  v.  11. 

"  The  exclusion  of  a  person  from  any 
Cliristian  church  does  not  affect  his  tempo- 
ral estate  and  civil  affaii-s  ;  it  does  not  sub- 
ject hiiu  to  fines  tr  imprisonments  ;  it  inter- 


EXH 


149 


EXI 


feres  not  with  the  business  of  a  civil  magis-  ' 
trate  ;  it  makes  no  change  in  the  natural 
an(i  civil  relations  between  husbands  and 
"Wives,  pareats  and  cliildren,  masters  and 
servants;  neither  does  it  deprive  a  man  of 
the  liberty  of  attending  public  worship  ;  it 
removes  iiim,  however,  from  the  coniiimnion 
of  the  church,  and  the  prinlegts  dependent 
on  it :  this  is  done  that  he  may  be  ashamed 
of  his  sin,  and  be  brougnt  to  repentance  ; 
that  the  Iionour  of  Clirist  may  be  vindicated, 
and  that  stumbling  blocks  may  be  removed 
out  of  the  way." 

Though  the  act  of  exclusion  be  not  per- 
formed exactly  in  the  same  manner  in  every 
church,  yet,  (according  to  the  congreri^ational 
plan)  the  power  of  excision  lies  in  the 
ciiurch  itself  The  officers  take  the  sense 
of  the  members  assembled  t^igether :  and 
after  the  matter  has  been  properly  investi- 
-gated,  and  all  necessary  steps  taken  to  re- 
claim the  oSender,  the  church  proceeds  to 
the  actual  exclusion  of  the  person  from 
among  them,  bv  signifying  their  judg- 
ment or  opinion  that  the  person  is  unworthy 
of  a  place  in  God's  house.  In  the  cunclu- 
sion Of  this  article  however,  we  must  add, 
that  too  great  caution  cannot  be  observed  in 
procedures  of  this  kind  ;  every  thing  should 
DC  done  with  the  greatest  meekness,  deli- 
beration, prayer,  and  a  deep  sense  of  our 
own  unworthiness ;  with  a  compassion  f.r 
the  offender,  and  a  fixed  design  of  embra- 
cing every  opportunity  of  doing  him  good, 
by  reproving,  instructing,  and  if  possible,  re- 
storing him  to  the  enjoyment  of  the  privi- 
leges he  has  forfeited  by  his  conduct.  See 
Church 

EXCiJSATI,  a  term  formerly  used  to 
denote  slaves,  who,  flying  to' any  church  for 
sanctuary,  were  excused  and  pardoned  by 
their  masters. 

EXHOR  TATION,  the  act  of  laying  such 
motives  before  a  person  as  may  excite  him 
to  the  performance  of  any  duty.  It  differs 
^only  from  anasion  in  that  the  latter  jjrinci- 
pally  endeavours  to  convince  the  understand- 
ing, and  the  former  to  work  on  the  affec- 
tions. It  is  considered  as  a  great  branch  of 
preaching,  though  not  confined  to  that,  as  a 
man  may  exhort,  though  he  do  not  preach  ; 
though  a  man  can  hardly  be  said  to  preach 
if  he  do  not  exhort.  Ii  seems,  however,  that 
there  are  some,  who,  believing  the  inability 
of  man  to  do  any  thing  good,  cannot  reconcile 
the  idea  of  exhorthig  men  to  duty,  being, 
as  they  suppose,  a  contradiction  to  address 
men  who  have  no  power  to  act  for  them- 
selves. But  they  forget,  1.  That  the  great 
Author  of  our  being  has  appointed  this  as  a 
mean  for  inclining  the  will  to  himself,  Is  Iv. 
6,  7.  Luke  xiv.  17,  23.  2.  That  they  who 
thus  address  do  not  suppose  that  there  is 
any  virtue  in  the  exhortation  itself,  but  that 
its  energy  depends  on  God  alone,  1  Cor.  xv 
10.  3.  That  the  scripture  enjoins  ministers 
to  exhort  men,  tliat  is,  to  rouse  them  to 
duty,  by  proposing  suitable  motives.  Is.  Iviii. 
1.    1  Tim.  vi.  3.   Heb.  iii.  13.  Rom,  xii.  8. 


— 4  That  it  was  the  constant  practice  of 
prophets,  apostleti,  and  Christ  himself.  Is.  i. 
17.  Jer.  iv  14.  Ei^k.  xxxvii.  Luke  xiii.  3. 
Luke  iii.  IS.  Acts  xi.  23.  "  The  express 
words,"  says  a  good  divine,  "of  scriptural 
invitations,  exhortations,  and  promises, 
pnive  more  effectual  to  encourage  those 
who  are  re;idy  to  give  up  their  hopes,  than 
all  the  consolatory  topics  tliat  can  possibly 
be  substituted  in  their  place.  It  is,  therefore, 
much  to  be  lamented,  that  pious  men,  by 
adhering  to  a  supposed  systematical  exact- 
ness of  expression,  should  clog  their  addres- 
ses to  sinners  with  exceptions  and  limita- 
tions, which  the  Spirit  of  God  did  not  see 
good  to  insert.  They  will  not  say  that  the 
omission  was  an  oversight  in  the  inspired 
writers  ;  or  admit  the  thought  for  a  moment, 
that  they  can  improve  on  their  plan  ;  why 
then  cannot  they  be  satisfied  to  '  speak  ac- 
cording to  the  oracles  of  God,'  without  af- 
fecting a  more  entire  consistency  ?  Great 
mischief  has  thus  been  done  by  very  differ- 
ent descriptions  of  men,  who  undesignedly 
concur  in  giving  Satan  an  occasi.n  of  sug- 
gesting to  the  trembling  enquirer,  that  per- 
haps he  may  persevere  in  asking,  seeking, 
and  knocking,  with  the  greatest  earnestness 
and  importunity,  and  yet  finally  be  a  cast- 
away." 

EXISTENCE  OF  GOD.  The  methods 
usually  followed  in  proving  the  existence  of 
God  are  two ;  the  first  called  argumentum 
a  priori,  which  beginning  with  the  cause  de- 
scends to  the  eflfect ;  the  other,  argumentum 
a  posteriori,  which,  from  a  consideration  of 
the  effect,  ascends  to  the  cause.  The  for- 
mer of  these  hath  been  particularly  labour- 
ed hy  Dr  Samuel  Clarke ;  but  after  all  he 
has  said,  the  possibility  of  any  one's  being 
convinced  l)v  it  hath  been  questioned.  The 
most  general  proofs  are  the  following :  1 
"  All  natii^ns.  Heathens,  Jews,  Mahometans, 
and  Christians,  harmoniously  consent  that 
there  is  a  God  who  created,  preserves,  and 
governs  all  things.  To  this  it  has  been  ob- 
jected, that  there  have  been,  at  diflTerent 
times  and  places,  men  who  were  atheists, 
and  deniers  of  a  God.  But  these  have  been 
so  few,  and  by  their  opinions  have  shewn, 
that  they  rather  denied  the  particular  pro- 
vidence than  the  existence  of  God,  that  it 
can  hardly  be  said  to  be  an  exception  to  the 
argument  stated.  And  even  if  men  were 
bold  enough  to  assert  it,  it  would  not  be  an 
absolute  proof  that  they  really  believed 
what  they  said,  since  it  might  proceed  from 
a  wish  that  there  were  no  God  to  whom 
they  mus-t  be  accountable  for  their  sin,  ra- 
ther than  a  belief  of  it,  Ps.  xiv.  1.  It  has 
also  been  objected,  that  whole  nations  have 
been  found  in  Africa  and  America  who 
have  no  notion  of  a  Deity :  but  this  is  what 
has  never  been  proved  ;  on  the  contrary, 
upon  accurate  inspection,  even  the  most 
stupid  Hotentots,  Saldanians,  Greenlanders, 
K.amtschatkans,  and  savage  Americans,  are 
found  to  have  some  idea  of  a  God. 

2.  "  it  is  argued  from  the  law  and  light  of 


EXI 


150 


EXI 


Nature,  or  from  the  general  impression 
of  Deity  on  the  mind  of  every  man,  i.  e. 
an  indistinct  idea  of  a  Being  of  infinite 
perfection,  and  a  readiness  to  acqniesce  in 
the  truth  of  his  existence,  whenever  they  un- 
derstand the  terms  in  which  it  is  expressed. 
Whence  could  this  proceed,  even  in  the  minds 
of  such  whose  affections  and  carnal  interests 
dispose  them  to  beheve  the  contrary,  if 
there  were  no  impression  naturally  in  their 
hearts ;  It  has  been  observed  by  some  wri- 
ters, that  there  are  no  innate  ideas  in  the 
minds  of  men,  and  particularly  concerning 
God  :  but  this  is  not  so  easily  proved,  since 
an  inspired  apostle  assures  us,  that  even  the 
Gentiles,  destitute  of  the  law  of  Moses,  have 
the  '  work  of  the  law  written  in  their  hearts,' 
Rom.  ii.  15. 

3.  "  The  works  of  creation  plainly  demon- 
strate the  existence  of  a  God.  The  innu- 
merable alterations  and  manifest  depen- 
dence, eveiy  where  observable  in  the  world, 
prove  that  the  things  which  exist  in  it 
neither  are,  nor  could  be  from  eternity. 
It  is  self-evident  that  they  never  could 
form  themselves  out  of  nothing,  or  in  any 
of  their  respective  forms ;  and  that  chance, 
being  nothing  but  the  want  of  design,  never 
did,  nor  could  form  or  put  into  order  any 
thing ;  far  less  such  a  marvellous  and  weil 
connected  system  as  our  world  is.  Though 
we  should  absurdly  fancy  matter  to  be  eter- 
nal, yet  it  could  not  change  its  own  form, 
or  produce  life  or  reason.  Moreover,  when 
we  consider  the  diversified  and  wonderful 
forms  of  creatures  in  the  world,  and  how 
exactly  those  forms  and  stations  correspond 
with  their  respective  ends  and  uses ;  when 
we  consider  the  marvellous  and  exact  ma- 
chinery, form,  and  motions  of  our  own 
bodies :  and  especially  when  we  consider 
the  powers  of  our  soul,  its  desires  after  an 
infinite  good,  and  its  close  union  with,  and 
incomprehensible  operations  on  our  bodies, 
we  are  obliged  to  admit  a  Creator  of  infinite 
wisdom,  power,  and  goodness. 

4.  "  It  is  argued  from  the  support  and 
government  of  the  world.  Who  can  con- 
sider the  motions  of  the  heavenly  lumina- 
ries, exactly  calculated  for  the  greatest  ad- 
vantage to  our  earth,  and  its  inhabitants  ; 
the  exact  balancing  and  regulating  of  the 
meteors,  winds,  rain,  snow,  hail,  vapour, 
thunder,  and  the  like ;  the  regular  and 
never  failing  returns  of  summer  and  winter, 
seed  time  and  harvest,  day  and  night ;  the 
astonishing  and  diversified  formation  of 
vegetables ;  the  propagation  of  herbs,  almost 
every  where,  that  are  most  eff.ctual  to 
heal  the  distempers  of  animal  bodies  in 
that  place  ;  the  almost  infinite  diversifica- 
tion of  animals  and  vegetables,  and  the^r 
pert'nents,  that,  notwithstanding  an  amaz- 
ing similarity,  not  any  two  are  exactlv  alike, 
but  everv  form,  member,  or  even  feather 
or  hair  of  animals,  and  every  pile  of  grass, 
stalk  of  corn,  herb,  leaf,  tree,  berry,  or 
other  fruit,  hath  scmethiug  peculiar  to  it- 


self; the  making  of  animals  so  sagaciously 
to  prepare  their  lodgings,  defend  them- 
selves, provide  for  their  health,  produce 
and  protect,  and  procure  food  for  their 
young :  the  direction  of  fishes  and  fowls  to, 
and  in  such  marvellous  and  long  peregrina- 
tions at  such  season.s,  and  to  such  places 
as  best  correspond  with  their  own  preserva- 
tion and  the  benefit  of  mankind;  the  sta- 
tioning of  brute  animals  by  sea  or  land,  at 
less  or  greater  distances,  as  are  most  suit- 
ed to  the  safety,  subsistence,  or  comfort  of 
mankind,  and  preventing  the  increase  of 
prolific  animals,  and  making  the  less  fruit- 
ful ones,  which  are  used,  exceedingly  to 
abound  ;  the  so  diversifying  the  counten- 
ances, voices,  and  hand-writings  of  men, 
as  best  secures  and  promotes  their  social 
advantages :  the  holding  of  so  equal  a  bal- 
ance between  males  and  females,  while  the 
number  of  males,  whose  lives  are  peculiarly 
endangered  in  war,  navigation,  &c.,  are 
generally  greatest ;  the  prolonging  of  men's 
lives,  when  the  world  needed  to  be  peopled, 
and  now  shortening  them  when  that  neces- 
sity hath  ceased  to  exist ;  the  almost  uni- 
versal provision  of  food,  raiment,  medicine, 
fuel,  &c.  answerable  to  the  nature  of  par- 
ticular places,  cold,  or  hot,  moist  or  dry; 
the  management  of  human  affairs  relative 
to  societies,  government,  peace,  war,  trade, 
8cc.  in  a  manner  different  from,  and  con- 
trary to  the  carnal  policy  of  those  concern- 
ed ;  and  especially  the  strangely  similar  but 
diversified  erection,  preservation,  and  gov- 
ernment of  the  Jewish  and  Christian  church- 
es; who,  I  say,  can  consider  all  these 
things,  and  not  acknowledge  the  existence 
of  a  wise,  merciful,  and  good  God,  who 
governs  the  world,  and  every  thing  in 
it.i" 

5.  "  It  is  proved  from  the  miraculous 
events  which  have  happened  in  the  world; 
such  as  the  overflowing  of  the  earth  by  a 
flood ;  the  confusion  of  languages  ;  the  burn- 
ing of  Sodom  and  the  cities  about  by  fire^ 
from  heaven  ;  the  plagues  of  Egvpt ;  the 
dividing  of  the  Red  Sea  ;  raining  manna 
from  heaven,  and  bringing  streams  of  water 
from  flinty  rocks  ;  the  stopping  of  the  course 
of  the  sun,  6cc.  &c. 

6.  "  His  existence  no  less  clearly  a])pears 
from  the  exact  fulfilment  of  so  many  and  so 
particularly  circumstantiated  predictions, 
published  long  before  the  event  took  place. 
It  is  impossible  that  these  predictions, 
which  were  so  exactly  fulfilled  in  their 
respective  periods,  and  of  the  fulfilment  of 
which  there  are,  at  present,  thnu>ands  of 
demonstrative  and  sensible  drcuments  in 
the  world,  could  proceed  from  any  but  an 
all-seeing  and  infinitely  wise  God. 

7.  "  The  existence  of  Ciod  farther  ap- 
pears from  the  fearful  punishments  which 
have  been  infi'Cted  upon  persons,  and  espe- 
cially upon  nations,  when  their  immoralities 
tecame  excessive,  and  that  by  very  unex- 
pected means  and  instruments  ;  as  in  the 


EXO 


151 


EXP 


drowning  of  the  old  world ;  destruction  of 
Sodom  and  Gomorrah  ;  piagues  of  Pharaoh 
and  his  servants  ;  overthrow  of  Sennacherib 
and  liis  army  ;  miseries  aiid  ruin  of  the  Ca- 
naaiiites,  Jews,  Syrians,  Assyrians,  Chal- 
deans, Persians,  li.g>ptians,  Greeks,  Ro- 
mans, baracens.  Tartan*,  and  otaers. 

8.  "  Lastly,  the  existence  ot  God  may  be 
argued  from  the  terror  and  dread  which 
wound  tlie  consciences  of  men,  wlien  guilty 
of  crimes  which  other  rnen  do  not  Ituow, 
or  are  not  able  to  punish  or  restrain;  as 
in  the  case  of  Cahgula,  Nero,  and  Domi- 
tian,  the  Roman  emperors  ;  and  this  while 
they  earnestly  labour  to  persuade  themselves 
or  others  that  there  is  no  God.  Hence  their 
being  afraid  of  thunder,  or  to  be  left  alone 
in  the  darK.,  &c. 

As  to  the  modus  of  the  Divine  existence, 
it  would  be  presumption  to  attempt  to  ex- 
plain. That  he  exists,  is  clear  from  the 
foregcing  arguments;  but  the  manner  of 
that  existence  is  not  for  us  to  know.  Many 
good  men  have  uttered  great  absurdities  in 
endeavouring  to  explain  it,  and  after  all 
none  of  diem  have  succeeded.  The  wisest 
of  men  never  made  the  attempt.  Muses 
began  his  writings  by  supposing  the  being  ot 
a  God ;  he  did  not  attempt  to  explain  it. 
Although  many  of  the  inspired  writers 
asserted  his  existence,  and,  to  discoun- 
tenance idolatry,  pleaded  for  his  perfec- 
tions, yet  no  one  of  tliem  ever  pretended 
to  explain  the  manner  of  his  being.  Our 
duty  is  clear.  VVe  are  not  commanded  nor 
expected  to  understand  it.  All  that  is  re- 
quired is  this :  "  He  that  cometh  to  God 
must  believe  that  he  is,  and  that  he  is  a 
rewarder  of  them  that  diligently  seek 
hiiii,"  Heb  xi.  6.  See  Gill's  uody  of'  iJiv. 
b.  1. ;  C/iartiock's  Works,  vol.  1.;  Rulglty's 
Div.  ques.  2. ;  drown's  System  of  Jjiv.  ; 
Pitere's  Studies  of  JVature  ;  Hturm's  Re- 
flections ;  Spec,  de  la  jVut.  ;  Honriei's  Phi- 
losophical Researches  ;  and  writers  enume- 
rated under  the  article  Ateeisji- 

EXORCISM,  the  expelling  of  devils  from 
persons  possessed,  by  means  of  ccnjuraticns 
and  prayers.  The  Jews  m.ade  great  pre- 
tences to  this  power.  Josephus  tells  several 
wonderful  tales  of  the  great  success  cf 
several  exorcists.  One  Eleazer,  a  Jew, 
cured  many  dsemoniacs,  he  says,  by  means 
of  a  root  set  in  a  ring.  This  root,  with  the 
ring,  was  held  under  the  patient's  nose,  and 
the  devil  was  forthwith  evacuated.  The 
most  part  of  conjurers  of  this  class  were 
impostors,  each  pretending  to  a  secret 
nostrum  or  charm,  which  was  an  overmatch 
for  the  devil.  Our  Savitair  communicated 
to  his  disciples  a  real  power  over  c'smons, 
or  at  least  over  the  diseases,  said  to  be  oc- 
casioned bv  dxmons     SceDitMONiAC. 

Exorcism  makes  a  considerable  part  of 
the  superstition  of  the  church  of  Rome,  the 
ritual  of  which  forbids  the  exorcising  any 
person  without  the  bishop's  leave.  Tl-e 
ceremony  is  performed  at  the  lower  end 


of  the  church,  towards  the  door.  The  ex- 
orcist first  signs  the  possessed  person  with 
the  sign  of  the  cross,  makes  him  kneel, 
and  sprinkles  him  with  holy  water.  Then 
follow  the  litanies,  psaims,  and  prayer ; 
after  which  the  exorcist  asks  tlie  devil  his 
name,  and  adjures  him  by  the  mysteries 
of  the  Christian  religion  not  to  afflict  the 
person  any  more ;  then  laying  his  right 
hand  on  the  demoniac's  hand,  he  repeats 
the  form  ot  exorcism,  which  is  this  :  "  I 
exorcise  thee,  unclean  spirit,  in  the  name 
of  Jesus  Christ:  tremble,  O  Satan  !  thou 
enemy  of  the  faith,  thou  foe  of  mankind, 
who  hast  brought  death  into  the  world ; 
who  hast  deprived  men  of  life  ;  and  hast 
rebelled  against  justice ;  thou  seducer  of 
mankind,  thou  root  of  all  evil,  thou  source 
of  avarice,  discord,  and  envy."  The  Ro- 
manists hkewise  exorcise  houses  and  other 
places  supposed  to  be  haunted  by  unclean 
spirits :  and  the  ceremony  is  riiuch  the 
same  with  that  for  a  person  possessed. 
EXORDIUM.  See  Sermon. 
EXPEDIENCY,  the  fitness  or  propriety 
of  a  mean  to  the  attainment  of  an  end.  See 
Obligation. 

EXPERIENCE,  knowledge  acquired  by 
long  use  without  a  teacher.  It  consists  in 
the  ideas  of  things  we  have  seen  or  read, 
which  the  judgment  has  reflected  on,  to 
form  for  itself  a  rule  or  method. 

Christian    experience    is    that    religious 
knowledge  which    is  acquired    by  any  ex- 
ercises, enjoyments,  or  sufferings,  either  of 
body  or  mind.      Nothing  is  more  common 
than  to  ridicule  and  despise  what  is  called 
jeligious  experience  as   mere    enthusiasm. 
But  if  religion  consist  in  feeling,   we  would 
ask,  how  it  can  possibly  exist  without  expe- 
rience ?    VVe  are  convinced  of,    and   admit 
the  propriety  of  the  term,  when  applied  to 
those  branches  of  science  which   are  not 
founded  on  speculation  or  conjecture,  but  on 
sensible  trial.     Why,  then,  should  it  be  re- 
jected v;hen  applied  to  religion  }     It  is  evi- 
dent that,  however  beautiful  religion  may 
be  in  7iame,  its  excellency  and  energy  are 
only  truly  known   and  displayed  as   expe- 
rienced.     A    system    believed,    or  a  mind 
merely  inft^rmed,    will  produce  little  good, 
except  the  heart  be  affec.ted,  and  we  feelks 
iiifiuence.  To  experience,  then,  the  religion 
1  of  Christ,  we    must  net  only  be  acquainted 
I  wit!i  its  theory,  but  enjoy  its  power:  sub- 
■  duing  our  corruptions,  animating  cur  affec- 
tions, and  exciting  us  to  duty.    Hence  the 
i  scripture  calls  experience  tasting.  Ps.  xxxiv. 
\S.  feeling,  &c.     1  Thes.   ii.   13,  &c.     That 
i  our  experience  is  always  absolutely  pure  in 
!  the  present  state  cannot  be  expected.  "  The 
I  best    experiences,"    says    a     good    writer, 
j "  may    be    mixed    with    natural  aff-r-ctions 
and  passions,    impressions  on  the  imagina- 
I  tion,    self-righteousness,  or  spiritual  pride  ; 
but  this  is  no  reason   that  all  experience  i? 
I  to  be  rejected,  for  upon  this  ground  nothing 
i  could  be  received,  since  notiiing  is  absolute;;' 


EXP 


152 


EXT 


perfect.  It  is,  however,  to  be  lamented, 
that  while  the  best  of  men  have  a  mixture 
in  their  experience,  there  are  others  wliose 
experience-  (so  called)  is  entirely  counterfeit 
"  They  have  been  alarmed  and  have  chan- 
ged the  ground  of  their  confidence,  have 
had  their  imaginuions  heated  and  dtliglutd 
by  impressions  and  visionary  rejjreseuta- 
tions  ;  they  have  recollected  the  promises 
of  the  Gospel,  as  if  spoken  to  thtm  with 
peculiar  appropriation,  to  certify  tiiem  that 
their  si  sis  were  forgiven  ;  and  having  seen 
and  heard  such  wonderful  things,  they  think 
they  must  doubt  no  more  of  their  adupti  in 
into  the  family  of  God.  They  have  also  fre- 
quently heard  all  experience  profanely  ridi- 
culed as  enthusiasm  ;  and  this  betrays  them 
into  the  opposite  extreme,  so  that  they  are 
emboldened  to  despise  every  caution  as  the 
result  of  enmity  to  internal  religion,  and  to 
act  as  if  there  were  no  delusive  or  counter- 
feit experience.  But  the  event  too  plainly 
shews  their  awful  mistake,  and  that  they 
grounded  their  expectations  upon  the  account 
given  of  the  extraordinary  operati  lis  of  the 
Holy  Spirit  on  the  mind  ot  the  pn>plifts, 
rather  than  on  the  promises  of  his  renew- 
ing influences  in  the  hearts  of  believers. 
When,  thcirfore,  they  lose  the  impressions 
■with  which  they  once  were  elated,  they  re- 
lapse nearly  into  their  old  course  ot  life, 
their  creed  and  confidence  alone  excepted." 
Christian  experience  may  be  consiuered 
as  genuine,  1.  When  it  accords  with  the 
revelation  of  God's  mind  and  will,  or  what 
he  has  revealed  in  his  word.  Any  thing 
contrary  to  this,  however  pleasing,  cannot 
be  sound,  or  produced  by  Divine  agency. — 
2.  When  its  tendency  is  to  promote  humili- 
ty in  us :  that  experience,  by  which  we 
learn  our  own  weakness,  and  subdues  pride, 
must  be  good. — 3.  When  it  teaches  us  to 
bear  with  others,  and  to  do  them  good. — 4. 
When  it  operates  so  as  to  excite  us  to  be 
ardent  in  our  devotion,  and  sincere  in  our 
regard  to  Gnct.  A  powerful  experience  of 
the  Divine  faVour  will  lead  us  to  acknow- 
ledge the  same,  and  to  manifest  our  grati- 
ude  both  by  constant  praise  and  genuine 
piety. 

Christian  experience,  however,  may  be 
abused.  There  are  some  good  people  who 
certainly  have  felt  and  enjoyed  the  power 
of  religion,  and  yet  have  not  always  acted 
with  prudence  as  to  their  experience.  1. 
Some  b'  ast  of  their  experience,  or  talk 
of  them  as  if  thev  were  very  extraordinary  ; 
whereas,  were  they  acquainted  with  others, 
they  would  find  it  not  so.  That  a  man 
may  make  mention  of  his  experience,  is  no 
way  in»proper,  but  often  useful ;  but  to  hear 
persons  always  talking  of  themselve,s, 
seeips  to  indicate  a  spirit  of  pride,  and 
that  their  experience  cannot  be  very  deep. 
— 2.  Another  abuse  of  exijcrience  is,  de- 
pendence on  ii-.     'V\'c  on j^ht  certain' y  to  ta.k.c- 


encouragement  from  past  circumstances,  if 
we  can  :  but  if  we  are  so  dependent  on  past 
experience,  as  to  preclude  present  exer- 
tions, or  always  expect  to  have  exactly  tlie 
same  assistance  in  every  state,  trial,  or  or- 
dinance, we  shall  be  disappointed.  God  has 
wisely  ordered  it,  that,  tiiough  he  never 
will  leave  his  pe^.ple,  yet  he  will  suspend  or 
b'Stow  comfort  in  his  own  time:  for  this 
very  rea<> on,  that  we  may  rely  on  him,  and 
not  on  the  circumstance  or  ordinance — 3. 
It  is  an  abuse  of  experience,  when  introdu- 
ced at  improper  times,  and  before  improper 
persons.  It  is  true,  we  ouglit  never  to  be 
ashamed  of  our  profession  but  to  be  always 
talking  to  irreligious  people  respecting  ex- 
perience, which  they  know  nothing  of,  is, 
as  our  Saviour  says,  casting  peaz-ls  before 
swine.  £imyan''s  Pilgrim's  Progress  ; 
.'Uc/c's  Treatise  on  Exficrience  ;  Gurnall's 
Christian  Armour ;  Dr.  Owen  on  Psalm 
ex XX. ;  Edwards  on  t/ie  Affections,  and  hit 
Thoughts  on  the  Revival  of  Redgion  in 
JVew  England  ;  Dornei/'s  (  ontem/dutions^ 
EXPERIENCE  MEEIINGS,  are  as- 
semblies oi  religious  persons,  who  meet  for 
the  purpose  of  relating  their  experience  ta 
each  other.  It  has  been  dcmbied  by  some 
whcdier  these  meetings  are  of  any  great 
utility :  and  whether  they  do  not  in  some 
measure  force  people  to  say  more  than  is 
true,  and  puff  up  those  with  pride  who  are 
able  to  communicate  their  ideas  with  facih- 
ty ;  but  to  tliis  it  may  be  answered,  1  That 
the  abuse  of  a  tiling  is  no  proof  of  the  evil 
of  it — 2.  That  the  most  eminent  saints  of 
old  did  not  neglect  this  practice,  Ps  Ixvi. 
16.  Mal.  iii.  16. — 3.  That,  by  a  wise  and 
prudent  relation  of  experience,  the  Cliristian 
is  led  to  see  that  otliers  have  participated 
of  the  same  joys  and  sorrows  with  himself; 
he  is  excited  to  lo\'e  and  serve  God ;  and 
animated  to  perseverance  in  duty,  by  find- 
ing that  others,  of  like  passions  with  him- 
self, are  zealous,  active,  and  diligent.— 4. 
That  t!ie  Scriptures  seem  to  enjf>in  the  fre- 
quent intercourse  (.»f  Chi-istians,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  strengtheiiing  each  other  in  reli- 
gious services,  Hel).  x.  24,  25  Col.  iii.  16. 
Matt   xviii.  20.     See  CoNfiiRKNCE. 

EXi'lATlON,  a  religious  act,  by  which 
satisfaction  or  atonement  is  nrade  for  some 
crime,  the  guilt  removed,  and  the  obliga- 
tion to  punishment  cancelleil.  Lev.  3cvi.  See 

PKOP1TI.A.TION. 

EXVOSl  riONS.    See  Comjikntarif.s. 

EXTOUTI(3N,  the  act  or  practice  of 
gaining  or  acquiring  any  thins;  by  f  .rce.  Ex- 
tortioners are  inchuled  in  the  list  of  those 
who  are  excluded  from  the  kingdom  of  hea- 
ven, 1  ('or   x   6 

EXTREME  UNCTION,  one  of  the  sa- 
craments of  tlu-  Ri.niisii  church  ;  tlie  fifth 
in  order,  administered  to  ptcple  dai.ger- 
ously  sick  !)y  anointing  them  with  holy  oil, 
and  praying  over  them 


FAI 


153 


FAI 


F. 


FAITH  is  that  assent  which  we  give  to  '■ 
a  pruposicion  advanced  by  another,  the  truth 
of  which   we  do  not   immediattly  perceive 
from  our  reason  and  experience ;  or  it  is  a  j 
judgment  or  assent  of  the  uhnd,   the  nno-  j 
tive   whereof  is  not  any  intrinsic  evidence, 
but  the  authority  or  testimony  of  some  other, 
who  reveals  or  relates  it.    The  Greek  word 
n<?r««,  translated    faith,  comes    from    the 
verb  YletBd),  to  persuade  ;  the  nature  of  faith 
being  a  persuasion   and  assent  of  the  mind, 
arising  irom  testimony  or  evidence. 

1.  Divine  faich,  is  that  founded  on  the 
authority  of  God,  or  it  is  that  assent  which 
we  give  to  what  is  revealad  by  God.  T  he 
objects  of  this,  therefore,  are  matters  of 
revelation. 

2.  Human  faith,  is  that  whereby  we  be- 
lieve what  is  told  us  by  men.  The  objects 
hereof  are  matters  of  human  testimony  or 
evidence. 

3.  Historical  faith,  is  that  whereby  we  as- 
sent to  the  truths  of  revelation  as  a  kind  of 
certain  and  infallible  record,  James  ii.  17,  or 
to  any  fact  recorded  in  historj'. 

4.  The  faith  of  miracles,  is  the  persua- 
sion a  person  has  of  his  being  able,  by  the 
Divine  power,  to  effect  a  miracle  on  ano- 
ther. Mat.  xvii.  20.  1  Cor,  xiii.  2.  or  ano- 
ther on  himself,  Acts  xiv.  9.  This  ob- 
tained chiefly  in  the  time  of  Christ  and  his 
apr 'Sties. 

5.  A  temfiorary  faith,  is  an  assent  to 
evangelical  truths,  as  both  interesting  and 
desirable,  but  not  farther  than  they  are  ac- 
companied with  temporal  advantages  ;  and 
which  is  lost  when  such  advantages  dimi- 
nish or  are  removed,  Mat.  xi.  24.  Luke 
viii.  13. 

6.  Faith  in  respect  to  futurity,  is  a  moral 
principle,  implv  ing  such  a  conviction  of  the 
reality  and  importance  of  a  future  state,  as 
is  sufficient  to  regulate  the  temper  and  con- 
duct. 

7.  Faith  in  Christ,  or  saving  faith,  is  that 
principle  wrought  in  the  heart  by  the  Divine 
Spirit,  wherebv  we  are  persu  ided  that 
Christ  is  the  Messiah  :  and  possess  such  a 
desire  and  expectation  of  the  blessings  he 
has  promised  in  his  Gospel,  as  engages  the 
mind  to  fix  its  dependence  on  him,  and  sub- 
ject itself  to  him  in  all  the  ways  of  holy 
obedience,  and  relying  solely  on  his  grace 
f«r  everlasting  life.  These  are  the  ideas 
which  are  generally  annexed  to  the  defini- 
tion of  saving  faith  ;  but,  accurately  speak- 
ing, faith  is  an  act  of  the  understanding,  giv- 
ing credit  to  the  testimony  of  the  Gospel ; 
and  desire,  expectation,  confidence,  &c.  are 
rather  the  effects  of  it,  than  faith  itse'f, 
though  inseparably  connected  with  it  Much 
has  been  said  as  to  the  order  or  place  in 
•which  faitli  stands  in  the  Christian  svstem, 

U 


some  placing  it  before,  others  after  repent- 
ance Perhaps  the  i(/ilowing  remarks  on  the 
subject  nia)  ue  considered  as  consistent  with 
truth  and  Scripture  ;  1.  Rtgcneratii^i  is  the 
work  of  God  enlightening  the  mind,  and 
changing  the  heart,  and  in  order  of  time 
precedes  faith. — 2.  Faith  is  the  consequence 
of  regeneration,  and  implies  the  perctption 
of  an  objt  ct.  It  discerns  the  evil  of  sin,  the 
holiness  of  God,  gives  credence  to  the  testi- 
mony oi"  God  in  his  word,  and  seems  t-..  pre- 
cede repentance,  since  we  cannot  repent  of 
that  of  which  we  have  no  clear  perception, 
or  no  concern  ab'^ut — 3  Repentance  is  an 
after  thought,  or  sorrowing  for  sin,  the  evil 
nature  of  which  faith  perceives,  and  which 
immediately  follows  faith  •—4.  Conversion 
is  a  turning  from  sin,  which  faith  sees,  and 
repentance  sorrows  for,  and  seems  to  follow, 
and  to  be  the  end  of  all  the  rest. 

As  to  the  firojnrtics  or  adjuncts  of  faith, 
we  may  observe,  1.  That  it  is  the  first  and 
principal  grace  :  it  stands  first  in  order,  and 
takes  the  precedence  of  other  graces,  Mark 
xvi.  16.  Heb.  xi.  6. — 2.  It  is  every  way  pre 
cious  and  valuable,  1  Pet.  ii.  1. — .3  It  is  call- 
ed in  scripture,  one  faith  ;  for  though  there 
are  sevei'al  sorts  of  faith,  there  is  but  one 
special  or  saving  faith,  Eph.  iv.  5. — 4.  It  is 
also  denominated  common  faith  ;  common 
to  all  the  regenerate.  Tit.  i.  4 — 5.  ^t  is 
true,  real,  and  unfeigned.  Acts  viii.  37.  Rom. 
X.  10 — 6.  It  cannot  be  finally  lost  as  to  the 
grace  of  it,  Phil  i.  6.  Luke  xxii.  32. — 7.  It 
is  progressive,  Luke  xvii.  5.  2  Thes.  i.  3. 
— 8.  It  appropriates  and  realizes  ;  or,  as  the 
apostle  says,  is  the  substance  of  things  hoped 
for,  and  the  evidence  of  things  not  seen, 
Heb.  xi    1. 

The  evidence  or  effects  of  faith,  are,  1. 
Love  to  Christ,  1  Pet.  i.  8.  Gal.  v.  6. — 2. 
Confidence,  Eph.  iii.  12. — 3.  Joy,  Rom  v.  11, 
Phil.  i.  :5. — 4.  Prayer,  Heb.  iv.  16.— 5.  At- 
tention to  his  ordinances,  and  profit  by  them. 
Heb  iv.  2. — 6.  Zeal  in  the  prr^motion  of 
his  glory,  1  Cor.  xv.  58.  Gal.  vi.  9.-7.  Ho- 
liness of  heart  and  life,  Matt.  vii.  20.  1  J"hn 
ii.  3.  Acts  XV.  9  James  ii.  18.  20  22.  See 
Articles  Assurance  and  Justification, 
in  this  work :  and  Polhill  on  Precious 
Faith;  Lamhert^s  Sermons,  ser.  13,  14  &c. 
Scott's  J\!'u'ure  and  Warrant  of  Faith; 
Ronmme's  Uft,  Walk,  and.  Triumph  of 
Faith;  Rot.herham\s  Essay  on  Faith  ; 
Dore's  Letters  on  Faith  ;  -^  Hall  on  the 
Faith  and  Influence  of  the  Gospel  ;  Good- 
luin's  Works,  v    iv. 

FAITH  ARTICLE  OF   See  Article 

FAITH,  CONFESS  ON  OF   See  Con- 
fession. 

FAITH,    IMPLICIT.     See    Implicit 

Faith. 

FAITHFULNESS,  See  Fidelity. 


FAL 


154 


FAL 


FAITHFULNESS  MINIS'!  ERIAL.  See 

Pa  s  t  or 

FAITHF'JLNESS  OF  GOD,  is  that 
perttction  of  his  nature  whereby  he  infal- 
libly fulfils  his  designs,  or  performs  his  word 
It  appears,  says  Dr.  Gill,  in  the  ptrform- 
ance  of  what  he  has  said  with  respect  to 
the  world  in  general,  that  it  shall  not  be 
destroyed  by  a  flood,  as  it  once  was,  and 
for  a  token  of  it,  has  set  his  bow  in  the 
clouds  ;  that  the  ordinances  of  heaven  should 
keep  their  due  course,  which  they  have 
done   for    almost   6000   years,    exactly  and 

guii'  tually  ;  that  all  his  crea^cires  should 
e  supported  and  providt-d  for,  and  th'/ 
elements  all  made  subservient  to  that  eiid, 
which  we  find  do  so  according  to  his  sove- 
reign pleasure.  Gen.  ix.  Isa.  liv.  9.  Ps.  cxlv. 
Deut.  xi.  U,  15.     2  Pet.  iii. 

2.  It  appears  in  the  fulfilment  of  what 
he  has  said  with  resjject  to  Christ.  Who- 
ever will  take  the  pains  to  compare  tlie 
predictions  of  the  birth,  poverty,  life,  suf- 
ferings, death,  resurrection,  and  ascension  of 
Christ,  with  the  accomplishment  of  the 
same,  will  find  a  striking  demonstration  of 
the  faithfulness  of  God. 

3.  It  appears  in  the  performance  of  the 
promises  which  he  has  made  to  his  people. 
In  respect  to  temporal  blessings,  1  Tim. 
iv.  8.  Psal.  Ixxxiv.  11.  Is.  xxxiii.  16  — 
2.  To  spiritual,  1  Cor.  i.  9.  In  support- 
ing them  in  temptation,  1  Corinth,  x.  13. 
Encouraging  them  under  persecution,  1  Pet. 
iv.  12,  13.  Isa.  xli.  10.  Sanctifying  afflic- 
tions, Heb.  "xii.  4 — 12.  Directhig  tliem  ui 
dilTicnlties,  1  Thess.  v.  24.  Enabling  them 
to  persevere.  Jer.  xxxi-  40.  Bringing  them 
to  glory,  1  John,  ii  25 

4.  It  appears  in  the  fulfilling  of  his 
tlireatenings  The  curse  came  upon  Adam 
accoiding  as  it  was  threatened.  He  fulfill- 
ed ills  threatening  to  the  old  world  in  des- 
troying it.  He  declared  that  the  Israelites 
should  be  subject  to  his  awful  displeasure, 
if  they  walked  not  in  his  ways:  it  was  ac- 
cordinglv  fulfilled.     Deut.  xxviii.      See  Im 

HUTABILITY. 

FALL  OF  MAN,  the  loss  of  those  per- 
fections and  that  happiness  winch  his 
Maker  be.stowed  on  him  at  his  creation, 
through  transgression  of  a  positive  command, 
given  for  the  trial  of  a  man's  obedience, 
and  as  a  t-ken  of  his  holding  every  thing 
(,)f  G  d,  as  lord  paramount  of  die  creation, 
■with  the  use  of  every  thing  in  it,  exclusive 
of  the  fruit  of  one  tree  This  positive  law 
he  broke  by  eating  the  forbidden  fruit :  first 
the  women,  then  the  man :  and  tlius  the 
condition  or  law  of  the  covenant  being 
broken,  the  covenant  itself  was  broken. 
The  woman  was  enticed  by  an  evil  genius, 
under  the  semblance  of  a  ser[)ent,  as  ap- 
pears from  its  reasoning  the  woman  into  thi 
transgression  of  the  law,  of  which  a  brute 
beast  is  incapable.  Hence  the  evil  genius  is 
called  a  murderer  and  a  liar  from  the  be- 
ginning, John  viii.  44.  Rom.  v.  V2.  the  old 
serpent,  Rev.  .\ii.  9.  xx.  2.    Moocs  relates 


this  history,  from  what  appeared  externally 
to  sense  :  both,  therefore,  are  to  be  conjoin- 
ed, the  serpent  as  the  instrument,  and  the 
devil  as  the  primary  cause.  Man  suffered 
himself  to  be  seduced  by  perverse  and  con- 
fused notions  of  good  and  evil,  prompted  by 
a  desire  of  a  greater  degree  of  perfection, 
and  swayed  by  his  sensual  appetite,  in  con"w 
iradiction  to  his  reason.  Gen.  iii.  6.  And 
thus  it  appears  possible,  how,  notAviihstand- 
ing  the  divine  image  with  which  man  is 
adorned,  he  miglit  fall;  for,  though  includ- 
ing in  it  knowledge,  it  did  not  exclude  from 
it  confused  nutions,  which  are  those  arising 
from  sense  and  imagination,  especially  when 
off  our  guard  and  inattentive,  blindly  fnUow- 
ing  the  present  impression.  From  tliis  one 
sin  arose  another,  and  then  another  from 
the  connection  of  causes  and  effects,  till 
this  repetition  brought  on  a  habit  of  sin,  con- 
sequently a  state  of  moral  slavery  ;  called 
by  divines  a  death  in  sin,  a  spiritual  death, 
a  defect  of  power  to  act  according  to  the 
law,  and  from  the  motive  of  the  divine  per- 
fections, as  death  in  general  is  such  a  de- 
fect of  power  of  action ;  and  this  defect  or 
inability,  with  all  its  consequences,  man 
entailed  on  his  posterity,  remaining  upon 
them,  till  07ie  greater  man  remove  this, 
and  reinstate  them  in  all  they  forfeited 
in  Adam. 

In  the  fall  of  man  we  may  ob.serve,  1. 
The  greatest  infidelity. — 2.  Prodigious  pridew 
— 3.  Horrid  ingratitude. — 4.  Visible  con- 
tempt of  God's  majesty  and  justice. — 5. 
Unaccountable  folly  — 6.  A  cruelty  to  him- 
self and  to  all  his  posterity.  Infidels,  how- 
ever, have  treated  the  account  of  the  fall 
and  its  effects,  with  contempt,  and  consid- 
ered the  whole  as  absuid  ;  but  their  ob- 
jections to  the  manntr  have  been  ably  an- 
swei'ed  by  a  variety  of  authors  ;  and  as  to 
the  efflcts,  one  w  uld  hardly  think  any 
body  could  deny-  For  (hat,  ma7i  in  a  fallen 
creature,  is  evident,  if  we  consider  his 
misery  as  an  inhabitant  of  tiie  natural 
world  ;  the  disorders  of  the  globe  we  inha- 
bit, and  the  drendful  scourges  with  which 
it  is  visited ;  the  deplorable  and  shocking 
circumstances  of  our  birth  ;  the  painful 
and  dangerous  travail  of  v.omen ;  our  na- 
tural uncleanlincss,  helplessness,  ignorance, 
and  nakedness ;  the  gross  darkness  in 
which  we  naturally  are,  both  with  respect 
to  God  and  a  future  state  ;  the  general 
rebellion  of  the  brute  creation  against  us  ; 
the  various  jioisons  that  lurk  in  the  ani- 
mal, vegetable  and  mineral  world,  ready 
to  destroy  us  .  the  lieavy  curse  of  toil  and 
sweat  to  which  we  are  liable  ;  the  innu- 
merable calamities  of  life,  and  the  pangs 
of  death  Again,  it  is  evident,  if  we  con- 
sider him  as  a  citizen  of  the  moral  world  : 
his  commission  of  sin ;  his  omissiosi  of 
duty ;  the  triumph  of  sensual  appetites 
over  his  intellectual  faculties;  the  corrup- 
tions of  the  powirs  that  constitute  a  good 
head,  the  understanding,  imagination,  me- 
;  laojy,   and   reaat-n :   the  dtpvavity  of  Uic 


FAN 


155 


FAS 


powers  which  form  a  good  heart,  the  ■will, 
conscience,  and  aftectinns ;  his  manifest 
alienation  from  God  ;  his  amazing  disregard 
even  of  his  nearest  relatives  ;  his  unaccount- 
aljle  unconcern  atxjut  himself;  his  detest- 
aljle  tempers  ;  ttie  general  outbreaking  of 
human  corruption  in  all  individuals ;  the 
universal  overtiowing  of  it  in  all  .nations. 
Some  striking  proofs  of  this  depravity  may 
be  seen  in  the  general  propensity  of  man- 
kind to  vain  irrational,  or  cruel  diversions: 
in  the  universality  of  the  most  ridiculous, 
impious,  inhuman,  and  diabolical  sins  ;  in 
the  aggravating  circumstances  attending 
the  display  of  this  corruption  ;  in  the  many 
ineffectual  endeavours  to  stem  its  torrent; 
in  the  obstinate  resistcnce  it  makes  to  divine 
grace  in  the  unconverted  ;  the  amazing 
struggles  of  good  men  with  it  ;  the  tes- 
timony of  the  heathens  concerning  it ;  and 
the  preposterous  conceit  which  the  uncon- 
verted have  of  tlieir  own  goodness.  Diet. 
of  the  hible ;  Fletcher's  Afipeal  lo  Mat- 
ters of  Fact  ;  Berry  Street  Lectures, 
vol.  i.  180,  189  ;  South' s  Sermons,  vol.  i. 
124,  150 ;  Bates's  Harmony  of  Div.  Att. 
p.  98  ;  Bosi  oil's  Four  fold  State,  part  1. 

FALSEHOOD,  untruth,  deceit.  See 
Lying. 

FALSE  CMRISTS.    See  Messiah. 

FAMILLVRS  OF  THE  INQUISITION, 
'  persons  who  assisi  in  apprehending  such  as 
are  accused,  and  carrying  them  to  prison. 
They  are  assistants  to  the  inquisitor,  and 
called  yami//ars,  because  they  belong  to  his 
family.  In  some  provinces  of  Italy  they 
are  called  cross  bearers  ;  and  in  others  the 
scholars  of  St.  Peter  the  martyr ;  and 
wear  a  cross  before  them  on  the  outside 
garment.  They  are  properly  bailiffs  of  tiie 
inquisition :  and  the  vile  office  is  esteemed 
so  honourable,  that  noblemen  in  the  king- 
dom of  Portugal  have  been  ambitious  of 
belonging  to  it.  Nor  is  this  surprising, 
when  it  is  considered  that  Innocent  III. 
granted  very  large  indulgencies  and  privi- 
leges to  these  familiars  ;  and  that  the  same 
plenaiy  indulgence  is  granted  by  the  Pope 
to  every  single  exercise  of  this  office,  as 
was  granted  by  Jlhe  Lateran  council  to  tliose 
"Who  succoured*  the  Holy  Land.  When 
several  persons  are  to  be  taken  up  at  the 
same  time,  these  familiars  are  commanded 
to  order  matters  that  they  may  know  nothing 
of  one  another's  being  apprehended;  and  it  is 
related,  that  a  father  and  his  three  sons 
and  three  daughters,  who  lived  together  in 
the  same  house,  were  carried  prisoners  to 
the  inquisition  without  knowing  any  thing 
of  one  another's  being  there  till  seven  years 
afterwards,  when  they  that  were  alive  were 
released  by  an  act  of  faith.  See  art.  Act 
OF  Faith. 

FAMILY  PRAYER.    See  Prayer. 

FAMILY  OF  LOVE,  or  Familists. 
See  Love. 

FANATICS,  wild  enthusiasts,  visionary 
persons,  who  pretend  to  revelation  and  in- 
spiration. The  ancients  called  tha^efanatici 


who  passed  their  time  in  temples  {fana)  : 
and  being  often  seized  with  a  kind  of  enthu- 
siasm, as  if  inspired  by  the  Divinity,  shewed 
j  wild  and  antic  gestures,  cutting  and  slashing 
j  their  arms  with  knives,  shaking  the  head, 
I  &c.  Hence  the  word  was  applied  among 
I  us  to  ttie  Anabaptists,  Quakers,  &c.  at  their 
hrst  rise,  and  is  now  an  epithet  given  to 
I  modern  prophets,  enthusiasts,  &c.  and  we 
I  believe  unjustly  to  those  who  possess  a  con- 
siderable degree  of  zeal  and  fervency  of 
i  devotion 

j  FARNO\'IANS,  a  sect  of  Socinians,  so 
called  from  Stanislaus  Farnovius,  who  sepa- 
rated from  the  other  Unitarians  in  the 
I  year  1568.  He  asserted  that  Christ  had 
i  been  ent;endered  or  produced  cut  of  nt'thing 
:  by  the  Supreme  Being,  befc^re  the  creation 
;  of  this  terrestrial  globe,  and  warned  his  di?- 
jciples  against  paying  religious  worsliip  to 
;  the  Divine  Spirit.  'I'his  s<.ct  did  not  last 
,  long  :  for  having  l^^ist  their  chief,  who  died 
j  in  1615,  it  was  scattered,  and  reduced  to 
I  nothing. 

FASTING,  abstinence  from  food,   more 
I  particularly  that  abstinence  which  is  used 
on  a  religious  account. 

The  Jews  had  every  year  a  stated  and 
s<^lemn  fast  on  the  lOth  day  of  the  month 
Tisri,  which  generally  answered  to  the  close 
of  our  September.  This  solemnity  was  a 
day  of  strict  rest  and  fasting  to  the  Israel- 
ites. Many  of  them  spent  the  day  before 
in  prayer,  and  such  like  penitential  exer- 
cises. On  the  day  itself,  at  least  in  later 
times,  they  made  a  ten  fold  confession  of 
their  sins,  and  were  careful  to  end  all  their 
mutual  broils.  See  Lev.  xvi.  Num.  xxix.  7, 
12.  Lev.  xxiii.  23,  32.  Individuals  also 
fasted  on  any  extraordinary  distress.  Thus 
David  fasted  during  the  sickness  of  his 
adulterous  child,  2  Sam.  xii.  21.  Ahab, 
when  he  was  threatened  with  ruin,  1  Kings 
xii.  27.  Daniel,  when  he  understood  that 
the  Jewish  captivity  drew  to  an  end, 
9th  and  10th  chapters  of  Nehemiah  Joshua, 
&c. 

However  light  s-me  think  of  religious 
fasting,  it  seems  it  has  been  practised  by 
m' St  nations  f n  m  the  rern'test  antiquity. 
The  E^-vptians,  Phcenicians,  and  Assy- 
rians, had  thfir  fasts  as  well  as  the  Jews. 
Porphyry  alarms  that  the  Egyptians,  before 
their  stated  sacrifices,  always  fasted  a  great 
many  days';  S'lmetimes  for  six  weeks. 
The  Greeks  f.bstrved  their  fasts  much  \h 
the  same  manner.  At  Rome,  kings  and 
emperors  fasted  theniselves.  Numa  Pom- 
pilius,  Julius  Csesar,  Augustus,  Vespasian, 
and  rollers,  we  are  told,  had  their  stated 
fast  days :  and  Julian  the  apostate  was  so 
ezact  in  tViis  observation,  that  he  outdidL 
the  priests  themselves.  The  Pythagorians 
frequently  fasted  rigidly  for  a  long  time  ; 
and  Pythagcrus,  tlieir  master,  continued  his 
fast,  it  is  said,  f 'r  forty  days  together.  The 
Brachmans,  and  the  Chinese,  have  also 
their  stated  fasts. 
Every  one  knows  how  much  fasting  has 


F  A  T 


156 


F  AU 


been  considered  as  an  important  rite  in  the 
church  of  Rome,  and  the  extremes  they 
have  run  into  in  this  respect.  See  article 
Abstinenck.  The  church  of  England 
also  has  particular  seasons  for  fasting,  espe- 
cially that  of  Lent,  which  is  to  be  observed 
as  a  time  of  humiliation  before  Easter,  the 
general  festival  of  our  Saviour's  resurrec- 
tion. Fast  .days  arc  also  appointed  by  the 
legislature  upon  any  extraoi'dinary  occasions 
of  calamity,  war,  8cc.  See  articles  Roga- 
Ti'  I  ,  Lent. 

Religious  fasting  consists,  1.  "  In  absti- 
nence from  every  animal  indulgence,  and 
from  food,  as  far  as  health  and  circum- 
stances will  admit — 2.  In  the  humble  con- 
fession of  our  sins  to  God,  with  contri- 
tion or  sorrow  fi;r  them. — 3.  An  earnest 
deprecation  of  God's  displeasure,  and  hum- 
ble supplication  that  he  would  avert  his 
judgments — 4  An  intercession  with  God 
for  such  spiritual  and  temj)oral  blessings 
upon  ourselves  and  others  which  are  need- 
ful.'' It  does  not  appear  that  our  Sa- 
viour instituted  any  particular  fast,  but 
left  it  optonal.  Any  state  of  calauiity  and 
sorrow,  iiowever,  naturally  suggest  this. 
The  firofirietij  of  it  may  appear,  1.  From 
many  examples  recorded  in  scripture  — 
2.  By  plain  and  undeniable  inferences  from 
scripture.  Mat.  vi.  16. — 3.  From  divine 
commands  given  on  some  occasions,  though 
there  are  no  commands  which  presenile 
it  as  a  constant  duty — 4.  It  may  be  argutd 
from  Its  utility  The  end  or  uses  of  it 
are  these  : — L  A  natural  expression  of  our 
sorrow — 2.  A  help  to  devotional  exercis- 
es— 3.  Keeping  the  body  in  subjection  — 
4.  May  be  rendered  subservient  to  charity. 
How  far  or  how  long  a  person  should 
abstain  from  food,  depends  on  circum- 
stances The  great  end  to  be  kept  in 
View  is,  humiliation  for,  and  abstinence 
from  sin.  "  If,"  says  Marshall,  '*  abstin- 
ence divert  our  minds,  by  reason  of  a 
gnawing  appetite,  then  you  had  better 
eat  sparingly,  as  Daniel  in  his  greatest  fast," 
Dan.  X.  2,  3.  They,  however,  who,  in 
times  of  public  distress,  when  the  judg- 
ments of  God  are  in  the  earth,  and 
■when  his  providence  seems  to  call  for 
humiliation,  v;ill  not  relinquish  any  of  their 
sensual  enjt^yments,  nor  deny  themselves 
in  thf  least,  cannot  be  justified ;  since 
good  men  in  all  ages,  more  or  less,  have 
humbled  themselves  on  such  occasions ; 
and  reason  as  well  as  scripture  evidently 
prove  it  to  be  i  ur  duty.  Matt,  ix  15.  1  Cor 
vii  5.  BerivcCs  Christ.  Oranon  ;  vol.  ii.  p. 
18,  25;  TiUotsori's  S'rmons,  ser.  39; 
Simpsori's  Essay  on  Fasting;  Marshall 
on  Sanct.  p.  273,  274. 

F.-\TE  (fatum)  denotes  an  inevitable 
neces'ltv  depending  upon  a  superior  cause 
The  word  is  formed  -a  fan  do,  "  from  spealc- 
intr,"  and  primarilv  implies  the  same  with 
fffitum,  viz.  a  word  or  decree  pronounced 
by  (Jod,  or  a  fixed  sentence  whereby  the 
Deity  has  prescribed  the  order  cf  things 


and  allotted  to  every  person  what  shall  befal 
him.  The  Greeks  called  it  £>/M.«t^^£»;  as 
it  were  a  chain  or  necessary  series  of 
things  indissolubly  linked  together.  It  is 
also  used  to  express  a  certain  unavoidable 
designation  of  things,  by  which  all  agents, 
botli  necessary  and  voluntary,  are  swayed 
and  directed  to  their  ends.  Fate  is  di- 
vided into  physical  a-id  divine.  1.  Physical 
fate  is  an  order  and  seri'^s  of  natural  causes, 
appropriated  to  their  effects:  as,  that  fire 
warms  :  bodies  communicate  motion  to  each 
other,  &c  and  the  effects  of  it  are  all  the 
events  and  phenomena  of  nature  — 2.  Divine 
fate  is  what  is  more  usually  called  providence. 
See  Frovidence,  Necessity. 

Fathers,  a  term  applied  to  ancient 
authors  who  have  preserved  in  their  writ- 
ings traditions  of  the  church.  Thus  St. 
Chrysostom,  St.  Basil,  &c.  are  called  Greek 
f.itliers,  and  St  Augustine  and  St.  Ambrose, 
Lati?i  fathers  No  author  who  wrote  later 
than  the  twelfth  century  is  dignified  with  the 
title  y^i father. 

Some  suppose  that  the  study  of  the  fa- 
diers  is  barren  and  unimproving ;  that 
though  there  are  some  excellent  things  in- 
terspersed in  their  writings,  yet  the  instruc- 
tion to  be  derived  from  them  will  hardly 
repay  the  toil  of  breaking  up  the  ground  ; 
that  a  lifetime  would  hardly  suffice  to  read 
them  with  care,  and  digest  them  complete- 
ly. Others  have  such  an  high  opinion  of 
the  fathers,  as  to  be  almost  afraid  of  inter- 
preting scripture  against  their  decision. 
They  suppose,  that  as  some  of  them  were 
companions,  disciples,  or  successively  follow- 
ers ot  the  apostles,  it  is  highly  j)robable 
that  they  must  have  been  well  informed, 
that  their  sentiments  must  be  strongly  illus- 
trative of  the  doctrines  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment ;  and  that  as  controversies  have  in- 
creased, and  dogmas  received  since  their 
dme,  they  must  be  much  less  entangled 
with  decisions  merely  human,  than  m(Te 
recent  commentators.  Perhaps  it  is  best  to 
steer  between  these  two  opinions.  If  a 
person  have  ability,  inclination,  and  oppor- 
tunitv  to  wade  through  them,  let  him  ;  but 
if  not,  referring  to  them  occasionally  may 
suffice.  One  caution,  however,  is  neces- 
sary, which  is  this:  that  though  the  judg- 
ment of  antiquity  in  some  disputable  points 
certainly  may  be  useful,  yet  we  ought  never 
to  put  them  on  the  same  footing  as  the 
scriptures.  In  many  cases  they  may  be  con- 
sidered as  conijietent  witnesses;  but  we 
must  net  confide  in  their  verdict  as  judges. 
Jorlvi's  Works,  vol.  vii.  chap.  2.  ;  Kelt's 
Serm.  at  Brumfiton  Lee. ;  ser.  1. ;  Uarbur- 
fo?fs  Julian  ;  Sini/isoTi's  Sirictures  on  Re- 
ligious Ofiinions,  latter  end ;  Daille's-  Use 
of  the  Fathers,  p.  167. ;  Larfs  Ti-.eory  ; 
Dr.  Clarke's  View  >f  the  Succession  of  Sa- 
cred lA'erature,  p   312. 

FAULT,  a  slight  defect  or  crime  which 
subjects  a  person^to  blame,  but  mt  to  pun- 
ishment ;  a  deviation  from,  or  transgression 
of  a  rule  in  some  trifling  circumstance. 


FE  A 


157 


FEE 


FAVOUR  OF  GOD.    See  Grace. 

FEAR  is  that  uneasiness  of  mind  which 
arises  from  an  apprehension  of  danger,  at- 
tended with  a  desire  of  avoiding  it.  "  Fear," 
says  Dr.  Watts,  *'  shews  itself  by  paleness 
of  tlie  cheek,  sinking  of  the  spirits,  trem- 
bling of  the  limbs,  hurry  and  confusion  of 
the  mind  and  thoughts,  agonies  of  nature, 
and  fainting.  Mariy  a  person  has  died  with 
fear.  Sometimes  it  rouses  all  nature  to  ex- 
ert itself  in  speedy  flight,  or  other  methods 
to  avoid  the  approaching  evil  ;  suddden 
terror  has  f)erformed  some  almost  incredi- 
bles  (if  this  kind." 

Fear  is  of  different  kinds :  1.  There  is  an 
idolalioiis  and  su/ierntilious  fear,  which  is 
called  hi(ri^ciift:>iioe,,  afear  of  dxmons,  V/hich 
the  city  or  Athens  was  greatly  addicted  to. 
"  I  perceive,  says  the  apostle  Paul,  "  that 
in  all  things  ye  are  too  superstitious,"  or 
given  to  the  fear  and  worsliip  of  false  dei- 
ties— 2.  There  is  .in  external  fear  of  God, 
an  outward  shew  and  profession  of  it,  which 
is  taught  by  the  precepts  of  men  ;  as  in  the 
men  of  Samaria,  who  pretended  to  fear  the 
Lord,  as  tlie  priest  instructed  them,  and  yet 
served  tlieir  own  gods  ;  and  such  an  exter- 
nal fear  of  God,  Job's  fiiends  sujjposed  was 
all  that  he  had,  and  that  even  he  had  cast 
that  off. — 3.  There  is  an  hyfio critical  fear, 
when  men  make  a  profession  of  religion  ; 
but  cnily  serve  him  for  some  sinister  end  and 
selfish  view,  which  Satan  insinuated  was 
Job's  case.  "  Doth  Job  fear  God  for  nought.'" 
Job  i.  9 — 4.  There  is  a  servile,  fear,  which 
they  possess  who  serve  God  from  fear  of 
punishment,  and  not  fmm  love  to  him. — 5. 
There  is  -a  filial  fear ,  such  as  that  of  a  se>n 
to  his  father.  Fear  is  sinful  when — 1.  It 
proceeds  from  unbelief  or  distrust  of  God  : 

2.  Wlitn  it  ascribes  more  to  the  creature 
than  is  due  ;  or  when  we  fear  our  enemies 
without  Cfinsidering  they  are   under  G'jd  : 

3.  When  we  fear  that  in  God  that  is  not  in 
him,  or  that  he  will  break  his  promise,  &c. 
4  When  our  fear  is  immoderate,  so  as  to 
distract  us  in  duty.     See  next  article. 

FEAR  OF  GOD,  is  that  holy  disposition 
or  gracious  habit  fi)rmed  in  t!".e  soul  by  the 
Holy  Spirit,  whereby  we  are  iiiclinvd  to  obey 
all  God's  commands;  and  evidences  itS' If, 
1.  By  a  dread  of  iiis  displeasure. — 2.  Desire 
of  his  favour. — 3.  Rtgaril  for  his  txeel'eii- 
cies. — 4.  Submission  to  his  will — 5  Grati- 
tude for  his  benefits. — 6  Sincerity  in  his 
worship. — 7.  Conscientious  obedience  to  hib 
commanfls,  Prov  viii.  15.  Jnb  xx\iii.  :28 
Bates'  Worka,  page  913  ;  Gill's  Body  of 
Divinitij,  vol.  iii   1. 

FEAR  OF  DEATH      See  Death. 

FEARS.     See  Doubts. 

FEAST,  in  a  reUgious  sense,  is  a  ceremo- 
ny of  feasting  and  thanksgiving. 

Tiie  principal  feasts  of  the  Jews  were  the 
feasts  of  trumpets,  of  expiatim,  of  taberna- 
cles, of  the  dedication,  df  the  passov<^r,  of 
pentecost,  and  that  ni  purification.  Feasts, 
and  the  ceremonies  thereof,  have  wiade  great 


part  of  the  religion  of  almost  all  nations  and 
sects;  hence  the  (ireeks,  the  Romans,  Ma- 
hometans, and  Christians,  have  not  been 
without  them. 

Feasts,  among  us,  are  either  immoveable 
or  moveable.  Immoveable  feasts  are  those 
constantly  celebrated  on  the  same  day  of 
the  year.  The  principal  of  these  are  Christ- 
mas-day, Circumcision,  Epiphany,  Candle- 
mas or  Purification;  Jjady-day,  or  the  an- 
nunciation, called  also  the  incarnation  and 
conception  ;  All  Saints  and  All  Souls ;  be- 
sides the  days  of  the  several  apostles,  as  St, 
Thomas  St.  Paul.  Moveable  feasts  are  those 
which  are  not  confined  to  the  same  day  of 
the  year.  Of  these  tlie  principal  is  Easter, 
which  gives  law  to  all  the  rest,  all  of  them 
following  and  keeping  their  proper  distances 
from  it.  Such  are  Palm  Sunday,  Good  Friday, 
Ash  Wednesda) ,  Sexagesniia,  Ascension 
day,  Pentecost  and  Trinity  Sunday.. 

Besides  these  feasts,  which  are  general, 
and  enjoined  by  the  church,  there  are  others 
local  and  occasional,  enjoined  by  the  magis- 
trate, or  voluntarily  set  on  foot  by  the  peo- 
ple ;  such  are  the  days  of  thanksgiving  for 
delivery  from  war,  plagues,  &c  ;  such  also 
are  the  vigils  or  wakes  in  commemoration 
of  the  dedication  of  particular  churches. 

The  prodigious  increase  of  feast-days  in 
the  Christian  church,  commenced  toward 
tiie  close  of  the  fourth  century,  occasioned 
by  the  discovery  that  was  made  of  the  re- 
mains of  martyrs,  and  dher  holy  men,  for 
the  commemoration  of  whom  they  were 
established.  These,  instead  of  being  set 
apart  for  pious  exercises,  were  abused  in  in- 
dolence, vohiptuousntss,  and  crinnnal  prac- 
tices. Many  of  them  were  instituted  on  a 
pagan  model,  and  perverted  to  similar  pur- 
po.ses.     See  Holy  Day. 

FEAST  OF  ASSES.  This  was  a  festi- 
val in  the  Romish  church,  and  was  celebrat- 
ed at  Beauvais.  They  chose  a  young  wo- 
man, the  haiidsomest  in  the  town  ;  made  her 
ride  on  an  ass  richly  harnassed,  and  placed 
in  her  arms  a  pretty  infant.  In  this  state, 
followed  by  the  bishop  and  clergy,  she  march- 
ed in  precession  from  the  cathedral  to  the 
church  of  St.  Stephen ;  entered  into  the 
sanctuarj',  placed  herself  near  the  altar,  and 
then  celebrated  mass  ;  not  forgetting  to  cx- 
pliiin  the  fine  qualities  of  the  animal,  and  ex- 
ii(  vting  him  to  make  a  devout  genuflection, 
witli  a  variety  nf  other  fooleries. 

FEELINGS  RELIGIOUS,  are  those  sen- 
satims  or  emotions  oi  the  mind  produced 
by  the  vii  ws  we  have  of  religion.  While 
some  enthusiasts  boast  of,  depend  on,  and 
talk  much  of  their  feelings,  there  are  others 
who  are  led  to  discard  tiie  term,  and  almost 
to  abandon  the  idea  of  rdi^ious  feeling; 
but  it  is  evident  that  however  many  have 
been  miseuided  and  deceived  by  the\r  feel- 
ings, yet  there  is  no  such  thing  as  religion 
wiih(Hit  this.  For  instance ;  religion  con- 
.sists  in  conti'ition,  repentance,  and  devotion: 
nov/,  what  is  contrition  but  a  feeling  of  sor- 


FIF 


158 


FIV 


row  for  sin  ?  wliat  is  repentance  but  a  feel- 
ing of  hatred  to  it,  with  a  relinquishing  of 
it  r  what  is  devotion  but  &  feeling,  of  love  to 
God  and  his  ways  ?  Who  can  separate  the 
idea  oi  feeling  ivom  any  of  these  acts?  The 
fact  is  this ;  religious  feelings,  hlce  evt- ry 
thing  else,  have  been  abused  ;  and  men,  to 
avoid  the  imputation  of  fanaticism,  have  run 
into  the  opposite  evil  of  lukewarmness,  and 
been  coMteni  with  a  system  without  feeling 
itsenerg)^  See  Affection,  Enthusias.m, 

EzPKRIENCE. 

FELLOWSHIP,  joint  interest,  or  the 
having  one  common  stock.  The  fellowship 
of  the  saints  is  two- fold :  1.  With  God,  1  Ji)hn 
i.  3.  1  Cor.  i.  9.  1  Cor.  xiii.  14 — 2.  With 
one  anotiier,  1  John  i.  7. 

FelloToshili  ivith  (rorf  consists  inknov.'ledge 
of  his  will.  Job  xxii.  21.  Jolm  xvii.  .3.  Agree- 
ment, Amos  in.  2.  Strength  of  affection, 
Kom.  viii.  o^,  39.  Enjoyment  of  his  pre- 
sence, Ps.  iv.  6.  Conformity  to  his  image 
1  John   ii.  6.  1  John  i.  6. 

Fellowshiji  of  the  Saints,  may  be  consid- 
ered as  a  fellowship  of  duties,  Rom.  xii.  6. 
1  Cor.  xii.  1.  1  Thess.  v.  17,  18.  James  v. 
16.  Of  ordinances,  Heb  x.  24.  Acts  ii.  46. 
Of  graces,  love,  jfjV,  &c.  Hiib.  x.  24.  Mai. 
iii.  16.  2  Cor.  viii.  4.  ( )f  interest  spiritual, 
and  sometimes  temporal,  Rom.  xii  4.  13. 
Heb.  xiii.  16.  Of  sufferiiigs,  Rum.  xv.  1,  2. 
Gal.  vi.  1,  2.  Rom.  xii.  15.  Of  eternal 
glory,  Rev.  vii.  9.    See  Communion. 

FIDELITY,  faitlifulness,  or  the  conscien- 
tious discharge  of  those  duties  of  a  religious, 
personal,  and  relative  nature,  which  we  are 
bound  to  perform.  See  an  excelent  sermon 
on  the  subject  in  Ur.  jErskine's  Sermons^ 
vol.  ii.  p.  304. 

FIF  rf5  MOXARCHV  MEN,  were  a  set 
of  enthusiasts,  in  the  time  of  Cromwell,  who 
expected,  the  sudden  appearance  of  Christ ; 
to  establish  on  earth  a  new  monarchy  or 
kingdom.  In  consequence  of  this  illusion, 
some  of  them  aimed  at  the  subver.sion  ot  all 
human  government.  In  ancient  history  we 
read  of  four  great  monarchies,  the  Assyrian, 
Persian,  Gi-ecian,  and  the  Roman ;  anc' 
tlifcse  men,  believing  that  this  new  spiritual 
kingdom  of  Christ  was  to  be  the  fifth,  came 
to  bear  the  name  by  which  they  were  call- 
ed. Their  leader  was  Thomas  Venner,  a 
wine  cooper,  whci  in  his  little  conventicle  in 
C"leman-street,  warmed  his  admirers  with 
passionate  ex])ectations  of  a  fifth  universal 
monarchy,  under  the  pevsnnal  reign  of  Kii'g 
Jesus  upun  earth,  and  that  the  saints  were 
to  take  the  kingdom  to  themselves.  To 
introduce  this  imaginary  kingdom,  they 
marched  out  of  their  nieeting  house,  to- 
wards St  Paul's  churcli  yard,  on  Sunday, 
J:in.  6th,  1660,  to  the  number  of  about  fitty 
men,  well  armed,  and  with  a  resolution  to 
subvert  the  present  government,  or  to  die 
in  the  attempt.  They  published  a  d(  clara- 
tinn  of  the  design  of  their  rising,  and  placed 
centinels  at  proper  places.  The  lord  may- 
or sent  the  trained  bands  to  disperse  them, 


whom  they  quickly  routed,  but  in  the  even- 
ing retired  to  Cane  Wood,  between  High- 
gate  and  Hampstead.  On  Wednesday  morn- 
ing they  returned,  and  dispersed  a  ])arty  of 
the  king's  soldiers  in  Thread-needle-strett. 
In  Wood-street  they  repeLle<l  the  trained 
bands,  and  some  of  the  horse  guards;  but 
Venner  himself  was  knocked  down,  and 
some  of  his  connpany  slain ;  from  hence  the 
remainder  retreated  toCnpplegate,  and  took 
possession  of  a  house,  which  they  threaten- 
ed to  defend  with  a  desperate  resolution ; 
but  nobody  appealing  to  ci'untenance  their 
j  frenzy,  they  surrendered  after  they  had  lost 
I  about  half  their  number.  Venner,  and  one 
of  his  officers,  were  hanged  before  their 
meet!'g  house  door  in  Coleman-street,  Jan. 
I9th;  and  a  few  days  after  nine  more  were 
executed  in  divers  parts  of  t!ie  citv. 

FILIAL  PIETY,  is  the  aifectionate  at- 
tachment of  children  to  their  patents,  in- 
cluding in  it  love,  reverence,  obedience,  and 
relief.  Justly  has  it  been  observed,  that 
these  great  duties  are  prompted  equally  by 
nature  and  by  gratitude,  independent  t^)i  the 
injunctions  ot  religion;  for  where  shall  we 
find  the  person  who  hath  received  from  any 
I  one  benefits  so  great,  or  so  many,  as  children 
from  their  parents?  And  it  may  be  truly 
said,  that  if  persons  are  undutifu!  to  their 
parents,  they  seldom  prove  good  to  any 
other  relation.     See  article  Children. 

FILIATION  OF  THE  SON  OF  GOD. 
See  Son  of  (tod. 
FIRE  PHILOSOPHERS.    See  Thecso- 

FHISTS. 

FIRST  FRUITS,  among  the  Hebrews, 
were  oblations  of  part  of  the  fruits  of  the 
harvest,  offered  to  God  as  an  acknowledg- 
ment of  his  sovereign  dominion.  There  was 
another  sort  of  first  fruits  which  was  paid 
to  God.  When  bread  was  kneaded  in  a 
family,  a  portion  of  it  was  set  apart,  and 
given  to  the  priest  or  Levite  who  dwelt  in 
the  place.  If  there  were  no  priest  or  Levite 
there,  it  was  cast  into  the  oven,  and  con- 
sumed by  the  fire.  These  offerings  made  a 
consideral;le  part  of  the  revenues  of  the 
priesthood.  Lev.  xxiii.  Exod.  xxii  29.  Chron, 
xxiii.  19   Numb.  xv.  19,  20. 

The  frst  friiiis  of  the  Spirit,  are  such 
communications  of  his  grace  on  earth,  as 
fully  assure  us  of  the  full  enjoyment  of  God 
in  heaven,  Rom.  viii  23.  Christ  is  called 
the  first  fruits  of  them  that  slept ;  for  as 
the  first  fruits  were  earnests  to  the  Jews  of 
the  succeeding  harvest,  so  Christ  is  the  first 
fruits  of  the  resurrection,  or  the  earnest  of 
a  future  resurrection  ;  that  as  he  rose,  so 
shall  believers  also  rise  to  happiness  and 
life.     1  Cor.  XV.  20. 

First  fruits  are  mentioned  in  ancient 
writers  as  one  part  of  the  church  revenue. 

First  fruits,  in  the  church  of  England, 
are  the  ])rofits  of  every  spiritual  benefice 
for  the  first  year,  according  to  the  valuation 
thereof  in  the  king's  book. 

FIVE  POINTS,  are  the  five  doctrines 


TOR 


159 


lO  R 


controverted  between  the  Arminians  and 
Calvinists.     See  Calvinists. 

FLACIANS,  the  followers  of  Matthias 
Flacius  lUvricus,  who  flourished  in  the  six- 
teenth century.  He  taught  that  original  sin 
is  the  very  substance  of  human  nature;  and 
that  the  fall  of  man  was  an  event  which  ex- 
tiui^uished  in  the  human  mind  eveiy  virtu- 
ous tendency,  every  noble  faculty,  and  left 
nothing  behind  it  but  universal  darkness  and 
corruption. 

FLAGELLANTES.    SeeWnippERS. 

FLATTERY,  a  servile  and  fawning  be- 
haviour, attended  with  servile  compliances 
and  obsequiousness,  in  order  to  gain  a  per- 
son's fav(  ur. 

FLEMINGIANS,  or  Flandrians,  a 
sect  of  rigid  Anabaptists,  who  acquired 
this  name  in  the  sixteenth  century,  because 
most  of  tliem  were  natives  of  Flandei-s,  by 
way  of  distinction  from  the  VVaterlandians. 
See  Waterlandians. 

FOLLY,  according  to  Mr.  Locke,  consists 
in  the  drawing  of  false  conclusions  from  just 
principles,  by  which  it  is  distinguished  from 
madness,  which  draws  just  conclusions  from 
false  principles.  But  this  seems  too  confin- 
ed a  definition.  Folly,  in  its  most  general 
acceptation,  denotes  a  weakness  of  intellect 
or  apprehension,  or  some  partial  absurdity 
in  sentiment  or  conduct.     See  Evil,  Sin. 

FOOL,  one  who  has  not  the  use  of  reason 
or  judgment.  In  Scripture,  wicked  persons 
are  often  called  fools,  or  foolish,  because 
such  act  contraiy  to  reason,  trust  to  their 
own  hearts,  violate  the  laws  of  God,  and 
prefer  things  vile,  trifling,  and  temporal,  to 
sucli  as  are  important,  divine,  and  eternal. 

FOOLISH  SPEAKING,  such  kind  of 
conversation,  as  includes  folly,  and  can  no 
ways  be  profitable  and  interesting,  Eph.  v. 
4,  Facetiousne&s,  indeed,  is  allowable,  when 
it  ministers  to  harmless  divertisement,  and 
deliglit  to  conversation  ;  when  it  is  used  for 
the  purpose  of  exposing  things  which  are 
base  and  vile  ;  when  it  has  fur  its  aim  tlie 
reformation  of  others;  when  used  by  way  of 
defence  uuder  unjust  reproach.  But  all  such 
kind  of  speaking  as  includes  profane  jesting, 
loose,  wanton,  scurrilous,  injurious,  unsea- 
sonable, vain-glnvious  talk,  is  strictly  for- 
bidden. See  Barroiva  excellent  Sermon 
on  this  subject  in  /lis  Works,  vol.  i,  ser 
14. 

FORBEARANCE,  is  the  act  of  patient- 
ly enduring  provocation  or  o3ence.  The 
foUowiTig  may  be  considered  as  the  most 
powerful  incentives  to  the  exercise  of  this 
disposition :  1.  The  consideration  that  we 
ourselves  f  ften  stand  in  need  of  it  from 
others.  Gal.  vi,  1. — 2.  The  express  com- 
mand of  Scripture,  Eph.  iv.  2.  Col.  ill.  13. — 
3.  The  felicity  of  this  disposition.  It  is  sure 
to  brhig  happiness  at  last,  while  resentment 
only  increases  our  own  misery. — 4  That  it 
is  one  of  the  strongest  evidences  we  can  give 
>f  the  reality  of  our  religiun,  John  xiii.  35. 


— 5.  The  beautiful  example  of  Christ,  Heb. 
xii.  3.     1  Pet.  ii,  21—23. 

FORBEARANCE  OF  GOD.  See  Pa- 
TiKNCE  OF  God. 

FOREKNOWLEDGE  OF  GOD,  is  his 
foresight  or  knowledge  of  every  thing  that  is 
to  come  to  pass.  Acts  ii.  23  This  foreknow- 
ledge, says  Charnock,  was  from  eternity 
Seeing  he  knows  things  possible  in  his  power, 
and  things  future  in  his  will,  if  his  power  and 
resolves  were  from  eternity,  his  knowledge 
must  be  so  too;  or  else  we  must  make  him  ig- 
norant of  his  own  power,  and  ignorant  of  his 
own  will  from  eternity,  and  consequently 
not  from  eternity  blessed  and  perfect.  His 
knowledge  of  possible  things  must  run  par- 
allel with  his  will.  If  he  willed  from  eter- 
nity, he  kntw  from  eternity  what  he  will- 
ed ;  but  that  he  did  will  from  eternity  we 
njust  grant,  unless  we  would  render  him 
changeable,  and  conceive  him  to  be  made 
in  time  of  not  willing,  willing.  The  know- 
ledge God  hath  in  time  was  always  one 
and  the  same,  because  his  understanding  is 
his  proper  essence,  as  perfect  as  his  essence, 
and  of  immutable  nature. 

"  To  deny  this  is  (says  Saurin,)  to  de- 
grade the  Almighty;  for  what,  pray,  is  a 
God  who  created  beings,  and  who  ccuid  not 
foresee  what  would  result  from  tlieir  exis- 
tence }  A  God,  who  formed  spirits  united 
to  bodies  by  certain  laws,  and  who  did  not 
know  how  to  combine  these  laws  so  as  to 
foresee  the  effects  they  would  pnduct-?  A 
God  forced  to  suspend  his  judgment  ?  A  God 
who  every  day  learns  scmetliine  rew,  and 
who  doth  not  know  to-day  what  will  hap- 
pen to-morrow  i*  A  God  who  cannot  iA\ 
whether  peace  will  be  concluded,  or  war 
continue  to  ravage  the  world ;  Avhether  re- 
ligiun will  be  received  in  a  certain  kingdom, 
or  whether  it  will  be  banished ;  whether  the 
right  heir  will  succeed  to  the  crown,  or 
whether  the  crown  will  be  set  on  the  head 
of  an  usurper  ^  For  according  to  the  differ- 
ent tleterminations  of  the  wills  of  men,  of 
king,  or  people,  the  prince  will  make  peace, 
or  declare  war;  rehgion  will  be  banished  or 
admitted  ;  the  tyrant  or  the  la^-ful  king 
will  occupy  the  throne :  for  if  God  cannot 
foresee  how  the  volitions  of  men  will  be  de- 
termined, he  cannot  foresee  any  of  tl>ese 
events.  What  is  this  but  to  degrade  God 
from  his  Deity,  and  to  make  the  most  per- 
fect of  all  intelligences  a  being  involved  in 
darkness  and  uncertainty  like  ourselves  i'* 
See  Omniscience. 

FORGIVENESS,  the  pardon  of  any  of- 
fence committed  against  us.  This  is  a  vir-  , 
tue  which  our  Lord  expressly  inculcates, 
not  as  extending  to  our  friends  only,  but 
to  our  enem.its.  "  Ye  have  heard,"  saith 
he,  "  Thou  shalt  love  thy  neighbour  and 
hate  thine  enemy ;  but  1  say  unto  you, 
love  your  enemies,"  &c".  '*  This,"  says  an 
ingenious  writer,  "  was  a  lesson  so  new, 
and  utterly  unknown,  til!  taught  by  his 
doctrines  and  enforced  by  his  example,  that 


FOR 


160 


FOR 


the  wisest  moralists  of  the  wisest  nations 
and  ages,  represented  the  desire  of  revenge 
as  a  mark  of  a  noble  mind  ;  but  how  much 
more  magnanimous,  how  much  more  bene- 
ficial to  mankind,  is  forgiveness  !  It  is  more 
magnanimous,  because  every  generous  and 
exalted  disposition  of  the  human  mind  is  re- 
quisite to  the  practice  of  it ;  and  it  is  the  most 
beneficial,  because  it  puts  an  end  to  an  eter- 
nal succession  of  injuries  and  retaliations." 
Let  us,  therefore,  learn  to  cherish  this  no- 
ble disposition;  let  the  bitterest  enemy  we 
have  be  softened  by  its  effects  ;  let  us  con- 
sidt^r  also  how  friendly  it  is  to  our  own  hap- 
piness, and  how  much  it  prevents  the  un- 
happiness  of  others.  "  The  feuds  and  ani- 
moMties  in  families,  and  between  neighbours, 
which  disturb  the  intercourse  of  human  life, 
and  collectively  compose  half  the  misery  of 
it,  have  their  foundation  in  the  want  of  a 
forgiving  temper,  and  can  never  cease  but 
by  the  exercise  of  this  virtue  on  one  side,  or 
on  both."  Palei/s  Mor  Phil.  vol.  i.  p.  271; 
Soame  Jenyns'  Int.  Kvid.  p.  6r,  68 ;  Clarke's 
Ser.,  ser.  2,  vol.  x;  Tillotson's  Ser.,  vol. 
viii.  p.  254. 

FORGIVENESS  OF  SINS.  See  Par- 
330N,  Mercy. 

FORMALIST,  one  who  places  too  much 
dependence  on  outward  ceremonies  of  reli- 
gion, or  who  is  more  tenacious  of  the  form 
of  religion  than  the  power  of  it. 

FORMS  OF  PRAYER.    See  Prayer. 

FORNICATION,  whoredom,  or  the  act 
of  incontinency  between  single  persons ;  for 
if  either  of  the  parties  be  married,  it  is  adul- 
tery'.  While  the  Scriptures  give  no  sanction 
to  those  austerities  which  have  been  impos- 
ed on  men  under  the  idea  of  religion,  so  on 
the  other  hand,  they  give  no  liberty  for  the 
indulgence  of  any  propensity  that  would 
either  militate  against  our  own  interest  or 
that  of  others.  It  is  in  vain  to  argue  the 
mnocency  of  fornication  from  the  natural 
passions  implanted  in  us,  since  "  marriage 
is  honourable  in  all,"  and  wisely  appointed 
for  the  prevention  of  those  evils  which 
would  otherwise  ensue ;  and,  besides,  the 
existence  of  any  natural  propensity  in  us,  is 
no  proof  that  it  is  to  be  gratified  without  any 
restrictions.  That  fornication  is  both  unlaw- 
ful and  unreasonable,  may  be  easily  inferred, 
if  we  consider,  1.  That  our  Saviour  express- 
ly declares  this  to  be  a  crime,  Mark.  vi\ 
21 — 23. — 2.  That  the  Scriptures  declare  that 
f>rnicators  cannot  inherit  the  kingdom  of 
God,  1  Cor.  vi.  9.  Heb.  xii.  16.  Gal  v.  19— 
22. — 3.  Fornication  sinks  into  a  mere /{in/. 'o/ 
commerce,  a  gratification  which  was  design- 
ed to  be  the  cement  of  a  sacred,  generous, 
and  tender  friendship — 4.  It  leaves  the 
maintenance  and  education  of  children,  as 
to  th.e  father  at  least,  utterly  unsecured. — 
5.  It  strongly  tempts  the  guilty  mother  to 
guard  hersf'lf  from  infamy  by  methods  of 
procuring  abortion,  ^vtlich  not  only  destrovs 
the  child,  but  often  the  mother—^.  It  dis- 
qualifies the  deluded  creatures  to  be  either 
good  wives,  or  mothers,  in  any  future  mar- 


riage, ruining  that  modesty  which  is  the 
guardian  of  nuptial  happiness. — 7.  It  abso- 
lutely disqualifies  a  man  for  the  best  satis- 
factions; those  of  truth,  virtue,  innocent 
gratifications,  tender  and  generous  friend- 
ship.— 8.  It  often  perpetuates  a  disease  which 
may  be  accounted  one  of  the  sorest  maladies 
of  human  nature,  and  the  effects  which  are 
said  to  visit  the  constitution  of  even  distant 
generations. 

FORTITUDE  is  a  virtue  or  quality  of 
the  mind,  generally  considered  the  same 
with  courage ;  though,  in  a  more  accurate 
sense,  they  seem  to  be  distinguishable.  Cour- 
age resists  danger,  fortitude  supports  pain. 
Courage  may  be  a  virtue  or  vice,  according 
to  the  circumstances;  fortitude  is  always  a 
virtue  :  we  speak  of  desperate  courage,  but 
not  of  desperate  fortitude  A  contempt  or 
neglect  of  dangers  may  be  called  courage  ; 
but  fortitude  is  the  virtue  of  a  rational  ^nd 
considerate  mind,  and  is  founded  in  a  sense 
of  honour,  and  a  regard  to  duty. 

Christian  fortitude  may  be  defined  that 
state  of  mind  which  arises  from  truth  and 
confidence  in  God  ;  enables  us  to  stand  col- 
lected and  undi.sturbed  in  the  time  of  diffi- 
culty and  danger :  and  is  at  an  equal  dis- 
tance from  rashness  on  the  one  hand,  and 
pusillanimity  on  the  other.  Fortitude  takes 
different  names,  according  as  it  acts  in  op- 
position to  different  evils;  but  some  of  those 
names  are  applied  with  considerable  lati- 
tude. With  respect  to  danger  in  general, 
fortitude  has  been  called  intrepidity ;  with 
respect  to  the  dangers  of  war,  valour  ;  with 
respect  to  pain  of  body,  or  distress  rf  mind, 
fiadence  ;  with  rfspi-ct  to  labour,  activity  ; 
with  respect  to  'm]\\vy,  forbearance ;  with 
respect  to  our  condition  in  general,  magTia- 
nimity.  , 

Christian  fortitude  is  necessary  to  vigi- 
lance, patience,  se'f-denial,  and  perseve- 
rance, and  is  requisite  under  affliction;  temp- 
tation ;  persecution;  desertion  and  death. 
The  noble  cause  in  which  the  Christian  is 
engiiged,  the  glorious  Master  whom  he 
serves;  the  provision  that  is  made  for  his 
security  ;  the  illustrious  examples  set  before 
him;  the  apj)robation  of  a  good  conscience; 
and  the  grand  prospect  he  has  in  view,  are 
all  powerful  motives  to  the  exercise  rf  this 
grace.  Watts'  S(r.,  ser.  31 ;  Jivavs'  Ser., 
ser.  19.  vol.  i;  Steel's  Christian  Hero  ;  Ma- 
son's Ser,  vol.  i.  str  v. 

FORTUNE,  a  name  which,  among  the 
ancients,  seemed  to  have  denoted  a  princi- 
ple of  fortuity,  whereby  tb.ings  came  to  pass 
without  being  necessitated  thereto  ;  but 
what  and  whence  that  principle  is,  they  do 
not  seem  to  have  ever  precisely  thought. 
It  does  not  appear  that  the  antiquity  of  the 
word  is  very  high.  It  is  acknowledged,  on 
all  hands,  that  Tt;%«,,from  whence  the  Ro- 
mans tofik  theWfortima,  was  a  term  invent- 
ed long  after  the  times  of  Hesiod  and  Ho- 
mer, in  whose  writings  it  no  where  occurs 
The  philosophical  sense  of  the  word  coin- 
cides with  what  is  vulgarly  called  chance. 


FRA 


161 


FRA 


It  is  difficult  to  ascertain  what  it  denotes  in 
the  minds  of  those  who  now  use  the  word. 
It  has  been  justly  observed,  that  they  who 
would  substitute  the  name  of  providence  in 
lieu  of  that  oi  fortwne,  cannot  give  any  tole- 
rable sense  to  half  the  phrases  wherein  the 
word  occurs. 

'FRAME.  This  word  is  used  to  denote 
any  state  of  mind  a  man  may  be  in  :  and,  in 
a  religious  sense-,  is  often  connected  with  tlie 
word  feeling,  or  used  synonymously  with  it 
See  Fkeling. 

"  If  our  frames  ara  comfortable,"  says 
one,  "  we  may  make  them  the  matter  of  our 
praise,  but  not  of  our  pride  ;  we  may  make 
thf  m  our  pleasure,  but  not  our  portion  ;  we 
may  make  them  the  matter  ot  our  encou- 
ragement, but  not  the  ground  of  our  securi- 
ty.  Are  our  frames  dark  and  uncomforta- 
ble ?  they  should  humble  us,  but  not  discou- 
rage us ;  they  should  quicken  us,  but  not 
obstruct  us  in  our  application  for  necessary 
and  suitable  grace;  they  should  make  us 
see  our  own  emptiness,  but  not  make  us  sus- 
pect the  fulness  of  Christ ;  they  should 
make  us  see  our  own  unworthiness,  but  not 
make  us  suspect  the  willingness  of  Christ ; 
tiiey  should  make  us  see  our  own  weakness, 
but  not  cause  us  to  suspect  the  strength  of 
Christ ;  they  should  make  us  suspect  our 
own  hearts,  but  not  the  firmness  and  free- 
ness  of  the  promises." 

FRANCISCANS,  a  religious  order  found- 
ed by  St.  Francis  in  the  year  1209.  Fran- 
cis was  the  son  of  a  merchant  of  Assisi,  in 
the  pro\4nce  of  Umbria,  v;ho,  having  led  a 
dissolute  life,  was  reclaimed  by  a  fit  of  sick- 
ness, and  afterwards  fell  into  an  extrava- 
gant devotion  that  looked  less  like  religion 
than  alienation  of  mind.  Soon  after  this, 
viz  in  the  year  1210,  hearing  the  passage 
repeated  in  which  Christ  addresses  his 
apostles.  Provide  neither  gold  nor  silver, 
iS'c.  Matt.  X.  9,  10.  he  was  led  to  consider 
a  voluntary  and  absolute  poverty  as  the  es- 
sence of  the  Gospel,  and  to  prescribe  this 
poverty  as  a  sacred  rule  both  to  himself  and 
to  the  few  that  followed  him.  This  new  so- 
ciety, which  appeared  to  Innocent  III.  ex- 
tremely adapted  to  the  present  state  of  the 
church,  and  proper  to  restore  its  declining 
credit,  was  solemnly  approved  and  confirm- 
ed by  Honorius  III.  in  1223,  and  had  made 
a  considerable  progress  before  the  death  of 
its  founder  in  1226  Francis,  through  an 
excessive  humility,  would  not  suffer  the 
monks  of  his  order  to  be  called /ra/ri^.?,  i.  e. 
brethren  or  friars;  bnt  frat ere icli,  i  e.  lit- 
tle brethren,  or  friars  minor,  by  which  de- 
nomination they  have  been  generally  since 
distinguished  The  Franciscans  and  Domi- 
nicans were  zealous  and  active  friends  to 
the  papal  hierarchv,  and  in  return  were  dis- 
tinguished by  peculiar  privileges  and  honc.ur- 
able  employments.  The  Franciscans,  in 
particular,  were  invested  with  the  treasure 
of  ample  and  extensive  indulgencies,  the 
distribution  of  which  was  committed  to 
them  by  the  popes  as  a  mean  of  subsistence, 

2^ 


and  a  rich  indemnification  for  their  volun-' 
taiy  poverty.  In  consequence  of  this  grant,' 
the  rule  of  the  founder,  which  absolutely' 
prohibited  both  personal  and  collective  pro-' 
perty,  so  that  neither  the  individual  nor  the 
community  were  to  possess  either  fund,  re-' 
venue,  or  worldly  goods,  was  considered  as' 
too  strict  and  severe,  and  dispensed  with 
soon  after  his  death.  In  1231,  Gregory  IX. 
published  an  interpretation  of  this  rule,  mi-- 
tigating  its  rigour  :  which  was  farther  con-' 
firmed  by  Innocent  IV.  in  1245,  and  by 
Alexander  IV.  in  1247.  These  milder  ope- 
rations were  zealously  opposed  by  a  branch 
of  the  Franciscans,  called  the  spiritual ; 
and  their  complaints  were  regarded  by 
Nicholas  III.  who,  m  1279,  published  a  fa- 
mous constitution,  confirming  the  rule  of 
St,  Francis,  and  containing  an  elaborate  ex- 
plication of  the  maxims  he  recommended, 
and  the  duties  he  prescribed.  In  1287, 
Mitthew,  of  Aqua  Sparta,  being  elected 
general  of  the  order,  discouraged  the  an- 
cient discipline  of  the  Franciscans,  and  in- 
dulged his  monks  in  abandoning  even  the 
appearance  of  poverty ;  and  this  conduct 
inflamed  the  indignatL^n  of  the  spiritual  or 
austere  Franciscans  ;  so  that,  from  the  year 
1290,  seditions  and  schisms  arose  in  sn  or- 
der that  had  been  so  famou-  for  its  pretend- 
ed disinterestedness  and  humility.  Such 
was  the  enthusiastic  frenzy  of  the  Francis- 
cans,  that  they  impiously  maintained  that 
the  founder  of  their  order  was  a  second 
Christ,  in  all  respects  similar  to  the  first, 
and  that  their  institution  and  discipline 
were  the  true  Gospel  of  Jesus.  According- 
ly Albizi,  a  Franciscan  of  Pisa,  published  a 
book  in  1383,  with  the  apjiiause  of  his  or- 
der, entitled  the  Book  of  the  Conformities 
of  St.  Francis  with  Jesus  Christ.  In  the  be- 
ginning of  this  century  the  whole  Francis- 
can order  was  divided  into  two  parties  :  the 
one  embracing  the  sev  ne  discipline  and  ab- 
solute poverty  of  St.  Francis,  and  v.  ere  call- 
ed spirituals  ;.  and  the  other,  who  insisted 
on  mitigating  the  austere  injunctions  of 
their  founder,  were  denominated  brethren 
of  the  community.  These  wore  long,  loose, 
and  good  habits,  with  large  hoods ;  the 
former  were  clad  in  a  strait,  coarse,  and 
short  dress,  pretending  that  this  dress  was 
enjoined  by  St.  Francis,  and  that  no  power 
on  earth  had  a  right  to  alter  it.  Neither 
the  moderation  of  Clement  V.  nor  the  Vi- 
olence of  John  XXil.  could  appease  the  tu- 
mult occasioned  by  these  two  parties :  how- 
ever, their  rage  subsided  from  the  vear 
1329.  In  1368  these  two  parties  were  form- 
ed into  two  large  bodies,  comprehending 
the  whole  Franciscan  order,  viz.  the  con- 
ventual brethren,  and  the  brethren  of  the 
observance,  or  observation,  from  whom 
sprang  the  Capuchins  and  Recollects.  The 
general  opinion  is,  that  the  F"ranciscans 
came  into  England  in  the  year  1224,  and  had 
their  first  house  at  Canterbury,  and  their  se- 
cond at  London  ;  but  there  is  no  certain  ac- 
count of  their  being  here  till  king  Henrv 


FRA 


162 


FRE 


VII.  built  two  or  three  houses  for  them. 
At  the  dissolution  of  the  monasteries,  the 
conventual  Franciscans  had  about  fifty-five 
houses,  which  were  under  seven  custodies  or 
wardenships,  viz.  those  of  London,  Wor- 
cester, Yorli,  Cambridge,  Bristol,  Newcas- 
tle, and  Oxford. 

FRATERNITY,  in  the  Roman  CathoUc 
countries,  signifies  a  society  for  the  improve- 
ment of  devotion.  Of  these  there  are  se- 
veral sorts,  as,  1.  The  fraternity  of  the  Ro- 
sary, founded  by  St  Dominic.  It  is  divided 
into  two  brandies,  called  the  common  rosa- 
ry, and  the  /icr/ietual  rosary  ;  the  funner 
of  whom  are  obliged  to  confess  and  commu- 
nicate every  first  Sunday  in  the  month,  and 
the  latter  to  repeat  the  rosary  continually. 
— 2.  The  fraternity  of  the  Scapulary,  whom 
it  rs  pretended,  according  to  tlie  babbatiiie 
bull  of  pope  John  XXII.  the  Blessed  Virsjin 
has  promised  to  dt-liver  out  of  hell  the  first 
Sunday  after  their  death. — 3.  The.  fraternity 
of  St.  Francis's  girdle  are  cldthed  with  a 
sack  of  grey  colour,  which  thty  tie  witli  a 
cord;  and  in  processions  walk  barefooted, 
carrying  in  their  hands  a  wooilen  cr  ss  — 
4.  That  of  St.  Austin's  leathern  girdle, 
comprehends  a  greai.  numy  devotees.  ltal\', 
Spain,  and  Portugal,  are  the  countries  wht- re 
are  seen  tlie  greatest  number  of  tiiebe  fra- 
ternities, some  of  which  assume  thenainc  of 
arch  frat ernity .  Pope  Clement  VII  iitsti- 
tuted  the  arch-fraternity  of  charity,  which 
distributes  bread  every  Sunda;.'  among  the 
■door,  and  gives  portioub  to  forty  poor  girls 
on  the  feast  of  St.  Jerome,  their  patron. 
The  fraternity  of  death  buries  such  dead  as 
are  abandoned  by  their  relations,  and  causes 
masses  to  be  celebrated  for  them. 

FRATRICELLI,  an  enthusiastic  sect  of 
Franciscans,  which  rose  in  Italy,  and  par- 
ticularly in  the  marquisate  of  Ancona,  about 
the  year  1294.  The  word  is  an  Italian  di- 
minutive, signifying  fraterculi,  or  "  httle 
brothers,"  and  was  here  used  as  a  term  of 
derision,  as  they  were  most  (.>f  them  apos- 
tate monks,  waom  the  Itahans  caW  Jraitili, 
fra'.ricelli.  F>r  ths  reason,  the  term^ram- 
celli,  as  a  nick-name,  was  given  to  many 
other  sects,  as  the  Catharists,  the  VValden- 
ses.  See.  however  different  in  their  opinions 
and  their  conduct  But  this  denomination, 
applied  to  the  austere  part  of  the  Francis- 
cans, was  considered  as  honourable.  See 
Fkanciscans. 

The  founders  of  this  sect  were  P.  Mau- 
rato  and  P.  de  Foosombroni,  who,  having 
obtained  of  pope  Celestin  V.  a  permission 
to  live  in  solitude  after  the  manner  of  her- 
mits, and  to  observe  the  rule  of  St.  Francis 
in  all  its  rigour,  several  idle  vagabond  monks 
joined  thein,  who  living  after  their  own  fan- 
cies, and  making  all  perfection  to  consist  in 
poetry,  were  soon  condennied  by  pope  Boni- 
face, VIII.  and  his  successor,  and  the  inqui- 
sitors ordered  to  proceed  against  them  as 
heretics  :  which  commission  they  ex(  cutetl 
■with  their  usual  barbarity.  Upon  this,  re- 
tiring into  Sicily,  Peter  John  Oliva  de  Serig- 


nan  had  no  sooner  published  his  comment 
on  the  Apocfalypse,  than  they  Jtd  pted  his 
tenets.  They  held  the  Romish  church  to  be 
Babylon,  and  proposed  to  establish  another 
far  more  perfect  one  :  they  maintained  that 
tlie  rule  of  St.  Frai>cis  was  the  evangelical 
rule  observed  by  Jesus  Ciirist  and  his  apos- 
tles. They  foretold  the  reformation  of  the 
church,  and  the  restoration  of  the  true 
Gospel  of  Christ  by  the  genuine  followers 
of  St.  Francis;  and  declared  their  assent  to 
almost  all  the  doctrines  which  were  pul> 
lished  uiid'.T  the  name  of  the  abbnt  Joachiiii, 
in  the  "Introduction  to  the  Everlasting 
Gospel,"  a  book  published  in  1250,  and  ex- 
plained by  one  of  tue  spiritual  friars,  vvhcse 
name  was  Gerhard,  among  other  errors  in- 
culcated in  this  book,  it  is  preti,  lukd  that  St. 
Francis  was  the  an,i;el  mentii  ntd  in  Rev. 
xiv.  6.  and  had  promulgatetl  to  the  world 
the  true  and  everlasting  Gospel  ;  that  the 
Gospel  of  Christ  vvas  to  be  abrogated  in 
1260,  and  to  give  place  to  this  new  and  ever- 
lasting Gospel,  which  was  to  be  substituted 
in  its  loiim  ;  and  that  the  ministers  of  this 
great  reformation  were  to  be  humbled  and 
hare-footed  friars,  destitute  of  all  worldly 
employments  Some  say,  they  even  elected 
a  pope  of  their  church  ;  at  least,  they  ap- 
pointed a  general  with  superiors,  and  built 
monasteries,  &c.  Besides  the  opinions  of 
Oliva,  they  held  that  the  sacraments  of  the 
church  were  invalid,  because  those  who  ad- 
ministered them  had  no  longer  any  power  or 
jurisdiction.  They  were  condemned  again 
by  pope  John  XXII.  in  consequence  of  whose 
cruelty  they  regarded  him  as  the  true  anti- 
christ ;  but  several  of  them,  returning  into 
Germany,  were  sheltered  by  Lewis,  duke  of 
Bavaria,  the  emperor. 

There  are  authentic  records,  from  wliich 
it  appear?,,  that  no  less  than  2000  persons 
were  burnt  by  the  inquisition,  from  the  year 
1318  to  the  time  of  Innocent  VI.  for  their 
inflexible  attachment  to  the  order  of  St. 
Francis.  The  severities  against  them  were 
rfgain  revived,  towards  the  close  of  the 
fifteenth  century,  by  Pope  Nicholas  V.  and 
liis  successors.  However,  all  the  persecu- 
ti(5ns  which  this  sect  endured  were  not  suf- 
ficient to  extinguish  it :  for  it  subsisted  until 
the  times  of  the  reformation  in  Germany, 
when  its  remaining  votaries  adopted  the 
cause  and  embraced  the  doctrine  and  disci- 
pline of  Luther. 

FRAUDS  PIOUS.  See  Pious  Frauds. 
FREE  AGENCY  is  the  power  of  follow- 
ing one's  inclination,  or  whatever  the  soul 
does,  with  the  full  bent  of  preference  and 
desn'e.  Many  and  long  have  been  the  dis- 
putes on  this  subject ;  not  that  man  has  been 
denied  to  be  a  free  agent ;  but  the  dispute 
has  been  in  what  it  consists.  See  articles 
Liberty  and  Will.  A  distinction  is 
made  by  writers  between  free  agency,  and 
what  is  called  the  Arminian  notion  of  free 
will.  The  one  consists  merely  in  the  pow- 
er of  following  our  prevailing  inclination  ; 
t  he  other  in  a  supposed  power  of  acting  con- 


FRE 


163 


FRI 


trary  to  it,  or  at  least  of  changing  it.  The 
one  predicates  freedom  of  the  man  ;  the 
other,  of  a  faculty  in  man  ;  which  Mr. 
L'jcke,  though  an  antinecessarian,  explodes 
as  an  absurdity.  Tne  one  goes  mereiy  to 
render  us  accountable  beings;  the  other  ar- 
rogantly claims  a  part,  yea,  the  very  turn- 
ing point  of  salvation.  According  to  the 
latter,  we  need  only  certain  helps  or  assist- 
ances, granted  to  men  in  common,  to  ena- 
ble us  to  choose  the  path  of  life  ;  but,  ac- 
cording to  the  former,  our  hearts  being 
by  nature  wholly  depraved,  we  need  an  al- 
niighty  and  invincible  power  to  renew  them. 

FREE  THINKER,  an  appellation  given 
to  those  persons  who  deny  revelation  or  the 
Christian  n  Hgion.  Oi.e  of  the  most  admira- 
rable  and  pointed  addresses  to  free  ttiinkers 
any  whei'e  to  be  met  with,  may  be  found 
in '  the  dedication  to  Warhurton's  Divine 
Legation  of  Moses.  See  also  an  admirable 
paper  in  the  Guardian,  No.  70  ;  and  article 
JDk  ists. 

FRENCH  CHURCH.  SccChurch  Gal- 

LICAN. 

FRENCH  PROPHE  rS  They  first  ap- 
peared in  Dauphiny  and  Vivarais.  In  the 
year  1688,  five  or  six  hundred  Protestants 
of  both  sexes  gave  themselves  out  to  be 
prophets,  and  inspired  of  the  Holy  Ghost. 
They  soon  became  so  numerous,  that  there 
were  many  thousands  of  them  inspired. 
They  were  people  of  all  ages  and  sexes 
^vithout  distinction,  though  the  greatest 
part  of  them  were  boys  and  girls  from 
six  or  seven  to  twenty-five  years  of  age 
They  had  strange  fits,  which  came  upon 
theni  with  tremblings  and  faintmgs  as  w  a 
swoon,  which  made  them  stretch  out  their 
arms  and  legs,  and  stagger  several  times 
jsefoi-e  they  dropped  down.  They  struck 
themselves  with  their  hands,  they  fell  on 
their  backs,  shut  their  eyes,  and  heaved 
with  their  breasts.  They  remained  awhile 
in  trances,  and  coming  out  of  them  with 
twitchings,  uttered  all  which  came  in 
their  mouths.  They  said  they  saw  the 
heavens  open,  the  angels,  paradise  anc! 
hell.  Those  who  were  just  on  the  point 
of  receiving  the  spirit  of  prophesy,  dropped 
down,  not  only  in  the  assemblies,  crying  out 
mercy  but  in  the  fields,  and  in  their  own 
houses.  The  least  of  tiieir  assemblies 
made  up  four  or  five  hundred,  and  some 
of  them  amounted  to  even  three  or  four 
thousand  persons.  When  the  prophets  had 
for  a  while  been  under  agitations  of  body, 
thev  began  to  prophesy.  The  burden  of 
their  prophesies  was,  Amend  your  lives  ; 
repent  ye :  the  end  of  all  things  draws 
nigh  I  The  hills  rebounded  with  their 
loud  cries  for  mercy,  and  imprecations 
against  the  priests,  the  church,  the  pope, 
and  against  the  anti-christian  dominion, 
■with  predictions  of  the  approaching  fall 
of  popery.  All  they  said  at  these  times 
was  heard  and  received  with  reverence  and 
awe. 


I  In  tlie  year  1706,  three  or  four  of  these 
prophets  came  over  into  England,  and 
bnjught  their  prophetic  spirit  along  witii 
them,  which  discovered  itself  in  the  same 
ways  and  manners,  by  ecstacies  and  agita- 
tions, and  inspirations  under  them,  as  it 
had  done  in  France  ;  and  they  propagated 
the  hke  spirit  to  others,  so  that  before  the 
year  was  out,  there  were  two  or  three  hun- 
dred of  these  pr'.phets  in  and  about  London, 
of  both  sexes,  of  all  ages  ;  men,  women, 
and  childrtn  :  and  they  had  delivered  under 
inspiration  four  or  five  hundred  prophetic 
warnings. 

The  great  things  they  pretended  by 
their  spirit  was.  to  give  warning  of  the 
near  approach  of  the  kingdom  of  God.  the 
happy  times  of  the  churchy  the  millenium 
state.  Their  message  was,  (and  they  were 
to  proclaim  it  as  heralds  to  the  Jews,  and 
every  nation  under  heaven,  beginning  at 
England)  that  the  grand  jubilee,  the  accept- 
able year  of  the  Lord,  the  accomplishment 
of  those  numerous  scriptures  concerning 
the  new  heaven  and  the  new  earth,  the 
kingdom  of  the  Messiah,  the  marriage  of 
the  Lamb,  the  first  resurrection,  or  the 
new  Jerusalem  descending  from  above, 
were  now  even  at  the  door :  that  this  great 
operation  was  to  be  wrought  on  the  part 
of  the  man  by  spiritual  arms  only,  pro- 
ceeding from  the  mouths  of  those  who 
should  by  inspiration,  or  the  mighty  gift  of 
the  Spirit,  be  sent  forth  in  great  numbers 
to  labour  in  the  vineyard :  that  this  mission 
of  his  servants  should  be  witnessed  to  by 
signs  and  wonders  from  heaven,  by  a  de- 
luge of  judgments  on  the  wicked  univer- 
sally throughout  the  world,  as  famine,  pesti- 
lence, earthquakes,  &c  ;  that  the  extermi- 
nating angels  shall  root  out  the  tares,  and 
there  shall  remain  upon  earth  only  good 
corn  ;  and  the  works  of  men  being  thrown 
down,  there  shall  be  but  one  Lord,  one 
faith,  one  heart,  one  voice  among  man- 
kind. They  declared  that  all  the  great 
things  they  spoke  of  would  be  manifest 
over  the  whole  earth  within  the  term  of 
three  years. 

These  prophets  also  pretended  to  the  gift 
of  languages,  of  discerning  the  secrets  of 
the  heart,  the  gift  of  ministration  of  the 
same  spirit  to  others  by  the  laying  on  of 
the  hands,  and  the  gift  of  healing.  To 
prove  they  were  really  inspired  by  the 
Holy  Ghost,  they  alleged  the  complete  joy 
and  satisfaction  they  experienced,  the  spirit 
of  prayer  which  was  poured  forth  upon 
them,  and  the  answer  of  their  prayer  by 
God. 

FRL\R  (brother,)  a  term  common  to  the 
monks  of  all  orders  In  a  more  pecuhar 
sense,  it  is  restrained  to  such  monks  as 
are  not  priests  ;  for  those  in  order  are 
usually  dignified  with  the  appellation  of 
father. 

FRIENDSHIP,  a  mutual  attachment 
subsisting  between  two  persons,  and  arising 
not  merely  from  the  general  principle  ra 


FUN 


164. 


FUN 


benevolence,  from  emotions  of  gratitude  for 
favours  received,  from  views  of  interest, 
nor  from  instinctive  affection  or  animal 
passion  ;  but  from  an  opinion  entertained 
by  each  of  them  that  the  other  is  adorned 
•with  some  amiable  or  respectable  qualities. 
Various  have  been  the  opinions  repecting 
friendship.  Some  have  asserted  that  there 
is  no  such  thing  in  the  world;  others  have 
excluded  it  from  the  list  of  Christian  vir- 
tues ;  while  others,  believing  the  possibility 
of  its  existence,  suppose  that  it  is  very  rare. 
To  the  two  former  remarks  we  may  reply, 
that  there  is  every  reason  to  believe,  that 
there  has  been,  aiid  is  such  a  thing  as 
fi'iendship.  The  scriptures  present  us  both 
■with  examples  of,  and  precepts  concerning 
it.  David  and  Jonathan,  Paul  and  Timothv, 
our  Lord  and  Lazarus,  as  well  as  John,  are 
striking  instances  of  friendship.  Solomon 
exhorts  us  in  language  so  energetic,  as  at 
once  shews  it  to  be  our  duty  to  cultivate 
it.  "  Thine  own  friend  and  thy  father's 
friend  forsake  not."  "  Make  sure  of  thy 
friend,  for  faithful  are  the  wounds  of  a 
friend,"  &c.  The  genius  and  injunctions  of 
the  Christian  religion  seem  also  to  inculcate 
this  virtue  ;  for  it  not  only  commands  uin- 
versal  benevolence  to  men,  but  promotes  tiie 
strongest  love  and  friendsliip  between  these 
wh'.;se  minds  are  enlightened  by  Divine 
gi;ace,  and  who  behold  in  each  other  the 
image  of  their  Divine  Master.  As  friend- 
ship, however,  is  not  enjoyed  by  every  one, 
and  as  the  want  of  it  arises  often  from  our- 
selves, we  shall  here  stibjoin,  from  an  emi- 
nent writer,  a  few  remarks  by  way  of  ad- 
vice respecting  it.  1.  We  must  not  expect 
perfection  in  any  with  whom  we  contract 
fellowship — 2.  V\'e  must  not  be  hurt  by 
difiereiices  of  opinion  arising  in  intercourse 
with  our  friends — 3.  It  is  material  to  the 
preservation  of  friendship,  that  openness  vi 
temper  and  obliging  manners  on  both  hands 
be  cultivated. — 4.  We  must  not  listen  rash- 
ly to  evil  reports  against  our  friends. — 5. 
We  must  n't  desert  our  friends  in  clanger 
or  distress,  Ulair's  Serinovs,  ser.  \7.  vol. 
iv. ;  lip  Porteus\-  Scrmcns.  vfl.  i.  ser  15.: 
W  Melmof^s  Translation  of  Cicero's  Lxli- 
us,  in  a  J\'ote. 

FRIENDS,  Society  of.    See  Quakers 
FRUGALITY,  is  the  keeping  due  bounds 
in  expences  ;  it  is  the  happy  mean  between  \ 
parsimony  on  the  one  hand,  and  pr  digality 
on    the   other.     The    example    of   Christ. : 
John  vi   12.  the  injunctions  of  God's  word,] 
Luke  XV.  1.     Prov.  xviii  9.   the  evil  cff-Gtsj 
of   inattention    to  it,   Luke   xi.   1.    13.    the 
peace    and    comfoi't   which  arise  fr  ~m   it,  i 
together  with  the  good  which  it  enables  us  I 
to  do  to  others,   should   operate   as   motives ' 
to  excite  us  to  the  practice  of  it.      JVood\<i  | 
Str.  on  Frug.dity,  1793 ;  Robinson\'i  Mar. 
Ex,  ex  3. ;    Rtdgley's   Body  of  Divinity,  | 
546.  3d  edition.  | 

FUNERAL  HITES,  ceremonies  accom- 
panying the  interment  or  burial  of  any  per- 
son. 


The  first  people  who  seemed  to  have 
paid  any  atteiition  to  their  dead  were  the 
Egyptians.  They  took  great  care  m  em- 
balming their  bodies,  and  building  proper 
repositories  for  them.  This  gave  birth  to 
those  wonders  of  the  world  the  Egyptian 
pyramids.  On  the  death  of  any  person 
among  them,  the  parents  aijd  friends  put 
on  mournful  habits,  and  abstained  from  all 
banquets  and  entertainments.  This  moum» 
ing  lasted  from  forty  to  seventy  days,  du- 
ring which  time  they  embalmed  the  body. 
Before  the  dead  were  allowed  to  be  deposit- 
ed in  the  tomb,  they  underwent  a  solemn 
judgment.  If  any  one  stepped  forth,  accu- 
sed them,  and  proved  that  the  deceased  had 
led  an  evil  life,  the  judges  pronounced 
sentence,  and  the  body  was  precluded  from 
burial.  Even  their  sovereigns  underwent 
this  judicature  ;  and  Diodorus  Siculus  as- 
serts, that  many  kings  had  been  deprived 
of  the  honours  of  burial,  and  that  the  ter- 
rors of  such  a  fate  had  a  salutary  influence 
on  the  virtue  of  their  kings. 

The  funeral  rites  among  the  Hebrews 
were  solemn  and  magnificent  The  rela- 
tions and  friends  rent  their  clothes  ;  and  it 
was  usual  to  bend  the  dead  person's  thumb 
into  the  hand,  and  fasten  it  in  that  posture 
with  a  string,  because  the  thumb  then 
having  the  figure  of  the  name  of  God,  they 
thought  the  devil  would  not  approach  it 
They  made  a  funeral  oration  at  tlie  grave, 
after  which  they  prayed  ;  then,  turning  the 
face  of  the  deceased  towards  heaven,  they 
said,  "  Go  in  peace  " 

The  Greeks  used  to  put  a  piece  of  money 
in  the  mouth  of  the  deceased,  which  was 
thought  to  be  the  fare  over  the  infernal 
river :  thcv  abstained  from  banquets  ;  tore, 
cut,  or  shaved  their  hair  ;  sometimes 
throwing  themselves  en  the  ground,  and 
rolling  in  the  dust;  beating  their  breasts, 
and  even  tearing  their  fiesh  with  their 
nails 

The  funeral  rites  among  the  Romans 
were  very  numerous  — They  kept  the  de- 
ceased seven  days,  and  washed  him  every 
day  with  hot  water,  and  sometimes  with 
oil,  if  possibly  he  might  be  revived,  in  case 
he  were  only  in  a  slumber  ;  and  every  now 
and  then  his  friends,  meeting,  made  a  hor- 
rible shout  with  the  same  view  ;  but  if  they 
found  he  did  not  revive,  he  was  dressed 
and  embalmed  with  a  performance  of  a 
variety  of  singular  ceremonies,  and  at  last 
brought  to  the  funeral  pile,  and  burnt: 
after  which  his  ashes  were  gathered,  inclo- 
sed in  an  urn,  and  deposited  in  the  sepulchre 
or  tomb. 

The  ancient  Christians  testified  their 
abhori-ence  of  the  pagan  custom  of  Ininiing 
their  dead,  and  always  deposited  the  body 
entire  in  the  ground  ;  and  it  was  usual  to 
bestow  the  honour  of  embalnnng  \ipon  the 
martvrs,  at  least,  if  not  upon  others.  They 
prepared  the  body  for  burial  by  washing  it 
with  water,  and  dressing  it  in  a  funeral' 
attire.    This  was  performed  by  near  rela* 


FUT 


165 


FUT 


tions,  or  persons  of  such  dignity  as  the  cir- 
cumstances of  the  deceased  required.  Psal- 
mody, or  singing  ot  psalms,  was  the  great 
ceremony  usee)  in  all  funeral  processions 
among  tlie  ancient  Christians. 

In  the  Romish  church,  when  a  person  is 
dead,  they  wash  the  body,  and  put  a  cinici- 
fix  in  his  hand.  At  the  teet  stands  a  vessel 
of  holy  water,  and  a  sprinkler,  that  they 
who  come  in  may  sprinkle  both  themselves 
and  the  deceased.  In  the  mean  time  some 
prii^'Sts  stands  by  the  corpse,  and  prays  for 
the  deceased  till  it  is  laid  in  the  earth. 
In  the  funeral  procession  the  exorcist  walks 
first,  carrying  the  holy  water;  next  the 
cross  bearer ;  afterwards  the  rest  of  the 
clergy ;  and,  last  of  all,  the  officiating 
priest.  They  all  sing  the  miserere,  and 
some  other  psalms ;  and  at  the  end  of  each 
psalm  a  requiem.  It  is  said,  that  the  faces 
of  deceased  laymen  must  be  turned  towards 
the  altar  when  they  are  placed  in  the 
church,  and  those  of  the  clergy  towards 
the  people.  The  corpse  is  placed  in  the 
church,  surrounded  with  lighted  tapers. 
After  the  office  for  the  dead,  mass  is 
said ;  then  ttie  officiating  priest  sprinkles 
the  corpse  thrice  with  holy  water,  and 
as  often  throws  incense  on  it.  The  body 
being  laid  in  the  grave,  the  friends  and 
the  relations  of  the  deceased  sprinkle  the 
grave  with  holy  water. 

The  funeral  ceremonies  of  the  Greek 
church  are  much  the  same  with  those  of 
the  Latin.  It  needs  only  to  be  observed, 
that,  after  the  funeral  service,  they  kiss  the 
crucifix,  and  salute  the  mouth  and  forehead 
of  the  deceased  ;  after  which,  each  of 
the  company  eats  a  bit  of  bread,  and 
drinks  a  glass  of  wine  in  the  church, 
wishing  the  soul  a  good  repose,  and  the 
afflicted  family  all  consolation.  Bring/iavi's 
Antiq.  b.  2. ;  Enc-  Brit.;  Buxtorf^s  hynag. 
p.  .502. 

FUTURE  STATE,  a  term  made  use  of 
in  relation  to  the  existence  of  the  soul  after 
death.  That  there  is  such  a  state  of  exis- 
tence, we  have  every  reason  to  believe  ; 
"  for  if  we  suppose,"  says  a  good  writer, 
"  the  events  of  this  life  to  have  no  re- 
ference to  another,  the  whole  state  of  man 
becomes  not  only  inexplicable,  but  contra- 
dictory and  inconsistent.  The  powers  of 
the  inferior  animals  are  perfectly  suited  to 
their  station.  They  know  nothing  higher 
than  their  present  condition.  In  gratifying 
their  appetites,  they  fulfil  their  destiny, 
and  pass  away. — Man,  alone,  comes  forth 
to  act  a  part  which  carries  no  meaning, 
and  tends  to  no  end.  Endowed  with  capa- 
cities which  extend  far  beyond  his  present 
sphere,  fitted  by  his  rational  nature  for 
running  the  race  of  immortality,  he  is  stop- 
ped short  in  the  very  entrance  of  his 
course.  He  squanders  his  activity  on  pur- 
suits which  he  discerns  to  be  vain.  He 
languishes  for  knowledge  which  is  placed 
beyond  his  reach.  He  thirsts  after  a  hap- 
piness which  he  is  doomed  never  to  enjoy. 


He  sees  and  laments  the  disasters  of  his 
Slate,  and  yet,  upon  this  supposition,  can 
find  nothing  to  remedy  them.  Has  the  eter- 
nal God  any  pleasure  in  sporting  himself 
with  such  a  scene  of  misery  and  folly  as 
this  life  (if  it  had  no  connection  with  anothei') 
must  exhibit  to  his  eye  ?  Did  he  call  into, 
existence  this  magnificent  universe,  adcSrn 
it  with  so  much  btauty  and  splem  our.  and 
surround  it  with  those  glorious  juminaries 
which  we  behold  in  the  heavens,  only  ti^at 
some  generations  of  mortal  men  might 
arise  to  behold  these  wonders,  and  then 
disappear  for  ever  ?  How  unsuitable  in  this 
case  were  the  habitation  to  the  wretched 
inhabitant !  How  inconsistent  the  commence- 
ment of  his  being,  and  the  mighty  prepara- 
tion of  his  powers  and  faculties,  with  his 
despicable  end !  How  contradictory,  in  fine, 
were  every  thing  which  concerns  the  state 
of  man,  to  the  wisdom  and  perfection  of  his 
Maker  !" 

But  that  there  is  such  a  state  is  clear 
from  many  passages  of  the  New  Testament, 
John  v.  24.  Acts  vii.  9.  Rom.  viii.  10,  11. 
2  Cor.  V.  1,  2.  Phil,  i.  21.  1  Thess.  iv.  14. 
I  Thess.  V.  10.  Luke  xvi.  22,  Sec  But, 
though  these  texts  prove  the  point,  yet 
son  e  have  doubted  whether  there  be  any 
where  in  the  Old  Testament  any  reference 
to  a  future  state  at  all.  The  case,  it  is 
said,  appears  to  be  this  :  the  Mosaic  cove- 
nant contained  no  promises  directly  relating 
to  a  future  state  :  probably,  as  Dr.  Warbur- 
ton  asserts,  and  argues  at  large,  because 
Moses  was  secure  of  an  equal  Providence^ 
and  therefore  needed  not  subsidiary  sanc- 
tions taken  from  a  future  state,  without  the 
belief  of  which  the  doctrine  of  an  universal 
providence  cannot  ordinarily  be  vindicated, 
nor  the  general  sanctions  of  religion  secu- 
red But,  in  opposition  to  this  sentiment, 
as  Doddridge  observes,  "  it  is  evident  that 
good  men,  even  before  Moses,  were  anima- 
ted by  views  of  a  future  state,  Heb.  xi.  13. 
16.  as  he  himself  plainly  was,  24 — 26  verse; 
and  that  the  promises  of  the  heavenly 
felicity  were  contained  even  in  the  covenant 
made  with  Abraham,  which  the  Mosaic 
could  not  disannul.  Succeeding  providences 
also  confirmed  the  natural  arguments  in  its 
favour,  as  every  remarkable  interposition 
would  do  ;  and  when  general  promises  were 
made  to  the  oljedient,  and  an  equal  provi- 
dence relating  to  the  nation  established  on 
national  conformity  to  the  Mosaic  institution, 
and  not  merely  to  the  general  precepts  of 
virtue ;  as  such  an  equal  providence  would 
necessarily  involve  many  of  the  best  men 
in  national  ruin,  at  a  time  when,  by  pre- 
serving their  integrity  in  the  midst  of  gene- 
ral apostacy,  their  virtue  was  most  conspi- 
cuous ;  such  good  men,  in  such  a  state, 
would  have  vast  additional  reasons  for  ex- 
pecting future  rewards,  beyond  what  could 
arise  from  principles  common  to  the  rest  of 
mankind ;  so  that  we  cannot  wonder  that 
we  find  in  the  writings  of  the  prophets  many 
strong  expressions  of  such  aa  expectation. 


GEN 


166 


GEN 


particularly  Gen.  xlix.  18.  Ps.  xvi.  9. — 11. 
Ps.  xvii.  16.  Ps.  Ixxiii.  17,  27.  Eccl.  iii.  15, 
16,  &c.  Eccl.  vji.  12,  15.  Is.  iii.  10,  11.  Ezek. 
xviii.  19,  21.  Job  xix.  23.  37.  Dan.  xii.  2. 
Is.  XXXV.  8.  Is.  xxvi.  19.  The  same  thing 
may  also  be  inferred  from  the  particular 
.promises  made  to  Daniel,  Dan.  xii.  13.  to 
Zerrubbable,  Hag.  ii.  23.  and  to  Joshua  the 
high  priest,  Zech.  iii,  7.  as  well  as  from 
those  historical  facts  recorded  in  the  Old 
Testanaent  of  the  murder  of  Abel,  the 
translation  of  Enoch  and  Elijah,  the  death 
of  Moses,  and  the  story  of  the  witch  of 
Endor,  and  from  what  is  said  of  the  appear- 


ance of  angels  to,  and  their  converse  with 
go,d  men."  See  articles  Intermediate 
State,  Resurrection,  and  Soul  ;  also 
Doddridge's  Lectures,  lee.  t^]6;  Warbur- 
ton's  Divine  Legation  of  Moses,  vol  ii.  p. 
553 — 568  ;  Dr.  jiddingtori' s  Dissertations 
on  the  Religious  Knowledge  of  the  ancient 
Jews  and  Patriarchs  ;  co?itaining  a?i  inquiry 
into  the  evidences  of  their  belief  and  expec- 
taiion  of  a  future  state  ;  Blair's  Sermons, 
ser,  15.  vol.  i.  Robinson's  Llaude,  vol.  i.  p. 
132.  TV.  Jane's  Works,  vol.  vi.  ser.  12.  Lo- 
gan's Sermons,  vol.  ii.  p.  413. 


G, 


GAIANITjS,  a  denomination  which  de- 
rived its  name  from  Gaian,  a  bishop  of 
Alexandria,  in  the  sixth  century,  who  deni- 
ed that  Jesus  Christ,  after  the  hypostatical 
union,  was  subject  to  any  of  the  infirmities 
of  human  nature. 

GALILEANS,  a  sect  of  the  Jews  which 
arose  in  Judea  some  years  after  the  birth  of 
our  Saviour.  They  sprang  from  one  Judas, 
a  native  of  Gaulam,  in  Upper  Galilee,  upon 
the  occasion  of  Augustus  appointing  the  peo- 
ple to  be  mustered,  which  they  looked 
upon  as  an  instance  of  servitude  which  all 
true  Israelites  ought  to  oppose.  They  pre- 
tended that  God  alone  should  be  owned  as 
master  and  lord,  and  in  other  respects  were 
of  the  opinion  of  the  Pharisees  ;  but  as  they 
judged  it  unlawful  to  pray  for  infidel  princes, 
they  separated  themselves  from  the  rest  of 
the  Jews,  and  performed  their  sacrifices 
apart.  As  our  Saviour  and  his  apostles 
were  of  Galilee,  they  were  suspected  to  be 
of  the  sect  of  the  Galileans  ;  and  it  was  on 
this  principle,  as  St.  Jenme  observes,  that 
the  Pharisees  laid  a  snare  for  him,  asking, 
Whether  it  were  lawful  to  give  tribute  to 
Cxsar?  that  in  case  he  denied  it,  they 
might  have  an  occasion  of  accusing  him. 

GAZARES,  a  denomination  which  appear- 
ed about  1197  at  Gazare,  a  town  of  Dalma- 
tia.  They  held  almost  the  same  opinions 
with  the  Albigenses ;  but  their  distinguish- 
ing tenet  was,  that  no  human  power  had  a 
right  to  sentence  men  to  death  for  any 
crime  whatever 

GEMARA.    See  Talmud. 

GENERAL  C.'\LL     See  Calling. 

GENERATION  ETERNAL,  is  a  term 
used  as  descriptive  of  the  Father's  commu- 
nicating the  Divinp  Nature  to  the  Son.  The 
Father  is  said  by  some  divines  to  have  pro- 
duced the  Word,  or  Son,  from  all  eternity, 
by  way  of  generation  ;  on  which  occasion 
the  word  generation  raises  a  peculiar  idea : 
that  procession,  which  is  really  aflected  in 
the  way  of  understanding,  is  called  genera- 


tion, because  in  virtue  thereof,  the  Word 
becomes  like  to  him  from  whom  he  takes 
the  original ;  or,  as  St  Paul  expresses  it, 
the  figure  or  image  of  his  substance ;  i.  e. 
of  his  being  and  nature. — And  hence  it  is, 
they  say  that  the  second  person  is  called  the 
Son ;  and  that  in  such  a  way  and  manner 
as  never  any  other  was,  is,  or  can  be,  be- 
cause of  his  own  Divine  nature,  he  being 
the  time,  proper,  and  natural  Son  of  God, 
begotten  by  him  before  all  worlds.  Thus, 
he  is  called  his  own  So7i,  Rom.  viii.  3.  his 
only  begotten  Son,  John  iii.  16.  Many  have 
attempted  to  explain  the  manner  of  his  ge- 
neration by  diiferent  similitudes  ;  l)ut  as  they 
throw  little  or  no  light  upon  the  subject,  we 
shall  not  trouble  the  reader  with  them. 
Some,  however,  supprse  that  the  term  Son 
of  God  refers  to  CInist  as  Mediator ;  and 
that  his  sonship  does  not  lie  in  his  divine  or 
human  nature,  separately  considered,  but  in 
the  union  of  both  in  one  person.  See  Luke 
i.  "5.  Matt.  iv.  3.  John  i.  49.  Matt.  xvi.  16. 
Acts  ix  20.  22.  Rom.  i.  4.  Jt  is  observed, 
that  it  is  impossible  that  a  nature  properly 
divine  should  be  begotten,  since  begetting, 
whatever  idea  is  annexed  to  it,  must  sig- 
nify some  kind  of  productioji,  derivation, 
and  inferiority  ;  consequently,  that  what 
ever  is  produced  must  have  a  beginning, 
and  whatever  had  a  beginning  was  not  from 
eternity,  as  Christ  is  said  to  be.  Is.  ix.  6. 
Col.  i.  16,  17.  That  the  soaship  of  Christ 
respects  him  as  Mediator  will  be  evident, 
if  we  compare  John  x.  30,  with  John  xiv. 
28.  In  the  former  it  is  said,  "  1  and  my 
Father  are  one."  In  the  hitter,  *'  My  Fa- 
ther is  greater  than  I."  These  declara- 
tions, however  opposite  they  may  seem, 
equally  respect  him,  as  he  is  the  Son  ;  but 
if  his  sonship  primarily  and  properly  signi- 
fy the  generation  of  his  divine  nature, 
it  will  be  difficult,  if  not  impossible,  accord- 
ing to  that  scheme,  to  make  them  harmo- 
nize. Considered  as  a  distinct  person  in  the 
Godhead,  without  respect  to  his  office  a? 


GEN 


167 


GEN 


Mediator,  k  is  impossible,  that,  in  the  same 
view,  he  should  be  both  equal  and  inftrior 
to  his  Father.  Again,  he  expressly  tells 
us  himself,  that  "  tiie  Son  can  do  nothing 
of  himself ;  tliat  the  Father  sheweth  him 
all  things  that  he  doeth  ,  and  that  he  giveth 
him  to  "have  life  in  himself/'  John  v.  19,  20. 
26.  Which  expressions  if  applied  to  him 
Hb  God,  not  as  Mediator,  will  reduce  us  to 
the  disagreeable  necessity  of  subscribing 
either  to  the  creed  of  Arius,  and  maintain 
him  to  be  God  of  mn  inferior  nature,  and 
thus  a  plurality  of  Gods,  or  to  embrace  the 
doctrine  of  Socinus,  who  allows  liiui  only  to 
be  a  God  by  office.  Bui  if  this  title  belong 
to  him  as  Mediator,  every  difficulty  is  re- 
moved- And  lastly,  it  is  observed,  that 
though  Jesus  be  God,  and  the  attributes  of 
eternal  existence  ascribed  to  him,  yet 
the  two  attributes,  ettrnal  and  aOJi,  are  not 
once  expressed  in  tiie  same  text  as  refer- 
ring to  eternal  s.'jeneration.  See  article 
Son  of  God  ;  Owe?i  on  the  Pcrso7i  of 
Cnrisc  ;  Pearson  on  the  Creed  ;  Kidgleifs 
Body  of  DiuifiUu  ;  p.  7i.  76.  3d  edition ; 
GilC's  ditto,  \).  205.  vol.  i  Svo  edition.  I^ani- 
ben's  Sermonsy  ser.  13.  text  John  xi.  35  ; 
Modson's  Essay  on  the  Eternal  Filiation  of 
the  Son  of  God ;  Watts'  Works,  vol.  5. 
p.  77. 

GENEROSITY,  the  disposition  which 
prompts  us  to  bestow  favours  which  are 
not  the  purchase  of  any  particular  merit. 
It  is  different  from  humanity.  Humanity  is 
an  exquisite  feeling  we  possess  in  relation 
to  others,  so  as  to  grieve  for  their  sufferings, 
resent  their  injuries,  or  to  rejoice  at  their 
prosperity ;  and  as  it  arises  from  sympathy, 
it  requires  no  great  self-denial,  or  self-com- 
mand ;  but  ((tnerosity  is  that  by  which  we 
are  led  to  prefer  some  other  person  to  our- 
selves, and  to  sacrifice  any  interest  of  our 
own  to  the  interest  of  another. 

GENIUS,  a  good  or  evil  spirit  or  dxmon, 
whom  the  ancients  supposed  were  set  over 
each  person  to  direct  his  birth,  accompa- 
tiying  him  in  his  life,  and  to  be  his  guard. 

Genius  signifies  that  aptitude  which  a 
man  naturally  possesses  to  perform  well  and 
easily  that  which  others  can  do  but  indiffe- 
rently, and  with  a  great  deal  of  pain. 

GENTILE,  in  matters  of  religion,  a  Pa- 
gan, or  worshipper  of  false  gods.  The  ori- 
gin of  this  woi'd  is  deduced  from  the  Jews, 
who  called  all  those  who  were  not  of  their 
nameau'''>^(>;z«,  i.  e.  gentes  \i\nch.  in  the 
Greek  translations  of  the  Old  Testament 
IS  rendei'ed  rec  eSvx,  in  which  sense  it  fre- 
quently occurs  in  the  New  Testament  ;  as 
in  Matt,  vi  32.  *'  All  these  things  the  na- 
tions or  Gentiles  seek."  Whence  the  Latin 
churcli  also  used  gentes,  in  the  same  senst 
as  our  Gentiles,  especially  in  the  New  Tes 
lament.  But  the  word  gentes  soon  got  an- 
other signification,  and  no  longer  meant  al' 
such  as  were  not  Jews,  but  those  only  wh' 
were  neither  Jews  nor  Christians,  but  fol- 
lowed thf>  superstitions  of  the  Greeks  and 
Romans,  &c.    In   this  sense  it   continued 


among  the  Christian  writers,  till  their  man- 
ner of  speech,   together  wich  their  religion, 
was  publicly,  and  by  authority,  ri  ceived  i» 
the  empire,   when   Gentiles,    from   gentes, 
came  into  use  ;  and  then    both    woids    had 
two  significations ;  viz   in  treatises  or  laws 
concerning  religion,   they  signified  Pagans, 
neither  Jews  nor  Christians ;    and   in  civil 
affairs  they  are  used   for    all   such  as  were 
not  Romans.    See  Heathen     Paganism. 
(iEN  TLENESS,  softness  or  miiduess  of 
disposition   and  behaviour.      Littie  as  this 
disposition  is  thought  of  by  many,  we  find 
it  C(jnsidered  in  Scripture  as  a  characteristic 
of  the  true  Christian.    "  The  wisdom  that  is 
from  above,"  saithSt.  James,  "  is  gentle,"  ch. 
lii.  17.  "  This  gentleness,  indeed,  is  to  be  dis- 
tinguished from  passive  tameness  of  spirit, 
and  from  unlimited  compliance  with  the  man- 
ners   of   others.      That    passive   sameness, 
wliich  submits  Avithout  a  struggle   to  every 
encroachment  of  the  violent  and  assun.ing, 
forms  no  part  of  Christian  duty  ;  but,   on 
the  contrary,  is  destructive  of  general  hap- 
piness and  order.     That  unlimited  complai- 
sance,  wuich,    on   every  occasion,    falls   in 
with  the  opi;  lions  and  manners  of  others,  is 
so  far  from  being  a  \  irtue,  that  it  is  itself  a 
vice,    and    the    parent   of    many  vices.     Ic 
overthrows  all  steadiness  of  principle,   and 
produces   that   sinful   co!;formity   with   the 
world  which  taints  the  wnole  character.    In 
the  present  corrupted  state  of  human  man- 
ners, always  to  assent  and  to  comply,  is  the 
very  worst  maxim  we  can  adopt.  True  gen- 
tleness, therefore,  is  to  be   carefully  distin- 
guished from  the   mean  spirit  of  cowards 
and    the   fawning   assent  of  sycophants.     It 
renounces  no  just  right  from  fear;  it   gives 
up  no  important   truth  from  flattery ;  it  is, 
indeed,  not  only  consistent  with  a  firm  mind, 
but  it  necessarily  requires  a  manly  spirit 
and  a  fixed  principle,  hi   order  to  give  it 
any  real  value.     It  stands  opposed  to  harsh- 
ness and  severity,   to  pride  and    arrogance, 
to   violence    and  oppression  ;  it  is  pnperly 
that  part  of  charity  which  makes  us  umvil- 
iing   to    give    pain   to   any  of  our  brethren. 
Compassion   prompts   us    to    relieve    their 
wants ;  forbearance  prevents  us  from  retal- 
iating their  injuries  ;  meekness  restrains  our 
angry  passions ;   candour  our  severe  judg- 
ments ;  but  gentleness  corrects  whatever  is 
offensive  in  our  manner,   and  by  a   constarrt 
train  of  humane  attentions,  studies  to   alle- 
viate the  burden  of  common  miserv. 

GENUFLECTION,  the  act  of  bowing 
or  bending  the  knee,  or  rather  of  kneeling 
down.  The  Jesuit  Rosweyd,  in  his  Onomas- 
ticon,  shews,  that  genuflection,  or  kneeling, 
has  been  a  very  ancient  custom  in  the 
church,  and  even  under  the  Old  Testament 
lispensation ;  and  that  this  practice  was 
ibserved  throughout  all  the  year,  excepting 
on  Sundays,  and  duiing  the  time  frrm  Eas- 
cer  to  Whitsuntide,  when  kneeling  was  for- 
bidden by  the  council  of  Nice.  Others 
have  shewn,  that  the  custom  of  not  kneel- 
ing on  Sundays  had  obtained  from  the  time 


GLO 


168 


GNO 


of  the  apostles,  as  appears  from  St.  Irenxus 
and  Tertullian;  and  the  Ethiopic  church, 
scrupulously  attached  to  the  ancient  cere- 
monies, still  retains  that  of  not  kneeling  at 
divine  service.  The  Russians  esteem  it  an 
indecent  posture  to  vi^orship  God  on  the 
knees.  The  Jews  usually  prayed  standing. 
Baronius  is  of  opinion  that  genuflection  was 
not  established  in  the  year  of  Christ  58, 
from  that  passage  in  Acts  xx-  36,  where  St. 
Paul  is  expressly  mentioned  to  kneel  dnvn 
at  prayer  ;  but  Saurin  shews  that  nothing 
can  be  thence  concluded.  Ihe  same  author 
remarks,  also,  diat  the  primitive  Christians 
carried  the  practice  ot  genuflection  so  far, 
that  some  of  them  had  worn  cavities  in  the 
i3oor  where  they  prayed :  and  St.  Jerome  re- 
lates of  St.  James,  that  he  had  contracted 
a  hardness  on  his  knees  equal  to  that  of 

GHOST  HOLY.  See  Holy  Ghost. 

GIFT  OF  TONGUES,  an  ability  given 
to  the  apostles  of  readily  and  intelligibly 
speaking  a  variety  of  languages  which  they 
had  never  learnt.  This  was  a  most  glorious 
arid  important  attestation  of  the  Gospel,  as 
well  as  a  suitable,  and,  indeed,  in  their  cir- 
cumstances, a  necessary  furniture  for  t!ie 
mission  for  which  the  ajjostles  and  their  as- 
sistants were  designed  Nor  is  their  any 
reason,  with  Dr.  Middleton  to  understand  it 
as  merely  an  occasional  gift,  so  that  a  per- 
son might  speak  a  language  most  fluently 
one  hour,  and  be  entirely  ignorant  of  it  in 
the  next;  which  neither  agrees  with  what 
is  said  of  the  abuse  of  it,  nor  would  have 
been  suflRcient  to  answer  the  end  proposed 
See  Acts  ii.  See  Gill  and  Henry  in  Loc. 
Jor tin's  Remarks,  vol.  i.  p  15 — 21 ;  JEssay 
on  the  Gift  of  Tongues ;  Afidd/eton's  Mis- 
eel-  Works,  vol.  ii.  p.  379 ;  Doddridge's 
I  pct    Ipc    141 

GILBERTINES,  a  religious  order;  thus 
called  from  St.  Gilbert,  of  Sempringham,  in 
the  county  of  liincoln,  who  founded  the 
same  about  the  year  114-8;  the  monks  of 
which  observed  the  rule  of  St.  Augustine, 
and  were  accounted  canons,  and  the  nuns 
that  of  St.  Benedict.  The  founder  of  this  or- 
der erected  a  double  monastery,  or  rather  two 
different  ones,  contiguous  to  each  other ;  the 
one  for  men,  the  other  for  women,  but  part- 
ed by  a  very  high  wall.  St.  Gilbert  himself 
founded  thirteen  monasteries  of  this  order  ; 
viz.  four  for  men  alone,  and  nine  for  men 
and  women  together,  which  had  in  them  700 
brethren,  and  1500  sisters.  At  the  dissolu- 
tion, there  were  about  twenty-five  houses  of 
this  order  in  England  andWales. 

GLASSITES.    See  Sandkmanij\.ns. 

GLORY,  praise,  or  honour,  attributed  to 
God,  in  adoration  or  worship.  The  state  of 
felicity  prepared  for  the  righteous.  See 
Heaven. 

The  glory  of  God  is  the  manifestation  of 
the  Divine  perfections  in  creation,  provi- 
dence, and  grace.  We  may  be  said  to  give 
glory  to  God  when  we  confess  our  sins, 
when  we  love  him  supremely,  when  we 


commit  ourselves  to  him,  are  zealous  in  his 
service,  improve  our  taknts,  walk  humbly, 
thankfully,  and  cheerfully  before  him,  and 
recommend,  proclaim,  or  set  forth  his  ex- 
cellencies, to  others.  Josh.  vii.  19.  Gal.  ii. 
20.  John  XV.  8.  Psa  1.  23.  Matt.  v.  16. 

GNOSIMACHl,  a  name  which  distin- 
guished those  in  the  seventh  century  who 
were  professed  enemies  to  the  (inosis ;  i.  e. 
the  studied  knowledge  or  science  of  Chris- 
tianity, which  they  rested  wholly  on  good 
works;  calling  it  a  useless  labour  to  seek 
for  knowledge  in  the  Scripture.  In  short, 
they  contended  for  the  practice  of  morality 
in  all  simplicity,  and  blamed  those  who 
aimed  at  improving  and  perfecting  it  by  a 
deeper  knowledge  and  insight  into  the  doc- 
trines and  mysteries  of  religion.  The  Gno- 
simachi  were  the  very  reverse  of  the  Gnos- 
tics. 

GNOSTICS  (from  TvuTiy)o<i,  knowing), 
ancient  heretics,  famous  from  the  iirst  rise 
of  Christianity,  principally  in  the  east.  It 
appears  from  several  passages  of  Scripture 
particularly  1  John  ii.  18;  1  Timothy  vi.  20; 
Col.  ii.  8;  that  many  persons  were  infected, 
with  the  Gnostic  heresy  in  the  first  century? 
though  the  sect  did  not  render  itself  coit- 
spicuous,  either  for  numbers  or  reputation, 
before  the  time  of  Adrian,  when  some  wri- 
ters erroneously  date  its  rise.  The  name 
was  adopted  by  this  sect,  on  the  presump- 
tion that  they  were  the  only  persons  who 
had  the  true  knonvledge  of  Christianity. 
Accordingly,  they  looked  on  all  other  Chris- 
tians as  simple,  ignorant,  and  b^barous  per- 
sons, who  explained  and  interpreted  the  sa- 
cred writings  in  a  low,  literal,  and  unedify- 
ing  signification.  At  first,  the  Gnostics  were 
the  only  philosophers  and  wits  of  those 
times,  who  formed  for  themselves  a  pecu- 
liar system  of  theologj^  agreeable  to  the 
philosopiiy  of  Pythagoras  and  Plato ;  to 
which  they  accommodated  all  their  inter- 
pretations of  Scripture.  But  Gnostics  after- 
wards became  a  generical  name,  compre- 
hending divers  sects  and  parties  of  heretics, 
who  rose  in  the  first  centuries ;  and  who, 
though  they  differed  among  themselves  as 
to  circumstances,  yet  all  agreed  in  some 
common  principles.  They  corrupted  the 
doctrine  of  the  Gospel  by  a  profane  mix- 
ture of  the  tenets  of  the  oriental  philosophy, 
concerning  the  origin  of  evil  and  the  crea- 
tion of  the  world,  with  its  «livine  truths. 
Such  were  tlu*  Valentinians,  Simonians,  Car- 
pocratians,  Nicholaitans,  &c. 

Gnostics  sometimes  also  occm's  in  a  good 
sense,  in  the  ancient  ecclesiastical  writers, 
p.irticularly  Clemens  Alex;mdrinus,  who,  in 
the  person  of  his  Gnostic,  describes  the 
characters  and  qualities  of  a  perfect  Chris- 
tian. This  point  he  labours  in  the  seventh 
book  of  his  Hiromata,  where  he  shews  tliat 
none  but  tht-  Gnostic,  or  learned  pcMson,  has 
any  true  religion.  He  affirms  that,  wei-e  it 
possible  for  the  knowledge  of  God  to  be  se- 
parated from  eternal  salvation,  the  Gnostic 
would  make  no  scruple  to  choose  tkc  know- 


GNO 


169 


GOD 


jedge;  and  that  if  God  would  promise  him 
impunity  in  doing  of  any  thing  he  has  once 
spoken  against,  or  offer  him  heaven  on  those 
terms,  he  would  never  alter  a  whit  of  his 
measures.  In  this  sense  the  father  uses 
Gnostics,  in  opposition  to  the  lieretics  of  the 
same  name ;  affirming,  that  the  true  Gnos- 
tic is  grown  old  in  the  study  of  the  holy 
Scripture,  and  that  he  preserves  the  ortho- 
dox doctrine  of  the  apostles,  and  of  the 
church;  whereas  the  false  Gnostic  aban- 
dons all  the  apostolical  traditions,  as  ima- 
gining himself  wiser  than  the  apostles. 

Gnostics  was  sometimes  also  more  par- 
ticularly used  for  the  successors  of  the  Ni- 
colaitaus  and  Carpocratians,  in  the  second 
century,  upon  their  laying  aside  tlie  names 
of  the  first  authors.  Such  as  would  be  tho- 
roughly acquainted  with  all  their  doctrines, 
reveries,  and  visions  may  consult  St.  Irena- 
us,  TertuUian.,  Clemens  Jllexdrinus,  Ori- 
gen,  and  St.  K/iilihanius ;  particularly  the 
tirst  of  these  writers,  who  relates  their  sen- 
timents at  large,  and  confutes  them.  Indeed 
he  dwells  more  on  the  Valentinians  than 
any  other  sect  of  Gnostics;  but  he  shews 
the  general  principles  whereon  all  their 
mistaken  opinions  were  founded,  and  the 
method  they  followed  in  explaining  Scrip- 
ture. He  accuses  them  of  introducing  into 
religion  certain  vain  and  ridiculous  genealo- 
gies, i.  e.  a  kind  of  divine  precessions  or  em- 
anations, which  had  no  other  foundation  l-i  t 
in  their  own  wild  imagination,  'I'he  Gnus- 
tics  confessed,  that  these  ^eons,  or  emana- 
tions, were  no  where  expressly  delivered  in 
the  sacred  writings ;  but  insisted  that  Jesus 
Christ  had  intimated  them  in  parables  to 
such  as  could  understand  them.  They  built 
their  theology  not  only  on  the  Gospels  and 
the  Epistles  of  St.  Paul,  but  also  on  the  law 
of  Moses  and  the  prophets.  These  last  were 
peculiarly  serviceable  to  them,  on  account 
of  the  aOegories  and  allusions  with  which 
they  abound,  which  are  capable  of  different 
interpretations ;  though  their  doctrine  con- 
cerning the  creation  of  the  world  by  one  or 
more  inferior  beings  of  aii  evil  or  imperfect 
nature  led  them  to  deny  the  Divine  authori- 
ty of  the  books  of  the  Old  Testament,  which 
contradicted  this  idle  fiction,  and  filled 
them  with  an  abhorrence  of  Moses  and  the 
religion  he  taught;  alleging,  that  he  was 
actuated  by  tlie  malignant  author  of  this 
world,  who  consulted  his  own  gloiy  and  au- 
thority, and  not  the  real  advantage  cf  men. 
Their  persuasion  that  evil  resided  in  matter 
as  its  centre  and  source,  made  them  treat 
the  body  with  contemjit,  discourage  mar- 
riage, and  reject  the  doctrine  of  the  resur- 
I'ection  of  the  body,  and  its  reunion  with  the 
immortal  spirit.  Their  notion  that  malevo- 
lent genii  presided  in  nature,  and  occasioned 
diseases  and  calamities,  virar^  and  desolations, 
induced  them  to  apply  themselves  to  the 
study  of  magic,  in  order  to  weaken  the  pow- 
ers, or  suspend  the  influence  of  their  malig- 
nant agents.  The  Gno.stics  considered  Jesus 
(/hrist  as  the  Son  of  God,  and  inferior  to 


the  Father,  who  came  into  the  world  for 
the  rescue  and  happiness  of  miserable  mor- 
tals, oppressed  by  matter  and  evil  beings ; 
but  they  rejected  our  Lord's  humanity,  on 
the  principle  that  every  thing  corporeal  is 
essentially  and  intrinsically  evil;  and  there- 
fore the  greatest  part  of  them  denied  the 
reality  of  his  sufterings.  They  set  a  great 
value  on  the  beginning  of  the  Gospel  of  St. 
John,  where  they  fancied  they  saw  a  great 
deal  of  their  jeons,  or  emanations,  under  the 
terms  the  word,  the  life,  the  light,  &c.  They 
divided  all  nature  into  three  kinds  of  beings, 
viz.  hylic,  or  material ;  psychic,  or  animal ; 
artd/ineumaiic,  or  spiritual.  Ojj  the  like  prin- 
ciple they  also  distinguished  three  sorts  of 
men;  material,  animal,  and  sfiiritual.  The 
first,  who  were  material,  and  incapable  of 
knowledge,  inevitably  perished,  both  soul 
and  body ;  tlie  third,  such  as  the  Gnostics 
themselves  pretended  to  be,  were  all  cer- 
tainly saved ;  the  psychic,  or  animal,  who 
wei'e  the  middle  between  tlie  other  two, 
were  capable  either  of  being  saved  or  damn- 
ed, according  to  their  good  or  evil  actions. 
With  regard  to  their  moral  doctrines  and 
conduct,  tliey  were  much  divided.  The 
greatest  part  of  this  sect  adopted  very  aus- 
tere rales  of  life,  recommended  rigorous 
abstinence,  and  prescribed  severe  bodily 
mortifications,  with  a  view  of  purifying  ani 
exalting  the  mind.  However,  some  main- 
tained that  there  was  no  moral  difference  in 
human  actions ;  and  thus  confounding  right 
with  wrong,  they  gave  a  loose  rein  to  all  the 
passions,  and  asserted  the  innocence  of  fol- 
lowing blindly  all  their  motions,  and  of  liv- 
ing by  their  tumultuous  dictates.  They 
supported  their  opinions  and  practice  by 
various  authorities;  s'HTie  referred  to  ficti- 
tious and  apocryphal  writings  of  Adam, 
Aliraham,  Zoroaster,  Christ,  and  his  apos- 
tles ;  others  boasted  that  they  had  deduced 
tiieir  sentiments  from  seci-et  doctrines  of 
Christ,  concealed  from  the  vulgar;  others 
affirmed  that  they  arrived  at  superior  de- 
grees of  wisdom  by  an  innate  vigour  of  mind; 
and  others  asserted  that  they  were  instruct- 
ed in  tiiese  mysterious  parts  of  theological 
science  by  Theudas,  a  disciple  of  St  Paul, 
and  by  Matthias,  one  of  the  friends  of  our 
Lord.  The  tenets  of  th.e  ancient  Gnostics 
were  revived  in  Spain,  in  tiie  fourth  centu- 
ry by  a  sect  called  the  Priscillianists.  At 
length  the  name  Gnostic,  which  originally 
was  glorious,  became  infamous,  by  the  idle 
opinions  and  dissolute  lives  of  the  persons 
who  bore  it. 

GOD,  the  self-existent,  infinitely  perfect, 
and  inlinitelv  good  being,  who  created,  and 
preserves  all  Uiingsthat  have  existence.  As 
the  Divine  Being  possesses  a  nature  far  be- 
yond the  comprehension  of  any  of  his  crea- 
tures, of  cRirse,  that  nature  is  inexplicable 
"  All  our  knowledge  of  invisible  objects  is 
obtained  bv  analogy ;  that  is,  by  the  resem-. 
I)lance  which  they  bear  to  visible  objects ; 
but  as  tliere  is  in  nature  no  exact  resem- 
blance of  the  nature  of  God,  an  attempt  to 


GOD 


170 


GOO 


explain  the  Divine  nature  is  absurd  and 
impracticable.  All  similitudes,  therefore, 
which  are  used  in  attempting  to  explain  it, 
must  be  rejected  "  Yet,  though  we  cannot 
fully  understand  his  nature,  there  is  some- 
thing of  him  we  may  know.  He  hath  been 
pleased  to  discover  his  perfections,  in  a  mea- 
sure, by  the  works  of  creation  and  the  Scrip- 
tures of  truth  ;  these,  therefore,  we  ought  to 
study,  in  order  that  we  may  obtain  ihe  most 
becoming  thoughts  of  him.  For  an  account 
of  the  various  attributes  or  perfections  of 
God,  the  reader  is  referred  to  those  articles 
in  this  work. 

There  are  various  7?a7;7(f6'  given  to  the  Al- 
mighty in  the  Scriptures,  though  jiroperly 
speaking,  he  can  liave  no  name  ;  for  as  lit- 
is incomprehensible,  he  is  not  nominablc ; 
and  being  but  one,  he  has  no  need  of  a  name 
to  disting\iish  him  ;  nevertheless,  as  nuuKS 
are  given  him  in  the  Scripture,  to  assist  our 
ideas  of  his  greatness  and  perfection,  they 
are  worthy  of  our  consideration.  'I'liese  names 
are.  El,  which  denotes  him  the  strong  and 
powerful  God,  Gen.  xvii.  1.  Elouh,  which 
represents  him  as  the  only  proper  object  of 
•worship.  Psalm  xlv.  fi,  7.  S/iuddai,  which  de- 
notes him  to  be  all-snff.cient  and  all-mighty. 
Exodus  vi.  3.  H/teeljon.  which  represents 
his  incomparable  excellency,  absolute  supre- 
Tnacy  over  all,  and  his  peculiar  residence  in 
the  highest  heavens.  Psalm  1.  11.  Jxchtii, 
which  makes  him  the  great  connector,  sup- 
porter, lord,  and  judge,  of  all  creatures. 
Psalm  ex.  1.  Jail,  which  may  denote  his 
self-existence,  and  giving  e.f  being  to  his  crea- 
tures, or  his  infinite  comeliness,  and  answer- 
ableness  to  himself,  and  to  the  happiness  of 
his  creatures,  F.xcd.  xv.  2  Ehjeh,  I  am,  or 
J  will  be,  denotes  his  self-existence,  absolute 
inrie]iendency,  immutable  eternity,  and  all- 
sufficiency,  to  his  people,  Exod.  iii.  14.  Je- 
hovah, which  denotes  his  self- existence,  ab- 
solute independency,  unsuccessive  eternity, 
and  his  effectual  and  marvell(  us  giving  of 
being  to  his  creatures,  and  fulhlling  his  pro- 
mises. Gen.  ii.  4,  &c. 

In  the  New  Testamert,  God  is  called 
Kurios,  or  Lord,  whicii  denotes  his  self- 
existence,  and  his  establishment  of,  and  ;ai- 
thority  over  all  thii.rs  ;  and  Thcos,  which 
represents  him  as  the  maker,  jjervader,  and 
governing  observer  of  tlie  universe. 

GODFAl'HERS  and  GODMOTHERS, 
persons  who,  at  the  ba]:>tism  of  infants,  an- 
swer for  their  fntare  cc^ndnct,  and  solemnly 
promise  that  they  will  renounce  the  dcvii 
and  all  his  works,  and  follow  a  life  of  ])iety 
and  virtue;  and  by  these  means  lay  tlum- 
selv^s  under  an  indispensable  obligation  to 
instvurt  them,  and  watch  over  their  conduct. 

GODLINESS,  strictlv  taken,  is  riRht  wor- 
ship or  dev(ition;  but  in  general,  it  imjiorts 
jK«'the  whole  of  ])ractical  religion,  1  Tim.iv.  <S. 
2  Pet.  i  6.  It  is  difficult,  as  Saurin  observes, 
to  include  an  adequate  idea  of  it  in  what  is 
called  a  definition.  '*  It  supjioses  knowledge, 
veneration,  aflection,  dependence,  snbn.is 
'  sion,  gratitude,  and  obedience  ;  or  it  may  be 


reduced  to  these  four  ideas ;  "  knonvledgc  ifi 
the  mind,  by  which  it  is  distinguished  from 
the  visions  of  the  superstitious  ;  rectitude'm 
the  conscience,  that  distinguislies  it  from  hy- 
pocrisy ;  sacrijice  in  the  life,  or  reiiunciation 
of  the  world,  by  which  it  is  tlistinguished 
from  the  unmeaning  obedience  of  him  who 
goes  as  a  happy  constitution  leads  him  ;  and, 
lastly,  zeal  in  the  heart,  which  differs  from 
the  languishing  emotions  of  the  lukewarm." 
The  advantages  of  this  disprsition  are  ho- 
nour, peace,  safety,  usefulness,  support  in 
death,  and  prospect  of  glory;  or,  as  tlie 
apostle  sums  up  nil  in  a  few  words,  "  It  is 
l)i-ofitable  unto  (dl  tilings,  having  the  pro- 
ni!se  of  the  life  that  now  is,  and  of  that  which 
is  to  come,  1  Tim.  iv.  8.  Saurin^s  Sermons, 
vol.  V  ser  3,  English  translati(;n.  J:!arrow''s 
IVorks,  vol.  i.  \).  9.  Scott.''s  Christian  Life. 
ScoiigaWs  Life  of  God  in  the  Soul  of  Man, 

GOOD,  in  general,  is  whatever  hicreases 
pleasure,  or  diminishes  y)ain  in  us  ;  or,  which 
amounts  to  the  same,  whatever  is  able  to  pro- 
cure or  preserve  to  us  the  possession  of  agree- 
able sensations,  and  remove  those  of  an  op- 
posite nature.  3Iorul  good  denv.tL-ii  the  right 
conduct  of  the  several  senses  and  passic  ns, 
or  their  just  proportion  and  accommodation 
to  their  respective  objects  and  relations. 

Physical  good  is  that  which  has  either 
generally,  or  for  any  particular  end,  such 
qualities  as  are  expected  or  desired. 

GOOD  FRIDAY,  a  fast  of  the  Christian 
church,  in  mem.ory  of  the  sufferings  and 
death  of  Jesus  Christ.  It  is  observed  on  the 
Friday  in  Passion  Week,  and  it  is  called,  by 
way  of  eminence,  good  ^  because  of  the  good 
effects  of  our  Saviour's  sufferings.  Aniong 
the  Saxons  it  Avas  called  Long  Friday  ;  but 
for  what  reason  does  not  appear,  except  on 
account  of  the  long  fasting  and  long  offices 
then  used.   See  Holy  Days. 

GOODNESS,  the  fitness  of  a  thing  to  pro- 
duce any  particular  end.  Perfection,  kind- 
ness, benevolence.     • 

GOODNESS  OF  GOD,  relates  to  the  ab- 
solute perfection  of  his  own  nature,  and  his 
kindness  manifested  to  his  creatures.  Good- 
ness, says  Dr.  Gill,  is  essential  to  God,  with- 
out which  he  would  not  be  God,  Exod. 
xxxiii.  19.  xxxiv  6,7.  Goodness  only  belongs 
to  God  ;  he  is  solqly  good.  Matt.  xix.  17.  and 
all  the  goodness  found  in  creatures  are  only 
emanations  of  the  Divine  goodness.  He  is  the 
chief  good  ;  the  sum  and  substance  of  all  fe- 
licity,' Ps.  cxliv,  12,  15,  Ixxiii.  2.5.  iv.  6,  7. 
There  is  nothing  but  goodness  in  God,  and 
nothing  but  goodness  comes  from  him,  1  John 
i.  5.  James  i.  13,  14  He  is  infinitely  good; 
finite  minds  cannot  comprehend  his  goodness 
Rom.  xi.  35,  36.  He  is  imn.nt;ibly  and  un- 
changeably good,  Zi  ph.  iii.  17.  The  goodness 
of  (iod  is  communicative  and  difiiisive,  Ps. 
cxix.  68.  xxxiii. 5.  V\  ith  respect  to  the  objects 
of  it,  it  may  be  considered  as  general  and 
special.  His  general  goodness  is  seen  in  all  his 
creatures:  yea,  in  the  inanimate  creatitn, 
the  sun,  the  earth,  and  all  his  works;  anci  in 
the  government,  support,  and  protectjon  o 


GO 


in 


GR  A 


the  world  at  large,  Ps.  xxxvi.  6.  cxlv.  His 
special  goodness  relates  to  angels  and  saints. 
To  angels,  in  creating,  confirming,  and 
making  them  what  they  are.  To  saints,  in 
election,  calling,  justification,  adoption,  sanc- 
tification,  perseveratiCe,  and  eternal  glorifi- 
cation GiWs  'iody  of  Div.\o\.\  p  133.  8vo 
ed. ;  Charnock's  IVorksy  vol.  i.  p.  574 ;  Pa- 
ley^s  J\~at.  Theo.  cli  26;  South's  admirable 
Hermon  on  this  subject,  vol.  viii  ser.  3  ;  Til- 
loL^on's  Strinons,  ser.  143 — 146  ;  Aberne- 
thy's  Sermons    vol.  i.  No.  2. 

GOSPEL,  the  revelation  of  the  grace  of 
God  to  fallen  man  through  a  Mediator.  It 
is  taken  also  for  the  histtay  of  the  life  ac- 
tions, death,  resurrection,  ascension,  and  doc- 
trine of  Jesus  Chnst.  The  word  is  Saxon, 
and  of  tiie  same  import  with  the  Latin  evan- 
gelium,  which  signifies  glad  tidings  or  good 
news.  It  is  called  the  tioajiel  of  his  grace, 
because  it  Hows  from  his  free  love,  Acts  xx. 
24.  The  Gosfielof  the  kingdom,  as  it  treats 
of  the  kingdoms  of  grace  and  glory.  The 
Gos/iel  of  Christ,  because  he  is  the  author 
and  subject  of  it,  Rom.  i.  16.  The  Gospel  of 
peace  and  salvation,  as  it  promotes  our  pre- 
sent comfort,  and  leads  to  eternal  glory,  Eph. 
i.  13.  vi.  15.  The  glorious  Gospel,  as  in  it 
the  glorious  perfections  of  Jehovah  are  dis- 
played, 2  (.'or.  iv.  4.  The  everlasting  Gos- 
pel, as  it  was  designed  from  eternity,  is  per- 
manent in  time,  and  the  effects  of  it  eternal. 
Rev.  xiv.  6.  There  are  about  thirty  or  forty 
apocryphal  Gospels ;  as  the  Gospel  of  St  Pe- 
ter, of  St.  Andrew,  of  St.  Barnabas,  the  eter- 
nal Gospel,  &c.  Sic.  &c.  but  they  were  never 
received  by  the  Christian  church,  being  evi- 
dently fabulous  and  trifling.  See  Chris- 
tianity. 

GOSPEL  CALL.  See  Calling. 
.GOSPEL  A  LAW.  It  has  been  disputed, 
whether  the  G(;spel  consists  merely  of  pro- 
mises, or  whether  it  can  in  any  sense  be  call- 
ed a  law.  The  answer  plainly  depends  uprin 
adjusting  the  meaning  of  the  words  Gospel 
and  lavj  :  if  the  Gospel  be  taken  for  tlie  de- 
<:laration  God  has  made  to  men  by  Christ, 
concerning  the  manner  in  which  he  will  treat 
them,  and  the  conduct  he  expects  from 
them,  it  is  plain  that  this  includes  commands, 
and  even  threatenings,  as  well  as  promises ; 
but  to  define  the  Gospel  so,  as  only  to  ex- 
press the  favourable  part  of  tliat  declar.dtion, 
is,  indeed,  taking  the  question  for  granted, 
and  confining  the  word  to  a  sense  much  less 
extensive  than  it  often  has  in  scrioture  :  com- 
,  pare  Rom.  ii.  16.  2  Thess.  i.  8.  i  Tim.  i.  10, 
11 ;  and  it  i.s  certain,  that,  if  the  Go.spel  be 
put  for  al!  the  parts  of  the  dispei>sati(jn,  ta- 
ken in  connection  one  with  another,  it  may 
well  be  called,  on  the  whole,  a  good  message. 
In  like  manner  the  question,  whether  the 
Gospel  be  a  law  or  not,  is  to  be  determined 
by  the  definition  of  a  law  and  of  the  Gospel, 
as  above.  If  law  signifies,  as  it  generally 
does,  the  discovery  of  the  will  of  a  superior, 
teaching  what  he  requires  of  those  under 
his  government,  with  the  intimation  of  his 
intention  of  dispensing  rewards  and  punish- 


ments, as  this  rule  of  their  conduct  is  obser- 
ved or  neglected  ;  in  tb.is  latitude  ot  expres- 
sion, it  is  plain,  from  the  proposition,  that 
the  Gospel,  taken  for  the  declaration  made 
to  men  by  Christ,  is  a  law,  as  in  bcripture 
it  is  sumetimes  called,  James  i.  25.  Ri.m.  iv. 
15.  viii.  2.  But  if  law  be  taken,  in  the  great- 
est rigour  of  the  expression,  for  such  a  dis- 
covery of  the  will  of  God,  and  our  duty,  as 
to  contain  hi  it  no  intimation  of  our  obtaining 
the  Divine  favour  otherwise  than  by  a  per- 
fect and  uiiiveisal  conformity  to  it,  in  that 
sense  the  Gospel  is  not  a  law.  See  Neono- 
MiANS.  IViisius  on  Cov.  vol.  iii.  ch.  1  Dod- 
dridge's Lectures,  lect.  172.  Watts'  Ortho- 
doxy and  Charily,  essay  2. 

GOVERNMENT  OF  GOD.  is  the  dispo- 
sal of  his  creatures,  and  all  events  relative 
to  them,  according  to  his  infinite  justice, 
power,  and  wisdom.  His  moral  government 
is  his  rendering  to  every  man  according  to 
bis  actions,  considered  as  good  or  evil.  See 
Dominion  and  Sovereignty. 

GRACE.  There  are  various  senses  ia 
which  this  word  is  used  in  scripture  ;  but  the 
general  idea  of  it,  as  it  relates  to  God,  is  his 
free  favour,  and  love.  As  it  respects  men, 
it  implies  the  happy  state  of  reconciliation 
and  favour  witli  God  wherein  they  stand, 
and  the  holy  endowments,  qualities,  or  habits 
of  faith,  hope,  love,  &c.  which  they  possess. 
Divines  have  distinguished  grace  into  com- 
mon or  geiural,  special  or  particular.  Com- 
mon grace,  if  it  m  ly  be  so  called,  is  what 
all  men  have  ;  as  the  light  of  nature  an.d 
reason,  convictions  of  conscience,  &c.  Rom. 
ii.  4.  1  Tim.  iv.  10.  Special  grace,  is  that 
which  is  peculiar  to  some  people  only  ;  such> 
as  electing,  redeeming,  justifying,  pardoning, 
adopting,  establishing,  and  sanctifying  grace, 
Rom  viii.  50  This  special  grace  is  by  some 
distinguished  into  imputed  and  inherent:  im- 
puted  grace  consists  in  the  holiness,  obedi- 
ence, and  righteousness  of  Christ,  imputed 
to  us  for  our  justification;  inherent  grace 
is  what  is  wrought  in  the  heart  by  the  Spi- 
rit of  God  in  regeneration.  Grace  is  also 
said  to  be  irresistible,  efficacious,  and  uicto- 
ri'jus  ;  not  but  what  there  are  in  human  na- 
ture, in  the  first  moments  of  conviction, 
some  struggles,  opposition,  or  conflict ;  but 
by  these  tern  s  we  are  to  understand,  that, 
in  the  end,  victorj'  declares  for  the  grace  of 
the  Gospel.  There  have  been  many  other 
distinctions  of  grace ;  but  as  they  are  of  tod 
frivolous  a  nature,  and  are  now  obsolete, 
they  need  not  a  place  here.  Growth  in 
grace  is  the  progress  we  make  in  the  divine 
life.  It  discovers  itself  by  an  increase  of 
spiritual  light  and  knowledge;  by  our  re- 
nouncing self,  and  depending  more  upon 
Christ ;  by  growing  more  spiritual  in  du- 
ties ;  by  Ixing  more  humble,  submissive, 
and  thankful  ;  by  rising  superior  to  the 
corruptions  of  nature,  and  finding  the  power 
of  sin  more  weakened  in  us ;  by  being  less 
attached  to  the  world,  and  possessing  more 
of  a  heavenly  disposition.  M'Laurin's  Es. 
says,  essay  3.  Gill's  Bodi/  of  Div.  rol.  i.  p. 


GRA 


172 


GRE 


118  ;  Doddridge's  Led.  part  viii.  prop. 
139  ;  Pike  and  Haijivard's  Cases  of  Con- 
science ;  Saurin  on  1  Rom.  ix.  26,  27,  vol. 
iv.  jBooth's  Reign  of  Grace. 

GRACE  AT  MEALS,  a  short  prayer, 
imploring  the  Divine  blessing  on  our  food, 
and  expressive  of  gratitude  to  God  for  sup- 
plying our  necessities.  The  propriety  of 
this  act  is  evident  from  the  Divine  com- 
mand, 1  Thes.  V.  18.  1  Cor.  x.  31.  1  Tim. 
w,  5.  From  the  conduct  of  Christ,  Mark 
viii.  6,  7.  From  reason  itself;  not  to  men- 
tion that  it  is  a  custom  practised  by  most  na- 
.  tions,  and  even  not  neglected  by  heathens 
themselves.  The  English,  however,  seem 
to  be  very  deficient  in  this  duty. 

As  to  the  manner  in  which  it  ought  to  be 
performed,  as  Dr.  Watts  observes,  we 
ought  to  have  a  due  regard  to  the  occasion, 
and  the  persons  present ;  the  neglect  of 
which  hath  been  attended  with  indecencies 
and  indiscretions.  Some  have  used  them- 
selves to  mutter  a  few  words  with  so  low  a 
voice,  as  though  by  some  secret  charm  they 
were  to  consecrate  the  food  alone,  and  there 
was  no  need  of  the  rest  to  join  with  them 
in  the  petitions.  Others  have  broke  out  in- 
to so  violent  a  sound,  as  though  they  were 
bound  to  make  a  thousand  people  hear 
them.  Some  perform  this  part  of  worship 
with  so  slight  and  familiar  an  air,  as  though 
they  had  no  sense  of  the  great  God  to  whom 
they  speak  :  others  have  put  on  an  unnatural 
solemnity,  and  changed  their  natural  voice 
into  so  different  and  aukward  a  tone,  not 
without  some  distortions  of  countenance, 
that  have  tempted  strangers  to  ridicule. 

It  is  the  custom  of  some  to  hurry  over  a 
single  sentence  or  tAvo,  and  they  have  done, 
before  half  the  company  are  prepared  to 
lift  up  a  thought  to  heaven.  And  some 
have  been  just  heard  to  bespeak  a  blessing 
on  the  church  and  the  king,  but  seem  to 
have  forgot  they  were  asking  God  to  bless 
their  food,  or  giving  thanks  for  the  food 
they  liave  received.  Otiiers  again,  make  a 
long  prayer,  and,  among  a  multitude  of 
other  petitions,  do  not  utter  one  that  relates 
to  the  table  before  them. 

The  genei'al  rules  of  prudence,  togetlier 
with  a  due  observation  of  the  custom  of 
the  place  where  we  live,  would  correct  all 
these  disorders,  and  teach  us  that  a  few  sen- 
tences suited  to  the  occasion,  spoken  with 
an  audible  and  proper  voice,  are  sufficient 
for  this  purpose,  esperiaKy  if  any  strangers 
are  present.  Wartt,'  Works,  8vo.  edition. 
vol.  iv.  ]i.  160.  Im".u\^  Serious  Call,  \h  60. 
Seed's  Post.  Ser.  jj.   174. 

GRATITUDE,  is  that  pleasant  afF.^ction 
of  the  mind  vvhicli  arises  from  a  sense  of 
favours  received,  and  by  which  the  posses- 
sor is'excited  to  make  all  tlic  returns  of 
love  and  service  in  hispowev.  "  Gratitude," 
say§  Mr.  Cogan  (in  his  Treatise  on  the  Pas- 
sions,) "  is  the  powerful  reaction  of  a  well- 
dispor-ed  mind,  upon  whom  benevolence  has 
conferred  some  important  good.  It  is  mo.'-tly 
connected   with  an  impressive  sense  of  the 


amiable  disposition  of  the  person  by  whom 

the  benefit  is  conferred,  and  it  immediately 

produces  a  personal  affection  towards  him. 

We  shall  not  vvonder  at  the  pecuhar  strength 

I  and  energy  of  this  affection,  when  we  consi- 

j  der  diat  it  is  compounded  of  love  placed 

upon  the  good  communicated,  affection  for 

I  the  donor,  and  joy  at  tlie  reception.     Thus 

I  it  has  goodness  for  its  object,  and  the  most 

I  pleasing,  perhaps  unexpected,  exertions  of 

goodness  for  its  immediate  cause.     Thank- 

\fulness  refers  to  \erbal  expressions  of  gra- 

I  titude."    See  Thankfulness 

GRAVITY,  is  that  seriousness  of  mind, 
united  with  dignity  of  behaviour,  that  com- 
mands veneration  and  respect.  See  Dr. 
Watts''  admirable  Sermon  on  Gravity,  ser. 
23,  vol.  i. 

GREATNESS  OF  GOD,  is  the  infinite 
glory  and  excellency  of  all    his  perfections. 
His  greatness  appears  by  the   attributes  he 
possesses,  Deut.  xxxii.  3,  4.  the  works  he 
hath    made,  Ps.   xix.  1.  by  the   awful  and 
benign  providence  he  displays,  Ps.  xcvii.  1, 
2.  tlie  great  effects  he  produces  by  his  word, 
Gen.  i.  the  constant  energy  he  manifests  in 
I  the   existence  and  suppoiL  of  all  his  cvea- 
I  tures,  Ps.  cxlv.  and  the  everlasting  pro\i- 
sion  of  glory  made  for  his  people.  1  'Fhess. 
i  iv.  17.    This  greatness  is  of  himself,  and 
I  not  derived,  Ps.  xxi.  13.  it   is  infinite,    Ps. 
i  cxlv.    3.    not  diminished   by  exertion,    but 
will  always  remain  the   same,  Mai.   iii.  6. 
The  considerations  of  his  greatness  should 
excite  veneration,  Ps.   Ixxxix.    7.    admira- 
tion, Jer.  ix.  6,   7.  humility.   Job  xlii.  5,    6. 
dependance.  Is.  xxvi.  4.  submission.  Job  i. 
22.  obedience,  Deut.  iv.    39,  40.     See  At- 
tributes, and  books  under  that  article. 

GREEK  CHURCH,  comprehends  in  its 
bosom  a  considerable  part  of  Greece,  the 
Grecian  Isles,  Wallachia,  Moldavia,  Egypt, 
Abvssiiiia,  Nubia,  Lybia,  Arabia,  Mesopo- 
tamia, Syria,  Cilicia,  and  Palestine,  which 
are  all  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Patri- 
archs of  Constantinople,  Alexandria,  Anti- 
och,  and  Jerusalem.  If  to  these  we  add 
the  whole  of  the  Russian  empire  in  Europe, 
great  part  of  Siberia  in  Asia,  Astracan,  Ca- 
san,  and  Georgia,  it  will  be  evident  that 
the  Greek  church  has  a  wider  extent  of 
territory  than  the  Latin,  v/ith  all  the 
liranches  which  have  sprung  from  it  ;  and 
that  it  is  widi  great  impropriety  that  the 
church  of  Rome  is  called  by  her  members 
the  ca'/nlic  or  universal  church.  That  in 
these  widely  distant  countries,  the  profes- 
sors of  Ci\ri'stianity  are  agreed  in  every  mi- 
nute article  of  liefi^f,  it  would  be  rash  to 
assert  ;  lint  there  is  certainly  such  an  agree- 
ment among  tliem,  with  respect  both  to 
faitli  and  to  dis(i])line,  tliat  they  mutually 
hold  communion  with  each  other,  and  are, 
in  fact,  but  one  church.  It  is  called  the 
Greek  cimrch,  in  contradistinction  to  the 
Latin  or  Romish  church  ;  as  also  the  Eas- 
tern, in  distinction  from  the  Western  church. 
V\'e  shall  here  present  the  reader  with  a 
view  of  its  rise,  tenets,  and  disciphnc. 


GRE 


173 


GRE 


I.  Greek  church,  rise  and  aefiaration  of. 
The  Greek  church  is  considered  as  a  sepa- 
ration from  the  Latin.  In  the  middle  of  the 
ninth  century,  the  controversy  relating  to 
the  procession  of  the  Holy  Ghost  (which 
had  been  started  in  the  sixth  century)  lie- 
came  a  point  of  great  importance,  on  ac- 
count of  the  jealousy,  and  ambition  which 
at  that  time  were  blended  with  it.  Photius, 
the  patriarch  of  Jerusalem,  havhig  been  ad- 
vanced to  that  see  in  the  room  of  Ignatius, 
whom  he  procured  to  be  deposed,  was  so- 
lemnly excommunicated  by  pope  Nicholas, 
in  a  council  held  at  Rome,  and  his  ordina- 
tion declared  null  and  void.  The  Greek 
emperor  resented  this  conduct  of  the  pope, 
who  defended  himself  with  great  spirit  and 
resolution.  Photius,  in  his  turn,  convened 
what  he  called  an  oecumenical  council,  in 
which  he  pronounced  sentence  of  excom- 
munication and  deposition  against  the  pope, 
Mild  got  it  subscribed  by  twenty-one  bishops 
and  others,  amountirig  in  number  to  a  thou- 
sand. This  occasioned  a  wide  breach  be- 
tween the  sees  of  Rome  and  Constantino- 
ple. However,  the  death  of  the  emperor 
Michael,  and  the  deposition  of  Photius,  sub- 
sequent thereupon,  seem  to  have  restored 
peace :  for  the  emperor  Basil  held  a  coun- 
cil at  Constantinople,  in  the  year  869,  in 
which  entire  satisfaction  was  given  to  pope 
Adrian ;  but  the  schism  was  only  smother- 
ed and  suppressed  a  while.  The  Greek 
church  had  several  complaints  against  the 
Latin  ;  particularly  it  was  thought  a  great 
hardship  for  the  Greeks  to  subscribe  to  tlie 
definition  of  a  council  according  to  the  Ro- 
man form,  prescribed  by  the  pope,  since  it 
made  the  church  of  Constantinople  depen- 
dent on  that  of  Rome,  and  set  the  pope 
above  an  oecumenical  council ;  but,  above 
all,  the  pride  and  haughtiness  of  the  Roman 
court  gave  the  Greeks  a  great  distaste  :  and 
as  their  deportment  seemed  to  insult  his 
Imperial  majesty,  it  entirely  alienated  the 
affections  of  the  emperor  Basil,  'lowards 
the  middle  of  the  eleventh  century,  Michael 
Ceiularius,  patriarch  of  Constantinople,  op- 
posed the  Latins,  with  respect  to  their  ma- 
king use  of  unleavened  bread  in  the  eucha- 
rist,  their  obsei'vation  of  the  sabbath,  and 
fasting  on  Saturdays,  charging  them  with 
living  in  commuoion  with  the  Jews.  To 
this  pope  Leo  IX.  replied  ;  and,  in  his  apo- 
logy for  the  Latins,  declaimed  very  warmly 
against  the  false  doctrine  of  the  Greeks, 
and  interposed,  at  the  same  time,  the  autho- 
rity of  his  see.  He  likewise,  by  his  legates, 
excommunicated  the  patriarch  in  the  church 
of  Santa  Sophia,  which  gave  the  last  shock  j 
to  the  reconciliation  attempted  a  long  time 
after,  but  to  no  puipose;  for  from  that  time 
the  hatred  of  the  Greeks  to  tlie  Latins,  and 
of  the  Latins  to  the  Greeks,  became  insu- 
perable, insomuch  that  they  have  continu- 
ed ever  since  separated  from  each  other's 
communion. 

II.  Greek  church,  tenets  of.    The  follow- 
ing are  some  of  the  chief  tenets  held  by 


the  Greek  church  : — They  disown  th^  au- 
thority of  the  pope,  and  deny  that  the 
church  of  Rome  is  the  true  catholic  church- 
They  do  not  baptize  their  children  till  they 
are  three,  four,  five,  six,  ten,  nay,  some- 
times eighteen  years  of  age ;  baptism  is 
performed  by  triune  immersion.  They  in- 
sist that  the  sacrament  of  the  Lord's  sup- 
per ought  to  be  administered  in  both  kinds, 
and  they  give  the  sacrament  to  children 
immediately  after  baptism.  They  grant  no 
indulgences,  nor  do  they  lay  any  claim  to 
the  character  of  infallibility,  like  the  church 
of  Rome.  They  deny  that  there  is  any 
such  place  as  purgatory ;  notwithstanding 
they  pray  for  the  dead,  that  God  would 
have  mercy  on  them  at  the  general  judg- 
ment. They  practise  the  invocation  of 
saints ;  though,  they  say,  they  do  not  in- 
voke them  as  deities,  but  as  intercessors 
wit;i  God.  They  exclude  confirmation,  ex- 
treme unction,  and  matrimony,  cut  of  the 
seven  sacraments.  They  deny  auricular 
confession  to  be  a  divine  precept,  and  say  it 
is  only  a  positive  injunction  of  the  church. 
They  pay  no  religious  homage  tothetucha- 
rist.  They  administer  the  communion  in 
both  kinds  to  the  laity,  both  in  sickness  and 
in  health,  though  they  have  never  applied 
themselves  to  their  confessors ;  because 
they  are  persuaded  that  a  lively  faith  is  all 
which  is  requisite  for  the  worthy  receiving 
of  the  Lord's  .supper.  They  maintain  that 
the  Holy  Ghost  proceeds  only  from  the  Fa- 
ther, and  not  from  the  Son.  They  believe 
in  prede.stination.  They  admit  of  no  ima- 
ges in  relief  or  embossed  work,  but  use 
paintings  and  sculpture  in  coppier  or  silver. 
They  approve  of  the  marriage  of  priests, 
provided  they  enter  into  that  state  before 
their  admission  into  holy  orders.  They  con- 
demn all  fourth  marriages.  They  observe 
a  number  of  holy  days,  and  keep  four  fasts 
in  the  year  more  solemn  than  the  rest,  of 
which  the  fast  in  Lent,  before  Easter,  is  the 
chief.  They  believe  in  the  doctrine  of  con- 
substantiation,  or  the  union  of  the  body  of 
Christ  with  the  sacrament  bread. 

III.  Greek  church,  state  and  discifiline  of. 
Since  the  Greeks  became  subject  to  the 
Turkish  yoke,  they  have  sunk  into  the 
most  deplorable  ignorance,  in  consequence 
of  the  slavery  and  thraldom  under  which 
they  groan  ;  and  their  religion  is  now  great- 
ly corrupted.  It  is,  indeed,  little  better  than 
a  heap  of  ridiculous  ceremonies  and  absurdi- 
ties. The  head  olthe  Greek  church  is  the 
patriarch  of  Con.stantinople,  who  is  chosen 
by  the  neighbouring  archbishops  and  metro- 
politans, and  confirmed  by  the  emperor  or 
grand  vizier.  He  is  a  person  of  great  dig- 
nity, being  the  head  and  director  of  the  Eas- 
tern church.  I'he  ether  patriarchs  ."^re 
those  of  Jerusalem,  Antioch,  and  Alexan- 
dria. Mr.  Tournefort  tells  us,  that  the  pa- 
triarchates are  now  generally  set  to  sale, 
and  bestowed  upon  those  who  are  the  high- 
est bidders,  'i'he  patriarchs,  metropolitans, 
archbishops,  and  bishops,  are  always  chosen 


HAB 


174 


H^R 


from  among  the  caloyers,  or  Gi*eek  monks. 
The  next  person  to  a  bishop,  among  the  cler- 
gy, is  an  archimandrite,  who  is  the  director 
ot"  one  or  more  convents,  which  are  called 
mandren;  then  come  the  abbot,  the  areh- 
priest,  the  priest,  the  deacon,  the  under- 
deacon,  the  chanter,  and  the  lecturer.  The 
secular  clergy  are  subject  to  no  rules,  and 
never  rise  higher  than  high  priest.  The 
Greeks  have  tew  nunneries,  but  a  great  ma- 
ny convents  of  monks,  who  are  all  priests  ; 
and  (students  excepted)  obliged  to  follow 
some  handicraft  employment,  and  lead  a 
very  austere  life. 

The  Russians  adhere  to  the  doctrine  and 
ceremonies  of  the  Greek  church,  though 
they  are  now  independent  on  the  patriarch 
of  Constantinojjk;.  The  Russian  church, 
indeed,  may  be  reckoned  the  first,  as  to  ex- 
tent of  empire ;  yet  there  is  very  little  of 
the  power  of  vital  religion  among  them. 
The  Roskolniki,  or  as  they  now  call  them- 
selves, the  Starovertzi,  were  a  sect  that 
separated  from  the  church  of  Russia,  about 
1666 :  they  affected  extraordinary  piety  and 
devotion,  a  veneration  for  the  letter  of  the 
holy  scriptures,,  and  would  not  allow  a  priest 
to  administer  baptism  who  had  that  day 
tasted  brandy.  They  harboured  many  fol- 
lies and  superstitions,  and  have  been  greatly 
persecuted;  but,  perhaps,  there  will  be 
found  among  them  "  some  that  shall  be 
counted  to  the  Lord  for  a  generation."  Se- 
veral settlements  of  German  protestants 
have  been  established  in  the  Wolga.  The 
Moravians,  also,  have  done  good  in  Livonia, 
and  the  adjacent  isles  in  the  Baltic  under 
the  Russian  government.  See  Moshiem, 
Gregory,  and  Naweis'    Church  History  ; 


King's  Rites  and  Ceremonies  of  the  GreeK 
(.  hurch  in  Russia ;  The  Russian  Cate- 
chism ;  Secret  Memoirs  of  the  (  ojirt  of 
Petersburg  ;  Tookc's  History  of  Russia  ; 
Ricaui's  State  of  the  Greek  Church  ;  Enc. 
Brit. 

GROWTH  IN  GRACE.    See   Grace. 

GUARDIAN  ANGEL  "  Some,"  says 
Dr.  Doddridge,  "  have  thought,  that  not 
only  every  region,  but  every  ?nan,  has  some 
particular  angel  assigned  him  as  a  guardian, 
whose  business  it  is  generally  to  watch  over 
that  country  or  person  ;  for  this  opinion  they 
urge  Matt,  xviii.  10.  Acts  xii.  15.  But 
the  argument  from  both  these  places  is  evi- 
dently precarious ;  and  it  seems  (Ufficult  to 
reconcile  the  supposition  of  such  a  continu- 
ed attendance  with  what  is  said  of  the  sta- 
ted residence  of  these  angels  in  heaven,  and 
with  Heb.  i  14,  where  a/l  the  angels  are 
represented  as  ministering  to  the  heirs  of 
salvation  .  though,  as  there  is  great  j-eason 
to  believe,  the  number  of  heavenly  spirits 
is  vastly  superior  to  that  of  men  upon  eaitli, 
it  is  not  improbable  that  the-y  may,  as  it 
were,  relieve  each  other,  and  in  their  lurns 
perform  these  condescending  services  to 
those  whom  the  Lord  of  Angels  has  been 
pleased  to  redeem  with  his  own  blood  ;  but 
we  must  confess,  that  our  knowledge  of  the 
laws  and  orders  of  those  celestial  beings  is 
very  limited,  and  consequently,  that  it  is 
the  part  of  humility  to  avoid  dogmatical  de- 
terminations on  such  heads  as  these."  See 
Angel  ;  and  Doddridge's  Lectures,  lee. 
212. 

GUILT,  the  state  of  a  person  justly 
charged  with  a  crime ;  a  consciousness  of 
having  done  amiss.    See  Sin. 


H. 


HABIT,  a  power  and  ability  of  doing 
any  thing,  acquired  by  frequent  repetition 
of  the  same  action.  It  is  distinguished  from 
custom.  Custom  resj^ects  the  action  ;  ha- 
bit the  actor.  By  custom  we  mean  a  fre- 
quent reiteration  of  the  same  act  ;  and  by 
habit  the  efft  ct  that  custom  has  on  the  mind 
or  body.  "  Man,"  as  one  observes,  "  is  a 
bundle  of  habits.  I'here  are  habits  of  in- 
dustry, attention,  vigilance,  advertency;  of  a 
l)ronipt  obed4cnce  to  tht-  judgment  occurring, 
or  of  yielding  to  the  first  impulse  of  pas- 
sion ;  "of  apprehending,  methodizing,  rea- 
soning; of  vanity,  melancholy,  frett'iilness, 
suspicion,  covetcmsiiess,  8cc.  In  a  word, 
there  is  not  a  quality  or  function,  either  (f 
Iwdy  or  mind,  which  does  not  feel  the  in- 
fluence of  this  great  law  of  animated  na- 
ture." To  cure  evil  habits,  we  should  be 
as  early  as  we  can  in  our  application,  firin- 
d/iiis  obsta  ;  to  cross  and  mortify  the  incli- 
nation by  a  frequent  and  obstinate  practice 


of  the  contrary  virtue.  To  form  good  ha- 
bits, we  should  get  our  minds  well  stored 
with  knowledge  ;  associate  with  the  wisest 
and  best  men  ;  reflect  much  on  the  plea 
sure  good  habits  are  productive  of;  and, 
above  all,  snp])licate  the  Divine  Being  foi- 
direction  and  assistance.  Kami's  El.  of 
Crit.  ch.  xiv.  vol.  1  ;  Grove's  Mor.  Phn. 
vol.  i.  p.  143  ;  Paley's  Mor.  Phil.  vol.  i. 
p.  46 ;  Jorlin  on  Bad  Habits,  ser.  i.  vol.  iii, 
Reid  on  the  jlctive  Powers,  p.  117 ;  Co- 
gan  on  the  Passions,  p.  235. 

H.^RETICO  COMBURENDO,  a  wri'. 
which  anciently  lay  against  an  heretic,  who, 
having  once  been  convicted  of  heresy  by  his 
bish.op,  and  having  abjured  it,  afterwards 
falling  into  it  again,  or  into  some  other,  is 
thereupon  committed  to  the  secular  power. 
This  writ  is  thought  by  some,  to  be  as  an- 
cient as  the  common  law  itself;  however, 
the  conviction  of  heresy  by  the  common 
law  was   not    in   any   petty  ecclesiastical 


HAP 


175 


HAT 


court,  but  before  the  archbishop  himself,  in 
a  provincial  synod,  and  the  dt^linquent  was 
delivered  up  to  the  king,  to  do  with  him  as 
he  pleased ;  so  that  the  crown  had  a  con- 
troul  over  the  spiritual  power ;  but  by  2 
Henry  IV  cap.  \5.  the  diocesan  alone, 
without  the  intervention  of  a  synod,  might 
convict  of  heretical  tenets ;  and  unless  the 
coiivict  abjured  his  opinions,  or  if  after  ab- 
juration he  relapsed,  the  sheriff  was  bound 
ex  officio,  if  required  by  the  bishop,  to  com- 
mit the  unhappy  victim  to  tlie  flames, 
without  waiting  for  the  consent  of  the  crown,  j 
This  writ  remained  in  force,  and  was  ac- 
tually executed  on  two  Anabaptists,  in  thej 
seventh  of  Eilzabetli,  and  on  two  Arians  in 
the.  ninth  of  James  I.  Sir  Edwai'd  Coke  wasi 
of  opinion,  that  this  writ  did  not  lie  in  his; 
time ;  but  it  is  niAv  formally  taken  awav  by  i 
statute  29.  Car.  II.  cap.  9.  But  this  statute! 
does  not  extend  to  take  away  or  abridge 
the  jurisdiction  of  Protestant  archbishops,  | 
or  bishops,  or  any  other  judges  of  any  eccle- 
siastical courts,  in  cases  of  atheism,  bias- 1 
phemy,  heresy,  or  schism;  but  they  may! 
prove  and  punish  the  same,  according  ti)  hisi 
majesty's  ecclesiastical  laws,  by  excommu-  [ 
nication,  deprivation,  degradation,  and  other  I 
ecclesiastical  censures,  not  extending  to! 
death,  in  such  sort,  and  no  other,  as  they  i 
niight  have  done  before  the  making  of  this 

HAGIOGRAPHIA,  a  name  given  to 
part  of  the  b(,oks  of  the  Scriptures,  called 
by  the  Jews  cetuvim.  See  article  Bible 
sec.  1. 

HAMPTON  COURT  CONFERENCE 
a  conference  appointed  by  James  I.  at  Hamp- 
ton Court,  in  1603,  in  order  to  settle  the 
disputes  between  the  church  and  the  Puri- 
tans. Nine  bishops,  and  as  many  dignita- 
ries of  the  church,  appeared  on  one  side, 
and  four  Puritan  ministers  on  the  other. 
It  lasted  for  tlnee  days.  Neal  calls  it  a 
mock  conference,  because  all  things  were 
previo.usly  concluded  between  the  king  anr' 
the  bishops ;  and  the  Puritans  borne  down 
not  with  calm  reason  and  argument,  but 
with  the  royal  authority,  the  king  being 
both  judge  and  party.'  The  proposals 
and  remonstrances  of  the  Puritans  may 
be  seen  in  JVcaCs  History  of  the  Puritans, 
ch.  I.  part  ii. 

HAPPINESS,  absolutely  taken,  denotes 
the  durable  possessi>  n  of  perfect  good,  with- 
out any  mixture  of  evil;  or  the  enjcymeni 
of  pure  pleasure  unalloyed  with  pain,  or  a 
state  in  which  all  our  wishes  are  satisfied  ; 
in  whicli  senses,  happiness  is  onlv  known 
by  name  on  this  earth.  The  word  happy, 
if  not  applied  to  any  state  or  condition  of 
human  hfe,  will  admit  ot  no  positive  defi- 
nition, but  as  merely  a  relative  term  ;  that 
is,  when  we  call  a  man  happy,  we  mean 
that  he  is  happier  than  some  others  with 
whom  we  C'  mpare  him  :  than  the  gene- 
rality of  others ;  or  than  he  himself  was  in 
some  other  situation.  Moralists  justlv  ob- 
serve,   that  happiness  does  not  consist  in 


the  pleasures  of  sense ;  as  eating,  drinking, 
music,  painting,  theatric  exhibitions,  &c. 
&c.  for  these  pleasures  continue  but  a  little 
while,  by  repetition  lose  their  relish,  and  by 
high  expectation  often  bring  disappointment. 
Nor  does  happinvss  consist  in  an  exemption 
from  labour,  care,  business,  &c. ;  such  a 
state  being  usually  attended  with  depression 
of  spirits,  imaginary  anxieties,  and  the 
whole  train  of  hypochondriacal  aflFections. 
Nor  is  it  to  t)e  found  in  greatness,  rank, 
or  elevated  stations,  as  matter -of  fact 
abundantly  testifies  :  but  happiness  consists 
in  the  enjoyment  of  the  Divine  favour,  a 
good  conscience,  and  uniform  conduct.  .*• 
subordinatif'U  to  these,  human  happiness 
may  be  greatly  promoted  by  the  exercise 
of  the  social  affections ;  the  pursuit  of  some 
engaging  end ;  the  prudent  constitution  of 
the  habits  ;  and  the  enjoyment  of  our  health. 
Bolton  and  Lucas  oyi  Hap/tiness  ;  Heiiry^s 
F leasantness  of  a  Religious  Life  ;  Grove 
and  Paiey's  Mor.  Phil, ;  Burrow's  Ser. 
ser  1,;  Y'jung's  Centaur,'^! — 160;  IVollas- 
ton's  Religion  of  Kature,  sec.  '2. 

HARMONY  OF  IHE  GOSPELS,  a 
term  made  use  of  to  denote  the  concur- 
rence or  agreement  of  the  writings  of  the 
four  evangelists ;  or  the  history  of  the 
four  evangelists  digested  into  one  continued 
series.  By  this  means  each  story  or  dis- 
course is  exliibited  with  all  its  concurrent 
circumstances;  frequent  repetitions  are  pre- 
vented, and  a  multitude  of  seeming  oppo- 
sitions reconciled  Among  some  of  the  most 
valuable  harmonies,  are  those  of  Cradock, 
Le  Clerc,  Doddridge,  Macknight,  AVw- 
combe,  and  Toivnson's  able  Harmony  on 
the  concluding  part  of  the  Gospels  : 
Thom/ison's  Diatessaron.  The  term  har- 
mony is  also  used  in  reference  to  the 
agreement  which  the  Gospel  bears  to  na- 
tund  religion;  the  Old  Testament,  the  his- 
tory of  other  nations,  and  the  works  of  God 
at  large. 

HASSIDEANS,  or  Assirkans,  those 
Jews  who  resorted  to  Mattathias,  to  fight 
for  the  laws  of  God  and  the  liberties  of 
their  country.  Tliey  were  men  of  great 
valour  and  zeal,  having  voluntarily  devoted 
themselves  to  a  more  strict  observation  of 
the  law  than  ether  men.  For,  after  the 
return  of  the  Jews  from  the  Babylonish 
captivity,  there  were  two  sorts  of  men  in 
their  church;  those  who  contented  them- 
selves with  that  obedience  only  which  was 
prescribed  by  the  law  of  Moses,  and  who 
were  called  Zadikin,  i.  e.  the  righterus; 
and  those  who,  over  and  above  the  laws, 
superadd  d  the  constitutions  and  traditions 
of  the  elders,  and  other  rigorous  observan- 
ces:  these  latter  were  called  the  L'hasidi?n, 
i.  e.  the  pious.  From  the  former  sprang  the 
Samaritans,  Sadf'ucees,  and  Caraites  ;  from 
the  latter,  the  Pharisees  and  the  Essenes  ; 
which  see. 

HATRED  is  the  aversion  of  the  will  to 
any  object  ccrsidercd  by  us  as  evil,  or  to 
any  person  or  tiling  we  suppose  can  do  us" 


HEA 


176 


HEA 


harm.  See  Antipathy.  Hatred  is  as- 
cribed to  God,  but  is  not  to  be  considered 
as  a  passion  in  him  as  in  man  ;  nor  can  iie 
hate  any  of  the  creatures  he  has  made  as 
his  creatures.  Yet  he  is  said  to  hate  the 
•wicked,  Ps.  v.  5  ;  and  indigation  and  wrath, 
tribulation  and  anguish,  will  be  upon  eveiy 
fioul  of  man  tliat  does  evil.  See  Wrath 
OF  God. 

HATTEMISTS,  in  ecclesiastical  history, 
the  name  of  a  modern  Dutch  sect ;  so  call- 
ed from  Pontian  Van  Hattem,  a  minister  in 
the  pi-ovince  of  Zealand,  towards  tlie  cl(  se 
nf  the  last  century,  who,  being  addicted 
^'j  the  sentiments  of  Spinosa,  was  on  tiiat 
account  degraded  from  his  pastoral  office. 
The  Verschorists  and  Hatleinists  resemble, 
each  other  in  their  religimis  systems,  though 
they  never  so  entirely  agreed  as  to  form 
one  communion.  The  founders  of  these 
sects  deduced,  from  the  doctrine  of  abso- 
lute decrees,  a  system  of  fatal  and  uncon- 
trollable necessity ;  they  denied  the  differ- 
ence between  moral  good  and  evil,  and  the 
corruption  of  human  nature ;  from  whence 
they  farther  concluded,  that  mankind  were 
under  no  sort  of  obligation  to  correct  their 
manners,  to  improve  their  minds,  or  to 
obey  the  Divine  laws ;  that  the  whole  of 
religion  consisted  not  in  acting,  but  in  suf- 
fering; and  that  all  the  precepts  of  Jesus 
Christ  are  reducible  to  this  one,  t/iat  we 
bear  nvith  cheerfulness  mid  fiatience  the 
events  that  happen  to  tis  through  the  Divine 
ivill,  andmakeit  our  constant andonly  study 
to  maintain  a  permQ.nent  travquiUity  of  mind. 
Thus  far  they  agreed :  but  the  Hattemists 
farther  affirmed,  that  Christ  made  no  ex- 
piation for  the  sins  of  men  by  his  death  ; 
but  had  only  suggested  to  us,  by  his  media- 
tion, that  there  was  nothing  in  us  tiiat 
could  offend  the  Deity  :  this,  they  say,  was 
Christ's  manner  of  justifying  his  servants, 
and  presenting  them  blameless  before  the 
tribunal  of  God.  It  was  one  of  their  dis- 
tinguished tenets,  that  God  does  not  punish 
men  for  their  sins,  but  by  their  sins. 
These  two  sects,  says  Mosheim,  still  sub- 
sist, though  they  no  longer  bear  the  names 
of  their  founders. 

HEARING  THE  WORD  OF  GOD,  is 
an  ordinance  of  Divine  appointment,  Rom. 
X.  17.    Prov.  viii.  4,  5.    Mark  iv.  24. 

Public  reading  of  the  scriptures  was  a 
part  of  synagogue  worship.  Acts  xiii.  15 
ActS;  xftr.  21.  and  was  the  practice  of  the 
Christians  in  primitive  times.  Under  the 
former  dispensation  there  was  a  public 
hearing  of  the  law  at  stated  seasons,  Deut. 
xxxi.  10,  13.  Neh.  viii.  2.  3.  It  seems 
therefore,  that  it  is  a  duty  incumlwut  on 
ns  to  hear,  and,  if  sensible  of  our  ignorance, 
■we  shall  also  consider  it  our  privilege. 
As  to  the  manner  of  liearing,  it  should  be 
co7istantly .,  Prov.  viii.  34.  Jam.  i.  24,  25. 
Atlrnti-vely,  Luke  xxi.  38.  Acts  x.  33. 
Luke  iv.  20,  22.  With  reverence,  Ps. 
Ixxxix.  7.  With  faith,  Heb.  iv.  2.  With 
an  endeavour  to  retain  what  we  hear,  Heb. 


ii.  1.  Ps.  cxix.  11.  With  a  humble  docile 
dis/iositio7i,  Luke  x.  42.  With  prayer, 
Luke  xviii.  The  advantages  of  hearing 
are,  information,  2  Tim.  iii.  16.  Conijic- 
tion,  1  Cor.  xiv.  24,  25.  Acts  ii.  Conver- 
sion, Ps.  xi.  7.  Acts  iv.  4.  Confirmation, 
.'Vets  xiv.  22.  Acts  xvi.  5.  Consolati07i, 
Phil.  i.  25.  Isa.  xl.  1,  2.  Isa.  xxxv.  3,  4. 
Stennet^s  Parable  of  the  Soiver.  Massilon's 
Scr.  vol.  ii  p.  131,  Eng.  trans.  GiWs  Body 
nf  Div.  vol.  lii.  p.  340,  8vo.  ed. 

HEART  is  used  for  the  soul,  and  all  the 
powers  thereof  ;  as  the  understanding,  con- 
science, will,  affections,  and  memory.  The 
heart  of  man  is  naturally,  constantly,  uni- 
versally, inexpressibly,  openly,  and  evident- 
ly depraved,  and  inclined  to  evil,  Jer.  xvii. 
9.  It  requires  a  Divine  power  to  renovate 
it,  and  render  it  susceptible  of  rigiu  impres- 
sions, Jer.  xxiv.  7.  When  thus  renovated, 
the  effects  will  be  seen  in  the  temper, 
conversation,  and  conduct  at  large.  See 
Faith,  Hope,  &c.  Hardness  of  heart  is 
that  state  in  which  a  sinner  is  inclined  to, 
and  actually  goes  on  in  rebellion  against 
Ciod-  This  state  evidences  itself  by  light 
views  of  the  evil  of  sm ;  ])artial  acknow- 
ledgment and  confession  of  it ;  frequent 
cnm mission  of  it;  pride  and  conceit;  in- 
gratitude ;  unconcern  about  the  word  and 
ordinances  of  God ;  inattention  to  Divine 
providences ;  stifling  convictions  of  con- 
science ;  shunning  reproof;  presumption, 
and  general  ignoi'ance  of  Divine  things. 
We  must  distinguish,  however,  between 
that  hardness  of  heart  which  even  a  good 
man  complains  of,  and  that  of  ^judicial 
nature.  1.  Judicial  hardness  is  very  sel-  , 
dom  perceived,  and  never  lamented;  a^ 
broken  and  contrite  heart  is  the  least' 
thing  such  desire  :  but  it  is  otherwise  with 
believers,  for  the  hardness  they  feel  is 
always  a  matter  of  grief  to  them,  Rom.  vii. 
24. — 2.  Judicial  hardness  is  perpetual ;  or, 
if  ever  there  be  any  remorse  or  relenting, 
it  is  only  at  such  times  when  the  sinner 
is  under  some  outward  afflictions,  or  filled 
with  the  dread  of  the  wrath  of  God ;  but 
as  this  wears  off  or  abates,  his  stupidity 
returns  as  much  or  more  than  ever,  Exod. 
ix.  27 ;  but  true  believers,  when  no  adverse 
dispensations  trouble  them,  are  often  dis- 
tressed because  tlieir  hearts  are  no  more 
affected  in  holy  duties,  or  inflamed  with 
love  to  God,  Rom.  vii.  15. — 3.  Judicial 
hardness  is  attended  with  a  total  neglect  of 
duties,  especially  those  that  are  secret : 
but  thnt  hardness  of  heart  which  a  believer 
complains  of,  though  it  occasions  his  going 
nncomt'!>rtal)ly  in  dul  v,  yet  does  not  keep 
him  from  it,  .Tub  xxiii.  2,  .3. — 4.  When  a 
person  is  judicially  hardened,  he  makes  use 
of  indirect  and  iniwarrantable  methods  to 
maintain  that  false  peace  which  he  thinks 
himself  luiiJpy  in  the  enjojnient  of;  but 
a  believer,  when  complaining  of  the  hard- 
ness of  his  heart,  cannot  be  satisfied  vvith 
any  thing  short  of  Christ,  Ps.  ci.  2. — 5.  Ju- 
dicial hardness  generally  opposes  the  inter- 


HE  A 


177 


HE  A 


est  of  truth  and  godliness ;  but  a  good  man 
considers  this  as  a  cause  nearest  his  heart ; 
anil  although  he  have  to  himent  his  luke- 
warmncss,  yet  he  constantly  desires  to  pro- 
mote it,  Fs.  Ixxii.  ly. 

Keefiing  the  heart,  is  a  duty  enjoined  in 
the  sacred  scriptures.  It  consists,  says  Mr. 
Flavel,  in  tlie  diligent  and  constant  use  and 
improvement  of  all  holy  means  and  duties  to 
preserve  the  soul  from  sin,  and  maintain 
communion  with  God  ;  and  this  lie  properly 
deserves,  supposes  a  previous  work  of  sanc- 
tification,  which  hath  set  the  heart  ligiit  by 
giving  it  a  new  bent  and  inclination.  1.  It 
includes  frequent  observation  of  the  frame 
of  the  heart,  Vs.  Ixxvii.  6. — 2.  Deep  humih- 
ation  for  heart  evils  and  disorders,  2  Chron. 
xxxiL  26. — 3.  Earnest  supplication  for  heart 
purifying  and  rectifying  grace,  Ps.  xix.  12  — 
4.  A  constant  holy  jealousy  over  our  hearts, 
Prov.  xxvii.  14. — 3.  It  includes  the  real  zing 
of  God's  presence  with  us,  and  setting  him 
before  us,  Ps.  xvi.  8.  Gen.  xvii.  1.  I'his  is, 
1.  The  hardest  work ;  heart  work  is  hard 
work,  indeed. — 2.  Constant  work,  Exod. 
xvii.  12 — o.  The  most  important  work, 
Prov.  xxiii.  26.  This  is  a  duty  which  should 
be  attended  to,  if  we  consider  it  In  connexion 
with  1.  The  honour  of  G.^d,  Isa.  Ixvi.  J — 2. 
The  sincerity  of  our  professinn,  2  Kings  x. 
31.  Ezek.  xxxiii.  31,  32. — 3.  The  beauty  of 
our  conversation,  Prov.  xii.  26.  Ps.  xlv.  1. — 

4.  The  comfort  of  our  souls,  2  Cor  xiii.  5. — 

5.  The  improvement  of  our  graces,  Ps.  Ixiii. 
5,  6. — 6.  'I'he  stability  of  our  souls  in  the 
hour  of  temptation,  1  Cor.  xvi.  13.  The  rea- 
sons in  which  we  should  more  fiarticulurly 
kee/i  our  hearts  are,  1.  The  time  of  pros- 
perity, Deut.  vi.  10,  12. — 2.  Under  afflictions, 
Heb.  vii.  5,  6. — 3.  The  times  of  Siou's  trou- 
bles, Ps.  Ixvi.  1,  4. — 4.  In  the  time  of  great 
and  threatening  dangers.  Is.  xxvi.  20,  21. — .1. 
Under  great  wants,  Phil.  iv.  6,  7. — 6.  In  the 
time  of  duty.  Lev.  x.  3. — 7.  Under  injuries 
received,  Rom.  xii.  17,  &c. — H.  In  tiie  criti- 
cal hour  of  temptation.  Matt.  xxvi.  41^ — 9. 
Under  dark  and  doubting  season^.,  Htb.  xii. 
8.  Is.  1.  10-T-lO.  In  time  of  opposition  and 
suftering,  1  Pet.  iv,  12,  13. — 11.  The  time  of 
sickness  and  death,  Jer.  xlix  11.  The  means 
10  be  made  use  of  to  keeji  our  hearts,  are, 
1.   Watchfulness,    Mark   xiii.   37. — 2.    Ex- 

•  amhiation,  Prov.  iv.  26. — 3.  Prayer,  Luke 
xviii  1. —  r.  Reading  God's  word,  John  v. 
39. — 5.  Dependence  on  Divine  grace,  Ps. 
Ixxxvi  11.  See  Flavel  on  keeping  the  Heart. 
Jamieson^s  Sermons  on  the  Heart.  Wright 
on  iiclf/iossession.  Ridgley's  Div.  qu  29. 

I  HE.\  THEN,  pagans  who  worship  false 
gods,  and  are  not  acquainted  either  with 
the  doctrines  of  the  Old  Testament  or  the 
Christian  dis))ensation.  For  many  ages  be- 
fore Ciirist,  the  nations  at  large  were  desti- 
tute of  the  true  religion,  and  gave  them- 
selves   up    to    the   grossest  ignorance,   tlie 

'  most  absurd  idolatry,  and  the  greatest 
crimes.  Even  tlie  most  learned  men  among 
the  heathens  were  in  general  inconsistent, 
and  complied  with,  or  promoted  the  vain 

Z 


customs  they  found  among  their  country- 
men. It  was,  however,  divinely  foretold, 
that  in  Abraham's  seed,  all  nations  should 
be  blessed  ;  that  the  heathen  should  be  ga- 
thered to  the  Saviour,  and  become  his  peo- 
ple. Gen.  xxii.  Id.  Gen.  xlix.  10.  Ps.  ii.  8. 
Isa.  xiii.  6,  7.  Ps.  Ixxii.  Isaiah  Ix.  In  or- 
der that  these  promises  mignt  be  accom- 
plished, vast  numbers  of  the  Jews,  after  the 
Chaldean  captivity,  were  left  scattered 
among  the  heathen.  The  Old  Testament 
was  translated  into  Greek,  the  most  com- 
mon language  of  the  heathen  ;  and  a  ru- 
mour ot  the  Saviour's  appearance  in  the  flesh 
was  spread  far  and  wide  among  them.  When 
Christ  came,  he  preached  chiefly  in  Galilee, 
where  there  were  midtitudes  of  Gentiles. 
He  assured  the  Greeks,  that  vast  numbers 
of  the  heathen  should  be  brouglit  into  the 
church.  Mat.  iv.  23.  John  xii.  '20,  24.  Fov 
1700  years  past  the  Jews  have  bten  gent - 
rally  rejected,  and  the  chuich  of  God  ha.> 
been  composed  of  the  Gentiles,  Ujnvard^ 
of  480  mil'ions  (nearly  half  the  globe),  how- 
ever, are  supposed  to  be  yet  in  pagan  dark- 
ness. Considerable  attempts  have  bten 
made  of  late  years  hr  the  enlightening  of 
the  heathen  ;  and  there  is  every  reason  to 
believe  good  has  been  done.  From  the  as- 
pect of  scripture  prophecy,  we  are  led  to 
expect  that  the  kingdoms  of  the  heathen  at 
large  shall  be  brought  to  the  hght  of  ih^ 
Gospel,  Matt.  xxiv.  14.  Isa.  Ix.  Ps.  xxii. 
28,  29.  Ps.  li.  7,  8.  It  has  been  mucli  dis- 
puted, whether  it  be  possible  that  the  hea- 
then should  be  saved  ^v'ithout  the  know  ledge 
of  the  Gospel :  some  have  absolutely  denieiL 
it,  upon  the  authority  of  those  texts  which 
universally  require  faith  in  Christ:  but  to 
this  it  is  anstvered,  that  those  texts  regard 
only  such  to  whom  the  Gospel  comes,  and 
are  capable  of  understanding  the  contents  of 
it.  The  truth,  says  Dr.  Doddridge,  seem.s 
to  be  tills :  tiiat  none  of  the  heathens  will 
be  condcnned  for  not  believing  the  Gns-pel, 
but  tliey  are  liable  to  condemnation  h;r  th'c; 
breach  of  Ciod's  natural  law  :  nevertheless 
if  there  be  any  of  them  in  whom  there  is  a 
prevailing  love  to  the  Divine  Being,  there 
seems  reason  to  believe  diat,  for  the  sake 
of  Christ,  though  to  them  unknown,  they 
may  be  accepted  by  God  ;  and  so  much  the 
rather,  as  the  ancient  Jews,  and  even  the 
apostles,  during  the  time  of  our  Saviour's 
abode  on  earth,  seem  to  have  had  but  little 
notion  of  those  doctrines,  which  those  who 
deny  the  salvability  of  the  heathens,  are 
most  apt  to  imagine,  Rom.  ii.  10. — 26.  Acts 
X.  34,  35.  Matt.  viii.  11,  U.  IVIr.  Grove, 
Dr.  VW.tts,  Saurin,  and  Mr.  Newton,  fa- 
vour the  same  opinion;  the  latter  of  wliom 
thus  observes:  "  If  v,e  suppose  a  heathea 
brouglit  to  a  sense  ui  his  misery  ;  to  a  con- 
viction that  he  cannot  be  happy  witliout  the 
favour  of  the  great  Lord  of  tlie  world  ;  to  a 
feelii>g  of  guik,  and  desire  of  mercy  and  that, 
tliough  he  has  no  explicit  knowledge  of  a 
Saviour,  he  directs  the  cry  of  his  heart  to 
thi  i;r.!^i-.a~,vn  Supreme,  to  have  nu.rcy  upc-n 


HE  A 


178 


HE  A 


him;  who  will  prove  that  such  ^iews  and 
desii-es  can  afise  in  the  heart  of  a  sinner, 
■without  the  energy  of  that  Spirit  which  Jesus 
is  exalted  to  bestow  ?  Who  will  take  upon 
him  to  say,  that  his  blood  has  not  suiiicient 
efficacy  to  redeem  to  God  a  sinner  who  is 
thus  disposed,  though  he  have  never  heard 
of  his  name  ?  Or,  who  has  a  warrant  to  af- 
firm, that  the  supposition  I  have  made  is, 
in  the  nature  of  things,  impossible  to  be  re- 
alized ?"  JVeiviOTi's  Messiah ;  Dr.  Watts' 
Strenf^lh  and  Weakness  of  Human  Reason, 
p.  106;  Sauriii's  Sermons^  vol.  ii.  p.  314; 
Grove's  JMoral  Philosophy,  vol.  i.  p.  128  ; 
Turret  Loc-,  vol.  i.  quest.  4,  §  1,  2,  \7 ; 
Doddridge's  Lectures,  lee.  240,  vol.  ii.  8vo. 
edit.;  tieUamy's  Religion  Delineated,  p. 
105 ;  Ridgley's  iiody  of  Divinity,  qu.  60 ; 
Gale''s  Court  of  the  Gentiles  ;  Consideration 
on  the  Religious  Worship  of  the  Heathen  ; 
Rev.  W.  Jo7ies'  JVorks,  vol.  xii. 

HEAVEN  is  considered  as  a  place  in 
some  remote  part  of  infinite  space,  in  which 
the  omnipresent  Deity  is  said  to  afford  a 
nearer  and  more  immediate  view  of  him- 
self, and  a  more  sensible  manifestation  of  his 
glory,  than  in  the  other  parts  of  the  universe. 

That  there  is  a  stace  of  future  happiness, 
both  reason  and  scripture  indicate:  a  ge- 
neral notion  of  happiness  after  death  has 
obtained  among  the  wiser  sort  of  heathens, 
who  have  only  had  the  light  of  nature  to 
guide  them.  If  we  examine  the  human 
mind,  it  is  also  evident  that  there  is  a  na- 
tural desire  after  happiness  in  all  men  ; 
and,  which  is  equally  evident,  is  not  attain- 
ed in  this  life.  It  is  no  less  observable,  that 
in  the  present  state,  there  is  an  unequal 
distribution  of  things,  which  makes  the  pro- 
vidences of  God  very  intricate,  and  which 
cannot  be  solved  without  supposing  a  future 
state.  Revelation,  however,  puts  it  beyond 
all  doubt.  The  Divine  Being  hath  promis- 
ed it,  1  John  ii.  25.  1  John  v.  11.  James  i. 
12.  hath  given  us  some  intimation  of  its 
glory,  1  Pet.  iii.  4.  22.  Rev.  iii.  4.  declares 
Christ  hath  taken  possession  of  it  for  us, 
John  xiv.  2,  3.  and  informs  us  of  some  al- 
ready there,  both  as  to  their  bodies  and 
souls",  Gen.  v.  24.  2  Kings  ii. 

Heaven  is  to  be  considered  as  a  place  as 
well  as  a  state :  it  is  expressly  so  termed  in 
scripture,  John  xiv.  2,  3;  and  the  existence 
of  the  body  of  Christ,  and  those  of  Enoch 
and  Elijah,  is  a  further  proof  of  it.  Yea,  if 
it  be  not  a  place,  where  can  these  bodies  be  ? 
and  where  will  the  bodies  of  the  saints  exist 
after  the  resurrection?  Where  this  place 
is,  however,  cannot  be  determined.  Stime 
have  though  it  to  be  beyond  the  starry  fir- 
mament; and  some  of  the  ancients  imagin- 
ed that  tlieir  dwelling  would  be  in  tiie  sun. 
Othcis  suppose  t!ie  air  to  be  the  seat  of  the 
blessed.  Others  think  that  the  saints  will 
dwell  upon  earth  when  it  shall  he  restored 
to  its  paradisaical  state ;  but  these  sr-pposi- 
tions  are  more  curious  than  edifying,  and  it 
b;  comes  us  to  be  silent  where  Divine  reve- 
latlou  is  so.    . 


Heaven,  however,  ive  are  assured,  is  a 
/dace  of  i7iexpressible  felicity.  The  names 
given  to  it  are  proofs  of  this  :  it  is  called 
paradise,  Luke  xxiii.  43.  Light,  Rev.  xxi. 
23.  A  building  and  mansioyi  of  God,  2  Cor. 
V.  1.  John  xiv.  2.  A  city,  Heb.  xi.  10,  16. 
A  better  country,  Heb.  xi.  16.  An  inherit' 
ance.  Acts  xx.  32.  A  kingdom.  Matt.  xxv. 
34.  A  crown,  2  Tim.  iv.  8.  Glory,  Ps. 
Ixxxiv.  11.  2  Cor.  iv.  17.  Feace,  rest,  and 
joy  of  the  Lord,  Isa.  Ivii,  2.  Heb.  iv.  9. 
Matt.  xxv.  21,  23.  The  felicity  of  heaven 
j  will  consist  in  freedom  from  all  evil,  both 
of  soul  and  body.  Rev.  vii.  17;  in  the  enjoy- 
ment of  God  as  the  chief  good ;  in  the  com- 
pany of  angels  and  saints,  in  perfect  ho- 
liness, and  extensive  knowledge. 

It  has  been  disputed,  -tvhether  there  are 
degrees  of  glory  in  heaven.  The  arguments 
against  degrees  are,  that  all  the  people  of 
God  are  loved  by  him  with  the  same  love, 
all  chosen  together  in  Christ,  equally  in- 
terested in  the  same  covenant  of  graccy 
equally  redeemed  with  the  same  price,  and 
all  predestinated  to  the  same  adoption  of 
children ;  to  suppose  to  the  contraiy,  it  is 
said,  is  to  eclipse  the  glory  of  Divine  grace, 
and  carries  with  it  the  legal  idea  of  being 
rewarded  for  our  works.  On  the  other  side 
it  is  observed,  that  if  the  above  reasoning 
would  prove  any  thing,  it  would  prove  too 
much,  viz.  that  we  should  all  be  upon  an 
equality  in  the  present  world  as  well  as  that 
which  is  to  come;  for  we  are  now  as  much 
the  objects  of  the  same  love,  purchased  by 
the  same  blood,  Sec,  as  we  shall  be  hereaf- 
ter. The  rewards  contaiti  nothing  incon- 
sistent with  the  doctrine  of  grace,  because 
those  very  works  which  it  pleaseth  God  to 
honour,  are  the  effects  of  his  own  operation 
That  all  rewards  to  a  gliilty  creature  have 
respect  to  the  mediation  of  Christ.  That 
God's  graciously  connecting  blessings  with 
the  obedience  of  his  people,  serves  to  shew, 
not  only  his  love  to  Christ  and  to  them,  but 
his  regard  to  righteousness.  That  the  scrip- 
tures expressly  declare  for  degrees,  Dar. 
xii,  3.  Matt.  x.  41,  42.  Matt.  xix.  28,  29. 
Luke  xix.  16.  19.  Rom.  ii.  6.  1  Cor.  iii. 
8.  1  Cor.  XV.  41,  42.  2  Cor.  v.  10.  Gal. 
vi.  9. 

Another  question  has  sometimes  been  pro- 
posed, viz.  Whether  the  saints  shall  know 
each  other  in  heaven  ? 

"  The  arguments,"  says  Dr.  Ridgley, 
"  which  are  generally  brought  in  defence  of 
it,  are  taken  from  those  instances  recorded 
in  scripture,  in  which  persons,  who  have 
never  seen  one  another  before,  have  imme- 
diately known  each  other  in  this  world, 
by  a  special  immediate  divine  revelation 
given  to  them,  in  hke  maimer,  as  Adam 
knew  that  Eve  was  taken  out  of  him; 
and  therefore  says.  This  is  now  bone  of 
viy  bone,  and  fesh  of  my  fesh:  she  shall 
be  called  ivoinan,  because  she  was  taken 
out  of  mail.  Gen.  ii.  23.  He  was  last 
into  a  dead  sleep,  when  God  took  out 
one  of  his  ribs,  and  so  formcji   the   ivo.' 


HE  A 


179 


HE  A 


man,  as  we  read  in  the  foregoing  words : 
yet,  the  knowledge  hereof  was  communica- 
ted to  him  by  God.  Moreover,  we  I'ead 
that  Peter,  James,  and  John,  knpw  Moses, 
and  Elias,  Matt.  xvii.  as  appears  from  Pe- 
ter's making  a  particular  mention  of  them : 
Let  us  mafce  three  tabernacles  ;  one  for  thee, 
one  for  Moses,  and  one  for  Elias,  4th  ver. 
though  he  had  never  seen  them  hefnre. 
Again  ;  our  Saviour,  in  the  parable,  repre- 
sents the  ric/i  man  as  seeing  jihraham  afar 
vff,  and  Lazarus  in  his  bosom,  Luke  xvi. 
23.  and  speaks  of  him  as  addressing  his 
discourse  to  him.  From  such  like  argu- 
ments, some  conclude  that  it  may  be  infer- 
red that  the^saints  shall  know  one  another 
in  heaven,  v/hen  joined  together  in  the  same 
assembly. 

'•  Moreover  some  think  that  this  may  be 
proved  from  the  apostle's  words,  in  1  Thess. 
ii.  19,  20.  What  is  our  hope  or  joy ,  or  cronvn 
of  rejoicing  ?  Are  not  even  ye  in  the  pre- 
sence of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  at  his  com- 
ing ?  for  ye  are  our  glory  and  joy  ;  which 
seems  to  argue,  that  he  apprehended  their 
happiness  in  heaven  should  contribute,  or 
be  an  addition  to  his,  as  he  was  made  an 
instimment  to  bring  them  thither ;  even  so, 
by  a  parity  of  reason,  every  one  who  has 
been  instrumental  in  the  convei'sion  and 
building  up  others  in  their  holy  faith,  as  the 
apostle  Paul  was  with  respect  to  them,  these 
shall  tend  to  enhance  their  praise,  and  give 
them  occasion  to  glorify  God  on  their  be- 
half. Therefore  it  follows,  that  they  sliall 
know  one  another  ;  and  consequently  they 
%vho  have  walked  together  in  the  ways  of 
God,  and  have  been  useful  to  one  another  as 
relations  and  intimate  friends,  in  what  re- 
spects more  especially  their  spiritual  con- 
cerns, these  shall  bless  God  for  the  mutual 
advantages  which  they  have  received,  and 
consequently  shall  know  one  another.  Again'; 
some  prove  this  from  that  expression  of  our 
Saviour  in  Luke  xvi.  9.  Make  to  yourselves 
friends  of  the  mammon  of  unrighteousness, 
that,  when  ye  fail,  they  may  receive  you 
into  everlasting  habitations  ;  especially  if 
by  these  everlasting  habitations  be  meant 
heaven,  as  many  suppose  it  is ;  and  then 
the  meaning  is,  that  they  whom  you  have 
relieved,  and  shewn  kindness  to  in  this 
world,  shall  express  a  particular  jo\'  upon 
your  being  admitted  into  heaven  ;  and  con- 
sequently they  shall  know  you,  and  bless 
God  for  your  having  been  so  useful  and  be- 
neficial to  them. 

"  To  this  it  is  objected,  that  if  the  saints 
shall  know^  one  another  in  heaven,  they  shall 
know  that  several  of  those  who  were  their 
intimate  friends  here  on  earth,  whom  thev 
loved  with  very  great  affection  are  not  there : 
and  this  will  have  a  tendency  to  give  them 
some  uneasiness,  and  a  diminution  of  their 
joy  and  happiness. 

'"  To  this  it  may  be  replied,  that  if  it  be 
allowed  that  the  saints  shall  know  tliat  some 
whom  they  loved  on  earth  are  not  in  heaven, 
this  will  give  them  no  uneasiness ;  since  that 


affection  which  took  its  rise  principally 
from  the  relation  which  we  stood  in  to  per- 
sons on  earth,  or  the  intimacy  that  we 
have  contracted  with  them,  will  cease  in 
another  world,  or  rather  run  in  another 
channel,  and  be  excited  by  superior  mo- 
tives ;  namely,  tlieir  relation  to  Christ ;  tlajt 
perfect  holiness  which  they  are  adon.cd 
with  ;  their  being  joined  in  the  same  bles- 
sed society,  and  engaged  in  the  same  em- 
plw'ment ;  together  with  their  former  use- 
fulness one  to  another  in  pi'omoting  their 
spiritual  welfare,  as  made  subservient  to 
the  happiness  they  enjoy  there.  And  as 
for  others,  who  are  excluded  from  their  so- 
ciety, they  will  think  themselves  obliged,  | 
out  of  a  due  regard  to  the  justice  and  ho-  f 
liness  of  God,  to  acquiesce  in  his  righteous 
judgments.  Thus,  the  inhabitants  of  heaven 
are  represented  as  adoring  the  Divine  per- 
fections, when  the  vials  of  God's  wrath 
were  poured  out  upon  his  enemies,  and  say- 
ing, T/iou  art  righteous  O  Lord,  because 
thou  hast  judged  thus  :  true  and  righteous 
are  thy  judgments.  Rev.  xvi.  5.  7. 

"  Another  question  has  been  sometimes 
asked,  viz.  IVhether  there  shall  be  a  diver- 
sity of  languages  in  heaven,  as  there  is  on 
earth  ?  This  we  cannot  pretend  to  deter- 
mine. Some  think  that  there  shall ;  and 
that  as  persons  of  all  nations  and  tongues 
shall  make  up  that  blessed  societj',  so  they 
shall  praise  God  in  the  same  language 
which  they  before  used  when  on  earth  ;  and 
that  this  worship  may  be  performed  with 
the  greatest  harmony,  and  to  mutual  edi- 
fication, all  the  saints  shall,  by  the  immedi- 
ate power  and  providence  of  God,  be  able 
to  understand  and  make  use  of  every  one 
of  those  different  languages,  as  well  as  their 
own.  This  they  found  on  the  apostle's 
words,  in  which  he  says,  7'hat  at  the  name 
of  Jesus  every  knee  shall  bo\v,  and  that 
every  tongue  should  confess  that  Jesua 
Christ  is  Lord ;  which  they  suppose  has 
a  respect  to  the  heavenly  state,  because  it 
is  said  to  be  done  both  by  those  that  are  in 
heaven,  anu  those  that  are  oji  earth,  Phil. 
ii.  10,  11.  But  thou2,h  the  apostle  speaks 
by  a  metonymy  of  different  tongues,  that  is, 
persons  who  speak  different  languages  be- 
ing subject  to  Christ,  he  probably  means 
thereby  persons  of  different  nations  whe- 
ther they  shall  praise  him  in  their  own 
language  in  heaven,  or  no.  Therefore 
some  conjecture,  that  the  diversity  of  lan- 
guages siiall  then  cease,  inasmuch  as  it  took 
its  first  rise  from  God's  judicial  hand,  when 
he  confounded  the  speech  of  those  who  pre- 
sumptuously attempted  to  build  the  city  and 
tower  of  Babel ;  and  this  has  been  ever 
since  attended  with  many  inconveniences. 
And,  indeed,  the  apostle  seems  expressly  to 
intimate  as  much,  when  he  says,  speaking 
concerning  the  heavenly  state,  that  tongues 
shall  cease,  1  Cor.  xiii.  8.  that  is,  the  pre- 
sent variety  of  languages. — Moreover,  since 
the  gift  of  tongues  was  bestowed  on  the 
apostles  for  the  gathering  and  building  up  | 


HEL 


180 


HEL 


the  church  in  the  first  ages  thereof,  "which 
end,  when  it  was  answered,  this  extraordi- 
nary dispensation  ceased  ;  in  like  manner, 
it  is  probable  that  hereafter  the  diversity 
of  languages  shall  cease." 

*'  I  am  sensible,"  says  Dr.  Ridgley, 
"there  are  some  who  object  to  this,  that 
the  saints  understanding;  all  languages,  will 
be  an  addition  to  their  honour,  glory,  and 
happiness.  But  t©  tliis  it  may  be  answer- 
ed, that  though  it  is,  indeed,  an  accom- 
plishment, in  this  world,  for  a  person  to 
■understand  several  languages,  that  arises 
t'roiii  the  subserviency  thereof  to  those  valu- 
able ends  that  are  answered  thereby:  but 
this  would  be  entirely  removed,  if  the  di- 
versity of  languages  be  taken  away  in  hea- 
ven, as  some  suppose  it  will." 

"  There  are  some,  who,  it  may  be,  give 
tpo  much  scope  to  a  vain  curiosity,  when 
t  hey  pretend  to  inquire  what  this  language 
shall  be,  or  determine,  as  the  Jews  do,  and 
with  them  some  of  the  fathers,  that  it  shall 
l)e  Hebrew,  since  their  arguments  fnr  it  are 
jwt  sufficiently  conclusive,  which  are  prin- 
cipally these,  viz.  That  this  was  the  lan- 
^^uage  with  which  God  inspired  man  at  hrst 
in  paradise,  and  that  which  the  saints  and 
patriarchs  spake,  and  the  church  generally 
made  use  of  in  all  ages  till  our  Saviour's 
time  :  and  that  it  was  this  language  which 
lie  himself  spake  while  here  on  earth ; 
and  since  his  ascension  into  lieaven  he  spake 
to  Paul  in  the  Hebrerj  tongue.  Acts  xvi. 
34.  And  when  the  inhabitants  of  heaven 
are  described  in  the  Revelations  as  praising 
God,  there  is  one  word  used,  by  which  their 
praise  is  expressed,  namely,  Hallelujah, 
which  is  Hebrew  ;  the  meaning  whereof  is, 
Praise  ye  the  Lord.  But  all  these  argu- 
ments are  not  sufficiently  convincing,  and 
therefore  we  must  r^-ckon  it  no  more  than  a 
conjecture." 

However  undecided  we  may  be  as  to  this 
and  some  other  circumstances,  this  we  may 
i)e  assured  of,  that  the  J:a/i/:iness  of  heaven 
rvfU  be  eternal  W'hctlier  it  will  be  progres- 
sive or  not,  and  that  the  saints  shall  always 
he  increasing  in  their  knowledge,  joy,  &c.  is 
not  so  clear  Some  suppose,  tliat  this  indi- 
cates an  imperfection  in  the  felicitv  of  tiie 
saints  for  any  addition  to  be  made  ;  but 
others  tliink  it  quite  analogous  to  the  deal- 
ings of  God  with  us  here  ;  and  thrt,  from 
the  nature  of  the  mind  itself,  it  may  be 
e-oncluded.  But  however  this  may  be,  it  is 
certain  that  our  happiness  will  be  complete, 
J  Pet.  V.  10.  1  P?t.  v.  4.  Heb.  xi.  10  il'attfi' 
-Death  and  /leaven;  (jilts  Hody  of  Di- 
-Anity,  vol  ii.  p  ^395  ;  Saurin'ii  Ser.  vol.  iii. 
J).  o21  ;  To{ilad/fs  ]Vorkft,  vol.  iii  p.  471  ; 
Hatea'  IVorlcs  ;  Ridgley's  Body  cf  Divinity, 
quest.  90 
HEBHE'vVS.  See  Jews. 
HELL,  the  place  of  ilivine  punishm.cnt 
sifter 'dc at]).  As  all  religions  have  snp])o- 
sed  a  future  state  of  existence  after  this 
jife,  so  all  have  their  hell,  or  place  of  tor- 
ment, in  which  i-.v^  wicked  are  to  be  pun- 


ished. Even  the  Heathens  had  their  tar- 
tara  ;  and  the  JMahometans,  we  find,  believe 
the  eternity  of  rcAvards  and  punishments  ; 
it  is  not,  therefore,  a  sentiment  peculiar  to 
Christianity. 

There  have  been  many  curious  and  use- 
less conjectures  respecting  the  place  of  the 
damned;  the  ancients  generally  supposed 
it  was  a  region  of  fire,  near  the  centre  of 
the  earth.  Mr.  Swinden  endeavoured  to 
prove,  that  it  is  seated  in  the  sun.  Mr  Whis- 
ton  advanced  a  new  and  strange  hypothesis  ; 
according  to  him,  the  comets  are  so  many 
hells,  appointed  in  their  orbits,  alternately 
to  can*)'  the  damned  to  the  confines  of  the 
sun,  there  to  be  scorched  by  its  violent 
heat ;  and  then  to  return  with  them  beyond 
the  orb  of  Saturn,  there  to  starve  them  in 
those  cold  and  dismal  regions.  But,  as  Dr. 
Doddridge  observes,  we  must  here  confess 
our  ignorance  ;  and  shall  be  much  better 
employed  in  studying  how  we  may  avoid 
this  place  of  horror,  than  in  labouring  to  dis- 
cover wliere  it  is. 

Of  the  nature  of  Ihis  punishment  we 
may  form  some  idea  from  the  expressions 
made  use  of  in  scripture.  It  is  called  a 
place  of  t.-jrment,  Luke  xvi.  21.  the  bottom- 
less pit.  Rev.  XX.  3 — 6.  a  prison,  1  Pet  iii. 
19.  darkness.  Matt.  viu.  12.  Jude  13.  fire, 
Matt.  xiii.  42,  50,  a  worm  that  never  dies, 
Mark  ix.  44,  48.  the  second  death,  Rev. 
xxi.  S.  the  wrath  of  God,  Rom.  ii.  5.  It 
has  been  debated,  whether  there  will  be  a 
material  fire  in  hell  ?  On  the  affirmative 
side  it  is  observed,  that  fire  and  brimstone 
are  represented  as  the  ingredients  of  the 
torment,  of  the  wicked.  Rev.  xiv.  10,  11. 
Rev.  XX.  10.  That  as  the  body  is  to  be 
raised,  and  the  whole  man  to  lie  condemned, 
it  is  reasonable  to  believe  there  will  be 
some  corporeal  punishment  provided,  and 
therefore  probably  material  fire.  On  the 
negative  side  it  is  alleged,  that  the  terms 
abjve- mentioned  are  metaphorical,  and  sig- 
nify no  more  than  raging  desire  or  acute 
l^ain  ;  and  that  the  Divine  Being  can  suf- 
ficiently punish  the  wicked,  by  immediately 
acting  on  their  minds,  or  rather  leaving 
them  to  the  guilt  and  stings  of  their  own 
ctjuscience.  According  to  several  passages, 
it  seems  there  will  be  different  degrees  of 
punishment  in  hell,  Luke  xii.  47.  Kom.  ii 
12.  Matt.  X.  20,  21.  Matt.  xii.  25,  32.  Heb. 
X.  28,  29. 

yJ.'i  to  its  duratio7i,  it  has  been  observed, 
that  it  cannot  be  eternal,  because  there  is 
no  proportion  between  temporary  crimes 
and  eternal  ])unishments  ;  that  the  word 
everlasting  is  not  to  be  taken  in  its  utmost 
extent;  and  that  it  signifies  no  more  than  a 
long  time,  or  a  time  whose  precise  bonnda- 
rv  is  unknown.  But  in  answer  to  this  it  is 
alleged,  tliat  the  same  word  is  used,  and 
that  sometimes  in  the  very  same  place  to 
express  the  eternity  of  the  happiness  of  the 
righteous,  and  the  e'crniiy  of  the  misery 
of  the  wicked  ;  and  that  there  is  no  reason 
to  believe,  that  the  words  express  two  such 


HEL 


181 


HE  M 


different  ideas,  as  standing  in  the  same  con- 
nection. Besides,  it  is  not  true,  it  is  observed, 
that  temporary  crimes  do  not  deserve  eternal 
punishments,  because  the  infinite  majesty 
of  an  ofl'ended  God  adds  a  kind  of  infinite 
evil  to  bin,  and  tlierefore  exposes  the  sinner 
to  infinite  punishment ;  and  that  herel)y 
God  vindicates  his  injured  majesty,  and  glo- 
rifies liis  justice.  See  articles,  Destruc- 
TioNisTS  and  Universalists.  Herry 
67.  Lee.  vol.  ii.  p.  559,  562 ;  Dawes  on 
Hell,  ser.  x.  W/iistori  on  ditto ;  Stuuiden, 
JDrexelius,  and  Edwards  on  ditto.  A  late 
popular  writer  has  observed,  that  in  the 
35th  sermon  of  Tillotson,  eveiy  thing  is  said 
upon  the  eternity  of  hell  torments,  that 
can  be  known  with  any  certainty. 

HELL,  Christ's  descent  into.  That 
Christ  locally  descended  into  hell,  is  a  doc- 
trine believed  not  only  by  tlie  Papists,  but 
by  many  among  the  reformed.  1.  The  text 
chieBy  brouglit  forward  in  support  of  tliis 
doctrine,  is  the  1st  Peter,  iii.  19.  *'  By  which 
he  went  and  preached  to  the  spirits  in  pri- 
son ;"  but  it  evidently  appears,  that  the 
"  spirit"  there  mentioned  was  not  Christ's 
human  soul,  but  a  divine  nature,  or  rather 
the  Holy  Spirit  (by  which  he  was  quicken- 
ed, and  raised  from  the  dead)  and  by  the 
inspiration  of  which,  granted  to  Noah,  he 
preached  to  those  notorious  sinners,  who 
are  now  in  the  prison  of  hell  for  their  dis- 
obedience. 

2.  Christ,  when  on  the  cross,  promised 
the  penitent  thief  his  pi-esence  that  day  in 
paradise;  and  accordingly,  when  he  died, 
he  committed  his  soul  into  his  heavenly  Fa- 
ther's hand :  in  heaven  therefore,  and  not 
in  hell,  we  are  to  seek  the  separate  spirit 
of  our  Redeemer  in  this  period,  Luke  xxiii. 
43,  46. 

3.  Had  our  Lord  descended  to  preach  to 
the  damned,  there  is  no  supposable  reason 
^vhy  the  unbelievers  in  Noah's  time  only 
should  be  mentioned  rather  than  tliose  of 
Sodom,  and  the  unhappy  multitudes  that  di- 
ed in  sin.  But  it  may  be  said,  do  not  both 
the  Old  and  New  Testaments  intimate  this  ? 
Ps.  xvi.  10.  Acts  ii.  34.  But  it  may  be  an- 
swered, that  the  words,  "thou  wilt  not 
leave  my  soul  in  hell,"  may  be  explained 
(as  is  the  manner  of  the  Hebrew  poets)  in 
the  following  words:  "Neither  wilt  thou 
suffer  thine  holy  One  to  see  corruption."  So 
the  same  words  are  used,  Ps.  Ixxxix.  48. 
"  What  man  is  he  that  liveth,  and  shall  not 
see  death  .i*  shall  he  deliver  his  soul  from 
the  hand  of  the  grave }  In  the  Hebrew 
C^IXty)  the  word  commonly  rendered  hell, 
j)roperly  signifies  "  the  invisible  state,"  as 
our  word  hell  originally  did ;  and  the  other 
word  (tySj)  signifies  not  always  the  im- 
mortal soul,  but  the  animal  frame  in  gene- 
ral, either  living  or  dead.  Bishop  Pearson 
and  Dr.  Barrow  on  the  Creed  ;  Edward's 
Hist  of  RedemptioTi,  nnte.<?,  p.  351,  377. 
Rids^ley's  Body  of  Divinity,  p.  30'^,  3d  ed. 
Doddridge  and  Guise  on  1  Pet.  iii.  19. 

HELLENISTS,  a  term  occurring  in  the 


Greek  text  of  the  New  Testament,  and 
which,  in  the  English  version,  is  rendered 
Grecians,  Acts  vi.  1.  The  critics  are  divi- 
ded as  to  the  signification  of  the  word. 
Some  observe,  that  it  is  not  to  be  under- 
stood as  signifying  those  of  the  religion  of 
tile  Greeks,  but  those  who  spoke  Greek. 
The  authors  of  the  Vulgate  version  render 
it  like  our  Grxci ;  but  Messit^urs  Du  Port 
Royal,  more  accurately,  Juifs  Greces,  Greek 
or  Grecian  Jews;  it  being  the  Jews  who 
spoke  Greek  that  are  here  treated  of,  and 
who  are  hereby  distinguished  from  the 
Jews  called  Hebrews,  that  is,  who  spoke  the 
Hebrew  tongue  of  that  time. 

The  Hellenists,  or  Grecian  Jews,  were 
those  who  lived  in  Et!;ypt,  and  other  parts  t 
where  the  Greek  tongue  pre\  ailed  :  it  is  to 
them  we  owe  the  Greek  version  of  the 
Old  Testament,  commonly  called  the  Se^i- 
tiiaffint,  or  that  of  the  Seventy. 

Salmasius  and  Vossius  are  of  a  different 
sentiment  with  respect  to  the  Hellenists : 
the  latter  will  only  have  them  to  be  those 
who  adhered  to  the  Grecian  interests.  Sca- 
liger  is  represented  in  the  Scaligerana  as 
asserting  the  Hellenists  to  be  the  Jews  who 
lived  in  Greece  and  other  places,  and  who 
read  the  Greek  Bible  in  their  synagogues, 
and  used  the  Greek  language  in  sacris ; 
and  thus  they  were  opposed  to  the  Hebrew 
Jews,  who  performed  their  public  worship 
in  the  Hebrew  tongue ;  and  in  this  sense 
St.  Paul  speaks  of  himself  as  a  Hebrew  of 
the  Hebrews,  Phil.  iii.  5,  6. — 2.  A  Hebrew 
both  by  nation  and  language.  The  Hellen- 
ists are  thus  properly  distinguished  from 
the  Hellenes,  or  Greeks,  mentioned  John 
xii.  20.  who  were  Greeks  by  birth  and  na- 
tion, and  yet  proselytes  to  the  Jewish  reli- 
gion. 

HEMEROBAPTISTS,  a  sect  among  the 
ancient  Jews,  thus  called  from  their  wash- 
ing and  batliing  eveiy  day  in  all  seasons; 
and  performing  this  custom  with  the  great- 
est solemnity,  as  a  religious  rite  necessary 
to  salvation. 

Epi))hanus,  who  mentions  this  as  the 
fourth  heresy  among  the  Jews,  observes, 
that  in  other  points  these  heretics  had  much 
the  same  opinion  as  the  Scribes  and  Phari- 
sees; only  that  they  denied  the  resurrec- 
tion of  the  dead,  in  common  with  the  Sad- 
ducees,  and  retained  a  few  other  of  the 
improprieties  of  these  last. 

The  sect  who  pass  in  the  East  under  the 
denomination  of  Sabinns,  calling  themselves 
Mendai,  liahi,  or  the  disciples  of  St.  John, 
and  whom  the  Europeans  entitle  the  Chris- 
tians of  St.  John,  because  they  yet  retain 
some  knowledge  of  the  Gospel,  is  probably 
of  Jewish  origin,  and  seems  to  have  been 
derived  from  the  ancient  Hemerobaptists ; 
at  least,  it  is  certain  that  John,  whom  they 
consider  as  the  founder  of  their  sect,  bears 
no  sort  of  similitude  to  .John  tlie  Baptist, 
but  rather  resembles  the  person  of  that 
name  whom  the  ancient  writers  represent 
as  the  chief  of  the  Jev^sli  HemeroI)aptists 


HER 


182 


HEK 


The  ambiguous  Christians  dwell  in  Persia 
and  Arabia,  and  principally  at  Bassora ;  and 
their  rengion  consists  in  bodily  washings, 
performed  frequently  and  with  great  solem- 
nity, and  attended  with  certain  ceremonies 
which  the  priests  mingle  with  this  supersti- 
tious service. 

HENOTICON,  a  famous  edict  of  the 
emperor  Zeno,  published  A.  D.  482,  and  in- 
tended to  reconcile  and  re-unite  the  Euty- 
chians  with  the  Catholics.  It  was  procured 
of  the  emperor  by  means  of  Acacius,  patri- 
arch of  Constantinople,  with  the  assistance 
of  the  friends  of  Peter  Mongus  and  Peter 
Trullo.  The  sting  of  this  edict  lies  here  ; 
that  it  repeats  and  confirms  all  that  has 
been  enacted  in  the  councils  of  Nice,  Con- 
stantinople, Ephesus,  and  Chalcedon,  against 
the  Arians.  Nestorians,  and  Eutychians, 
■without  making  any  particular  mention  of 
the  council  of  Chalcedon.  It  is  in  the  form 
of  a  letter,  addressed  by  Zeno  to  the  bish- 
ops, priests,  monks,  and  people  of  Egypt 
and  Lybia.  It  was  opposed  by  the  Ca- 
tholics, and  condemned  in  form  by  pope 
Felix  II. 

HENRICIANS,  a  sect  so  called  from 
Henry,  its  founder,  who,  though  a  monk  and 
hermit,  undertook  to  reform  the  superstition 
and  vices  of  the  clerg>^  For  this  purpose 
he  left  Lausanne,  in  Switzerland,  and,  re- 
moving from  diflferent  places,  at  length  set- 
tled atTholouse,  in  the  year  1147,  and  there 
exercised  his  ministerial  function ;  till  being 
overcome  by  the  opposition  of  Bernard,  ab- 
bot of  Clairval,  and  condemned  by  pope  Eu- 
genius  III.  at  a  council  assembled  at  Rheims, 
he  was  committed  to  a  close  prison  in 
1148,  where  he  soon  ended  his  days. — This 
reformer  rejected  the  baptism  of  infants, 
severely  censured  the  corrupt  manners  of 
the  clergy,  treated  the  festivals  and  cere- 
ruonies  of  the  church  with  the  utmost  con- 
tempt, and  held  private  assemblies  for  in- 
culcating his  peculiar  doctrines. 

HERACLEONITES,  a  sect  of  Chris- 
tians, the  followers  of  Heracleon,  who  re- 
fir.ed  upon  the  Gnostic  divinity,  and  main- 
tained, that  the  world  was  not  the  immedi- 
ate production  of  the  Son  of  Ciod,  liut  that 
he  was  only  the  occasional  cause  of  Tts  being 
created  by  the  demiurgus  The  Hcracleo- 
nites  denied  the  authority  of  the  prophecies 
of  the  Old  Testauient ;  maintained  that  they 
were  m^re  random  sounds  in  the  air;  and 
that  St.  i-Am  the  Bapti.st  was  the  only  true 
voice  that  directed  to  the  Messiah. 
^  HERESIARCH,  an  arch  heretic,  the 
founder  or  inventor  of  an  heresy  ;  or  a  chief 
of  a  sect  of  heretics. 

HERESY.  This  word  signifies  sect  or 
choice  ;  it  was  not  in  its  earliest  acceptation 
conceived  to  convey  any  reproach,  since  it 
•was  indifferently  used  either  of  a  party  af>- 
proveo,  or  of  one  disapproved  by  the  wri- 
ter. See  Acts  v.  17.  xv.  3.  Afterwards  it 
was  generally  used  to  signify  some  funda- 
mental error  adhered  to'with  obstinacv,  2 
P«.  ii.  1.  Gal.  V.  20. 


According  to  tho  laws  of  this  kingdem, 
heresy  consists  in  a  denial  of  some  of  the 
essential  doctrines  of  Christianity,  publicly 
and  obstinately  avowed.  It  must  be  ac- 
knowledged, however,  that  particular  modes 
of  belief  or  unbelief,  not  tending  to  overturn 
Christianity,  or  to  sap  the  foundations  of 
morality,  are  by  no  means  the  object  of  co- 
ercion by  the  civil  magistrate.  What  doc- 
trines shall  therefore  be  adjudged  heresy, 
was  left  by  our  old  constitution  to  the  de- 
termination of  the  ecclesiastical  judge,  who 
had.  herein  a  most  arbitrary  latitude  allow- 
ed him ;  for  the  general  definition  of  an 
heretic,  given  by  Lyndewode,  extends  to  the 
Smallest  deviations  from  the  doctrines  of 
the  holy  church :  "  Hcereticus  est  qui  dubi- 
tat  de  fide  catholka,  et  qui  negligit  servare 
ea  qu£  Romana  ecclesia  statuit,  seu  servare 
decreverat :"  or,  as  the  statute,  2.  Hen.  IV, 
chap.  15,  expresses  it  in  English,  "  teach- 
ers of  erroneous  opinions,  contrary  to  tlie 
faith  and  blessed  determinations  of  the  holy 
church." — Very  contrary  this  to  the  usage 
of  the  first  general  councils,  which  define  all 
heretical  doctrines  with  the  utmost  precisions 
and  exactness;  and  what  ought  to  have  al- 
leviated the  punishment,  the  uncertainty  of. 
the  crime,  seems  to  have  enhanced  it  in 
those  days  of  blind  zeal  and  pious  cruelty. 
The  sanctimonious  hypocrisy  of  the  Canon- 
ists, indeed,  went,  at  first,  no  farther  than 
enjoining  penance,  excommunication,  and 
ecclesiastical  deprivation,  for  heresy ;  but 
afterwards  they  proceeded  boldly  to  im- 
prisonment by  the  ordinary,  and  confiscation 
of  goods  in  pios  usus.  But  in  the  mean 
time,  they  had  prevailed  upon  the  weakness 
of  bigoted  princes  to  make  the  civil  poAver 
subservient  to  their  purposes,  by  making  < 
heresy  not  only  a  temporal,  but  even  a  cap- 
ital offience ;  the  Romish  ecclesiastics  de- 
termining, without  appeal,  whatever  they 
pleased  to  be  heresy,  and  shifting  off  to  the 
secular  arm  the  odium  and  drudgery  of  exe« 
cutinns,  with  which  they  pretended  to  be 
too  tender  and  delicate  to  intermeddle.  Nay, 
they  affected  to  intercede  on  behalf  of  the 
convicted  heretic,  well  knowing  tlfat  at  the 
same  time  they  were  delivering  the  unhap- 
py victim  to  certain  death.  See  Act  of 
Faith. — Hence  the  capital  punishments  in- 
flicted on  the  ancient  Donatists  and  Mani- 
chxans  by  the  emperors  Theodosius  and 
Justinian;  hence,  also,  the  constitution  of  the 
emperor  Frederic,  mentioned  by  Lyndewode, 
adjudging  all  persons,  without  distinction,  to 
be  bnnit  with  fire,  who  were  convicted  of 
heresy,  by  the  ecclesiastical  judge.  The 
same  emperor,  in  another  constitution,  or- 
dained, that  if  any  temporal  lord,  when  ad- 
monished by  the  church,  should  neglect  to  ^  i 
clear  his  territories  of  heretics  within  a  year,  I 
it  should  be  lawful  for  good  Catholics  to  ' 
seize  and  occupy  the  lands,  and  utterly  to 
exterminate  the  heretical  possessors.  And 
upon  this  foundation  was  built  that  arbitrary 
power,  so  long  claimed,  and  so  fatally  ex- 
erted by  the  pope,  of  disposing  even  of  the 


HER 


182 


IIER 


kingdoms  of  refractory  princes  to  more  du- 
tiful sons  of  the  chui'ch.    The  immediate 
event  of  this  constitution  serves  to  illustrate 
at  once  the  gratitude  of  the  holy  see,  and 
the  just  punishment  of  the  royal  bigot ;  for, 
upon  the  authority  of  this  very  constitution, 
the  pope  afterwaixis  expelled  this  veiy  em- 
peror Frederic  from  his  kingdom  of  Sicily, 
and  gave  it  to  Charles  of  Anjou.     Christi- 
anity being  thus  deformed  by  the  dxmon  of 
persecution  upon  the  continent,   our  own  is- 
land could  not  escape  its  scourge.    Accord- 
ingly, we  find  a  writ  de  haretico  comburen- 
do,  i.  e.  of  burning  the  heretic.     See  that 
article.    But  the  king  might  pardon  the  con- 
vict by  issuing  no  process  against  him  ;  the 
writ  de  h^retico   comburendo   being  not   a 
writ  of  course,  but  issuing  only  by  the  spe- 
cial direction  of  the  king  in  council.    In  the 
reign  of  Henry  IV.,  when  the  eyes  of  the 
Christian  world  began  to  open,  and   the 
seeds  of  the  Protestant  religion  (under  the 
opprobrious  name  of  Lollardy)  took  root  in 
this  kingdom,  the  clergy,  taking  advantage 
from  the  king's  dubious  title,  to  demand  an 
increase  of  their  own  power,  obtained  an  act 
of  parliament,  which  sharpened  the  edge 
of  persecution  to  its  utmost  keenness.     See 
HitRETico  CojiBURENDO.     By  Statute   2. 
Henry  V.  c.  7.,  Lollardy  was  also  made  a 
temporal  offence,  and  indictable  in  the  king's 
court ;  which  did  not  thereby  gain  an  exclu- 
sive, but  only  a  concurrent  jurisdiction  with 
the  bishop's  consistory.    Afterwards,  when 
the  refoi'mation  began  to  advance,  the  pow- 
er of  the  ecclesiastics  was  somewhat  mo- 
derated ;  for  though  what  heresy  is  was  not 
then  precisely  defined,  yet  we  are  told  in 
some  poiats  what  it  is  not ;  the  statute  25. 
Hen.  VIII.   c.   14.  declaring,  that  offences 
against  the  see  of  Rome  are  not  heresy;  and  i 
the  ordinaiy  being  thereby  restrained  fromi 
proceeding  in  any  case  upon  mere  suspicion  ;  | 
i.  e.  unless  the  party  be  accused  by  two  cre- 
dible witnesses,  or  an  indictment  of  heresy 
be  first  previously  found  in  the  king's  courts  j 
of  common  law.    And  yet  the  spirit  of  per- 1 
secuiion  was  not  abated,   but  only  diverted' 
into  a  lay  channel ;  for  in  six  years  after- 1 
wards,   by  stat.   31.  Hen.  VIII.  c.   14.  the! 
bloody  law  of  the  six   articles  was  made,] 
which  were  "  determined  and  resolved  by  i 
the  most  godly  study,  pain,   and  travail  of 
his  majesty ;  for  which  his  most  humble  and 
obedient   subjects,  tlie   lords  sfiiritiial  and 
temporal,  and  the  commons  in  parliament 
assembled,  did  render  and  give   unto  his 
highness  their  most  high  and  hearty  thanks?" 
The  same  statute  established  a  mixed  juris- 
diction of  clergy  and  laity  for  the  trial  and 
conviction  of  heretics  ;  Henry  being  equally 
intent  on  destroying  the  supremacy  of  the 
bishops  of  Rome,  and  establishing  all  their 
other  corruptions  of  the  Christian  religion. 
Without  recapitulating  the  various  repeals 
.nnd  revivals  of  these  sanguinary  laws  in  the 
two  succeeding  reigns,  we  proceed  to  the 
reign  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  when  the  refor- 
mation was  finally  established  with  temper 
and  decency,  uosuUied  with  party  rancour 


or  personal  resentment.    By  stat.  1.  Eliz., 
c.   1.  all  former  statutes  relating  to  heresy 
are  repealed ;  which  leaves  the  jurisdic- 
tion of  heresy  as  it  stood  at  common  law, 
viz.    as  to  the   infliction  of  common   cen- 
sures in  the  ecclesiastical   courts ;    and  in 
case   of  burning  the  heretic,  in  the  pro- 
vincial synod  only.    Sir  Matthew  Hale  is, 
indeed,  of  a  different  opinion,    and    holds 
that  such  power  resided  in  the  diocesan 
also;  though  he  agrees  that  in  either  case 
the  writ  de  hxretico  combure7ido  was  not 
dem.andable  of  common   right,    but  grant- 
able  or  otherwise  merely  at  the  king's  dis- 
cretion.   But  the  principal  point  now  gained 
was,  that  by  this  statute  a  boundary  was  for 
the  first  tirne  set  to  what  should  be  account- 
ed heresy ;  nothing  for  the  future  being  to 
be  so  determined,  but  only  such  tenets  which 
have  been  heretofore  so  declared, — 1.   by 
the  words  of  the  canonical  scriptures ; — 2.  by 
the  first  four  general  councils,  or  such  others 
as  have  only  used  the  words  of  the  holy  scrip- 
tures; or, — 3.  which  shall  hereafter  be  so 
declared  by  the  parliament,  with  the  assent 
of  the   clergy  in  convocation.      Thus  was 
heresy  reduced  to  a  greater  certainty  than 
before,  though  it  might  not  have  been  the 
worse  to  have  defined  it  in  terms  still  more 
precise  and  particular ;  as  a  man  continued 
still  liable  to  be  burnt  for  what,  perhaps,  he 
did  not  understand  to  be  heresy,  till  the  ec- 
clesiastical judge  so  intei*preted  the  words 
of  the  canonical  scriptures.     For  the  writ 
de  hferetico,  comburendo  remained   still  in 
force,  till  it  was  totally  abolished,  and  heresy 
again  subjected  only  to  ecclesiastical  cor- 
rection, Jiro  salute  animas,  by  stat.  29.  Car. 
II.  c.  9. ;  when,  in  one  and  the  same  reign, 
our  lands  were  delivered  from  the  slavery 
1  of  military  tenures ;  cur  bodies  from  arbi- 
trary imprisonment  by  the  habeus  corpus 
act ;  and  our  minds  from  the  tyranny  of  su- 
perstitious bigotr}%  by  demolishmg  this  last 
badge  of  persecution  in  the  English  Jaw. 
Every  thing  is  now -less  exceptionable,  with 
respect  to  the  spiritual  cognizance  and  spir- 
itual punishment  of  heresy ;  unless,  perhaps, 
that  the  crime  ought  to  be  more  strictly  de- 
fined, and  nV)  prosecution  permitted,  even  in 
the  ecclesiastical  courts,  till  the  tenets  in 
question  are  by  proper  authority  previously 
declared  to  be  heretical.    Under  these  re- 
strictions, some  think  it  necessary,  for  tlie 
support  of  the  national  religion,  that  the  of- 
ficers of  the   church  should  have  power  to 
censure  heretics ;  yet  not  to  harass  them 
with  temporal  penalties,   much  less  to  ex- 
terminate or  destroy  them.  The  legislature 
has,  indeed,  thought  it  proper  that  the  civil 
magistrate  should  interpose  with  regard  to 
one  species  of  heresy,  very  prevalent  in 
modern  times;  for  by  stat.  9,  10-  W.  III.  c. 
32.  if  any  person,  educated  in  the  Christian 
i  religion,   or  professing  the  same,  shall,  by 
writing,  printing,  teaching,  or  advised  speak- 
ing, denying  any  one  of  the  persons  in  the 
Holy  Trinity  to  be  God,  or  maintain  that 
there  are  more  gods  than  one,  he  shall  un- 
'  dergo  the  same  penalties  and  incapacities 


HER 


184 


HE  X 


which    were  inflicted  on   apostacy  by   the  ' 
same   statute.     Enc.  Brit.  Dr.  J'oster  and 
Siebbiiig  on  Herety  ;  Hullet's    Discouraea. 
vol.  iii.  No.  9.  p.  338,  408  ;  Dr.  Campbell' n 
Prei    Diss,  to  the  Gosfuls. 

HEKETIC,  a  genciai  ndme  for  all  such 
persons  under  any  religion,  but  especially 
the  Christian,  as  profess  or  teach  opinions 
contrary  to  the  established  faith,  or  to  what 
is  made  the  standard  of  orthodoxy.  See 
last  article,  and  Larduer's  History  of  the 
Heretics  of  the  tivo  first  Centuries. 

HERMIANl,  a  sect  in  the  second  centu- 
ry; so  called  from  their  leader  Hermias. 
One  of  their  distinguishing  tenets  was,  ihat 
God  is  corporeal ;  another,  that  Jesus  Christ 
did  not  ascend  into  heaven  with  his  body, 
but  left  it  in  the  sun. 

HERMIT,  a  person  who  retires  into  soli- 
titde  for  the  purpose  of  devotion.  Who 
were  the  first  hermits  cannot  easily  be 
known ;  though  Paul,  surnamed  the  her 
mit,  is  generally  reckoned  the  first.  The 
prosecutions  of  Decius  and  Valerian  were 
supposed  to  have  occasioned  their  first 
rise. 

HERMOGENIANS,  a  sect  of  ancient 
heretics;  denominated  from  their  leader 
Hermogenes,  who  lived  towards  the  close 
of  the  second  century.  Hermogenes  esta- 
blished matter  as  his  first  principle;  and 
regarding  matter  as  the  fountain  of  all  evil, 
he  maintained  that  the  world,  and  every 
thing  contained  in  it,  as  also  the  souls  of 
men  and  other  spirits,  were  formed  by  the 
Deity  from  an  uncreated  and  eternal  mass 
of  corrupt  matter.  The  opinions  of  Her- 
mogenes, with  regard  to  the  origin  of  the 
world,  and  the  nature  of  the  soul,  were 
warmly  opposed  bv  TertuUian. 

HERNHUTTERS.     See    Moravians. 

HERODIANS,  a  sect  among  the  Jews, 
at  the  time  of  our  Savioui',  Matt.  xxii.  16, 
Mark  iii.  6.  The  critics  and  commenta- 
tors are  very  much  divided  with  regard  to 
the  Herodians.  St.  Jerome,  in  his  dialogue 
against  the  Luciferians,  takes  the  name  to 
have  been  given  to  such  as  owned  Herod 
for  the  Messiah ;  and  Tertulian  and  Epi- 
phanus  are  of  the  same  opinion.  But  the 
same  Jerome,  in  his  comment  on  St.  Mat- 
thew, treats  this  opinion  as  ridiculous;  and 
maintains  that  the  Pharisees  gave  this  a])- 
peliation,  by  way  of  ridicule,  to  Herod's 
soldiers,  who  paid  tributt-  to  the  Romans 
agreeable  to  which  the  Syrian  inti  r])reters 
render  the  word  by  the  domestics-  of  Herod, 
i.  e.  "  his  courtiers."  M.  Simon,  in  his  notes 
on  the  !22d  chapter  of  Matthew,  advances 
a  more  pi-olwble  opinion :  the  name  Htro- 
dian  he  imagines  to  have  been  given  to 
.such  as  adhered  to  Herod's  party  and  in- 
terest, and  were  for  preserving  the  gi.vern- 
ment  in  his  family,  about  whicli  were-  great 
divisions  among  the  Jews.  F.  Hardouin 
will  have  the  Herodians  and  Saducees  to 
have  been  the  same.  Dr.  Prideaux  is  of 
opinion,  that  they  derived  tlieir  name  from 
Hei'od  the  Great ;  and  that  they  Aveve  dis- 


tinguished from  the  other  Jews  by  their 
concun-ence  with  Herod's  scheme  of  sub- 
jecting himself  and  Ins  donimions  to  the 
Komans,  and  likewise  by  c»;i;iplying  with 
many  of  their  heathen  usages  and  custonii. 
This  synibolizing  with  idolatry  upon  views 
of  interest  and  worldly  policy,  was  proba- 
bly that  leaven  of  Herod,  against  which  our 
Saviour  cautioned  his  disciples.  It  is  fur- 
ther probable,  tliat  they  were  chiefly  of  the 
sect  of  the  Sadducees;  because  the  leaven 
of  Herod  is  also  denominated  the  leaven  of 
the  Sadducees. 

HETERODOX,  something  that  is  con- 
trary to  the  faith  or  doctrine  established 
m  the  true  church.     See  Orthodox. 

HEXAPLA,  a  Bible  disposed  in  six  col- 
umns, containing  the  text  and  divers  ver- 
sions thereof,  compiled  and  published  by 
Origen,  with  a  view  of  securing  the  sacred 
text  from  future  corruptions,  and  to  cor- 
rect those  that  had  been  already  introdu- 
ced. Eusebius  relates,  that  Origen,  after 
his  return  from  Rome  under  Caraealla,  ap- 
plied himself  to  learn  Hebrew,  and  began 
to  collect  the  several  versions  that  had 
been  made  of  the  sacred  writings,  and  of 
these  to  conjpose  his  Tetrapla  and  Hex- 
apla  ;  others,  however,  will  not  allow  him 
to  have  begun  till  the  time  of  Alexander, 
after  he  had  retired  into  Palestine,  about 
the  year  231.  To  conceive  what  this  Hex- 
apla  was,  it  must  be  observed,  that,  be- 
sides the  translation  of  the  sacred  writings, 
called  the  Septuagint,  made  under  Ptolemy 
Philadelphus,  above  280  years  before  Christ, 
the  scripture  had  been  since  translated  in- 
to Greek,  by  other  interpreters.  The  first 
of  those  versions,  or  (reckoning  the  Septua- 
gint) the  second,  was  that  of  Aquila,  a 
proselyte  Jew,  the  first  edition  of  which  he 
published  in  the  12th  year  of  the  emperor 
Adrian,  or  about  the  year  of  Christ  128 ; 
the  third  was  that  of  Symmachus,  ])ublish- 
ed,  as  is  commonly  supposed,  under  Marcus 
Aurelius,  but,  as  some  say,  under  Septimus 
Sevenis,  about  the  year  200  :  the  fourth  was 
tiiat  of  Theodotion,  prior  to  that  of  Symma- 
chus, under  Com  modus,  or  about  the  year 
175.  Tiiese  Greek  versions,  says  Dr.  Iveii- 
nicott,  were  made  by  the  Jews,  from  their 
corrupted  copies  of  the  Hebrew,  and  were 
dt-signed  to  stand  in  the  place  of  the  Se- 
venty, against  which  they  were  prejudiced, 
because  it  seemed  to  favour  the  Christians. 

The  fifth  was  found  at  Jericho,  in  the 
reign  of  Caraealla,  about  the  ywar  217  ;  and 
the  sixth  was  discovered  at  Nicopolis,  in 
the  reign  of  Alexander  Severus,  about  the 
year  228 ;  lastly,  Origin  himself  recovered 
part  of  a  seventh,  containing  only  the 
Psalms.  Now  Origen,  who  had  held  fre- 
quent disputations  with  the  Jews  in  Egypt 
and  Palestine,  observing  that  they  always 
objected  to  those  passages  of  scripture  quo- 
tec!  against  iheni,  appealed  to  the  Hebrew 
text,  "the  better  to  vindicate  those  ]Kissat;e.«., 
and  confound  the  Jews,  by  shewing  tliac 
the  Seventy  had  given  the  sense  of  the  He- 


HIG 


185 


HOL 


<  brew;  or  rather  to  shew,  by  a  number  of 
different  versions,  what  the  real  sense  of 
the  Hebrew  was,  unilertook  to  reduce  all 
these  several  versions  into  a  body,  along 
1  with  the  Hebrew  text,  so  as  they  might 
be  easily  confronted,  and  afford  a  mutual 
light  to  each  other.  He  made  the  Hebrew 
text  his  standard;  and  allowing  that  cor- 
ruptions might  have  happened,  and  that  tlie 
old  Hebrew  copies  might,  and  did  read 
1  diffei'enily,  he  contented  himself  w:Jth  mark- 
i  ing  such  words  or  sentences,  as  were  not 
'  in  the  Hebrew  text,  nor  the  later  Gi-cek 
;  versions,  and  adding  such  words  or  senten- 
!  ces,  as  were  omitted  in  tiie  Seventy,  pre- 
fixing an  asterisk  to  the  ad<litions,  and  an 
'  obelisk  to  the  others.  In  order  to  this,  he 
made  choice  of  eight  columns ;  in  tiie  f.rst 
he  made  the  Hebrew  text,  in  Hebrew  clia- 
racters ;  in  the  second,  the  same  text  in 
Greek  characters;  the  rest  were  hlled 
with  the  several  versions  above-mentii.n- 
ed  ;  all  the  columns  answering  verse  for 
verse,  and  phrase  for  phrase  ;  and  in  the 
Psalms,  there  was  a  ninth  column  fcr  the 
seventh  version.  This  work  Origen  called 
'£|«3-A«,  lAxa/i/a,  q.  d.  nexiufile,  or  W(  rk 
of  six  columns,  as  only  regardnig  the  first 
six  Greek  versions.  St.  Epipiianius,  taking 
in  likewise  the  two  columns  of  the  text, 
calls  the  work  Octapla,  as  consisting  of 
eight  columns.  This  celebrated  work,  which 
Muntfaucon  imagines  consisted  of  .sixty  large 
volumes,  perished  long  ago ;  prr  bably  with 
the  library  at  Cxsarea,  where  it  was  pre- 
served in  the  year  653 :  though  several  of 
the  ancient  writers  have  preserved  us.  pie- 
ces thereof,  particularly  St  Chrysostom  on 
the  Psalms,  Phi'eponus  in  his  Hexamt-ron, 
8cc.  Some  modern  writers  have  earnestly 
endeavoured  to  collect  fragnicnb  uf  the 
Hexapla,  particularly  Flaminius,  Nobilius, 
Diiisius,  and  F.  Montfaucon.  in  two  folio 
vohunes,  printed  at  Paris  in  1713. 

HIERACITES.  heretics  in  the  third  cen- 
ttiry ;  so  calit  d  from  their  leader  Hierax, 
a  philosopher  of  Eg\  pt,  Avho  taught  that 
Melchizedec  was  the  Holy  Ghost ;  denied 
the  resurrection  and  condemned  marriai^e. 
HIERARCHY,  an  ecclesiastical  estab- 
lishment. The  word  is  also  used  in  re- 
ference to  the  subordmation  some  suppose 
there  is  among  the  angels  :  but  whetlier  they 
are  to  be  considered  as  having  a  govern- 
ment or  hierarchy  among  themselves,  so 
that  one  is  superior  in  oflice  and  dignity  to 
othcn-s  ;  or  whether  they  have  a  kind  of'do- 
minion  over  one  another  ;  or  whether  seme 
are  made  partakers  of  privileges  others  are 
deprived  of,  cannot  be  determined,  since 
scripture  is  silent  on  this  matter. 

HIGH  CHURCHMEN,  a  term  first  giv- 
en to  nnn-jurors,  who  refused  to  acknow- 
ledge James  HI.  as  their  lawful  king,  and 
who  had  very  proud  notions  of  church  ])ow- 
er ;  but  it  is  now  commonly  used  in  a  more 
extensive  signification,  and' is  Hpirlied  to  all 
those  who,  though  far  from  beijig  non-jurors. 
}et  formiximpous  and  ambiguous  conceptions 

A  a 


^of  the    authority  and  jurisdiction  of   the 
church. 
HISTORY    ECCLESIASTICAL.     See 

Ecclesiastical  HisTonv. 

HOFFMANISTS,  those  who  espoused 
the  sentiments  of  Daniel  Hoffman,  profes- 
sor in  the  university  of  Helmstadt,  who,  in 
the  year  1598,  taught  that  the  light  of 
reason,  even  as  it  appears  in  the  writing  of 
Plato  ai-.d  Aristotle,  is  adverse  to  religion; 
and  that  the  more  the  human  undcrstand- 
h)g  is  cultivated  by  philosophical  study,  the 
mere  perfectly  is  tlie  enemy  supplied  with 
weapons  of  defence. 

HOLINESS:,  freedom   from    sin,  or  the 
conformity  of  the  heart  to  God.     It    dees 
n*)t   consist  in  knowledge,  talents,   nor  out- 
ward ceremonies  of  religion,   but  hath    its 
si^at  in  tiie  lieart,  and  is  the  effect  of  a  prin- 
ciple of  grace  implanted   by  ilie  Holy  Spi- 
rit, Eph.   ii.  8,  10   Ji-hn  iii.'o.  Rom.  vi.  22. 
It  is  the  esstnce  of  happiness  and  the  basis 
of  true  dignity,  Prov.  iii.  \7.  Prov.  iv.  8.  It 
will  manifest  itself  by  the  propriety  of  our 
conversation,  regularity  of  our  temper,  and 
uniformity  of  cur  lives.     It   is   a    principle 
pr(igres>ive    in   its   operation,    Prov.  iv.  18, 
pHiid  absolutely  essential  to  the  enjoyment  of 
M  God  here  and  hereafter,  Heb.  xii.  14.    See 
I' Sanctification.    Works. 
;|     HOLiNESS  OF  GOD,  is  the  purity  and 
];  rectitude  of  his  nature.     It   is  an  ea&ential 
1!  attribute  of  Gcd,    and  what   is    the    glory, 
I'  lustre,  and  harmony  of  all  his  other  perfec- 
I'tions,  Ps.  xxvii.  4.  Exod.  xv.  11.  He  could 
i:  not  be  Gcd  without  it,  Deut.  xxxii.  4.    It  is 
\'.!?2jinite  and  unbounded;  it  cannot   be  in- 
j,  creased  or  diminished.     Im?nu(adle  ami  in- 
\\Turiable,    Mai.    iii.    6.      God  is  originally 
llhoiv;  he  is  so  of  and  in  himself,  aad    uio 
h  author  und  /iromoter  of  all  holiness   amon.L; 
!his  creatures.     The  holiness  of  Grd  is  visi- 
j  ble  by  his  works  ;  he  made  oil  things  holy, 

I  Gen.  i.  31.     By  his  providences,   all  which 

II  are  to  promote   holiness   in    the   end,  Heb. 
'  xii.  10.     By  his  grace,  which  influences  the 

subjects  of  it  to  be  holy.  Tit.  ii.  10.  12.  By 
his  ivord,  which  commands  it.  Pet.  i.  15, 
By  his  ordinances,  which  he  hath  appointed 
for  that  end.  Jer.  xtiv.  4,  5.  By  the/iwiis/i- 
ip.ent  of  sin  in  the  death  of  Christ,  Is.  liii. 
and  by  the  eternal  tiav.shment  of  it  in  wick- 
ed men.  Matt.  xxv.  46.  See  Attributes. 
HOLOCAUST,  formed  from  oA«5, 
"  whole,"  and  y.ot,iu,  "  I  consume  with 
fire ;"  a  kind  of  sacrifice  wherein  the  whole 
burnt-offering  is  burnt  or  consumed  bv  tire, 
as  an  acknowledgment  that  God,  iV-g.  Crea- 
tor, Preserver,  aiu:-  Lord  of  all,  was  worthy 
of  all  honour  and  Wv:rship,  and  as  a  t(  ken 
of  men's  givins;  themselves  entirely  up  to 
him.  It  is  called  in  scripture  a  burnt  offer- 
ing. Sacrifices  cf  this  sort  are  i.ften  men- 
tioned by  the  Heatliens  as  well  as  Jews. 
They  appear  to  have  been  in  use  long  be^- 
fore  the  institution  rf  t!.r  other  Jewish  sa- 
crifices by  the  law  of  Moses,  Job  i.  5.  Job 
xlii.  8.  Gen.  xxii.  13.  Gen.  viii.  20.  On 
this  account,  the  Jews,  who  would  not  aJ- 


HOL 


186 


HOM 


iow  the  Gentiles  to  offer  on  their  altar  any 
other  sacrifices  peculiarly  enjoined  by  the 
law  of  Moses,  admitted  them  by  the  Jewish 
priests  to  offer  holr  causts,  because  these 
were  a  sort  of  sacrifices,  prior  to  the  law, 
and  common  to  all  nations.  During  their 
subjection  to  the  Romans,  it  was  no  uncom- 
mon thing  for  those  Gentiles  to  offer  sacri- 
fices to  the  God  of  Israel  at  Jerusalem. 
Holocausts  were  deemed  by  the  Jews  the 
most  excellent  of  all  their  sacrifices.  See 
Sacrifice. 

HOLY  DAY,  a  day  set  apart  by  the 
church  for  the  commemoration  of  some 
saint,  or  some  remarkable  particular  in  the 
life  of  Chris*.  It  has  been  a  question  agi- 
tated by  divines,  whether  it  be  proper  to 
appoint  or  keep  any  holy  days  (the  Sabbath 
excepted.)  The  advocates  for  holy  days 
su\)pose  that  they  have  a  tendency  to  im- 
press the  minds  of  the  people  with  a  great- 
er sense  of  religion  ;  that  if  the  acquisitions 
and  victories  of  men  be  celebrated  with  the 
highest  joy,  how  much  mere  these  events 
which  relate  to  the  salvation  of  man ;  such 
as  the  birth,  death,  and  resun-ection  of 
Christ,  8cc.  On  the  other  side  it  is  observ- 
ed, that  if  holy  days  had  been  necessary 
under  the  present  dispensation,  Jesus  Christ 
"Would  have  observed  something  respecting 
them,  whereas  he  was  silent  about  them  ; 
that  it  is  bringing  us  again  into  that  bondage 
to  ceremonial  laws  from  which  Christ  freed 
us ;  that  it  is  a  tacit  reflection  on  the  Head 
of  the  church  in  not  appointing  them  ;  that 
such  days,  on  the  whole,  are  moie  perni- 
cious than  useful  to  society,  as  they  open  a 
door  for  indolence  and  profaneness  ;  yea, 
that  scripture  speaks  against  such  days. 
Gal.  iv.  9 — 11.  Cave's  Prim.  Christ.  JVtl- 
son's  Fasts  and  Feasts  ;  RobiJisoiVs  His- 
tory and  Mystery  cf  Good  Friday,  a?id 
Lectures  on  JYo^iconfcrmity ;  A  country 
Vicar  s  Sermon  on  Christmas-day,  1753 ; 
BroKvn^s  JK'atural  and  Revealed  Religion, 
page  535  ;  ^Vfa/'.s  History  of  the  Puritans, 
vol.  ii.  page  116,  qu. 

HOLY  GHOST,  the  third  person  in  the 
Trinity. 

I.  The  Holy  Ghost  is  a  real  and  dis- 
ti?ict  person  in  the  Godhead.  1.  Personal 
powers  of  rational  understanding  and  will 
are  ascribed  to  him,  1  Cor.  ii.  10,  11.  1 
Cor.  xh.  11.  Eph.  iv.  3. — 2.  He  is  joined 
with  the  other  two  Divine  persons,  as  the 
tbject  of  worship  and  fountain  of  blessings. 
Matt,  xxviii.  19.  2  Cor.  xiii.  14.  1  John 
V.  7. — 3.  In  the  Greek,  a  masculine  article 
or  epithet  is  joined  to  his  name  Pneuma, 
which  is  naturally  of  the  neuter  gender,  John 
xiv.  26.  XV.  26.  xvi.  13.  Eph.  i.  1?. — 4.  He 
appeared  under  the  emblem  of  a  dove,  and 
of  cloven  tongues  of  fire.  Matt-  iii.  Actsii. 
— 5.  Personal  offices  ef  an  intercessor  belong 
to  him.  Rom.  viii.  26 — 6.  He  is  represented 
as  performing  a  multitude  of  personal  acts  -, 
as  teaching,  speaking,  witnessing,  &c.  iVIark 
xiii."  11.    Acts' XX.  23.    Rom.  viii.   \5,  16. 


1  Cor.  vi.  19.    Acts  xv.  28.    Acts  xvi.   6, 
7,  &c.  &c.  &c. 

II.  It  is  no  less  evident  that  the  Holy 
Ghost  is  a  Divine  Person,  equal  in  fioiver 
and  glory  with  the  Fat  her  and  Son.  1.  Names 
proper  only  to  the  Most  High  God  are  as- 
cribed to  him  ;  as  Jehovah,  Acts  xxviii.  25. 
with  Is.  vi.  9.  and  Heb.  iii.  7.  9,  with  Exod. 
xvii.  7.  Jer.  xxxi.  31,  34.  Heb.  x.  15, 16.  God, 
Acts  V.  3,  4.  Lord,  2  Cor.  iii.  17,  19.  "  The 
Lord,  the  Spirit." — 2.  Attributes  proper  only 
to  the  Most  High  God  are  ascribed  to  him ; 
as  Omniscience,  1  Cor.  ii.  10,  11.  Is.  xl.  13, 
14.  Onniipresence,  Ps  cxxxix.  7.  Eph  ii.  17, 
18.  Rom.  viii.  26,  27.  Omnipotence,  Luke  i. 
35.  Eternity,  Heb.  ix.  14 — 3.  Divine  works 
are  evidently  ascribed  to  him.  Gen.  i.  2  Job 
xxvi.  13.  Ps.  xzxiii-  6.  civ.  30 — 4,  Worship 
proper  only  to  God,  is  required  and  ascribed 
to  him.  Is.  vi.  3.  Acts  xxviii.  25.  Rom,  ix.  1. 
Rev.  i.  4.  2  Cor.  xiii.  14.  Matt  xxviii.  19. 

III.  The  agency  or  ivork  of  the  Holy 
Ghost  is  divided  by  some  into  extraordinary 
and  ordinary  The  former  by  immediate  in- 
s/iiration,  making  men  profihets,  the  latter 
by  his  rege7ierating  and  sanctifying  influen- 
ces making  men  saints.  It  is  oniy  the  latter 
which  is  noiu  to  be  expected.  Tins  is  more 
fiariicularly  displayed  in  1.  Co'^viction  of 
sin,  J(hn  xvi.  8,  9 — 2.  Conversion,  1  Cor. 
xii.  Eph.  i.  17.  18.  1  Cor.  ii.  10,  12.  John  iii. 
5.  6  — 3.  SanctiJicaiio7i,  2  Thes.  ii.  13.  1  Cor. 
vi.  11.  Rom.  XV.  16. —  4.  Consolation.  John 
xiv.  16,  26. —  5.  Direction,  John  xiv.  If. 
Rom.  viii.  14. — 6.  Conjirmation,  R"m.  viii. 
16,  26.  1  John  ii.  24.  Eph.  i.  13,  14.  As 
to  the  gift  of  the  Holy  Spii'it,  says  a  good 
writer,  it  is  not  expected  to  be  bestowed  in 
answer  to  our  prayers,  to  inform  us  imme- 
diately, as  by  a  whisper,  when  either  awake 
or  asleep,  that  we  are  the  children  of  God: 
or  in  any  other  way,  than  by  enabling  us  to 
exercise  repentance,  and  faith,  and  love,  to 
God  and  our  neighbour.  2.  VVe  are  not  to 
suppose  that  he  reveals  any  thing  contrary 
to  the  written  word,  or  more  than  is  con- 
tained in  it,  or  through  any  other  medium. 
3.  We  are  not  so  led  by,  or  operated  upon 
by  the  Spirit,  as  to  neglect  the  means  of 
grace.  4.  The  Holy  Spirit  is  not  promised 
nor  given  to  render  us  infallible.  5.  Nor  is 
the  Holy  Spirit  given  in  order  that  we  may 
do  any  thing,  which  was  not  before  our  duty. 
See  Trinity,  and  Scott's  Four  Sermons 
on  Repentance,  the  Fvil  of  Sin,  Love  to 
God,  and  the  Promise  of  the  Holy  Spirit, 
p.  86 — 89.  Hawker's  Sei'mons  on  the  Holy 
Ghost.  Pearson  on  the  Creed,  8  article. 
Dr.  Owen  on  the  Spirit.  Hunion's  16  Ser- 
mons on  the  S/iirit. 

HOLY  GHOST,  PROCESSION  OF.  See 
Procession. 

HOMILY,  a  sermon  or  discourse  upon 
some  point  of  religion  delivered  in  a  plain 
manner,  so  as  to  be  easily  understood  by  the 
common  people.  The  Greek  homily,  says 
M.  Fleury,  signifies  a  familiar  discourse,  hke 
the  Latin  serino,  and  discourses  delivered 
'  in  the  church  took  these  denominations,  to 


UON 


HOP 


I  intimate  tkat  they  were  not  !\arangues,  or 
'  matters  of  ostentation  and  flourish,  like  those 
of  profane  orators,  but  familiar  and  useful 
discourses,  as  of  a  master   to  his  disciples, 
,  or  a  father  to  his  children.  All  the  homilies 
of  the  Grc-ek  and  Latin  fathers  are  compo- 
i  sed  by  bishops.  We  have  none  of  Tertullian, 
!  Clemens    Alexandriims,    and   many    other 
I  learned    persons,   bicause  in  the  first  ages 
i  none  but  bishops  were  admitted  to  preach. 
The  priviiegK  was  not  ordinarily  allowed  to 
j)riests    till    towards  the  fifth  century     St. 
Chrysostom    was   the   first   presbyter  that 
preached  statedly.  Origen  and  St.  Augustine 
also  preached,  but  it  was  by  a  peculiar  li- 
cence or  privilege. 

Photius  distinguishes  homUy  from  sermon, 
in  that  the  homily  was  performed  in  a  more 
familiar  manner;  the  prelate  intc'rrogatirg 
and  talking  to  the  people,  and  they  in  their 
turn  answering  and  interrogating  him,  so 
that  it  was  properly  a  conversation ,  whereas 
the  sermon  was  delivered  with  more  form, 
and  in  the  pulpit,  after  the  manner  of  the 
orators.  The  practice  of  compilijig  homilies 
which  were  to  be  committed  to  memory,  and 
recited  by  ignorant  or  indolent  priests,  com- 
menced towards  the  close  of  the  eighth  cen- 
tury ;  when  Charlemagne  ordered  Paul,  Dea- 
con, and  Alcuin,  to  form  homilies  or  dis- 
courses upon  the  Gospels  and  Epistles  from 
the  ancient  doctors  of  the  church.  This  gave 
rise  to  that  famous  collection,  entitled  the 
Homiliarium  of  Chai'lemagne  ;  and  which 
being  followed  as  a  model  by  many  p-,-oduc- 
tions  of  the  same  kind,  composed  by  private 
persons  from  a  principle  of  pious  zeal,  con- 
tributed much  (says  Mosheim)  to  nourish 
the  indolence,  and  to  perpetuate  the  igno- 
rance of  a  worthless  clergy.  There  are  still 
extant  several  fine  homilies  composed  by  the 
ancient  fathers,  particularly  St.  Chrysostom 
and  St.  Gregory. —  The  Cletnentine  homilies 
are  nineteen  homilies  in  Greek,  published  by 
Cotelerius,  witli  two  letters  prefixed  ;  one  of 
them  written  in  the  name  of  Peter,  the  other 
in  the  name  of  Clement,  t«  James,  bishop  of 
Jerusalem  ;  in  which  last  letter  they  are 
entitled  Clement's  Epitame  of  the  Preach- 
ing and  Travels  of  Peter.  According  to  Le 
Clerc,  these  homilies  were  composed  by  an 
Ebionite,  in  the  second  century ;  but  Mont- 
faucon  supposes  that  they  were  forged  long 
after  the  age  of  St.  Athanasius.  Dr.  Lardner 
apprehends  that  the  Clementine  homilies 
were  the  original,  or  first  edition  of  the  Re- 
cognitions ;  and  that  they  are  the  same  with 
the  work  censured  by  Eusebius,  under  the 
title  of  Dialogues  of  Peter  and  Appion. — 
Homilies  of  the  Church  of  England  are 
those  which  were  composed  at  the  reforma- 
tion to  be  read  in  churches,  in  order  to  sup- 
ply the  defect  of  sermons.  See  the  quarto 
edition  of  the  Homilies,  with  notes,  by  a  di- 
vine of  the  church  of  England. 

HONESTY  is  that  principle  which  makes 
a  person  prefer  his  promise  or  duty  to  his 
passion  or  interest.  See  Justick. 
■  HONOUR,  a  testimuny  of  esteem  or  stA)- 


mission,  expressed  by  words  and  an  ex'terior 
behaviour,  by  which  we  make  knr'vn  the 
veneration  and  respect  we  entertain  for  any- 
one, on  account  of  his  dignity  or  merit.  The 
word  is  also  used  in  general  for  the  esteem 
due  to  virtue,  glory,  reputation,  and  probity ; 
as  also  for  an  exactness  in  performing  %\  lat- 
ever  we  have  promised ;  and  in  this  lasc  sense 
we  use  the  term,  a  man  of  honour.  It  is  al- 
so applied  to  two  different  kinds  of  virtue; 
hrivery  in  men,  and  chastity  in  womeu.  In 
every  situation  of  life,  religion  only  ft-rms 
ttie  true  honour  and  happiness  of  man.  *'  Ijt 
cannot,"  as  one  observes,  "  arise  from  riches, 
dignity  of  rank,  or  office,  nor  from  what  are 
often  called  splendid  actions  of  heroes,  or 
civil  accomplishments;  these  may  be  found 
among  men  of  no  real  integrity,  and  may 
create  considerable  fame ;  but  a  distinction 
must  be  made  between  fame  and  true  honour. 
The  former  is  a  loud  and  noisy  applause ;  the 
latter  a  more  silent  and  internal  homage. 
Fame  floats  on  the  breath  of  the  multitude; 
honour  rests  on  the  judgment  of  the  think- 
ing. In  order,  then,  to  discern  where  true 
honour  lies,  we  must  not  look  to  any  adven- 
titious circumstance,  not  to  any  single  spark- 
ling quality,  but  to  the  whole  of  what  forms 
a  man  ;  in  a  word,  we  must  look  to  the  soul. 
It  will  discoA'er  itself  by  a  mind  superior  to 
fear,  to  selfish  interest,  and  corruption;  bv 
'an  ardent  love  to  the  Supreme  Being,  and. 
by  a  principle  of  uniform  rectitude.  It  will 
make  us  neither  afraid  nor  ashamed  to  dis- 
charge our  duty,  as  it  relates  both  to  G(xl 
and  man.  It  will  influence  us  to  be  magna- 
nimous, without  being  proud;  humble  with- 
out being  mean;  just  without  being  harsh; 
simple  in  our  manners,  but  manly  in  our 
feelings.  This  hontmr,  thus  formed  by  reli- 
gion, or  the  love  of  God,  is  more  indepen- 
dent, and  more  complete,  than  what  can  be 
acquired  by  any  other  means.  It  is  produc- 
tive of  higher  felicity,  and  will  be  commen- 
siu-ate  Avith  eternity  itself;  while  that  ho- 
nour, so  called,  which  arises  fi-om  any  other 
l)rinciple,  wil'  resemble  the  feeble  and  twink- 
ling flame  of  a  taper,  which  is  often  clouded 
by  the  smoke  it  sends  forth,  but  is  always 
wasting,  and  soon  dies  totally  away."  Bar- 
row's  Works,  vol.  i.  ?er.  4.  L'lair's  Ser- 
2nons,  vol.  iii.  ser.  1.  JVatts's  Sermons,  ser. 
30,  vol.  ii.  RulancVs  Cojit.  vol.  i.  p.  343.  Jar- 
tin\'i  Sermons,  vol.  iii.  ser.  6. 

HOPE  is  the  desire  of  some  good,  at- 
tended with  the  possibility,  at  least,  of  ob- 
taining it ;  and  is  enlivened  with  joy  greater 
or  less,  according  to  the  probability  there  is 
of  possessing  the  object  of  our  hope.  Scarce 
any  passion  seems  to  be  more  natural  to  mair 
than  hojie  ;  and,  considering  the  many  trou- 
bles he  is  encompassed  with,  none  is  more 
necessary ;  for  life,  void  of  all  hope,  would 
be  a  heavy  and  spiritless  thing,  very  little 
desirable,  perhaps  hardly  to  be  borne ; 
whereas  hope  infuses  strength  'nto  the  mind, 
and  by  so  doing,  lessens  the  ourdens  of  life. 
If  our  condition  be  not  the  best  in  the  world, 
yet  we  hope  it  will  be  better,  and  this  helfis 


HOP 


188 


HOP 


us  to  support  it  with  patience.  The  hope  nf 
the  Christian  is  an  expectation  of  all  neces- 
sary good  both  in  time  and  eternity,  founded 
on  the  promises,  relations,  and  perfections 
of  God,  and  on  the  offices,  righteousness,  and 
intercession  of  Christ.  It  is  a  compound  of 
desire,  expectation,  patience  and  joy,  Rom. 
viVx.  24,  25.  It  may  be  considered,  1.  As/iure, 
1  John  iii.  2,  3.  as  it  is  resident  in  that  heart 
■which  is  cleaiised  from  sin — 2.  As  good,  2 
Thess.  ii.  16,  (in  distinction  from  the  hope 
of  the  hypocrite)  as  deriving  its  origin  from 
God,  and  centering  in  him. — 3.  It  is  called 
lively,  1  Pet.  i.  3  as  it  proceeds  from  spiritual 
life,  and  renders  one  active  and  lively  in  good 
works. — 4.  It  is  courageous,  Rom.  v.  5.  1 
Thess.  V.  8.  because  it  excites  fortitude  in  all 
the  troubles  of  life,  and  yields  support  in  the 
hour  of  death,  Prov.  xiv.  32. — 5.  Sure,  Heb 
vi.  19.  because  it  will  not  disappoint  us,  and 
5s  fixed  on  a  sure  foundation. — 6.  Joyful, 
Rom.  V.  ^2.  as  it  produces  the  greatest  feli- 
city in  the  anticipation  of  complete  deliver- 
nnce  from  all  evil.  <^  ampbelVs  pleasures  of 
Hojie.  Grove's  Moral  Phil.  vol.  i.  p.  381. 
Gill's  Bodi!  of  Div.  p.  82,  vol.  iii.  No.  471, 
Specf.    Jo'  's  Sermons,  vol.  ii.  ser.  2. 

HOrKiNSIANS,  so  cailed  from  the  Rev. 
Samuel  Hopkins.  D  D.  an  American  Divine, 
who  iii  his  sermons  and  tracts  has  made 
several  ad.ditions  to  the  sentiments  first  ad- 
vanced by  the  cele'.r  ited  Jonathan  E.lwards, 
late  president  of  New  Jersey  College. 

1  he  following  is  a  summary  of  the  distin- 
guishing tenets  of  the  Hopkiusians,  together 
with  a  few  of  th"  reasons  they  bring  forward 
in  support  cf  their  sentiments. 

I.  That  all  true  virtue,  or  real  holiness, 
consist!*  in  disijiterestcd  benevolence.  The 
object  '^f  benevdence  is  universal  being,  in- 
cluding God  and  all  intelligent  creatures.  It 
wislu'S  and  seeks  the  good  of  every  indivi- 
dual, so  far  as  is  consistent  with  the  greatest 
good  of  the  whole,  which  is  comprised  in  the 
glory  of  God,  and  the  perfection  and  happi- 
ness of  his  kingdom.  The  law  of  God  is  the 
standard  of  all  moral  rectitude  or  holiness 
This  is  reduced  into  love  to  G'-d,  and  our 
neighbour  as  ourselves  ;  and  universal  good- 
will comprehends  all  the  love  of  Gnd,  our 
neighbour,  and  ourselves,  required  in  the  di- 
vine law,  and  therefore  must  be  the  whole 
of  holy  obedience.  Let  any  seiinus  person 
think  what  are  the  particular  brandies  of 
tiTje  piety  ;  when  he  has  viewtd  each  one  by 
itself,  he  will  find  that  disintere^^ted  friendly 
affections,  is  its  distinguishing  characteristic. 
For  instance,  all  the  Iinlinrss  in  ])ious  fear, 
which  distinguishes  it  from  the  fear  of  the 
wicked,  consists  in  love.  Again  :  holy  grati- 
tude is  nothing  but  good-will  to  God  and  our 
neighbour,  in  which  we  om-selves  are  inrlu- 
tled  :  and  correspondent  affVction,  excited  In 
a  view  of  the  good-will  and  kindness  of  God. 
Universal  good-will  also  implies  the  whole 
of  the  duty  we  owe  to  our  neighbour,  for  jus 
tice,  truth,  and  faithfulness,  are  comprised 
in  universal  benevolence  ,-  so  a^e  temperance 
and  chastity.    For  an  undue  indulgence  of 


our  appetites  and  passions  is  contrary  to 
benevolence,  as  tending  to  hurt  ourselves  or 
others  ,  and  so  opposite  to  the  general  good, 
and  the  divine  command,  in  which  all  the 
crime  of  such  indulgence  consists.  In  short 
all  virtue  is  nothing  but  benevolence  acted 
out  in  its  proper  nature  and  perfection ;  or 
love  to  God  and  our  neighbour,  made  per- 
fect in  all  its  genuine  exercises  and  expres- 
sions. 

II.  That  all  sin  consists  in  selfishness. 
By  this  is  meant  an  interested,  selfish  aiFec- 
tion,  by  which  a  person  sets  himself  up  as 
supreme,  and  the  only  object  of  regard  ; 
and  nothing  is  good  or  lovely  in  his  view, 
unless  suited  to  promote  his  own  private 
interest.  This  self-love  is  in  its  whole 
nature,  and  every  degree  of  it  enmity 
against  God  :  it  is  not  subject  to  the  law  of 
God,  and  is  the  only  affection  that  can  op- 
pose it.  It  is  the  foundation  of  all  spiritual 
blindness,  and  therefore  the  source  of  all 
the  open  idolatry  in  the  heathen. world,  and 
false  religion  under  the  light  of  the  Gospel ; 
all  this  is  agreeable  to  the  self-love  which 
opposes  God's  true  character.  Under  the 
influence  of  this  principle,  men  depart 
from  truth  ;  it  being  itself  the  greatest 
practical  lie  in  nature,  as  it  sets  up  that 
which  is  comparatively  nothing  above  uni- 
versal eiiistence.  Self-love  is  the  source  of 
all  profanencss  and  impiety  in  the  world, 
and  of  all  pride  and  ambition  among  men, 
whic'-.  is  nothing  but  selfishness,  acted  out 
in  this  particular  way.  This  is  the  founda- 
tion of  all  covetousness  and  sensuality, 
as  it  blinds  people's  eyes,  contracts  their 
hearts,  and  sinks  them  down,  so  that  they 
look  upon  earthly  enjoyments  as  the  great- 
est good.  This  is  the  source  of  all  false- 
hood, injustice,  and  oppression,  as  it  excites 
mankind  by  undue  methods  to  invade  the 
pr(-perty  of  others.  Self-love  produces  all 
the  violent  passions  ;  envy,  wrath,  clam- 
our, and  evil  speaking:  and  every  thing 
contrary  to  the  divine  law  is  briefly  compre^ 
bended  in  this  fruitful  source  of  all  iniquity, 
self-love. 

III.  That  there  are  no  promises  of  rcge- 
ncfating  grace  made  to  the  doings  of  the 
unregenerate.  For  as  far  as  men  act  from 
self-love,  they  act  from  a  bad  end :  for 
those  who  have  no  true  love  to  God,  really 
do  no  duty  when  they  attend  on  the  exter- 
nals of  religion.  And  as  the  unregenerate 
act  from  a  selfish  principle,  they  do  nothing 
which  is  commanded:  their  impenitent 
doings  are  wholly  oj^jiosed  to  re])entance 
and  conversi.  n  ;  therefore  not  implied  in 
tho  comtnand  to  repent,  &:c.  so  far  from 
this,  they  are  altogether  disobedient  to  the 
command.  Hence  it  appears,  that  there 
are  no  promises  of  sah'ation  to  the  doings  of 
the  unregenerate. 

IV.  That  the  impotency  of  sinners,  with 
respect  to  believing  in  Christ,  is  not  natural, 
but  moral ;  for  it  is  a  plain  dictate  of  com- 
mon sense,  that  natural  impossibility  ex- 
cludes all  blame.    But  an  unwilling  mind  is 


HOP 


189 


n  OP 


•jnivorsally  considered  as  a  crime,  and  not 
as  an  excuse,  aud  is  the  very  thing  wherein 
our  wickedness  consists.  That  the  impo- 
tence (if  the  sinner  is  owing  to  a  disaffection 
of  heart,  is  evident  from  the  promises  of 
the  Gospel.  When  any  object  of  good  is 
proposed  and  promised  to  us  upon  asking, 
it  clearly  evinces  that  there  can  be  no  im- 
]5otnice  in  us  with  respect  of  obtaining 
It,  beside  the  disapprobation  of  the  will  ; 
and  that  inability  which  consists  in  dis- 
inclination, never  renders  any  thing  im- 
))roperl^  the  subject  of  precept  or  com- 
mand- 

V.  That,  in  order  to  faith  in  Christ, 
a  sinner  must  approve  in  his  heart  of  the 
(iivine  conduct,  even  though  God  should 
cast  him  off  for  ever ;  which,  however, 
neither  implies  love  or  misery,  nor  hatred 
of  happiness.  For  if  tlie  law  is  good, 
death  is  due  to  those  who  have  broken  it 
The  Judge  of  all  the  earth  cannot  but  do 
right.  It  would  bring  everlasting  reproach 
upon  his  government  to  spare  us,  consid- 
ered m.erely  as  in  ourselves.  Wlien  this 
is  felt  in  our  hearts,  and  not  till  then, 
we  shall  be  prepared  to  look  to  the  free 
grace  of  God,  through  the  redemption 
which  is  in  Christ,  and  to  exercise  faith 
in  his  blood,  who  is  set  forth  to  be  a  pro- 
pitiation to  declare  God's  righteousness, 
that  he  might  be  just,  and  yet  be  the  jiisti- 
fier  of  him  who  believeth  in  Jeaus. 

VI.  That  the  infinitely  wise  and  holy 
God  has  exerted  his  omnipotent  power  in 
such  a  manner  as  he  purposed  should  be 
followed  with  the  existence  and  entrance 
of  moral  evil  into  the  system. — For  it 
must  be  admitted  on  all  hands,  that  God 
has  a  perfect  knowledge,  foresight,  and 
view  of  all  possible  existences  and  events. 
If  that  system  and  scene  of  operation,  in 
which  moral  evil  should  never  have  e.'cist- 
ed,  was  activilly  preferred  in  the  Divine 
mind,  certainly  the  Deity  is  infinitely  dis- 
appointed in  the  issue  of  his  own  operations. 
Nothing  can  be  more  dishonourable  to  God 
than  to  imagine  that  the  system  which  is 
actually  formed  by  the  divine  hand,  and 
which  was  made  for  his  pleasure  and  glory, 
is  yet  not  the  fruit  of  wise  contrivance  and 
design. 

VII.  Th.-\t  the  introduction  of  sin  is,  upon 
the  whole,  for  the  general  good.  For  the 
wi&dom  and  power  of  the  Deity  are  dis- 
played in  carrying  on  designs  of  'the  great- 
est good  ;  and  the  existence  of  moral  evil 
has  undoubtedly  occasioned  a  more  full, 
perfect,  and  giorious  di.scovery  of  the  infi- 
nite perfections  of  the  Divine  nature,  than 
could  otherwise  have  been  made  to  the 
view  of  creatures.  If  the  extensive  mani- 
festations of  the  pure  and  holy  nature  of 
God,  and  his  infinite  aversion  to  sin,  and 
all  his  inherent  perfections,  in  their  genuine 
iruits  and  effects,  is  either  itself  tlie  great- 
est good,  or  necessarily  contains  it,  it  must 
Tiecessarily  follow  that  the  introduction  of 
si.T  is  for  the  greatest  good. 


\'III.  That  repentance  is  before  faith  in 
Christ. — By  this  is  not  intended  that  repent- 
ar^ce  is  befc  re  a  speculative  Ijelief  of  the 
being  and  perfections  of  God,  and  of  the 
person  and  character  of  Christ ;  but  only 
that  true  repentance  is  previous  to  a  sa- 
ving faith  in  Christ,  in  which  the  believer 
is  united  to  Christ,  and  entitled  to  the 
benefits  of  his  mediation  and  atonement. 
That  repentance  is  before  faith  in  this 
sense,  appears  from  several  considerations. 
1.  As  repentance  and  faith  respect  different 
objects,  so  they  are  distinct  exercises  of  the 
heart ;  and  therefore  one  not  only  may,  but 
must  be  prior  to  the  other. — 3.  Thei-e  may 
be  genuine  repentance  of  sin  without  faith 
in  Christ,  but  there  cannot  be  true  faith  in 
Christ   without    repentance   of   sin  ;     and 

\  since  repentance  is  necessar}'  in  order  to 
faith  in  Christ,  it  must  necessarily  be  prior 
to  faith  in  Christ. — 3.  John  the  Baptist, 
Christ  and  his  apostles,  taught  that  repent- 
ance is  before  faith.      John  cried,    Repent, 

'for  the    kingdom   of  Heaven  is  at  hand ; 

'  intimating  that  ti-ue  repentance  was  ne- 
cessary in  order  to  embrace  the  gospel  of 
the  kingdom.  Christ  commanded.  Repent 
ye,  and  beliex'e  the  Gospel :  And  Paul 
preaclied  repentance  toward  God,  and 
fai'h  toward  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ. 

IX.  That  though  men  became  sinners  by 
Adam,  according  to  a  divine  constitution, 
yet  they  have  and  are  accountable  for  no 
sins  but  personal  ;  for,  1.  Adam's  act,  in 
eating  the  forbidden  fruit,  was  not  the  act 
of  his  p.nsterity  ;  therefore  they  did  not  sin 
at  the  same  time  he  did. — 2.  The  sin- 
fulness of  that  act  could  not  i)e  transferred 
to  them  afterwards,  because  the  sinful- 
ness of  an  act  can  no  more  be  transferred 
from  one  person  to  another  than  an  act 
itself. — 3.  Therefore  Adam's  act,  in  eating 
the  forbidden  fruit,  was  not  the  cause,  but 
only  the  occasion  of  his  posterity's  being 
sinners.     God  was  pleased  to  make  a  con- 

\  stitution,  that,  if  Adam  remained  holy 
through  his  state  of  trial,  his  posterity 
should  in  consequence  be  holy  also;  but 
if  he  sinned,  his  posterity  should  in  con- 
sequence be  sinners  likewise.  Adam  sin- 
ned, and  now  God  brings  his  posterity  into 
the  world  sinners.  Hy  Adam's  sin  we  are 
become  sinners,  not ybr  it ;  his  sin  being  only 
the  occasion,  not  the  catise  of  our  commit- 
ting sins. 

X.  That  though  believers  are  justified 
through  Christ's  righteousness,  yet  his 
righteousness  is  not  transfrred  to  them. 
For,  1.  Personal  righteousness  can  no  more 
be  transferred  from  one  person  to  another, 
than  personal  sin — 2.  If  Christ's  personal 
righteousness  were  transferred  to  l^elievers, 
thev  would  be  as  perfectly  holy  as  Christ: 
and  so  stand  in  no  need  of  forgiveness. — 
3.  But  telievers  are  not  conscious  of  having 
Christ's  personal  righteousness,  but  feel 
and  bewail  much  indwelling  sin  and  corrup- 
tion.— 4.  The  scriptures  represent  believers 
as  receiving  only  the  benefits   of  Christ's 


HO  S 


190 


HO  S 


righteousness  in  justification,  or  their  being 
pardoned  and  accepted  for  Christ's  righ- 
teousness sake:  and  this  is  the  proper 
scripture  notion  of  imputation.  Jonathan's 
righteousness  wa«  imputed  to  Mephibosheth 
Aviien  David  shewed  kindness  to  him  for 
his  father  Jonathan's  sake. 

The  Hopkinsians  warmly  contend  for 
the  doctrine  of  the  divine  decrees,  that  of 
particular  election,  total  depravity,  the 
special  influences  of  the  Spirit  of  C4od  in 
regeneration,  justification  by  faith  alone, 
the  final  perseverance  of  the  saints,  and  the 
consistency  between  entire  freedom  and 
absolute  dependance ;  and  therefore  claim 
it  as  their  just  due,  since  the  world  will 
make  distinctions,  to  be  called  Hopkinsian 
Calvinists.  Adam' a  View  of  Rdigiom  ; 
Hopkins  on  Holiness;  Edwards  on  the 
Will,  p.  234,  282.  Edwards  on  Virtue ; 
West's  Essay  on  MoralJgency,^.  170,181. 
Sjn-ing's  Katxcre  of  Duty,  23.  Moral  Dis- 
quisitions, p.  40. 

HORROR,  a  passion  excited  by  an  ob- 
ject which  causes  a  high  degree  of  fear  and 
detestation.  It  is  a  compound  of  wonder 
and  fear. — Sometimes  it  has  a  mixture  ot 
pleasure,  from  which,  if  predominant,  it  is 
denominated  a  pleasing  horror.  Such  a 
horror  seizes  us  at  the  view  of  vast  and 
hanging  precipices,  a  tempestuous  ocean, 
or  wild  and  solitary  places.  This  passion 
is  the  original  of  superstition,  as  a  wise  and 
■well  tempered  awe  is  of  religion.  Horror 
and  terror  seem  almost  to  be  synonymous  ; 
but  the  former,  1  think  refers  more  to 
what  disgusts;  the  latter  to  that  which 
alarms  us. 

HOSANNA,  in  the  Hebrew  ceremonies, 
a  prayer  which  they  rehearsed  on  the 
several  days  of  the  feast  of  tabernacles. 
It  signifies,  "  save  us  now  ;"  or  "  save  us 
we  pray."  There  are  divers  of  tliese 
hosannas  ;  the  Jews  call  them  hoschannoth, 
i.  e.  hosannahs — Some  are  rehearsed  on 
the  first  day,  others  on  the  second,  &c. 
which  they  call  liosanna  of  the  first  day, 
hosanna  of  the  second  day,  &;c.  Hosanna 
Mabba,  or  Grand  Hosamia,  is  a  name  they 
give  to  their  feast  of  tabernacles,  which 
lasts  eight  days;  because,  during  the  course 
thereof,  they  are  frequently  calling  for  the 
assistance  of  God,  the  forgiveness  of  their 
sins,  and  his  blessing  on  tlie  new  year ; 
and  to  that  purpose  they  make  great  use  of 
the  prayers  above-mentioned.  The  Jews 
also  apply  the  terms  hosanna  rabba  in  a 
more  peculiar  manner  to  the  seventh  day 
of  the  feast  of  tabernacles,  because  they 
apply  themselves  more  immediately  on 
that  day  to  invoke  the  Divine  blessing. 
&c. 

HOSPITALITY,  kindness  exercised  in 
the  entertainment  of  strangers.  This  vir- 
tue, we  find,  is  explicitely  commanded  by, 
and  makes  a  part  of  the  morality  of  the 
New  Testament.  Indeed,  that  religion 
which  breathes  nothing  but  charity,  and 
whose  tendency  is  to  expand  the   heart , 


and  caH  forth  the  benevolent  exertions  of 
mankind,  must  evidently  embrace  this  prac- 
tice.— If  it  be  asked,  of  whom  is  this  re- 
(juired  ?  it  is  answered,  that  the  principle 
is  required  of  all,  though  the  duty  itself 
can  only  be  practised  by  those  whose  cir- 
cumstances will  admit  of  it.  Dr  Stennet, 
in  his  discourse  on  this  subject  {Domestic 
Duties,  ser.  10,)  justly  observes,  "  that 
hospitality  is  a  species  of  charity  to  which 
every  one  is  not  competent.  But  the  tem- 
per from  which  it  proceeds,  I  mean  a 
humane,  generous,  benevolent  temper,  that 
ought  to  prevail  in  eveiy  breast.  Some  are 
miserably  poor,  and  it  is  not  to  be  expected 
that  their  door  should  be  thrown  open  to 
entertain  strangers ;  yet  the  cottage  of  a 
peasant  may  exhibit  noble  specimens  of 
hospitality.  Hei'e  distress  has  often  met 
with  pity,  and  the  persecuted  an  asylum. 
Nor  is  there  a  man  who  has  a  house  to 
sleep  in,  but  may  be  benevolent  to  strangers. 
— But  there  are  persons  of  certain  charac- 
ters and  stations,  who  are  more  especially 
obhged  to  it  ;  as  particularly  magistrates 
and  others  in  civil  offices  who  would  forfeit 
the  esteem  of  the  public,  and  greatly  injure 
their  usefulness,  were  they  not  to  observe 
the  rites  of  hospitaUty.  Ministers,  also, 
and  such  Christians  as  are  qualified  by 
their  particular  offices  in  the  church,  and 
their  affluent  circumstances,  may  be  emi- 
nently useful  in  this  way.  The  two  grand 
virtues  which  ought  to  be  studied  by  every 
one,  in  order  that  he  may  have  it  in  his 
power  to  be  hospitable,  are  industry  and 
economy.  But  it  may  be  asked  again,  to 
whom  is  this  duty  to  be  practised?  The 
answer  is,  to  strangers ;  but  here  it  is 
necessary  to  observe,  th.at  the  term  stran- 
gers hath  two  acceptations.  It  is  to  be 
understood  of  travellers,  or  persons  who 
come  from  a  distance,  and  with  whom  we 
have  little  or  no  acquaintance;  and  more 
generally  of  all  who  are  not  of  our  house 
— strangers,  as  opposed  todomestics.  Hos- 
pitality is  especially  to  be  practised  to  the 
poor :  they  who  have  no  houses  of  their 
own,  or  possess  few  of  the  conveniencies  of 
life,  should  occasionally  be  invited  to  our 
houses,  and  refreshed  at  our  tables,  Luke 
xiv.  13,  14.  Hospitality  also  may  be  prac- 
tised to  those  who  are  of  the  same  charac- 
ter, and  of  the  same  com.niunity  with 
ourselves.  As  to  the  various  offices  of 
hospitality,  and  the  manner  in  which  they 
should  be  rendered,  it  must  be  observecl, 
that  the  entertainments  should  be  plentiful 
frugal  and  cordial.  Gen.  xviii.  6,  8.  John 
xii.  3.  Luke  xv.  17.  The  obligations  to 
this  duty,  arise  from  the  fitness  and 
reasonableness  of  it ;  it  brings  its  own  re- 
ward. Acts  :xx.  35.  It  is  expressly  com- 
manded by  God,  Lev.  xxv.  35,  oS.  Luke 
xvi.  19.  xiv.  13,  14.  Rom.  xii.  Heb.  xiii. 
1,  2.  1  Pet.  iv.  9.  We  have  many  striking 
examples  of  hospitality  on  divine  record  : 
Abraham,  Gen.  xviii.  1,  8.  Lot,  Gen.  xix. 
1,  3.  Job  xxxi.  17,  22.  Shunammit^,  2  Kings 


HUG 


191 


HUM 


iv.  8.  10.  The  hospitable  man  tnerttioned 
in  Judges  xix.  16.  21.  David,  2  Sam.  vi. 
19.  Obadiah,  1  Kings  xviii.  4.  Neheraiah, 
Neh.  V.  17,  18.  Marcha,  Luke  x.  38.  Mar}', 
Matt.  xxvi.  6,  13.  The  primitive  Chris- 
tians, Acts  ii.  45,  46.  Priscilla  and  Aquila, 
Acts  xviii.  26.  Lydia,  Acts  xvi.  15.  ik;c.  8cc. 
Lastly,  what  sheuld  have  a  powerful  effect 
on  our  minds,  is  the  consideration  of  Divine 
hospitality — God  is  gfX)d  to  all,  and  his  ten- 
der mercies  are  over  all  his  works.  His 
sun  shines,  and  his  rain  falls  en  the  evil  as 
well  as  the  good.  His  very  enemies  share 
of  his  bounty.  He  gives  liberally  to  all  men, 
and  upbraids  not ;  but  especially  we  should 
remember  the  exceeding  riches  of  his  grace, 
in  his  kindness  towards  us  through  Christ 
Jesus.  Let  us  lay  all  these  considerations 
together,  and  then  ask  ourselves  whether 
we  can  find  it  in  our  hearts  to  be  selfish, 
parsimonious,  and  inhospitable  f 

HOST,  in  the  churcn  of  Rome,  a  name 
given  to  the  elements  used  in  the  eucharist, 
or  rather  to  the  consecrated  wafer,  which 
they  pretend  to  offer  up  every  day,  as  a  new 
host,  or  sacrifice  for  the  sins  of  mankind. 
They  pay  adoration  to  the  host  upon  a  false 
presumption,  that  the  elements  aj-e  no  long- 
er bread  and  wine,  but  transubstantiated 
into  the  real  body  and  blood  of  Christ  See 
Tr  AN  SUBSTANTIATION — Pope  Gregory 
IX.  fii'st  decreed  a  bell  to  be  rung,  as  the 
signal  for  the  people  to  betake  themselves 
to  the  adoration  of  the  host.  The  vessel 
wherein  the  hosts  are  kept  is  called  the 
cibory,  being  a  large  kind  of  covered  cha- 
lice. 

HUGUENOTS,  an  appellation  given  by 
"way  of  contempt  to  the  reformed,  or  pro- 
testant  Calvinists  of  France.  The  name 
had  its  rise  in  1560,  but  authors  are  not 
agreed  as  to  the  origin  and  occasion  thereof. 
Some  derive  it  from  the  following  circum- 
stance : — One  of  the  gates  of  the  city  of 
Tours  is  called  the  gate  of  Fourgon,  by 
corruption  from  seu  Heugon,  i.  e.  tlie  late 
Hugon.  This  Hugon  was  once  count  of 
Tours,  according  to  Eginhardus  in  his  life 
of  Charles  the  Great,  and  to  some  other 
historians.  He  was,  it  seems,  a  very  wick- 
ed man,  who  by  his  fierce  and  cruel  temper 
made  himself  dreadful ;  so  that  after  his 
death  he  was  supposed  to  walk  about  in  the 
night  time,  beating  all  those  he  met  with  : 
this  tradition  the  judicious  Thuanus  had  not 
scnipled  to  mention  in  his  history.  Daviia 
and  other  historians  pretend,  that  the  nick- 
name of  Huguenots,  was  first  given  to  the 
French  Protestants,  because  they  used  to 
meet  in  the  night  time  in  subterraneous 
vaults  near  the  gate  of  Hugon  ;  and  what 
seems  to  countenance  this  opinion  is,  that 
they  were  first  called  by  the  name  of  Hu- 
guenots,  at  this  city  of  Tours.  Others  as- 
sign a  moi'e  illustrious  origin  to  this  name, 
and  say  that  the  leaguers  gave  it  to  the  re- 
formed, because  they  Avere  for  keeping  the 
Crown  upon  the  head  of  the  present  line 


descended  from  the  Hugh  Capet ;  whereas 
they  were  for  giving  it  to  the  house  of 
Guise,  as  descended  from  Cliarles  the 
(ireai.  Others  again  derive  it  from  a 
Frencli  and  faulty  pronunciation  of  the  Ger- 
man word  edignosscii,  signiiying  confede- 
rates ;  and  origmally  applied  to  that  valiant 
part  of  the  city  of  Geneva,  which  entered 
into  an  alUance  with  the  Swiss  cantons,  in 
order  to  maintain  their  liberties  against  the 
tyrannical  attempts  of  Charles  III.  duke  of 
Savoy.  TIie.se  confederates  wei'e  called 
Eignots  ;  whence  Huguenots.  The  persecu- 
tions which  they  have  undergone  has  scarce 
its  parallel  in  the  historj'  of  religion.  During 
the  reign  of  Charles  IX.  and  on  the  24tli 
of  August,  1572,  happened  the  massacre 
of  Bartholomew,  when  seventy  thousand 
of  them  throughout  France  were  butchered 
with  circumstances  of  aggravated  cruelty. 
See  Persecution.  In  1598,  Henry  IV. 
passed  the  famous  eidict  of  Nantz,  which 
secured  to  the  Protestants  the  free  exer- 
cise of  their  religion.  This  edict  was  re- 
voked by  Lewis  IV.  their  churches  were 
then  erased  to  the  ground,  their  persons  in- 
sulted by  the  soldiery,  and,  after  the  loss  of 
innumerable  lives,  fifty  thousand  valuable 
members  of  society  were  driven  into  exile. 
In  Holland  they  built  several  places  of  wor- 
ship, had  amongst  them  some  distinguished 
preachers.  Among  others  were  Superville, 
Dumont,  Dubosc,  and  the  eloquent  Saurin  ; 
the  latter  of  whom,  in  one  of  his  sermons 
(ser.  9.  vol.  v.)  makes  die  following  fine 
apostrophe  to  that  tyrant  Lewis  XIV.  by 
whom  they  were  driven  into  exile,  "  And 
thou,  dreadful  prince,  whom  I  once  honour- 
ed as  my  king,  and  whom  I  yet  respect  as 
a  scourge  in  the  hand  of  Almighty  God, 
thou  also  shalt  have  a  part  in  my  good 
wishes !  Tliese  provinces,  which  thou 
threatenest,  but  which  the  arm  of  the  Loi'd 
protects  :  this  country,  which  thou  fillest 
with  refugees,  but  fugitives  animated  with 
love ;  those  walls,  which  contain  a  thousand 
martyrs  of  thy  making,  but  whom  religion 
renders  victorious,  all  these  yet  resound 
benedictions  in  thy  favour.  God  grant  the 
fatal  bandage  that  hides  the  truth  from 
thine  eyes  may  fall  off!  May  God  forget 
the  rivers  of  blood  with  which  thou  hast 
deluged  the  earth,  and  which  thy  reign  hath 
caused  to  be  shed ! — May  God  blot  out  of 
his  book  the  injuries  which  thou  has  done 
us :  and  while  he  rewards  the  sufferers, 
may  he  pardon  those  who  exposed  us  to  suf- 
fer !  O,  may  God,  who  hath  madr  thee  to 
us,  and  to  the  whole  church,  a  minister  of 
his  judgments,  make  thee  a  dispenser  of 
his  favours — an  administrator  of  his  mer- 
cy!" 

HUMANITY,  the  exercise  of  the  social 
and  benevolent  virtues :  a  fellow-feeling  for 
the  distresses  of  another.  It  is  properly 
called  humanity,  because  there  is  little  or 
nothing  of  it  in  brutes.  The  social  affec- 
tions are  conceived  by  all  to  be  more  refi- 


HUM 


192 


HUM 


ned  than  the  selfish.  Sympathy  and  hu- 
manity are  universally  esteemed  the  finest 
temper  of  mind  ;  and  for  that  reason  the 
prevalence  of  the  social  affections  in  the 
progress  of  society  is  held  to  be  a  refine- 
ment of  our  nature,  Karnes's  El  of  Crit. 
p.  104,  vol.  1 ;  Robinson's  Sermon  on 
(J hrisiianity ,  a  System  of  Humanity ; 
jPratt's  Poem,  on  Humanity. 

HUMANITY  OF  CHRIST,  is  his  pos- 
sessing a  true  human  body,  and  a  true  hu- 
man soul,  and  which  he  assumed  for  the 
purpose  of  rendering  his  mediation  effectual 
to  our  salvation.     See  Jesus  Christ. 

HUMILIATION  OF  CHRIST,  is  that 
state  of  meanness  and  distress  to  which  he 
voluntarily  descended,  for  the  purpose  of 
executing  his  mediatorial  work.  This  ap- 
pears, 1.  In  his  birth.  He  was  born  of  a 
woman — a  sinful  woman ;  though  he  was  . 
without  sin,  Gal.  iv.  4.  A  fioor  woman, 
Luke  ii.  7.  24.  In  a  poor  country  village, 
John  i.  46.  In  a  stable,  an  abject  place. 
Of  a  nature  subject  to  infirmities,  Heb.  ii. 
9.  hunger,  thirst,  weariness,  pain,  &C. — 
2.  In  his  circumstances,  laid  in  a  manger 
when  he  was  born  ;  Yived  in  obscurity  for  a 
long  time  ;  probably  worked  at  the  trade 
of  a  carpenter;  had  not  a  place  were  to 
lay  his  head  ;  and  was  oppressed  with  po- 
verty, while  he  went  about  preaching  the 
Gospel. — 3.  It  appeared  in  his  reputation  : 
he  was  loaded  with  the  most  abusive  rail- 
ing and  calumny,  Is.  liii.  the  most  false  ac- 
cusations, Matt  xxvi.  59,  67.  and  the  most 
ignominious  ridicule,  Psal.  xxii.  6.  Matt, 
xxii  68.  John  vii.  35. — 4.  In  his  soul  he 
was  often  tempted,  Matt.  iv.  1.  &c.  Heb. 
ii.  17,  18.  Heb.  iv.  15.  grieved  with  the 
reproaches  cast  on  himself,  and  with  the 
sins  and  miseries  of  others,  Heb.  xii,  3. 
Matt.  xi.  19.  John  xi.  -35.  was  burdened 
with  the  hidings  of  his  Father's  face,  and 
the  fears  and  impressions  of  his  wrath, 
Psal.  xxii.  1.  Luke  xxii  43.  Heb.  v.  7. 
—5.  In  his  death  scourged,  crowned  with 
thorns,  received  gall  and  vinegar  to  drink, 
and  was  crucified  between  two  thie\'es, 
Luke  xxiii.  John  xix.  Mark  xv.  24,  25. 
— 6.  In  his  burial :  not  only  was  he  born  in 
another  man's  house,  but  he  was  buried  in 
another  man's  tomb ;  for  he  had  no  tomb 
of  his  own,  or  family  vault  to  be  interred 
in.  Is.  liii.  10.  &c.  Matt.  xiii.  46.  The 
humiliation'  of  Christ  was  necessary.  1.  To 
execute  the  purpose  of  God,  and  co\^enant 
engagements  of  Christ,  Acts,  ii.  23,  24. 
Psal.  xl  6,  7,  8—2.  To  fulfil  the  mani- 
fold types  and  predictions  of  the  Old 
Testament. — 3.  To  satisfy  the  broken  law 
of  God,  and .  purchase  eternal  redemption 
for  us,  Isa.  liii.  Heb.  ix.  12.  15. — 4.  To 
leave  us  an  unspotted  pattern  of  holiness 
and  patience  under  suffering.  GiWs  Body 
of  Div.  p.  66,  vol.  ii.  Brown's  jYat.  and 
Rev.  Religion,  p.  357  ;  Rid^ley's  Body  of 
Div.  qu.  48. 

HUMILITY,    a    disposition    of    mind 


wherein  a  person  has  a  low  opinion  of  him- 
self and  his  advantages.    It  is  a  braach  of 
internal  worship,  or  of  experimentai  religion 
and  godliness      It  is   the  effect  of  divine 
grace    operatmg    on  the    soul,  and  always 
characterises    the    true    Christian.      Tine 
heathen  philosophers  v.'ere  so  little  acquaint- 
ed with  this  virtue,  that  they  had  no  name 
for  it:  what  they  meant  by  the    word    we 
use,  was  meanness  and  baseness   of    mind. 
To  consider  this  grace  a  little  more  particu- 
larly, it  may  be  observed,  1.  That  humility 
does  not  oblige  a  man  to  wrong-  the  truth, 
or    himself,   by  entertaining  a    meaner  or 
worse  opinion  of  himself  than   he  deserves. 
— 2.  Nor    does   it    oblige  a  man,  right   or 
wrong,  to  give  eveiy  bouy  e'se  tlie  p>refer- 
ence  to  himself.     A  wise  man    cannot  be- 
lieve l.imself  inferior  to  the  ignorant  multi- 
tude ;  nor  the  virtuous  man  that  he   is  not 
so  good  as  those  whpse  lives  are  vicious. — 
3.  Nor  does  it  oblige  a  man  to  treat  himself 
with  contempt  in  his  words  or  actions :  it  j 
looks  more  like  affectation    than    humility, 
when  a  man  says  such    things  in  his   own 
dispraise  as  others  know,  or  he  himself  be- 
lieves to  be  false :  and  it  is  plain,  also,  that 
this  is  often  done  merely  as  a  bait  to  catch 
the  praises  of  others.     Humility  consists,  1. 
In  not  attributing  to  ourselves   any  excel- 
lence or  good  which  we  have  not. — 2.  In 
not  overrating  any  thing  v,'e  do. — 3.  In  not 
taking  an  immoderate  delight  in  ourselves. 
— 4.  In  not  assuming  more  of  the  praise  of 
a  quality  or  action  than  belongs  to  us. — 5. 
In  an  inward  sense  of  our  many  imperfec- 
tions and  sins  — 6.  In  ascribing  all  we  have 
and  are  to  the  grace  of  God.     True  hu7ni- 
lity  will  ejcfiress  itself    1.  By  the   modesty 
of  our  appearance.     The  humble  man  will 
consider  his  age,  abilities,  character,  func- 
tion,  &c.  and  act   accordingly. — 2.  By  the 
modesty  of  our   pursuits.      We    shall   n(jt 
aim   at  any  thing  above  our  strength,  but 
prefer  a  t^ood  to  a  threat  name. — 2.  It  will 
express   itself  by  the  modesty  of  our  con- 
versation and   behaviour:  we  shall   not  be 
I  loquacious,  obstinate,  forward,  envious,  dis- 
contented, or  ambitious.     The   advantages 
of  humility  are  Tiumerous  :    1.    It    iii    well 
pleasing  to   God,    1  Pet.    iii.    4. — 2.  It  lias 
great  influence  on  us  in  the  performance  of 
all  other  duties,  praying,  hearing,  conversf . 
5cc. — 3.  It  indicates  that  moi-e  grace  shall 
be  given,  James  iv.  6.    Ps.  xxv.  9. — It  pre- 
sei'ves  the  soul  in  great  tranquillity  and  con- 
;  tentmcnt,  Ps.  Ixix.  32,  33. — 5.  It  makes  us 
patient  and  resigned  under   afflictions.  Job 
i.  22 — 6.  It  enables  us  to  pxeicise  modera- 
tion in  every  thing.     To  obtain   this   excel- 
lent spirit  ive  should  remembtr,  1.  The  ex- 
ample of  Christ,  Phil.  ii.  6,   7,  8.-2.  That 
heaven  is  a  place  of  humility.  Rev.  v.  8.— 
3.  That  our  sins  are  numerous,  and  deserve 
the  greatest  punishment.  Lam.  iii.   39 — 4. 
That  humility  is  the  way  to  honour,  Prov. 
xvi.  18. — 5.  That  the  greatest  promises  of 
good  are  made  to  t]ie  humble,   Is.   hii,    IS. 


II  us 


193 


H  U  S 


ivi.  2.  1  Pet.  V.  5.  Is.  exlvii.  6.  Matt  v.  5. 
Grove's  Moral  Philosofihy,  vol.  ii.  p.  286 ; 
Evan's  Christian  Ttmper,  vol.  i.  ser.  1  ; 
Watts  on  Humility;  BarAer'p.  Christian 
Jlirtxtory,  vol.  i.  p.  496;  Ilalea  Com.  p.  110; 
Gill's  Body  of  Divinity,  p.  151,  vol.  iii ; 
Walker's  ^rrnions,  vol.  iv.  ser  3. 

HUSBAND,  duties  of.    See  Marriage 
Statk. 

HUSSITES,  a   party  of  reformers,  the , 
followers   of  John   Huss. — John  Huss,  from  . 
whom   the  Hussites   take   th«;ir   name,  was 
born  in  a   little   village  in  Bohemia,   called 
Hu.ss,  and  lived  at  Prague   in  the  highest 
reputation,  both  on  account  of  the  s.inrtity 
of  his  manners,  and  the  purity  of  his  doc- 
trine.    He  was  distinguished  by  his  uncom- 
mon erudition  and  eloquence  ;  and  perform- 
ed at  the  same  time  the  functions  of  profes- 
sor of  divinity  in  the  university,   and  of  or- 
dinary pastor  in  the  church  of  that  city.  He 
adoi)tcd  the  sentiments  of  VVickliffe  and  the 
Waldenses ;  and,  in  the  year  1407,  began 
openly  to  opp<ise  and  preach  against  divers 
errors  in  dcctiine,  as  well  as  corruptions  in 
point    of   discipline,    then   reigning    in    the 
church.     Huss  likewise  endeavoured  to  the  | 
utmest  of  his  power  to  withdraw  the  Uni- 
versity of  Prague   from  the  jurisdiction  of^ 
Gregory  XII.  whom  the  king  of  Bohemia : 
had  hitnerto  acknov/ledged  as  the  true  and  ; 
lawful  head  of  the  church.    This  occasion-  i 
ed  a  violent  quarrel  between  the  incensed  I 
archbishop  of  Prague  and  the  zealous  re- 
former, v/hich  the  latter  inflamed  and  aug- 
mented from  day  to  day,  by  his  pathetic  I 
exclamations  against  the  court  of  Rome,  and  I 
the    corruption  that  prevailed  among  the  j 
sacerdotal  order.  ! 

There  were  other  circumstances  tiiat  con-  \ 
tributed  to  inflame  the  resentment  of  the ' 
clergy  against  him      He  adopted  the  philo-  ,' 
.sophical  opinions  of  th-i  Realists,   and  vehe-  ji 
mently  opposed,  and  even  persecuted  the  || 
Nomanalists,   whose  number  and  influence 
were    considerable     in    the    Universitv    of 
Prague.     He  also  multiplied  the  number  of 
his  enemies  in  the  year  1408,  by  procuring, 
through  his  own  credit,  a  sentence  in  favour 
of  the  Bohemians,   who   disputed  with  the 
Germans  concerning  the  number  of  suffra- 
ges which  their  respective  nations  were  en- 
titled to  in  all  matters  that  were  carried  by 
election  in  this  university.     In  consequence 
of  a  decree  obtained  in  favour  of  the  for- 
mer, which  restored  them  to  their  constitu- 
tional right  of  free  suffrages  usurped  by  the 
latter,  the  Germans  withdrew  from  Prague, 
and  in  the  year  1409,  founded  a  nev.'  acade-  ;| 
my  at  Leipsic.     This  event  no  sooner  hap-  '| 
pened,   than  Huss  began  to  inveigh,   with  j 
greater  freedom  than  he  had  done  before,  '! 
against  the  vices  and  corruptions  of  the  cler-  j 
gy  ;  and  to  recommend,  in  a  public  manner,  ! 
the  writings  and   opinions  of  Wickliffe,   as  1} 
far  as  they  related  to  the  papal  hierarchy,  J! 
the  despotism  of  the  court  of  Rome,  and  i{ 
the  corruption  of  the  clergv.    Hence  an  ac-  |l 


cusation  was  brought  against  him  in  the 
year  1410,  before  the  tribunal  of  John  XXIII. 
I)y  whom  he  was  solemnly  expelled  from 
the  communion  of  the  churcli.  Notwith- 
standing tills  sentence  of  excommunication, 
he  proceeded  to  expose  the  Romish  church, 
with  a  fortitude  and  zeal  that  were  almost 
universally  applauded. 

This  eminent  man,  whose  piety  was 
equally  sincere  and  fervent,  though  his  zeal 
was  perhaps  too  violent,  and  his  prudence 
not  alv.ays  circumspect,  was  summoned  to 
appear  before  the  council  of  Constance.  Se- 
cured, as  he  thought,  from  the  rage  of  his 
enemies,  by  the  safe  conduct  granted  him 
by  the  emperor  Sigismund  for  his  journey 
to  Constance,  his  residence  in  that  place, 
and  iiis  return  to  his  own  country,  John 
Huss  obeyed  the  order  of  the  council,  and 
appeared  before  it  to  demonstrate  his  inno- 
cence, and  to  prove  that  the  charge  of  his 
having  deserted  the  church  of  Rome  was 
entirely  groundless.  However,  his  enemies 
so  far  prevailed,  that,  by  the  most  scanda- 
lous breach  of  public  faith,  he  was  cast  into 
prison,  declared  a  heretic,  because  he  re- 
fused to  plead  guilty  against  the  dictates  of 
his  conscience,  in  obedience  to  the  council, 
and  burnt  alive  in  1415  ;  a  punishment  which 
he  endured  with  unparalleled  magnanimity 
and  resolution.  When  he  came  to  the  place 
of  execution,  he  fell  on  his  knees,  sang  por- 
tions of  psalms,  looked  stedfastly  towards 
heaven,  and  repeated  these  words:  "  Into 
thy  hands,  O  Lord,  do  I  commit  my  spirit ; 
thou  hast  redeemed  me,  O  most  good  and 
faithful  God.  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  assist  and 
help  me,  that  with  a  firm  and  present  mind, 
by  thy  most  powerful  grace  I  may  undergo 
this  most  ci-uel  and  ignominious  death,  to 
which  I  am  crindenjned  for  preaching  the 
truth  of  thy  most  holy  Gospel."  When  the 
chain  was  put  upon  him  at  the  stake,  he 
said  with  a  smiling  countenance,  "My  Lord 
Jesus  Christ  was  bound  with  a  harder  chain 
than  this  for  my  sake,  and  why  should  1  be 
ashamed  of  this  old  rusty  one  ?"  When  the 
faggots  were  piled  up  to  his  very  neck,  the 
duke  of  Bavaria  was  oflncious  enough  to  de- 
sire him  to  abjure.  "  No."  says  Huss,  "  I 
never  preached  any  doctrine  of  an  evil  ten- 
dency; and  what  I  taught  with  my  lips,  I 
seal  with  my  blood."  He  said  to  the  exe- 
cutioner, "  Are  you  going  to  burn  a  goose  ? 
In  one  century  you  will  have  a  swan  you 
can  neither  roast  nor  boil.''  If  he  were  pro- 
phetic, he  must  have  meant  Luther,  who 
had  a  swan  for  his  arms.  The  fire  was  then 
applied  to  the  faggots;  when  the  martyr 
sang  a  hymn  with  so  loud  and  cheerful  a 
voice,  that  he  was  heard  through  all  the 
cracklings  of  the  combustibles  and  the  noise 
of  the  multitude.  At  last  his  voice  was  cut 
short,  after  he  had  uttered  "  Jesus  Christ, 
thou  Son  of  the  living  God,  have  mercy  upon 
me,"  and  he  was  consumed  in  a  most  mis- 
erable manner.  The  dukg  of  Bavaria  or- 
dered the  executioner  to  throw  all  the  mar- 


Bb 


HUT 


194 


HUT 


tyr's  clnthes  into  the  flames :  after  ■which 
his  ashes  were  carefully  collected,  and  cast 
into  the  Rhine. 

But  the  cause  in  which  this  eminent  man 
was  engaged  did  not  die  with  him.  His 
disciples  adliered  to  their  master's  doctrines 
after  his  death,  which  broke  out  in  an  open 
war.  Jolin  Ziska,  a  Bohemian  knight,  in 
14:0,  put  liimself  at  the  head  of  the  Hus- 
sites, who  were  now  become  a  very  consi- 
derable narty,  and  threw  off  the  despotic 
3"oke  of  Sigismund,  who  had  treated  their 
brethren  in  the  most  barbarous  manner. 
Ziska  was  succeeded  by  Procopius  in  the 
year  1424.  Acts  of  barbarity  were  com- 
mitted on  both  sides ;  for  notwithstanding 
the  irreconcileable  opposition  between  the 
religious  sentiments  of  the  contending  par- 
ties, they  both  agi-eed  in  this  one  horrible 
prmciple,  that  it  was  innocent  and  lawful  to 
j)ersecute  and  extirpate  with  fire  and  sword 
the  enemies  of  the  true  religion  ;  and  such 
they  reciprocally  appeared  to  each  other. 
These  Ci>mmotions,  in  a  great  measure, 
subsided  by  the  interference  of  the  council 
of  Basil,  in  the  year  1433. 

The  Hussites,  \vho  were  divided  into  two 
parties,  viz.  the  Calixtines  and  the  Taborites, 
spread  over  all  Bohemia  and  Hungary,  and 
e\  en  Silesia  and  Poland ;  and  thei'e  are,  it  is 
said,  some  remains  of  them  still  subsisting 
in  those  parts.  Broughton\  Diet.;  Middle- 
tori's  F.vang.  Biog.y  vol.  i. ;  Moslieiiri's  Ec- 

HUTCHINSONIANS,  the  followers  of 
John  Hutchinson,  who  was  boi'n  in  York- 
shire in  16r4.  In  the  early  part  of  his  life 
he  served  the  duke  of  Somerset  in  the  ca- 
pacity of  steward  ;  and  in  the  course  of  his 
travels  from  place  to  place  employed  him- 
self in  collecting  fossils.  We  are  told  that 
the  large  and  noble  collection  bequeathed  by 
Dr.  Woodward  to  the  University  of  "Cam- 
bridge was  actually  made  by  him,  and  even 
unfairly  obtained  from  him.  In  1724,  he 
published  the  first  part  of  his  curious  book, 
called  Aloses"  Princijiia,  in  which  he  ridi- 
culed Dr.  Woodward's  Natural  History  of 
the  Earth,  and  exploded  the  doctrine  of 
gravitation  established  in  Newton's  Princi- 
pia.  in  1727,  he  published  a  second  part  of 
Muses'  Principia,  contaiiiing  the  prisciples 
ct  the  scripture  phihisnpliy.  From  this  time 
to  his  death  he  published  a  volume  every 
year  or  twr,  which,  with  the  manuscripts 
he  left  behind,  were  puljlished  in  1748.  in 
12  volumes,  8vo.  On  the  Monday  before 
hjs  death.  Dr.  Mead  urged  him  to  be  bled ; 
saying,  pleasantly,  "  I  will  soon  send  you  to 
Moses,"  mtaning  his  studies;  but  Mr.  Hut- 
ciiinson  taking  it  in  the  literal  sense,  an- 
swered in  a  muttering  tone,  "  I  believe, 
doctor,  you  wiil  ;  and  was  so  displeased, 
that  he  dismissed  him  for  another  physi- 
cian ;  but  he  died  in  a  few  days  after,  Au- 
gust 28,  1737. 

It  appears  to  be  a  leading  sentiment  of  this 
denomination,  that  all  our  ideas  of  divinity 
are  formed  from  the  ideas  in  nature, — that 


nature  is  a  standing  picture,  and  scripture 
an  application  ef  the  several  parts  of  the 
picture,  to  draw  out  to,  as  the  great  things 
of  God,  in  order  to  reform  our  mental  con- 
ceptions To  prove  this  point,  they  allege, 
that  the  scriptures  declare  the  invhihlc 
things  of  God  from  the  formation  of  the 
tvorld  are  clearly  seeti,  being  understood  by 
the  things  ivhich  are  made  ;  even  Ids  eter- 
nal power  and  Godhead,  Rom.  i.  20.  The 
heavens  must  declare  God's  righteousness 
and  truth  in  the  congregation  of  the  saints, 
Ps.  Ixxxix.  5.  And  in  short  the  whole  sys- 
tem of  nature,  in  one  voice  of  analogy,  de- 
clares and  gives  us  ideas  of  his  glorv,  and 
shews  us  his  handy  work.  We  cannot  have 
any  ideas  of  invisible  things  till  they  are 
pointed  out  to  us  by  revelation :  and  as  we 
cannot  know  them  immediately,  such  as  they 
are  in  themselves,  after  the  manner  in  which 
we  know  sensible  objects,  they  must  be  com- 
municated to  U3  by  the  mediation  of  such 
things  as  we  already  comprehend.  Ydv  this 
reason  the  Scripture  is  found  to  have  a  lan- 
guage of  its  own,  which  does  not  consist  of 
words,  but  of  signs  or  figures  taken  from 
visible  things  :  in  consequence  of  which  the 
world  which  we  now  see  becomes  a  sort  of 
commentary  on  the  mind  of  God,  and  ex- 
plains the  world  in  which  we  believe.  The 
doctrines  of  the  Christian  faith  are  attested 
by  the  whole  natural  world:  they  are  re- 
corded in  a  language  Avhich  has  never  been 
confounded ;  they  are  written  in  a  text  which 
shall  never  be  corrupted. 

The  Hutchinsonians  maintain  that  the 
great  mystery  of  the  trinity  is  conveyed  to 
our  understandings  by  ideas  of  sense ;  and 
that  the  created  substance  of  the  air,  or 
heaven,  in  its  threefold  agency  of  fire,  light, 
and  spirit,  is  the  enigma  of  the  one  essence, 
or  one  Jehovah  in  three  persons.  The  unity 
of  essence  is  exhibited  by  its  unity  of  sub- 
stance ;  the  trinity  of  conditions,  fire,  light, 
and  spirit.  Thus  the  one  substance  of  the 
air,  or  heaven,  in  its  three  conditions,  shews 
the  unity  in  tnnity ;  and  its  three  conditions 
in  or  of  one  substance,  the  trinity  in  unity. 
For  (says  this  denomination)  if  we  consult 
the  writings  of  the  Old  and  New  Testa- 
ment, we  shall  find  the  persons  of  the  Deity 
represented  under  the  names  and  charac- 
ters of  the  three  material  agents,  fire, 
light,  and  sj^irit,  and  their  actions  e.xpressed 
bv  the  actions  of  these  their  emblems.  The 
Father  is  called  a  consuming  fire;  and  his 
judicial  j^roccedings  are  spoken  of  in  words 
wh.ich  denote  the  several  actions  of  fire, 
Jehovah  is  a  con»iinnng  frc — Our  God  is  a 
consuming  fire,  Deut.  iv.  24  Heb.  xii.  29. 
The  Son  has  the  name  of  li.ght,  and  ius  pu- 
rifying actions  and  offices  are  described  by 
words  which  denote  the  actions  and  offices 
of  light.  Hr  is  the  true  light,  which  light- 
cth  every  man  that  comelh  itiio  the  world, 
John  i.  9.  Mai.  iv.  2.  The  Comforter  has 
the  name  of  S])irit;  and  his  animatir.g  and 
sustaining  offices  are  descrilietl  by  words, 
for  the  actions  and  offices  of  the  material 


HUT 


195 


HYP 


spirit.  His  actions  in  the  spiritual  economy 
are  agreeable  to  his  type  in  the  natural 
economy  ;  such  as  inspiring,  impelling,  dri- 
ving, leading,  Matt.  ii.  1.  The  philosophic 
system  of  the  Hutchinsonians  is  derived  from 
the  Hebrew  scriptures.  The  truth  of  it 
rests  on  these  suppositions  1.  That  the  He- 
brew language  was  formed  under  divine  in- 
spiration, either  all  at  once,  or  at  different 
times,  as  occasion  requiied ;  and  that  the 
Divine  Being  had  ■  view  in  constructing  it, 
to  the  various  revelations  which  he  in  all 
succeeding  times  should  make  in  that  lan- 
guage :  consequently,  that  its  words  must  be 
the  most  proper  and  determinate  to  convt  y 
such  truths  as  the  Deity,  during  the  Old 
Testamt-nt  dispensation,  thought  fit  to  make 
known  to  the  sons  of  men.  Farther  than 
this:  that  the  inspired  penmen  of  tlioseages 
at  least,  were  under  the  guidance  of  heaven 
in  the  choice  of  words  for  recniding  what 
was  revealed  to  them :  therefore  that  the 
Old  Testament,  if  the  langiiage  be  rightly 
understood,  is  the  most  determinate  in  its 
meaning  of  any  other  book  under  heaven  — 
2.  That  whatever  is  recorded   in  the  Old 


dispensation  were  so  many  delineations  of 
Christ,  in  v.hat  he  was  to  be,  to  do,  and  to 
suffer;  that  the  early  Jews  knew  tbein  to 
be  types  of  his  actions  and  sufferings;  and 
by  perfornung  them  as  such,  were  so  far 
Christians  bnth  in  faitli  and  practice. 

The  Hutchinsonians  have,  for  the  most 
part,  been  men  of  devout  minds,  zealous  in 
the  cause  of  Christianity,  and  untainted  with 
heterodox  opinions,  which  have  so  often  di- 
vided the  church  of  Christ  The  names  of 
Komaine,  bishop  Home,  Parkhurst,  and 
others  of  this  denomination,  will  be  long  es- 
teemed, both  for  the  piety  they  possessed, 
and  the  good  they  have  been  the  instru- 
ments of  promoting  amongst  mankind. 
Should  the  reader  wish  to  know  more  of 
the  philosophical  and  theological  opinions  of 
Mr.  Hutchinson,  he  may  consult  a  work, 
entitled  "  An  abstract  '>f  the  works  of 
John  Hutchinsrn,  Esq.  Edinburgh,  1763." 
See  also  Jonea''  Life  of  Ehhofi  Home,  '2d 
edit.  Jones'  Works  ;  Spearman's  Inquiry, 
p.  260.  273. 

HYMN,  a  song  or  ode  in  hrjic.ur  of  the 
Divine  being.  St.  Hilary,  bishop  of  Poictiers, 


festament  is  strictly  and  literally  true,  al-  i  is  said  to  ha\e  bten  the  fir.st  who  composed. 


lowing  only  for  a  few  common  figures  of 
rhetoric  :  that  nothing  contrary  to  truth  is 
accommodated  to  vulgar  apprehensions. 

In  proof  of  this,  the  Hutchinsonians  argue 
in  this  manner.  The  primary  and  ultimate 
design  of  revelation  is  indeed  to  teach  men 
divinity ;  but  in  subserviency  to  that,  geo- 
graphy, history,  and  chronology,  are  occa- 
sionally inti'oduced  ;  all  which  are  allowed 
to  be  just  and  authentic.  There  are  also 
innumerable  references  to  things  of  nature, 
and  descriptions  of  them.  If,  then,  the  for- 
mer are  just,  and  to  be  depended  on.  for  the 
same  reason  the  latter  ought  to  be  esteem- 
ed philosophically  true.  Farther:  they  think 
it  not  unworthy  of  God,  that  he  should  make 
it  a  secondary  end  of  his  revelation  to  un- 
fold the  secrets  of  his  works  ;  as  the  primary 
was  to  make  known  the  mysteries  of  his 
nature,  and  the  designs  of  his  grace,  that 


hymns  to  be  sung  in  churches,  and  was  fol- 
lowed by  St.  Ambrose.  Most  of  thost-  in. 
the  Roman  breviary  were  composed  by 
Prudentms.  The  hymns  or  odes  of  the  an- 
cients generally  consisted  of  three  sorts  of 
stanzas,  one  of  which  was  sung  by  the 
band  as  they  walked  from  east  to  west; 
another  was  performed  as  they  returned 
from  west  to  east ;  the  third  part  was  sung 
before  the  altar.  The  Jewish  hymns  were 
accompanied  with  trumpets,  drums,  and 
cymbals,  to  assist  the  voices  of  the  Levites 
and  the  people.  W'e  have  had  a  conside- 
rable number  of  hymns  composed  in  our 
own  country.  The  most  esteemed  are  those 
of  Watts,  Doddridge,  Newton,  and  Hart. 
As  to  selections,  fevv'  are  superior  to  Dr. 
Rippon's  and  Dr.  Williams'.  See  Psalm- 
ODr. 

HYPOCRISY  is  a  seeming  or  professing 


men  might  thereby  be  led  to  admire  and  ||  to  be  what  in  truth  and  reality  we  are  not. 
adore  the  wisdom  and  goodness  which  the  ]!  It  consists  in  assuming  a  character  which 
great  Author  of  the  universe  has  displayed  ,  we  are  conscious  does  not  belong  to  us,  and 
throughout  al!  his  works.  And  as  otn*  minds  ii  by  which  we  intentionally  impose  upon  the 
are  often  referred  to  natural  things  for  ideas  ;  judgment  and  opinion  of  mankind  concern- 
of  spiritual  truths,  it  is  of  great  impoi'tance,  |i  iog  us.  The  name  is  borrowed  from  the 
in  order  to  conceive  aright  of  divine  mat-  j  Greek  tongue,  in  which  it  primarily  signi- 
ters,  that  our  ideas  of  the  natural  things  re-  ij  fies  the  profession  of  a  stage   player,  which 


fen'ed  to,  be  strictly  just  and  true 

Mr.  Hutchinson  found  that  the  Hebrew 
scriptures  had  some  capital  words,  which 
he  thought  had  not  been  duly  considered  and 
understood  ;  and  which,  he  has  endeavour- 
ed to  prove,  contain  in  their  radical  mean- 
ing, the  greatest  and  most  comfortable 
truths.  The  cherubim  he  explains  to  be  a 
hieroglyphic  of  divine  construction,  or  a  sa- 
cred image,  to  describe,  as  far  as  fii^iuTS 
could  go,  the  humanity  united  toDeitv  :  and 
so  he  treats  of  several  other  words  of  simi- 
lar import.  From  all  which  he  concluded, 
that  the  rites  and  ceremonies  of  the  Jewish 


is  to  express  in  speech,  habit,  and  action, 
n<it  his  own  person  and  manners,  but  his 
whom  he  undertakes  to  represent.  A  id  so 
it  is ;  for  the  very  essence  of  hypocrisy  lies 
in  apt  imitatu3n  and  d'^ceit ;  in  acting  the 
part  of  a  membor  of  Christ  without  any 
saving  grace.  The  hypocrite  is  a  double 
person  ;  h,e  has  one  perso.n,  which  is  natu- 
ral ;  another,  which  is  artificial  ;  the  first 
he  keeps  to  liimself ;  tlie  other  he  puts  on 
as  he  doth  his  clothes,  to  make  his  appear- 
ance in  Ijefore  men.  It  was  ingeniotislv  said 
by  Basil,  "that  the  hypocrite  has  not  put 
off  the  old  man,  but  on  the  rievj  upon  it." 


JAN 


196 


JAN 


Hypocrites  have  been  divided  into  ioui* 
sorts.  1.  The  ivorldly  hypocrite,  -who 
makes  a  profession  of  religion,  and  pretends 
to  be  rehgious,  merely  from  worldly  con- 
siderations. Matt,  xxiii.  5. — 2.  The  legal 
hypocrite,  who  relinquishes  his  vicious  prac- 
tices, in  order  thereby  to  merit  heaven, 
while  at  the  same  time  he  has  no  real  love 
to  God,  Rom.  x.  3  — 3.  The  evangelical  hy- 
pocrite, whose  religion  is  nothing  more  than 
a  bare  conviction  of  sin  ;  who  rejoices  un- 
der the  idea  that  Christ  died  for  him,  and 
yet  has  no  desire  to  live  a  holy  life,  Matt 
kiii.  20.  2  Pet.  ii.  20. — 4.  The  eiithusiaaik 
hypocrite,  who  has  an  imaginary  sight  of 
his  sin,  and  of  Christ  ;  talks  of  remarkable 
impulses  and  high  feelings ;  and  thinks 
himself  very  wise  and  good,  while  lie  lives 
in  the  most  scandalous  practices.  Mutt.  xiii. 
39.  2  Cor.  xi  14,  Crook  on  Hypocrisy  ; 
Decoetlegon's  Sermon  o?i  Ps.  li.  6  ;  Grove's 
Moral  Philosolihy,  vol  ii  page  253;  South' s 
Sermon  on  Job  viii.  13.  vol.  10;  Bellamy's 
Relig.  Del.  p.  166. 

HYPOSTASIS,  a  term  literally  signify- 
ing substance  or  subsistence,  or  that  which 
is  put  and  stands  under  another  thing,  and 
supports  it,  being  its  base,  ground,  or  foun- 
dation. Thus  faith  is  the  substantial  foun- 
dation of  things  hoped  for,  Heb.  xi.  1.  The 
word  is  Greek,  tiTo?r<z5-<?,  compounded  of 
vTTo,  sub,  under;  and  <5t>jjm,(,  "i/o,"  1 
stand,  I  exist,  q.  d.  "  subsistantia."    It  hke- 


wise  signifies  confidence,  stability,  firmness* 
2  Cor.  ix.  4.  It  is  also  used  for  person, 
Heb.  i.  3.  Thus  we  hold  that  there  is  but 
one  nature  or  essence  in  God,  but  three  hy- 
postases or  persons.  The  word  has  occa- 
sioned great  dissensions  in  the  ancient 
churcli,  first  amor.g  the  Greeks,  and  after- 
wai'ds  among  the  Latins  ;  but  an  end  was 
put  to  them  by  a  synod  held  at  Alexandria 
about  the  year  362,  at  which  St  Athanasius 
assisted  ;  from  which  time  the  Latins  made 
no  great  scruple  oi  saying  three  hypostases, 
nor  the  Greeks  of  three  persons.  The  hy- 
Jiostutical  union  is  the  union  of  the  human 
nature  of  Christ  with  the  divine  ;  constitu- 
ting two  natures  in  one  person,  and  not  two 
jjersons  in  one  nature,  as  the  iMestorians  be- 
lieve.   See  Jesus  Christ. 

HYPSISTARII,  (formed  from  v^aror, 
"  highest,")  a  sect  of  heretics  in  the  fourth 
century :  thus  called  from  the  ])rofessi('n 
they  made  of  worshipping  the  Most  High 
God. 

The  doctrine  of  the  Hypsistarians  was  an 
assemblage  of  Paganism,  Judaism,  and  Chris- 
tianity.— They  adored  the  Most  High  God 
with  the  Christians ;  but  they  also  revered 
fire  and  lamps  with  the  Heathens,  and  ob- 
served the  sabbath,  and  the  distinction  of 
clean  and  unclean  things,  with  the  Jews. 
The  Hypsistarii  bore  a  near  resemblance  to 
the  Euchites,  or  Messalians. 


I  and  J. 


JACOBITES,  a  sect  of  Christians  in  Sy- 
ria and  Mesopotamia  ;  so  called  either  froitj 
Jacob,  a  Syrian,  who  lived  in  the  reign  of 
the  emperor  Mauritius,  or  from  one  Jacob  a 
monk,  who  flourished  in  the  year  550. 

The  Jacoljitcs  are  of  two  sects :  some  fol- 
lowing the  I'ites  of  the  Latin  church,  and 
others  continuing  separated  from  the  church 
of  Rome.  There  is  also  a  division  among 
the  latter,  who  have  two  rival  patriarchs. 
As  to  their  belief,  they  hold  but  one  nature 
in  Jesus  Christ :  with  respect  to  purgatory, 
and  prayers  for  the  deacl,  they  are  of  the 
same  opinion  with  the  Greeks,  and  other 
eastern  Christians.  They  C(jnsecrate'  un- 
leavened bread  at  the  eucharist,  and  are 
against  confession,  believing  that  it  is  not  of 
divine  institution. 

JANSENISTS,  a  sect  of  the  Roman  Ca- 
tholics in  France,  who  followed  the  opinions 
of  Jansenius  (bishop  of  Yjjres,  and  doctor  of 
divinity  of  the  universities  of  Louvain  and 
Douay,)  in  x'elation  to  grace  and  predesti- 
nation. 

In  the  year  1640,  the  two  universities  just 
mentioned,  and  particularly  father  Molina 


and  father  Leonard  Celsus,  thought  fit  to 
condemn  the  opinions  of  the  Jesuits  on  grace 
and  free  will.  This  having  set'  the  contro- 
versy on  foot,  Jansenius  opposed  to  the  doc- 
trine of  the  Jesuits  the  sentiments  of  St.  Au- 
gustine, and  wrote  a  treatise  on  Grace, 
which  lie  entitled  Angustinus.  This  trea- 
tise was  attacked  by  the  Jesuits,  who  accu- 
sed Jansenius  of  maintaining  dangerous  and 
heretical  opinions  ;  and  afterwards,  in  1642, 
obtained  of  Pope  Urijan  VIIL  a  formal  con- 
demnation of  the  treatise  wrote  by  Janse- 
nius; when  the  partisans  of  Jansenius  gave 
out  that  thisljuU  was  spurious,  and  com])o- 
sed  by  a  person  entirely  devoted  to  the  Je- 
suits. After  the  death  of  Urban  VIH.  the 
affair  of  Jansenism  began  to  be  more  warm- 
ly controverted,  and  gave  birth  to  a  great 
number  of  polemical  writings  concerning 
grace;  and  what  occasioned  some  mirth, 
were  the  titles  which  each  party  gave  to 
their  wiitings :  one  writer  published  the 
Torch  of  St.  Augustine ;  another  found 
Snuffers  for  St.  Augustine's  Torch  ;  and 
father  Vernon  formed  A  Gag  for  the  Jan- 
senists,  &c.    In  the  year  I65O,  sixty-eight 


JAN 


19J 


ICO 


bislrops  of  France  subscril^ed  a  letter  to 
pope  Innocent  X  to  obtain  an  inquiry  into, 
and  condemnation  of  the  five  following  pro- 
positions, extracted  from  Janseains'  Augus- 
tinus :  1.  Some  of  God's  commandments  are 
impossible  to  be  observed  by  the  righteous 
even  though  tliey  endeavour  with  all  their 
power  to  accomplish  them. — 2.  In  the  state 
of  corrupted  nature,  we  are  incapable  of  re- 
sisting inward  grace. — 3.  Merit  and  demer- 
it, in  a  state  of  corrupted  nature,  do  not  de- 
pend on  a  liberty  which  excludes  necessity, 
but  on  a  liberty  which  excludes  constraint,  i 
— 4.  The  semi-pelagians  admitted  the  ne- 
cessity of  an  inv/ard  preventing  grace  for 
the  performance  of  each  particular  act, 
even  for  the  beginning  of  faith;  but  they 
were  heretics  in  maintaining  that  this  gi-ace 
was  of  such  a  nature,  that  the  will  of  man 
was  able  either  to  resist  or  obey  it — 5.  It  is 
Semi-pelagianism  to  say  that  Jesus  Christ 
died,  or  shed  his  blood,  for  all  mankind  in 
general. 

In  the  year  1652,  the  pope  appointed  a  con- 
!^regation  for  examining  into  the  dispute  rela- 
tive to  grace.  In  this  congregation  Jansenius 
was  condemned ;  and  the  bull  of  condemna- 
tion pubhshed  in  May,  1653,  filled  all  the 
pulpits  in  Paris  with  violent  outcries  and 
alarms  against  the  Jansenists.  In  the  year 
1656,  pope  Alexander  VII.  issued  out  ano- 
ther bull,  in  which  he  condemned  the  live 
propositions  of  Jansenius,  However,  the 
Jansenists  affirmed,  that  these  propositions 
were  not  to  be  found  in  this  book ;  but  that 
some  of  his  enemies  having  caused  them 
to  be  printed  on  a  sheet,  inserted  them  in 
the  book,  and  thereby  deceived  the  pope. 
At  last  Clement  XI.  put  an  end  to  the  dis- 
pute by  his  constitution  of  July  17,  1705,  in 
which,  after  having  recited  the  constitutions 
of  his  predecessors  in  relation  to  this  aSair, 
he  declared,  "  That,  in  order  to  pay  a  pro- 
per obedience  to  the  papal  constitutions 
concerning  the  present  question,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  i-eceive  them  Avith  a  respectful  si- 
lence. The  clergy  of  Paris,  the  same  year, 
approved  and  accepted  this  bull,  and  none 
dared  to  oppose  it.  This  is  the  famous  bull 
Unigenitus,  so  called  from  its  beginning 
with  the  words  Unigenitus  Dei  Fitins,  &c. 
which  has  occasioned  so  much  confusion  in 
France. 

It  was  not  only  on  account  of  their  embra- 
cing the  doctrines  of  Augustine,  that  the 
Jesuits  were  so  embittered  against  them : 
but  that  which  offended  the  Jesuits,  and  the 
other  creatures  of  the  Roman  Pontiff,  was. 


ed  upon  the  necessity  of  reforming   their 
discipline  according  to  the  rules  of  sanctity, 
abstinence,  and  self-denial,  that  were  origin- 
ally prescribed  by  their  respective  founders. 
They    mahitained,  also,    that    the    people 
ought  to  be  carefully  instructed  in   all  the 
doctrines  and  precepts  of  Christianity  :  and 
that,   for  tills  purpose,  the  holy  Scriptures 
and   public   liturgies  should   be    offered  to 
their  perusal  in  their  mother  tongue  ;  and 
final!)    they  looked    upon   it  as  a  matter  of 
the  highest  moment  to  persuade  all   Chris- 
tians, that  true  piety  did  not  consist  in  the 
observance  of  pompous  rites,  or  in  the  per- 
formance of  external    acts  of  devotion,  but 
in  inward  holiness  and  divine  love. 
i    'Notwithstanding  the  above-mentioned  sen- 
timents, the  Jansenists  have  been  accused  of 
!  superstition  and  fanaticism  ;  and  on  account 
j  of  their  seveie  discipline  and  practice,  have 
I  been  denominated   JRigourists.     It  is  said, 
j  that  they  made   repentance   consist  chiefly 
in    those     voluntary    sufferings    which   the 
transgressor  inflicted  upon   himself,  in  pro- 
I  portion  to  the  nature  of  his  crimes  and  the 
I  degree  of  his  guilt.     They  tortured  and  ma- 
I  cerated    their   bodies  by  painful  labour  ex- 
'  cessi\  e    abstinence,    continual    prayer,   and 
contemplation  :  nay,  they  carried  these  aus- 
terities, it  is  said,  to  so  high  a  pitch,   as  to 
place  merit  in  them,  and  to  consider  those 
as  the    .'iuci'cd  victims   of  repentance  who 
had  gradually  put  an  end  to  their  days  by 
their  excessive  abstinence  and  labour.     Dr. 
Haweis,  however,  in  his  Church   Histor}', 
(vol.  iii.  p.  46,)  seems   to  form  a  more  fa- 
vourable   opinion    of   them.      "  I  do   not," 
says  he,  "  readily  receive  the  accusations 
that  Papists  or  Protestants  have  objected  to 
them,  as  over  rigorous  and  fanatic  in  their 
devotion;    but   I    will  admit  many  things 
might  be  blameable :   a  tincture  of  popeiy 
might    drive  them    to  push   monkish  aus- 
terities too  far.  and  secretly  to  place  some 
merit  in  mortification,  which  they  in  gene- 
ral disclaimed  ;   yet,  with  all   that  can  be 
said,  surely  the  root  of  the  matter  Avas  in 
them.     When  I  read  Jansenius,  or   his  dis- 
ciples Pascal  or  Quesnel,  I  bow  before  such 
distinguished  excellencies,  and  confess  them 
my  brethren  ;  shall  I  say  my  fathers }  Their 
prhiciples     are      pure     and      evangelical ; 
their  morals  formed  upon  the  apostles  and 
prophets ;  and   their    zeal    to  amend    and 
convert,  blessed  with  eminent  success.'' 

IBERIANS,  a  denomination  of  eastern 
Christians,  which  derive  their  name  from 
Iberia,    a    province   of    Asia,    now    called 


their  strict  pietv,  and   severe  moral  disci-  j!  Georgia :  hence  they  are  also  called  Geor- 
pline.     The  Jansenists  cried  out  against  the  ||  S^'^^^-     1^'^^"'   ^^"^ts   are    said    to  be   the 


corruptions  of  the  church  of  Rome,  and  com- 
plained that  neither  its  doctrines  nor  mo- 
nds  letained  any  traces  of  their  former  pu- 
rity. Tiiey  reproached  the  clergy  Avith  an 
universal  depravation  of  sentiments  and 
manners,  and  an  entire  fr.rgetfuiness  of  the 
dignity  of  their  character  and  the  duties  of 
their  vocation ;  they  censured  the  licen- 
tousness  of  the  monastic  orders,  and  in.sist- 


same    Avith   those    of   the    Greek    church, 
Avhich  see. 

ICONOCLASTES,  or  Iconoclast.?:, 
breakers  of  images :  a  name  Avhich  tlie 
church  of  Rome  gives  to  all  Avho  reject  the 
use  of  images  in  religious  matters.  The 
word  is  Greek,  formed  from  eiKuv,  imago, 
and  x-Xctmiv  rwnp.tre,  "  to  break."  In  this 
sense  not  only  the   reformed,  but   some  of 


ICO 


198 


ICO 


the  eastern  churches,  are  called  inconoclas- 
tesy  and  esteemed  by  them  heretics,  as 
opposing  the  worship  of  tlie  images  of  God 
and  the  saints,  and  breaking  their  figures 
and  representations  in  churches. 

Tlie  opposition  to  images  began  in  Gi'eece, 
under    the   reign    of    Bardanes,    who   was 
created    emperor   of  the    Greeks    a    Httle 
after  the  commencement  of  the  eighth  cen- 
tury, when  the  worship  of  them  became 
common.     See  Image.     But    the  tumults 
occasioned  by  it  were  quelled  by  a  revolu- 
tion, whicli,   in  713,  deprived   Bardanes  of 
the  imperial  throne.     The  dispute,  however, 
broke  out  with  redoubled  fury  under  Leo 
the  Isaurian,  who  issued  out  an  edict  in  the 
year  726,  abrogating,  as  some  say,  the  wor- 
ship of  images;  and  ordering  all  the  images, 
except  that  of   Christ's   cruciiixion,   to  be 
removed  out  of  the  churches  ;  but,  accord- 
ing to  others,  this  edict  only  prohibited  the 
paying  to  them   any  kind   of  adoration   or 
worship.     This  edict  occasioned  a  civil  war, 
which  broke    out    in    the    islands   of    the 
Archif)elago,  and,  by  the  suggestions  of  the 
priests  and  monks,  ravaged  a  part  of  Asia, 
and  afterwards  reaching  Italy.     The  civil 
commotions  and  insurrections  in  Italy,  were 
chiefly   promoted  by  the   Roman    pontiffs, 
Gregory  I.  and   II.    Leo  was  excommuni- 
cated ;    and  his  subjects  in  the  Italian  pro- 
vinces violated  their  allegiance,  and  rising 
in  arms,   either  massacred  or  banished  all 
the  emperor's  deputies    and    officers.      In 
consequence  of  these  proceedings   Leo  as- 
sembled a  council  at  Constantinople  in  730, 
which  degi*aded  Germanus,  bishop  of  that 
city  who    was    a    patron    of  images ;  and 
he    ordered  all  the  images  to   be    publicly 
burnt,    and    inflicted    a    vanety    of  severe 
punishments  upon    such    as  were  attached 
to  that  idolatrous  worship.       Henre    arose 
two   factions,    one    of  which    adopted    the 
adoration     and    worship    of    images,    and 
on   that   account    were    called  iconodxili  rr 
inconolatrx  ,•    and    the    other    maintained 
that  such  worship  was  unlawful,  and  that 
nothing    was    more    worthy   the    zeal     of 
Christians,   than   to   demolish  and  destroy 
those    statues   and    pictures,     whicli    were 
the    occasion    of  this    gross  idolatry ;    and 
hence  they  were  distingui.shed  bv  the  titles 
oiicono-machi  (from  eoc^yv  image,  and  f^xx'^'^ 
I  contend)  and  icono-clas'a:.     The    zeal  of 
Gregoiy  II.    in   favour   of  image   worship 
was  not  only  irritated,  but  even  surpassed, 
by   his   successor    Gregory    HI.    in    Cf)iise- 
quence     of     which    the    Italian    provinces 
were  torn  from  the  (Grecian  emjjire.    Con- 
stantiuL*,   called  Copronimus,   in    754,    cr-n- 
vened  a  council  at  Constantinople,  regard- 
ed by  the  Greeks  as    the  seventh  xcmne- 
nical  council,    wliich    solemnly  condemned 
the  worship  and    use    of   images.       Those 
who,   notwithstanding    this    decree   of  the 
council,    raised    commotions    in   the   state, 
were    severely   punish.ed,     and    new    laws 
were  enacted   to   set   boiuids  to   the  vio- 


lence of  monastic  rage.  Leo  IV,  who  was 
declared  emperor  in  775,  pursued  the 
same  measures,  and  had  recourse  to  the 
coercive  influence  of  penal  laws,  in  order 
to  extirpate  idolatry  out  of  the  Christian 
church.  Irene,  the  wife  of  Leo,  poisoned 
her  husband  in  780:  assumed  the  reins 
of  the  empire  during  the  minority  of  her 
son  Constantine;  and  in  786,  summoned 
a  council  at  Nice,  in  Bithynia,  known  by  the 
name  of  the  Second  Nicrne  touncil,  which 
abrogated  the  laws  and  decrees  against  the 
new  idolatry,  restored  the  worship  of 
images  and  of  the  cross,  and  denounced 
severe  punishments  against  those  who  main- 
tained that  God  was  the  only  object  of 
religious  adoration.  In  this  contest  the 
Britons,  Germans,  and  Gauls,  were  of 
opinion  that  images  might  be  lawfully 
continued  in  churches ;  but  they  considered 
the  worship  of  them  as  highly  injurious 
and  offensive  to  the  Supreme  Being.  Char- 
lemagne distinguished,  himself  as  a  media- 
tor in  this  cotitroversy ;  he  ordered  four 
books  concerning  images  to  be  composed, 
refuting  the  reasons  urged  by  the  Nicene 
bishops  to  justify  the  worship  of  images, 
which  he  sent  to  Adrian,  the  Roman  pon- 
tiff, in  790,  in  order  to  engage  him  to  with- 
draw his  ap])robation  of  the  decrees  of 
the  last  council  of  Nice.  Adrian  wrote  an 
answer :  and  in  r94  a  council  of  300  bish- 
ops, assembled  by  Charlemagne,  at  Franc- 
fort,  on  the  Maine,  confirmed  the  opinion 
contained  in  the  four  books,  and  solemnly 
condemned  the  worship  of  images. 

In  the  Greek  church,  after  the  banish- 
ment of  Irene,  the  controversy  concerning 
images  broke  out  a  new,  and  was  carried 
on  by  the  contending  parties,  during  the 
half  of  the  ninth  century,  with  various  and 
uncertain  success.  The  eiT»peror  Nicepho- 
rus  appears,  upon  the  whole,  to  have  been 
jan  enemy  to  this  idolatrous  worship.  His 
'successor,  Michael  Cun^palates,  surnamed 
\  Rlmngabe,  patronized  and  encouraged  it. 
iBut  the  scene  changed  on  the  accession  of 
Leo,  the  Armenian,  to  the  empire,  who 
assembled  a  council  at  Constantii.ople,  in 
812,  that  abolished  the  decrees  of  the  Nicene 
council.  His  successor,  Michael,  surnamed 
Balbns,  disapproved  of  the  worship  of 
images,  and  his  son  Theophilus,  treated 
them  with  great  severity.  However,  the 
empress  Theodora,  after  his  death,  and 
during  the  minority  of  her  son.  assembled  a 
council  at  Constantinople  in  842,  which  re- 
instated the  decrees  of  the  second  Nicene 
ccuncil,  and  encouraged  image  worship  by 
a  law.  The  council  held  at  the  same  place 
under  Protius,  in  879,  and  reckoned  by  the 
Greeks,  the  eighth  general  council,  confirm- 
ed and  renewed  the  Nicene  decrtes.  In 
commemoration  of  this  council,  a  festival 
was  instituted  by  the  superstitious  Greeks, 
called  the  Feast  of  Orthodoxy.  The 
Latins  were  generally  of  opinion  that  images 
I  might  be  suffered,   as  the  means  of  aiding 


ICO 


199 


IDO 


the  memory  of  the  faithful,  and  of  calling 
to  their  remembrance  the  pious  exploits  and 
virtuous  actions  of  the  persons  whom  they 
represented  ;  but  th€y  detested,  all  thoughts 
of  paying  them-the  least  marks  of  religious 
homage  or  adoration.  The  council  of  Paris, 
assembled  in  824,  by  Louis  the  Meek,  re- 
solved to  allow  the  use  of  images  in  the 
churches,  but  severely  prohibited  rendering 
them  religious  worship ;  nevertheless,  to- 
wards the  conclusion  of  this  century,  the 
(iallican  clergy  began  to  pay  a  kind  of  re- 
ligious homage  to  the  images  of  saints,  and 
their  example  was  followed  by  the  Ger- 
mans, and  other  nations.  However,  the 
Iconoclastes  still  had  their  adherents  among 
the  Latins  ;  the  most  eminent  of  whom  was 
Claudius,  bishop  of  Turin,  who,  in  823, 
ordered  all  images,  and  even  the  cross,  to 
be  cast  out  of  the  churches,  and  committed 
to  the  flames  ;  and  he  wrote  a  treatise, 
in  which  he  declared  both  against  tlie  use 
and  worsliip  of  them.  He  condemned  relics, 
pilgrimages  to  the  Holy  Land,  and  all 
voyages  to  the  tombs  of  saints;  and  to 
his  writings  and  labours  it  was  owing, 
that  the  city  of  Turin,  and  the  adjacent 
countiy,  was,  for  a  long  time  alter  his 
death,  much  less  infected  with  superstition 
than  the  other  parts  of  Europe.  The 
controversy  concerning  the  sanctity  of  ima- 
ges was  again  revived  by  Leo,  bishop  of 
Chalcedon,  in  the  11th  century,  on  occasion 
of  the  emperor  Alexiues's  converting  the 
figures  of  silver  that  adorned  the  portals  of 
the  churches  into  mtmey,  in  order  to  supply 
the  exigencies  of  the  state.  The  bishop 
obstinately  maintained  that  he  had  been 
guilty  of  sacrilege  ;  and  published  a  treatise, 
in  which  he  affirmed,  t'.iat  in  these  images, 
there  resided  an  inherent  sanctity,  and  that 
the  adoration  of  Christians  ought  not  to  be 
confined  to  the  persons  represented  by 
these  images,  but  extend  to  the  images 
themselves.  The  emperor  assembled  a 
council  at  Constai»tinople,  which  determined 
that  the  images  of  Christ  and  of  the  saints 
were  to  be  honoured  only  with  a  relative 
worship  ;  and  that  the  invocation  and  wor- 
ship were  to  be  addressed  to  the  saints 
only,  as  the  servants  of  Christ,  and  on  ac- 
count of  their  relation  to  him  as  their  mas- 
ter. Leo,  dissatisfied  with  these  absurd  and  ! 
superstitious  decisions,  was  sent  into  banish- 
ment. In  the  western  church,  the  worship 
of  images  was  disapproved,  and  opposed  liy 
several  considerable  parties,  as  the  Petr<»- 
brussians,  Albigenses,  Waldenses,  &c. ;  till 
at  length  this  idolatrous  practice  was  abolish- 
ed in  many  parts  of  the  Christian  world  by 
the  reformation.     See  Image. 

ICONOLATRiE,  or  Iconolaters, 
those  v/ho  worship  images  ;  a  name  wliich 
the  Iconoclastes  give  to  those  of  the  Ro- 
mish communion,  on  account  of  their 
adoring  images,  and  of  rendering  to  them 
the  worship  only  due  to  God-  The  word 
is  formed  from  ei>cuv,  image,  and  y^xTOivu,^ 


I   worship.      See  last  article,  and  article 

Image. 

IDLENESS,  a  reluctancy  to  be  employ- 
ed in  any  kind  of  work.  The  idle  man  is 
in  every  view  both  foolish  and  criminal. 
"  He  neither  lives  to  God,  to  the  world, 
nor  to  himself.  He  does  not  live  to  God, 
for  he  answers  not  the  end  for  which  he 
was  brought  into  being.  Existence  is  a 
sacred  trust ;  but  he  who  misemploys  and 
squanders  it  awa)',  thus  becomes  treacher- 
ous to  its  Author.  Those  powers  which 
should  be  employed  in  his  service,  and  for 
the  promotion  of  his  glory,  lie  dormant. 
The  time  which  should  be  sacred  to  Jeho- 
vah is  lost ;  and  thus  he  enjoys  no  fellow- 
ship with  God,  nor  any  way  devotes  him- 
self to  his  praise.  He  lives  not  to  the 
world,  nor  for  the  benefit  of  his  fellow- 
creatures  around  him.  While  all  creation 
is  full  of  life  and  activity,  and  nothing 
stands  still  in  the  universe,  he  remains  idle, 
forgetting  that  mankind  are  connected  by 
various  relations  and  mutual  dependencies, 
and  that  the  order  of  the  world  cannot  be 
maintained  v/ithout  perpetual  circulation  of 
active  duties.  He  lives  not  to  himself. 
Though  he  imagines  that  he  leaves  to 
others  the  drudgery  of  life,  and  betakes 
himself  to  enjoyment  and  ease,  yet,  in  fact, 
he  has  no  true  pleasure.  While  he  is  a 
blank  in  society,  he  is  no  less  a  torment 
to  himself :  for  he  who  knows  not  what  it 
is  to  labour,  knows  not  what  it  is  to  enjoy. 
He  shuts  the  door  against  improvement  of 
every  kind,  whether  of  mind,  body,  or  for- 
tune. Sloth  enfeebles  equally  the  bodily 
and  the  mental  powers.  His  character  falls 
into  contempt.  Disorder,  confusion,  and 
embarrassment,  mark  his  whole  situation. 
Idleness  is  the  inlet  to  a  variety  of  other 
vices.  It  undermines  every  virtue  in  the 
soul,  \iolent  passions,  like  rapid  torrents, 
run  their  course  ;  but  after  having  over- 
flowed their  banks,  their  impetuosity  sub- 
sides :  but  sloth,  especially  when  it  is  habit- 
ual, is  like  the  slowly-flowing  putrid  stream, 
which  stagnates  in  the  marsli,  breeds  vene- 
mous  animals,  and  poisonous  plants,  and 
infects  with  pestilential  vapours  the  whole 
country  round  it.  Having  once  tainted  the 
soul,  it  leaves  no  part  of  it  sound  ;  and 
at  the  same  time,  gives  not  those  alarms  to 
conscience  which  the  eruptions  of  bolder 
and  iicrcer  emotions  often  occasion."  Lo- 
gan's  Sermons,  vol.  i.  ser  4.  lilair's  Se7'- 
monsf  vol.  iii.  ser.  4.  Idler,  vol.  i.  p.  5, 
171,  172.  Cowfie7''s  Poems,  2-8,  vol.  i- 
du'd.  Johnson's  Ramble7\  vol.  ii.  p  162, 
163. 

11X)LATRY,  the  worship  of  idols,  or 
the  act  of  ascribing  to  tilings  and  persons, 
])roperties  which  are  peculiar  to  God  alone. 
The  principrvl  sources  of  idolary,  seem  to 
b  'the  extravagant  voneratinn  for  creatures, 
and  beings  from  which  benefits  accrued  to 
men.  Dr.  Jortin  says,  that  "  idolatry  had 
four  privileges  to  boast  of.      The  first  was 


IDO 


200 


JE  S 


a  venerable  antiquity,  more  ancient  than 
the  Jewish  religion ;  and  idolaters  might 
have  said  to  the  Israelites,  Where  was  your 
religion  before  Moses  and  Abraham?  Go, 
and  enquire  in  Chaldea,  and  thei'e  you 
"will  find  that  your  fathers  served  other 
gods. — 2.  It  was  wider  spread  than  the  Jew- 
ish religion.  It  was  the  religion  of  the 
greatest,  the  wisest,  and  the  politest  nations 
of  the  Chaldeans,  Egyptions,  and  Phccni- 
cians,  the  parents  of  civil  government,  and 
of  arts  and  sciences. — 3.  It  was  more  adapt- 
ed to  tlie  bent  which  men  have  towards 
visible  and  sensible  objects.  Men  want 
gods  who  shall  go  before  them,  and  be 
among  them.  God,  who  is  eveiy  where  in 
power,  and  no  where  in  appearance,  is 
harrl  ii  be  conceived. — 4.  It  favoured  hu- 
man passions ;  it  required  no  morality  :  its 
religious  ritual  consisted  of  splendid  cere- 
monies, revelling,  dancing,  nocturnal  as- 
semblies, impure  and  scandalous  myste- 
ries, debauched  priests,  and  gods,  who 
were  both  slaves  and  patrons  to  all  sorts  of 
vices. 

"  All  the  more  remarkable  false  religions 
that  have  been,  or  are  in  the  world,  recom- 
mend themselves  by  one  or  other  of  these 
four  privileges  and  characters." 

The  first  objects  of  idolatrous  M'orship  are 
thought  to  have  been  the  sun,  moon,  and 
stars.  Others  think  that  angels  were  first 
wor.shipped.  Soon  after  the  flood  we  find 
idolatry  greatly  prevailing  in  the  world. 
Abraham's  father's  family  served  other  gods 
beyond  the  river  Euphrates;  and  Laban  had 
idols  which  Rachel  brought  along  with  her. 
In  process  of  time,  noted  patients,  or  kings 
deceased,  animals  of  various  kinds,  plants, 
stones,  and,  in  fine,  whatever  people  took  a 
fancy  to,  they  idolized.  The  Egyptians, 
though  high  pretenders  to  wisdom,  worship- 
ped pied  bulls,  snipes,  leeks,  onions,  &:c. 
The  Greeks  had  about  30,000  gods.  The 
Gomerians  deified  their  ancient  kings ;  nor 
were  the  Chaldeans,  Romans,  Chinese,  6cc. 
a  whit  less  absurd-  Some  violated  the  most 
natural  affections  bv  murdering  multitudes 
of  their  neighbours  and  children,  under  pre- 
tence of  sacrificing  them  to  their  god.  Some 
nations  of  Germany,  Scandinavia,  and  Tar- 
tary,  imagined  that  violent  death  in  war, 
or  by  self  murder,  was  the  proper  method 
of  access  to  the  future  enjoyment  of  their 
gods  In  far  later  times,  about  64,080  per- 
sons were  sacrificed  at  the  dedication  of  one 
idolatn.us  temple  in  the  space  of  four  days 
in  America.  The  Hebrews  never  had  any 
idols  of  their  own,  but  they  adopted  those  of 
the  nations  around.  The  veneration  which 
the  papists  pi'.y  to  the  Virgin  Mary,  and 
otiier  siints  and  angels,  and  to  the  bread  in 
the  sacrament,  the  cross,  relics,  and  images, 
lays  a  foundation  for  the  Pmtestants  to  ch;-.rge 
tliem  with  idolatry,  though  they  deny  the 
charge.  It  is  evident  that  they  worship  them, 
and  that  they  justify  the  woi-ship,  but  deny 
the  idolatry  of  it,  by  distinguishing  nuhordi- 
'nate.  from  aitprcine  worship :  the  one  they 


call  latria,  tlie  other  dulia  ;  but  this  distinc- 
tion is  thought  by  many  of  the  Protestants  to 
be  vain,  futile,  and  nugatory. 

Idolatry  has  been  divided  into  metafihori- 
cal  and  profier.  By  metaphorical  idolatry,  is 
meant  that  inordinate  love  of  riches,  honours, 
and  bodily  pleasures,  whereby  the  passions 
and  appetites  of  men  are  made  superior  to 
the  will  of  God  :  man,  by  so  doing,  making 
a  god  of  himself  and  his  sensual  temper. 
Fro/ier  idolatry  is  giving  the  divine  honour 
to  another.  The  objects  or  idols  of  that  ho- 
nour which  are  given,  are  either  personal, 
i.  e.  the  idolatrous  themselves,  who  beconae 
their  oAvn  statues ;  or  internal,  as  false  ideas, 
which  are  set  up  in  the  fancy  instead  of  God, 
such  as  fancying  God  to  be  a  light,  flame, 
matter,  &c.  only  here,  the  scene  being  inter- 
nal, the  scandal  of  the  sin  is  thereby  abated ; 
or  external,  as  worshipping  angels,  the  sun, 
stars,  animals,  &c.  Teiiison  on  idolatry  J. 
Young  on  Idolatrous  Corru/uions.  Ridg- 
h'l/'s  Body  of  Dii.>.  qu.  106.  FeWs  Idolatry 
of  Greece  and  Rome.  Stilimgjieet's  Idola- 
try of  the  Church  of  Rome.  Joriin''s  Ser. 
vol.  vi.  ser.  18. 

JEALOUSY  is  that  particular  uneasiness 
which  arises  from  the  fear  that  some  rival 
may  rob  us  of  the  affection  of  one  whom  we 
greatly  love,  or  suspicion  that  he  has  already 
done  it.  The  finst  sort  of  jealousy  is  insepa- 
rable from  love,  before  it  is  in  possession  of 
its  object ;  the  latter  is  unjust,  generally  mis- 
chievous, and  always  troublesome. 

JEHOVAH,  one  of  the  scripture  names 
of  God,  and  peculiar  to  him,  signifying  the 
Being  who  is  self-existent,  and  gives  exist- 
ence to  others.  The  name  is  also  given  to 
Christ,  Is.  xl.  3.  and  is  a  proof  of  his  god- 
head. Matt.  iii.  3.  Isa.  vi.  John  xii.  41.  'I'he 
.Tews  had  so  great  a  veneration  for  this  name, 
that  they  left  off' the  custom  of  pronouncing 
it,  whei'eby  its  true  pronunciation  was  for- 
gotten. They  believe  that  whosoever  knows 
the  true  pronunciation  of  it  cannot  fail  to  be 
heard  of  God. 

JESUITS,  or  the  Society  of  Jesus  ;  a  fa- 
mous religious  order  cf  the  Homisli  church, 
founded  by  Ignatius  Loyola,  a  Spanish  kniaht, 
in  the  sixteenth  century.  Thf  plan  which 
this  fan-Uic  t\nmed  of  its  constitution  and 
laws,  was  suggested,  as  he  gave  out,  by  the 
immediate  inspiration  cf  heaven.  But,  not- 
withstanding this  high  pretension,  his  design 
met  at  first  with  violent  opposition.  The 
pope,  to  whom  Loyola  had  applied  for  the 
sanction  of  his  authoiity  to  confirm  the  in- 
stitution, referred  his  petition  to  a  commit- 
tee of  cardinals.  They  represented  the  es- 
tablishment to  be  unnecessary  as  well  as 
dangerous,  and  Piiul  refused  to  grant  his  ap- 
probation of  it.  At  last,  Loyola  removed  ail 
his  scruples,  by  an  ofTer  which  it  was  impos- 
sible for  anv  pope  to  resist.  He  proposed, 
that  besides  the  three  \ows  of  jjoverty,  of 
chastity,  and  of  monastic  obedience,  which 
are  common  to  all  the  orders  of  regulars,  the 
membei-s  of  his  society  should  take  a  fourth 
vow  of  obedience  to  the  nope,  binding  them- 


JE  S 


201 


JE  S 


selves  to  go  ■whithersoever  he  should  com- 
mand for  the  service  of  religion,  and  with- 
out requiring  any  thing  from  the  holy  see 
for  their  support.  At  a  time  when  the  papal 
authority  liad  received  such  a  bh^ck  by  the 
revolt  of  so  many  nations  from  the  Romish 
church,  at  a  time  when  every  part  of  the 
popish  system  was  attacked  with  so  much 
violence  and  success,  the  acquisition  of  a 
body  of  men,  thus  peculiarly  devoted  to  the 
see  of  Rome,  and  whom  it  might  set  in  op- 
position to  all  its  enemies,  was  an  object  of 
tlie  highest  consequence.  Paul,  instantly  per- 
ceiving this,  confirmed  the  institution  of  the 
Jesuits  by  his  bull;  granted  the  most  ample 
privileges  to  the  members  of  the  society, 
•and  appointed  Loyola  to  be  the  first  general 
of  the  order.  The  event  fully  justified  Paul's 
discernment  in  expecting  sucli  beneficial 
consequences  to  the  see  of  Rome  from  this 
institution.  In  less  than  half  a  century  the 
society  obtained  estabhshments  in  every 
country  that  adhered  to  the  Roman  catholic 
church ;  its  power  and  wealth  increased 
amazingly  ;  the  number  of  its  members  be- 
came great  ;  their  character,  as  well  as  ac- 
complishments, were  still  greater  ;  and  the 
Jesuits  were  celebrated  by  the  friends,  and 
dreaded  by  the  enemies  of  the  Romish 
faith,  as  the  most  able  and  enterprising  or- 
der in  the  church. 

2.  Jesuits,  object  of  the  order  of. — The 
primary  object  of  almost  all  the  monastic 
orders,  is  to  separate  men  from  the  world, 
and  from  any  concerns  in  its  affairs.  In  the 
solitude  and  silence  of  the  cloister,  the 
monk  is  called  to  work  out  his  salvation  by 
extraordinary  acts  of  mortification  and  pie- 
ty. He  is  dead  to  the  world,  and  ought 
not  to  mingle  in  its  transactions.  He  can 
be  of  no  benefit  to  mankind  but  by  his  ex- 
ample and  by  his  prayers.  On  the  contra- 
ry, the  Jesuits  are  taught  to  consider  them- 
selves as  formed  for  action.  They  are  cho- 
sen soldiers,  bound  to  exert  themselves  con- 
tinually in  the  service  of  God,  and  of  the 
pope,  his  vicar  on  earth.  Whatever  tends 
to  iiistiuct  the  ignorant,  whatever  can  be 
of  use  to  reclaim  or  oppose  the  enemies  of 
the  holy  see,  is  their  proper  object.  That 
they  may  liave  full  leisure  for  this  active 
service,  they  are  totally  exempted  from 
those  functions,  the  performance  of  which 
is  the  chief  business  of  other  monks.  They 
appear  in  no  processions  ;  they  practice  no 
rigorous  austerities  ;  they  do  not  consume 
one  half  of  their  time  in  the  repetition  of 
tedious  offices  ;  but  they  are  required  to  at- 
tend to  all  the  transactions  of  the  world, 
on  account  of  the  influence  which  these 
may  have  upon  religion:  they  are  directed 
to  study  the  disposition  of  persons  in  high 
rank,  and  to  cultivate  their  friendship  ;  and, 
by  the  very  constitution  and  genius  of  the 
order,  a  spirit  of  action  and  intrigue  is  in- 
fused into  all  its  members. 

3.  Jesuits,  pecutiarities  of  their  policy 
and  gov ernment . — Other  orders  are  to  be 
considered   as    vcluntarx'    associations,     in 

Cc 


which,  whatever  atftcts  the  whole  body,  is 
regulated  by  the  common  suffrage  of  all  its 
members.  But  Loyola,  full  of  tht-  ideas  cf 
implicit  obedience,  which  he  had  derived 
from  his  military  profession,  appointed  that 
the  g'vernment  of  his  order  should  be 
purely  monarchical.  A  general  cliosen  for 
life,  by  deputies  Iroin  the  several  provinces, 
possessed  power  that  was  supreme  and  in- 
dependent, extending  to  every  person  and 
to  every  case.  To  has  commands  they  wen: 
required  to  yield  not  only  outward  obedi- 
ence, but  to  resign  up  to  liini  the  inclina- 
tions of  their  own  wills,  and  the  sentiments 
of  their  own  understandings  Such  a  sin- 
gular form  of  policy  could  not  fail  to  im- 
press its  character  on  all  the  members  ci 
the  order,  and  to  give  a  peculiar  force  to 
all  its  operations.  There  has  not  been,  per- 
haps, in  ;he  annals  c)f  mankind,  any  exam- 
ple of  such  a  perfect  despotism  exerci- 
sed, not  over  monks  shut  up  in  the  cells  of  a 
convent,  but  over  men  dispersed  anu-ng  all 
the  nations  of  the  earth.  As  the  constitu- 
tion of  the  order  vests  in  the  general  such 
absolute  dominion  over  all  its  members, 
they  carefully  provide  for  his  being  perfect- 
ly informed  with  respect  to  the  character 
and  abilities  of  his  subjects.  Every  novice 
who  offers  himself  as  a  candidate  for  enter- 
ing into  the  order  is  obliged  to  manifest  his 
conscience  to  the  superior,  or  to  a  person 
appointed  by  him  ;  and  is  required  to  confess 
not  only  his  sins  and  defects,  but  to  discover 
the  inclinations,  the  passions,  and  the  bent 
of  the  soul.  This  manifestation  must  be 
renewed  every  six  months,  liach  member 
is  directed  to  observe  the  words  and  actions 
of  the  novices,  and  are  bound  to  disclose 
every  thing  of  impcTtance  concerning  them 
to  the  superior.  In  order  that  this  scrutiny 
into  their  character  may  be  as  complete  as 
pos.sible,  a  long  novitiate  must  expire  during 
which  they  pass  through  the  several  grada- 
tions of  rank  in  the  society  ;  and  they  n  ust 
have  attahied  the  full  nge  of  thirty-three 
years  before  they  can  be  admitted  to  take 
the  final  vows  by  which  they  become  pro- 
fessed members.  By  these  various  methcxls, 
the  superiors,  under  whose  imuiediate  in- 
spection, the  novices  are  placed,  acquire  a 
thorough  knowledge  of  their  di.spositions 
and  talents  ;  and  tWt  general,  by  examining 
the  registers  kept  for  this  purpose,  is  ena- 
bled to  choose  the  instruments  which  hi.s 
absolute  power  can  employ,  iii  any  service 
for  which  he  thinks  meei  to  destine  them. 
4.  Jesuits,  procuress  of  the  powtr  a7?d  ir.- 
fluence  of — As  it  was  the  prrftssed  inten- 
tion of  this  order  to  labour  with  unwearied 
zeal  in  promoting  the  salvation  of  men,  thi<» 
engaged  them,  of  course,  in  many  active 
functions.  From  their  first  institution,  they 
considered  the  education  of  youth  as  their 
peculiar  province:  they  aimed  at  being  spi- 
ritual guides  and  confessors  ;  they  preached 
irequently,  in  order  to  instruct  the  people  ; 
they  set  cut  as  missionaries  to  c  overt  un- 
believing nations.    Before  the  expiration  of 


JE  S 


202 


JE  S 


the  sixteenth  century,  they  had  obtained 
the  chief  direction  of  the  educaticm  of  youth 
in  every  Catholic  country  in  Europe.  They 
had  become  the  confessors  of  almost  al)  its 
niunarchs ;  a  function  of  no  small  importance 
in  any  reign,  but,  under  a  wealc  prince,  su- 
perior to  tliat  of  minister.  They  were  the 
spiritual  guides  of  almost  every  person  emi- 
nent for  rank  or  power;  they  possessed  the 
highest  degree  of  confidence  and  inttrest 
with  the  papal  court,  as  the  most  zealous 
and  able  champions  for  its  authority;  they 
possessed,  at  different  periods,  the  direction 
of  the  most  considerable  courts  in  Europe  ; 
they  mingled  in  all  affairs,  and  took  part  in 
every  intrigue  and  revolution.  But  while 
they  thus  advanced  in  power,  they  increas- 
ed also  in  wealth  :  various  expedients  were 
devised  for  eluding  the  obligation  of  the  vow 
of  poverty.  Besides  the  sources  of  wealth 
common  to  all  the  regular  clergy,  the  Jesuits 
possessed  one  which  was  peculiar  to  them- 
sehes. — Under  the  pretext  of  promoting  the 
success  of  their  missions,  and  of  facilitating 
the  support  of  their  missioi-.aries,  they  ob- 
tained a  special  licence  from  the  court  of 
Rome,  to  trade  with  the  nations  which  thev 
laboured  to  convert :  in  consequence  of  this, 
they  engaged  in  an  extensive  and  lucrative 
commerce,  both  in  the  Easi  and  West  In- 
dies ;  they  opened  warehouses  in  different 
parts  of  Europe,  in  which  they  vended  their 
commodities.  Not  satisfied  with  trade  alone, 
they  imitated  the  examples  of  other  com- 
mercial societies,  and  aimed  at  obtaining 
settlements.  They  acquired  possession,  ac- 
cordingly, of  the  large  and  fertile  province 
of  Paraguay,  i  which  stretches  across  the 
southern  continent  of  America,  fi-om  the 
bottom  of  the  mountains  of  Fotosi  to  the  con- 
fines of  the  Spanish  anrl  Portuguese  settle- 
ments on  th^banks  of  the  river  De  la  Plata. 
Here,  indeed,  it  must  be  confessed,  thev 
were  of  service ;  they  found  the  inhabitants 
in  a  state  little  different  from  that  v;hich 
takes  place  among  men  when  th.ey  first  be- 
gin to  unite  togetlier .  strangers  totho  arts; 
subsisting  precariously  Ijy  hunting  or  fishing  ; 
and  hardly  acquainted  with  tiie  fii-st  princi- 

files  of  subordination  and  government. — The 
esuits  set  tliemselves  to  iistruct  and  civil- 
ize these  savages:  they  taught  them  to  cu'- 
tivate  the  ground,  build  tiou.'-es,  and  brouglit 
them  to  live  tiigetlier  in  villaijes,  6cc.  They 
made  them  taste  the  sweets  of  society,  and 
trained  them  to  arts  and  manufactures  Such 
was  their  p^wtr  over  thf^m,  that  a  few  Je- 
suits presifled  over  some  hundn-d  thousand 
Indians.  But  even  in  this  meritorious  effrri 
of  the  Jesuits  for  the  good  of  mankind,  the 
genius  and  spirit  of  their  order  are  disccrii- 
ible:  they  ])lainly  aimed  at  establishing  in 
Paraguay  an  independent  empire,  subject  to 
th'  society  alone,  and  whicli,  by  the  superior 
excellence  of  its  c  nstituti'  n  and  police, 
could  scarcely  have  failed  to  extend  Us  do- 
minion over  all  the  southern  continent  of 
America.    With  this  view,  in  order  to  pre- 


vent the  Spaniards  or  Portuguese  in  the  ad 
jacent  settlements,  from  acquiring  any  dan- 
gerous influence  over  the  people  within  the 
limits  of  the  province  subject  to  the  society, 
the  Jesuits  endeavoured  to  inspire  the  In- 
dians with  hatred  and  contempt  of  these  na- 
tions :  they  cut  off  all  intercourse  between 
their  subjects  and  the  Spanish  or  Portuguese 
settlements.  When  they  were  obliged  to 
admit  any  person  hi  a  public  character  from 
the  neighbouring  governments,  they  did  not 
permit  h.im  to  have  any  conversation  with 
their  subjects ;  and  no  Indian  was  allowed 
even  to  enter  the  house  where  these  stran- 
gers resided,  unless  in  the  presence  of  a  Je- 
suit. In  order  to  render  any  communication 
between  them  as  difficult  as  possible,  they 
industriously  avoided  giving  the  Indians  any 
knowledge  of  the  Spanish  or  of  any  other 
European  language;  but  encouraged  thedif- 
firent  tribes  which  they  had  civilized  to 
acquire  a  certain  dialect  of  the  Indian 
tongue,  and  laboured  to  make  that  the  uni- 
versal language  throughout  their  dominions. 
.\s  all  these  precautions,  withcut  militarv" 
force  would  have  been  insufficient  to  have 
rendered  their  emjjire  secure  and  perma- 
nent, they  instructed  their  subjects  in  the 
European  art  of  war,  and  formed  them 
into  bodies  completely  armed,  and  well  dis- 
ciplined. 

5.  Je^uits^  pernicious  effects  of  this  order 
in  civil  society. — Though  it  must  be  confes- 
sed that  the  Jesuits  cultivated  the  study  of 
ancient  literature,  and  contributed  much  to- 
wards the  progress  of  polite  learning;  though 
they  have  produced  eminent  masters  in  every 
branch  of  science,  and  can  boast  of  a  num- 
ber of  ingenious  authors;  yet,  unhappily  for 
mankind,  their  vast  influence  has  been  of- 
ten exerted  with  the  most  fatal  effects  Such 
was  the  tendency  of  that  discipline  observ- 
ed bv  the  society  in  forming  its  members, 
and  such  the  fundamental  maxims  in  its  con- 
stitution, that  every  Jesuit  was  taught  to  re- 
gard the  interest  of  the  order  as  the  ca]jital 
object  to  which  every  consi<!cration  was  to 
be  sacrificed.  As  the  pre  sperity  of  the  order 
wasintiiiately  connected  with  the  preserva- 
ti  n  of  the  papal  authority,  the  Jesuits,  in- 
fluenced by  the  same  principle  of  attach- 
ment to  the  interest  of  their  society,  have 
b.  en  the  most  zealous  patrons  of  those  doc- 
trines which  tend  to  exalt  ecclesiastical 
power   on    the   ruins  of  civil   government. 

Thev  have  attrih.uted  to  the  court  of  Rome 
a  jurisdiction  as  extensi\e  and  absolute  as 
u-as  claimed  by  the  most  presumptuous  pon- 
t'ffs  in  the  dark  ages.  They  have  contend- 
ed for  the  entire  independence  of  ecclesias- 
tics on  the  civil  magistrates.  They  have 
published  such  tenets  concerning  the  duty 
(if  opposing  princes  who  were   I'nemies  of 

he  Catholic  faith,  as  countenanced  the  most 
atrocious  crimes,  and  tended  to  dissolve  all 
tlie  ties  which  connect  subjects  with  their 
rulers  As  the  order  derived  both  reputa- 
tion and  authority  from  the  zeal  with  which 


JES 


203 


JE  S 


it  stood  forth  in  defence  of  the  Romish 
church  against  the  attacks  of  the  reformers, 
its  members,  proud  of  this  distinction,  have 
considered  it  as  their  pecuhar  function  to 
combat  tlie  opinions,  and  to  check  the  pro- 
grcbs  of  the  Protestants.  They  have  made 
use  of  every  art,  and  have  employed  every 
weapMU  against  them,  They  have  set  them- 
selves in  opposition  to  every  gentle  or  toler- 
ating measure  ?n  their  favour.  They  have 
incessantly  stirred  up  against  them  all  the 
rage  of  ecclesiastical  and  civil  persecution. 
Whoever  recollects  the  events  which  have 
happened  in  Europe  during  two  centuries, 
win  find  that  the  Jesuits  may  justly  be  con- 
sidered as  responsible  for  most  of  the  per- 
nicious effects  arising  from  that  corrupt  and 
dangerous  casuistiy,  from  those  extravagant 
tenets  concerning  ecclesiastical  powi-r,  and 
from  that  intolerant  spirit  which  have  been 
the  disgrace  of  the  church  of  Rome  through- 
cut  that  period,  and  which  have  brought  so 
many  calamities  upon  society. 

6.  Jesuits,  downful  in  Eurojie. — Such 
were  the  laws,  the  policy,  and  the  genius 
of  this  formidable  order ;  of  which,  however, 
a  perfect  knowledge  has  only  been  attaina- 
ble of  late  Europe  had  observed,  for  two 
centuries,  the  ambition  and  power  of  the 
order:  but  while  it  felt  many  fatal  effects 
of  these,  it  could  not  fully  discern  the  causes 
to  which  they  were  to  be  imputed.  It  was 
unacquainted  with  many  of  the  singular  re- 
gulations in  the  political  constitution  or  go- 
vernment of  the  Jesuits,  which  formed  the 
enterprising  spirit  of  intrigue  that  distin- 
guished its  members,  and  elevated  the  body 
itself  to  such  a  height  of  power.  It  was  a 
fundamental  maxim  with  the  Jesuits,  from 
their  first  institution,  not  to  publish  the  rules 
of  their  order :  these  they  kept  concealed 
as  an  impenetrable  mystery.  They  never 
communicated  them  to  strangers,  nor  even 
to  the  greater  part  of  their  own  members : 
they  refused  to  produce  them  when  requir- 
ed by  courts  of  Justice  ;  and  by  a  strange 
solecism  in  policy,  the  civil  power  in  differ- 
ent countries  authorised,  or  connived  at, 
the  establishment  of  an  order  of  men,  whose 
constitution  and  laws  were  concealed  with  a 
solicitude  which  alone  was  a  good  reason 
for  having  excluded  them.  During  the  pro- 
secutions which  have  been  carried  on  against 
them  in  Portugal  and  France,  the  Jesuits 
have  been  so  inc  nsiderate  as  to  produce  the 
mysterious  volumes  of  their  institute.  By 
the  aid  of  these  authentic  records,  the  prin- 
ciples of  their  government  may  be  delineated, 
and  the  sources  of  their  power  investiga- 
ted with  a  degree  of  ceitainty  and  precision, 
which,  previous  to  that  event,  it  was  im- 
possible to  attain. 

The  pernicious  effects  of  the  spirit  and 
constitution  of  this  order,  rendered  it  early 
obnoxious  to  some  of  the  principal  powers 
in  Europe,  and  gradually  brought  on  its 
downfal  There  is  a  remarkable  passage  in 
a  sermon  preached  at  Dublin,  by  Archbishop 


Brown,  so  long  ago  as  the  year  1551,  and 
which  may  be  considered  almost  as  pro- 
phetic It  is  as  f(;llows :  "  but  tliere  are  a 
new  fraterniiy  of  late  sprung  up,  who  call 
themselves  Jesuits,  which  will  deceive  many, 
much  after  tlie  Scribes  and  Pharisees'  man- 
ner. Amoniist  the  Jews  they  shall  strive 
to  abolish  the  truth,  and  shall  ccnie  very 
near  to  do  it.  For  these  sorts  will  turn 
themselves  into  several  forms;  with  the 
heathen,  a  heathenist ;  with  the  atheists,  an 
atheist;  with  the  Jews,  a  Jew  ;  with  the 
reformers,  a  reformade,  purposely  to  know 
your  intentions,  your  mmds,  your  hearts,  and 
your  inclinations,  and  thereby  bring  you  at 
last,  to  be  like  the  fool  that  said  in  his  heart, 
there  was  no  God.  These  shall  be  spread 
over  the  whole  world,  shall  be  admitted  into 
the  councils  of  princes,  and  they  never  the 
wiser;  charming  of  them,  yea,  making  your 
princes  reveal  their  hearts,  and  the  secrets 
therein,  and  yet  they  not  perceive  it ;  which 
will  happen  from  falling  from  the  law  of 
God,  by  neglect  of  fulfilling  the  law  of  God, 
and  by  winking  at  their  sins;  yet,  in  the 
end,  God,  to  justify  his  law,  shall  suddenly 
cut  off  this  society,  even  by  the  hands  of 
those  who  have  most  succoured  them,  and 
made  use  of  them  ;  so  that  at  the  end  they 
shall  become  odious  to  all  nations.  They 
shall  lie  worse  than  Jews,  having  no  resting- 
place  upon  earth;  and  then  shall  a  Jew 
have  more  favour  than  a  Jesuit."  This  sin- 
gular passage  seems  to  be  accomplished. 
The  emperor  Charles  V  saw  it  expedient 
to  check  their  progi-ess  in  his  dominions : 
they  wei'e  expelled  England  by  proclama- 
tion, 2  James  I.,  in  1604;  Venice  in  1606; 
Portugal  in  1759;  France  in  1764;  Spain 
and  Sicily  in  1767 ;  and  totally  suppressed 
and  abolished  by  pojie  Clement  XIV,  in 
1773.  Encyclofi.  Brit.;  Mosheim's  Eccles, 
History.  Harlaan  Mis.  vol.  v.  p.  566; 
Broug/iton^s  JJict. 

JESUS  CHRIST,  the  Lord  and  Saviour 
of  mankind.  He  is  called  Christ  (anointtd,) 
because  he  is  anointed,  furnished,  and  sent 
by  God  to  execute  his  mediatorial  office; 
and  Jesus  (Saviour,)  because  he  came  to 
save  his  people  from  their  sins.  For  an  ac- 
count of  his  nativity,  offices,  death,  resur- 
rection, &c.  the  readt  r  is  referred  to  those 
articles  in  this  work.  We  shall  here  more 
particularly  con.sider  his  divinity,  humanity, 
and  character.  The  diviiiity  of  Jesus  Christ 
seems  evident,  if  we  consider,  1.  The  lan- 
guage of  the  J\''ew  Teslameni,  and  compare 
"it  with  the  state  of  the  Pagan  world  at  the 
liine  of  its  fmhlication.  If  Jt-sus  Christ  were 
not  God,  the  writers  of  the  New  Testament' 
discovered  great  injudiciousness  in  the 
choice  of  their  words,  and  adopted  a  very 
incautious  and  dangerous  style.  The  whole 
world,  except  the  small  kingdom  of  Judea, 
worshipped  idols  at  the  time  of  Jesus  Christ's 
appearance.  Jesus  Christ;  the  evangelists, 
who  wrote  his  history  and  the  apostles, 
wim  wrote  epistles  to  vari(",us  classes  of  men, 
proposed  to  destroy  idolatry,  and  to  estab- 


JE  S 


304 


JE  S 


lish  the  worship  of  one  only  living  and  true 
Gocl.    To  eifjct  this  purpose,  it  was  abso- ! 
lutely  necessary  for  these  founders  of  Chris-  j 
tianity,   to  avoid  confiision  and  obscurity  oft 
language,    and   to  express  their  ideas  in  a  j 
cool  and  cautious  style.     The  least  expres- 
hion  that  would  tend  to  deify  a  creature,  or 
countenance  idolatry,  would   have   been   a 
source  of  the  greatest  error.    Hence  Paul ; 
and  Barnabas  rent  their  clothes  at  the  very  i 
idva  of  tlie  multitude's  confounding  the  crea- 
ture with  the  Creator,  Acts  xiv.  The  writers  i 
of  thr-  New  Testament  knew,  that  in  speak- 
ing of  Jesus  Christ,  extraordinary  caution 
was  necessary  ;  yet,  when  we  take  up  the  I 
New  Testament,   we  find  such  expressions  • 
as  these:    "  The  word  was  God,  John  i.  1.! 
God  was  manifest  in  the  flesh,    1  Tim.  iii. ! 
16,     God  with  us.   Matt.  i.  23.    The  Jews , 
crucified  the   Lord  of  glory,    1  Cor.  ii.  8.  j 
Jesus  Christ  is  Lord  of  all,  Acts  x.  36.  Christ 
is  over  all ;  God  blessed  for  ever,  Rom  ix.  I 
,5." — These  are  a  few  of  many  propositions, 
vv'hich  the  New  Testament  writers  lav  down 
relative  to  Jesus  Christ.     If  the  writers  in- 
tended to  affirm  the  divinity  of  Jesus  Christ, 
these  are  words  of  truth  and  soberness ;  if 
not,  the  language  is  incautious  and  unwar- 
rantalMe ;  and  to  address  it  to  men  prone  to 
idolatry,  for  the  purpose  of  destroying  idola- 
try, is  a  strong  presumption  against  their  in- 
spinaion.  It  is  remariiable,  also,  that  the  rich- 
est words  in  the  Greek  language  are  made 
use  of  to  describe  Jesus  Christ.     This  lan- 
guage, which  is  very  copious,  would  have 
-afforded  lower  terms  to  express  an  inferior 
nature ;    bu'.    it    could  have  afforded  none 
higher  to  express  the  nature  of  the  Supreme 
God.     It  is  worthy  of  observation,  too,  that 
these  writers  addressed  their  writings,    not 
to  philosophers  and  scholars,  but  to  the  com- 
mon people,    and  cnsequently,   used  words  j 
in  their   plain,   po])ular   signification.     The  | 
common   people,   it  seems,   understi^od  the  ' 
-\'-'crds  in  our  sense  of  them  ;  for  in  the  Dio- 
clesian  persecution,  when  the  Roman  soldiers 
burnt   a  Phrygian   city  inhabited   by  Chris- 1 
tians;  men,    women,  and  child rf^n,   submit- 
ted to  their  fate,  cnlling  tifion  Christ,  thk 
GOD  OVER  ALL. — 2.  LomfHirp  the  fityli'  of 
the  yVf-y  Testament  nvUh   the  state  hf  the 
Jenvs  at  the  time  of  it.i  fiublicaiion.     In  the 
time  of  Jesus  Christ,  the  Jev.?s  were  zealous 
defenders  of  the  unity  of  God,   anrl  of  that 
idea  of  his  perfecti(^^s,  which  the  Scriptures 
excited.     Jf'sus  Christ  and  his  apostles  y:>ro- 
fessed  the  highest  regard   for  tlie  Jewisli 
Scriptures ;    yet   the    writers   of  the   New 
Testament   described   Jesus  Christ   bv   the 
very  names   and  titles  by  whicli  the  writers 
of  the  Old   Testament   had   described   the 
Supreme  G'd    (Compare  Exodus  iii.  14.  with 
John  viii  5S.     Imiah    xliv.  6.   with  Rf-vela- 
tions  i.  11.  17.  Deurrronomy  x.  17.  with  Re- 
velations  xvji.  14     Psa'm    xxiv    10.   with  1 
Corinthians  ii.  8.    Hosea  i    7.  with  Luke  ii. 
11.   D.ariel  v   23.  with  1  Corihthians  xv.  47 
1  Chronicles    xxix.    11.    with    Colossinns  ii. 
"■'\    If  thi'v  who  described  Jesus  Christ  to 


the  Jews  by  these  sacred  names  and  titles 
intended  to  convey  an  idea  of  his  deity,  the 
description  is  just  and  the  application  safe  ; 
but  if  they  intended  to  describe  a  mere  man, 
they  were  surely  of  all  men  the  most  pre- 
posterous.    'Ihey  chose  a  method  of  recom- 
mending Jesus  to  the  Jews  the  most  likely 
to  alarm  and  enrage  them.   Whatever  they 
meant,   the  Jews  understood  them  in   our 
sense,  and  took  Jesus  for  a  blaS^phemer,  John 
X.  33. — 3      Co?n/iare  ths  perfections   which 
are  ascribed  to  Jesus  Christ  in   the   Scrips 
tures,  tmth  those  which  are  ascribed  to  God. 
.Tesus  Chri.st  declares,  "  All  things  that  the 
Father  hath  are  mine,"  John  xvi.  15:  a  very 
dangerous  proposition,  if  he  were  not  God. 
The  writers  of  Revelatioji  ascribe  to  him  the 
same  perfections  which  they  ascribe  to  God. 
— Compare  Jer  x   10.  with  Isa.  ix.  6.  Exod. 
XV.  13.  with  Heb.  i.  8.    Jer.  xxxii.  19.  with 
Isa.  ix.  6.    Psa.  cii.  24.  27.  with  Heb.  xiii.  ^. 
Jer.  xxiii.  24.  with  Eph.  i.  20.  23.   1  Sam.  ii. 
5.    v;ith   John    xiv.   30.     If  Jesus  Christ   be 
God,  the  ascription  of  the  perfections  of  God 
to  him  is  proper  ;  if  he  be  not,  the  apostles 
are  chargeable  with  weakness  or  wickedness, 
and    either  would    destroy  their   claim    to 
inspiration. —  4.  Consider  ihe  works  that  are 
ascribed  to  Jesus  Christ,  and  compare  them 
with  the  claims  of  Jehovah.    Is  creation  a 
worii  of  God  ^   "  By  Jesus  Christ  were  all 
things  created."   Col.  i.  16.    Is  preservation 
a  work  of  God  ?  "  Jesus  Christ  upholds  all 
things  by  the  word  of  his  power,"  Hebrews 
i.  3.     Is  the  mission  of  the  prophets  a  work 
of  God  ?  Jesus  Christ  is  the  Lord  God  of  the 
holy  prophets ;  and  it  was  the  Spirit  of  Christ 
which  testified  to  them  beforehand,  the  suf- 
ferings of  Christ,  and  the  glory  that  should 
follow,  Nehemiah  ix.  30.    Rev.  xxii.  6.  16. 
1  Pet.  i.  11.    Is   the  salvation   of  sinners  a 
work  of  God  ?  Christ  is  the  Saviour  of  all 
that  believe,  Ji  hn  iv.  42.    Hebrews  v.  9     Is 
the  forgiveness  of  sin  a  work  of  God  .'    The 
hon   of"  Man  hath   power   to  forgive  sins, 
Matthew  ix.  6.    The  same  might  be  said  of 
the  illumination  of  the  mind  ;  the  sanctifica- 
ti;>n  of  the  heart ;    the   resurrection  of  the 
dearl ;  the  judging  of  the  world  ;    the  glori- 
fication  of  the   righteous;  the  eternal  pun- 
i  limeiit  of  the  wicked  ;  all  which  works,  in 
one  part  of  Scripture,  are  ascrilxd  to  God  ; 
and  all  which,  in  another  part  of  Scripture, 
are    ascribed    to   Jtsus    Christ.      Now,    if 
Je.sus   C:hrist  be   not  God,   into   what   con- ■ 
tradictiins  these  writers  must  fall  !     They 
contradict    one    another;     they    contradict 
themselves.     Either  Jesus   Christ   is   God, 
or  their  conduct  is  unacceuiitabie  — 5.  Con- 
sidrT  that  divine  worship  which  the  Scrip-* 
turrs  claim  for  Jesjts  Christ.     It  is  a  com- 
mand rf  Gi.(\,    "  'i'hf  u   shalt  worship  the 
Lord  thv  God.   and   him    only   shalt  thou 
serve,"   "Matt.   iv.  20     Yet   the   Scriptures 
command  "  all  die  an(2;els  of  Ciod  to  wor- 
ship Ciirist,"    Heb    i.  6     Twenty  times,  in 
the    Nt'W    Testament,    grace,    mercy,    and 
neace  are  implored  of  Christ,  together  with 
the  Father.    Baptism  is  an  act  of  v.crslup 


JE  S 


205 


JE  S 


pM-formed  in  his  name,  Matt,  xxviii.  19. 
•Swearing  is  an  act  of  worship ;  a  solemn 
appeal  in  important  cases  to  the  omniscient 
<iud ;  and  this  appeal  is  made  to  Christ, 
Romans  ix.  1.  The  committing  ot  the  soul 
to  God  at  death  is  a  sacrf  d  act  of  worship  : 
in  the  performance  of  this  act,  Stephen  died, 
saying.  Lord  Jesus,  receive  my  spirit,  Acts 
vii.  59.  The  whole  host  of  heaven  worship 
him  that  sitteth  upon  the  throne,  and  the 
Lamb,  for  ever  and^ver,  Rev.  v.  13,  14. — 
6.  Observe  the  afifilication  of  Old  Testament 
fiassages  which  belong  to  Jehovah,  to  Jesus 
in  the  JVew  Testament,  and  try  whether  you 
can  acquit  the  writers  of  the  JSfcw  Testa- 
ment of  misrepresentation,  on  supposition 
that  Jesus  is  not  God.  Saint  Paul  says, 
"  We  shall  all  stand  before  the  judgment 
seat  of  Christ.''  That  we  shall  all  be  judg- 
ed, we  allow ;  but  how  do  you  prove  that 
Christ  shall  be  our  Judge  ?  Because,  adds 
the  apostle,  it  is  written,  "  As  I  live,  saith 
the  Lord,  every  knee  shall  bow  to  me,  and 
every  toni;ue  shall  confess  to  God,"  Romans 
xiv.  10.  11.  with  Isaiah  xlv.  20.  &c  What 
sort  of  reasoning  is  this  ?  How  does  this  ap- 
ply to  Christ,  if  Christ  be  not  God  ?  And 
how  dare  a  man  quote  one  of  the  most 
guarded  passages  in  the  Old  Testament  for 
such  a  purpose  ?  John  the  Baptist  is  he  who 
was  spoken  of  by  the  Prophet  Esaias,  say- 
ing. Prepare  ye  the  way,  Matthew  iii.  1.  3. 
Isaiah  saith.  Prepare  ye  the  Avay  of  the 
Lord  ;  make  straight  a  highway  tor  our 
God,  Is.  xl.  3,  &c.  But  what  has  John  the 
Baptist  to  do  with  all  this  description,  if 
Jesus  Christ  be  only  a  messenger  of  Jehovah, 
and  not  Jehovah  himself  f  for  Isaiah  saith, 
Prepare  ye  the  way  of  Jehovah.  Cujmpare 
also  Zech.  xii.  10.  with  John  xix.  34,  37.  Is. 
vi.  with  John  xii.  39.  Is.  viii.  13,  14.  with  1 
Pet.  ii.  8.  Allow  Jesus  Christ  to  be  God, 
and  all  these  applications  are  proper.  If  we 
deny  it,  the  New  Testament,  we  must  own, 
is  one  of  the  most  unaccountable  c  mposi- 
tions  in  the  world,  calculated  to  make  easy 
thi!ig.<;  hard  to  be  undei-stood. — 7.  Examine 
whether  events  have  justified  that  notion  of 
Christianity  ivhich  the  prophets  gave  their 
coxinlrymen  of  it,  if  Jesus  Christ  be  not 
God.  The  calling  of  the  Gentiles  from  the 
worsliip  of  idols  to  the  Avoi'ship  of  the  one 
living  and  true  God,  is  one  event,  which, 
the  prophets  said,  the  coming  of  the  Mes- 
siah should  bring  to  pass.  If  Jesus  C  ristbe 
God,  the  event  answers  the  prop  .<cv  ;  if 
r-)t,  the  event  is  not  come  to  pass,  for  Chris- 
tians in  gencial  worship  Jesus,  which  is  idol- 
atry, if  he  be  not  God,  Isaiah  ii,  iii,  and  iv. 
Zeph.  ii.  11.  Zech.  xiv.  9.  The  primitive 
Christians  certainly  worshipped  Him  as 
God.  Pliny,  who  was  appointed  governor 
of  the  pi'ovince  of  Bythynia  by  tlie  emperor 
Trajan,  in  tlie  year  103,  examined  and  pun- 
islied  several  Christians  for  their  non-con- 
formity to  the  established  religion  of  the 
empire.  In  a  letter  to  the  emperor,  giving 
an  account  of  his  conduct,  he.declares,  "  they 
affirmed  the  whole  of  their  guilt,  or  their 


error,  was,  that  they  met  on  a  certain  stated, 
day,  before  it.  was  light,  and  addres!^ed  them- 
selves in  a  form  of  prayer  to  Christ  as  to 
some  god."  Thus  Pliny  meant  to  inform  the 
emperrr  that  Cliristians  worshipped  (  hrist. 
Justin  Martyr,  who  livid  about  150  years 
after  Christ,  asserts,  that  the  Christians  wor- 
shipped the  Father,  the  Son,  and  the  Spirit. 
Besides  his  testimony,  there  are  numbf  rless 
passages  in  the  fathers  that  attest  the  truth 
in  question  ;  esjjecially  in  Tertullian,  Hyp- 
politus,  Felix,  &c.  Mahomet  who  lived  in 
the  sixth  century,  considers  Christians  in 
the  Hght  of  infidels  and  idolaters  throughout 
the  Koran  ;  and,  indeed,  had  not  Christians 
worshipped  Christ,  he  could  have  had  no 
shadow  of  a  pretence  to  refoi-m  their  reli- 
gion, and  to  bring  them  back  to  the  wor- 
ship of  one  God.  That  the  far  greater  part 
of  Christians  have  continued  to  worship  Jtsus, 
will  not  be  doubted.  Now,  if  Christ  be  not 
God,  tlien  the  Christians  have  been  guilty  of 
idolatry;  an.^.  if  they  have  been  guilty  of 
idolatry,  then  it  must  appear  remarkable 
that  the  apostles,  who  foretold  the  corrup- 
tions of  Christianity,  2  Tim.  iii  should  ne- 
ver have  foreseen  nor  warned  us  against 
worshipping  Christ.  In  no  part  ^if  the 
Scripture  is  there  the  least  intimation  of 
Christians  falling  into  idolatry  in  this  re- 
spect. Surely  if  this  had  been  an  error 
which  was  so  universally  to  prevail,  those 
Scriptures  which  are  able  to  make  us  wise 
unto  salvation,  would  have  left  us  warning  on 
so  important  a  topic.  Lastly,  consider  what 
numberless  passages  of  Scripture  have  no 
sense  or  a  very  absurd  one,  if  Jesus  Christ 
be  a  mere  man.  See  Rom.  i.  3.  1  Tim  iii. 
16.  John  xiv.  9.  xvii.  5.  Phil.  ii.  6.  Ps. 
ex.  1,  4.  1  Tim.  j.  2.  Acts  xxii.  12  and 
ix.  17. 

But  though  Jesus  Christ  be  God,  yet  for 
our  sakes,  and  for  our  salvation,  he  took 
upon  him  human  nature  :  tliis  is  therefcre 
called  his  humanity  Marcion,  Appelles,, 
Valentinus,  and  many  other  heretics,  denied. 
Christ's  humanity,  as  some  have  done  since. 
But  that  Christ  had  a  true  human  body,,, 
and  not  a  mere  luiman  shape,  or  a  body 
that  was  not  real  flesh,  is  very  evident 
from  the  sacved  scriptures.  Is.  vii.  12.  Luke 
xxiv.  59.  Heb  ii.  14.  Luke  i.  4:3.  Phil,  ii, 
7,  8.  John  i.  14.  Besides,  he  ate,  drank, 
slept,  walked,  worked,  and  was  weary. 
He  groaned,  bled,  and  died  upon  the  cn.ss. 
It  was  necessary  that  he  should  thus  be 
human,  in  order  to  fulfil  the  Divine  desigr^. 
and  prophecies  respecting  the  shielding  of" 
his  blood  for  our  salvation,  whicli  could  not 
have  been  done,  had  he  not  posses,scd  a 
real  body.  It  is  also  as  evident,  that  he 
assumed  our  whole  nature,  soul  as  well  as 
body.  If  he  had  not,  he  could  not  have 
been  ca])able  of  that  sore  amazement  and 
sorrow  unto  death,  and  all  thc^e  other  ff ts 
of  grievinsf,  feeling,  rejoicing,  &:c.  ascribed 
to  him.  It  was  not,  however,  cur  sinful 
nature  he  assumed,  but  the  likeness  of  it, 
Rom.  viii.  2.  for  he  was  without  sin,  and 


JES 


206 


JES 


did  no  iniquity.  His  human  nature  must 
not  be  confounded  with  his  divine ;  for 
tho'ij^h  there  be  an  union  of  natui'es  in 
Christ,  yet  there  is  not  a  mixture  or  con- 
fusinn  of  them  or  their  properties.  His 
humanity  is  not  changed  into  his  deity, 
nor  his  deity  into  humanity ;  but  the  two 
natures  are  distinct  in  one  person.  How 
this  union  exists  is  above  our  compreiien- 
sion ;  and,  indeed,  if  we  cannot  explain 
hcw  our  own  bcdies  and  souls  are  united, 
it  is  not  to  be  supposed  we  can  explain 
this  astonishing  mystrry  of  God  manifest  in 
the  liesh.    See  Mediator 

We  now  proceed  to  the  character  of 
Jesus  Christ,  which,  wliile  it  affords  us 
the  most  pleasing  subject  for  meditation, 
exiubits  to  us  an  example  of  the  most 
perfect  and  delightful  kind. 

"  Here,"  as  an  elegant  writer  observes, 
"  every  gi'ace  that  can  recommend  religion, 
and  eveiy  virtue  that  can  adorn  humanity, 
are  so  blended,  as  to  excite  our  admiration, 
and  engage  our  love.  In  abstaining  from 
licentious  pleasures,  he  was  equally  free 
from  ostentatious  singularity  and  churlish 
sullenness  VVlien  he  complied  with  the 
establislied  ceremonies  of  his  countrymen, 
that  compliance  was*  not  accompanied  by 
auy  marks  of  bigotry  or  superstition  :  when 
h  opposed  th  ir  ro  ited  prepossessions,  his 
opposition  was  perfectly  exempt  from  the 
captious  petulance  of  a  controversalist,  and 
the  undistinguished  zeal  of  an  innovator. 
His  Courage  was  active  in  encovmtering  the 
dangers  to  which  he  was  exposed,  and  pas- 
sive tmder  the  aggravated  calamities  which 
the  malice  of  his  foes  heaped  upon  him  : 
liis  fortitude  was  remote  from  every  appear- 
ance of  rashness,  and  his  patience  was 
equally  exempt  from  abject  pusillanimity: 
Tie  was  firm  without  obstinacy,  and  humble 
without  meanness. — Though  possessed  of 
the  most  unbounded  power,  we  behold  him 
living  continually  in  a  state  of  voluntary 
humiliation  and  poverty ;  we  see  him  daily 
exposed  to  almost  every  species  of  want 
and  distress  ;  afflicted  without  a  comforter, 
p-r-rsecuted  without  a  protector ;  and  wan- 
dering about,  according  to  his  own  pathetic 
Coi-nplaint,  because  he  had  not  ivhere  to  lay 
his  head.  Though  regardless  of  the  plea- 
sures, and  sometimes  destitute  of  the  com- 
forts of  life,  he  never  provokes  our  disgust 
by  the  sourness  of  the  misanthrope,  or  our 
contempt  by  the  inactivity  of  the  recluse. 
His  attention  to  the  welfare  of  mankind 
was  evidenced  not  only  by  his  salutary  in- 
jiinrtions,  but  by  his  readiness  to  embrace 
€v<-ry  opportunity  of  relieving  their  distress, 
and  administering  to  their  wants.  In 
€^■erv  period  and  circumstance  of  his  life, 
we  behold  dignity  and  elevation  blended 
with  love  and  pity;  something,  which, 
though  it  awakens  our  admiration  yet 
^attracts  our  confidence.  We  see  power; 
t)ut  it  is  power  whicli  is  rather  our  security 
tlian  our  dread  ;  a  power  softened  with 
tenderness,    and    soothing   while    it    awes' 


With  all  the  gentlene.ss  of  a  meek  and 
lowly  mind,  we  behold  an  heroic  firmness, 
which  no  terrors  could  restrain.  In  the 
private  scenes  of  life,  and  in  the  public  occu- 
pations of  his  ministry  ;  whether  the  object 
of  admiration  or  ridicule,  of  love,  or  of  per- 
secution ;  whether  welcomed  with  hosannas, 
or  insulted  with  anathemas,  we  still  see  him 
puisuing,  with  unwearied  constancy,  the 
same  end,  and  preserving  the  same  integ- 
rity of  life  and  manners."  Whitens  Sertnons, 
ser.  5. 

Considering'  him  as  a  Moral  Teacher,  we 
must  be  struck  with  the  greatest  admira- 
tion. As  Dr.  Paley  observes,  "  he  prefer- 
red solid  to  popular  virtues,  a  character 
which  is  commonly  despised,  to  a  character 
universally  extolled  he  placed  in  our  licen- 
tious vices,  the  check  in  the  right  place, 
viz.  upon  the  thoughts  :  he  collected  human 
duty  into  two  well  devised  rules  ;  he  repeat- 
ed these  rules,  and  laid  great  stress  upon 
them,  and  thereby  fixed  the  sentiments  of 
his  followers :  he  excluded  all  regard  to 
reputation  in  our  devotion  and  alms,  and 
by  parity  of  I'cason,  in  our  other  virtues  ; 
his  instructions  were  delivered  in  a  form 
calculated  for  impression  ;  they  were  illus- 
trated by  parables,  the  choice  and  structure 
of  which  would  have  been  admired  in  any 
composition  whatever ;  he  was  free  from 
the  usual  symptoms  of  enthusiasm,  heat, 
and  vehemence  in  devotion,  austerity  in 
institutions,  and  a  wild  particularity  in  the 
description  of  a  future  state ;  he  was  free 
also  from  the  depravities  of  his  age  and 
country  ;  without  superstition  among  the 
most  superstitious  of  men,  yet  not  decrying 
positive  distinctions  or  external  observances, 
but  soberly  recalling  them  to  the  principle 
of  their  establishment,  and  to  their  place  in 
the  scale  of  human  duties  :  there  was  no- 
thing of  sophistry  or  trifling,  though  amidst 
teachers  remarkable  for  nothing  so  much 
as  frivolous  subtilties  and  quibbling  ex- 
positions ;  he  was  candid  and  liberal  in  his 
judgment  of  the  rest  of  mankind,  although 
belonging  to  a  people  who  affected  a  sepa- 
rate claim  to  Divine  favour,  and,  in  conse- 
quence of  that  opinion,  prone  to  uncharit- 
ableness,  partiality,  and  restriction  ;  in  his 
religion  there  was  no  scheme  of  building  up 
a  hierarchy,  or  of  ministering  to  t!ie  views 
of  human  governments ;  in  a  woi-d,  there 
was  every  thing  so  grand  in  doctrine,  and 
so  delightful  in  manner,  that  the  people 
mif^dit  well  exclaim — Surely,  never  m^ui 
spake  like  tliis  man  !" 

^1s  to  his  exawple,  bishop  Newcome  ob- 
serves, "  it  was  of  the  most  perfect  piety  to 
God,  and  of  the  most  extensive  benevolence, 
and  the  most  tender  compassion  to  men. 
He  does  not  merely  exhibit  a  life  of  strict 
justice,  but  of  overflowing  benignity.  His 
temperance  has  nrt  the  dark  shades  of 
austerity ;  his  meekTiess  does  not  degene- 
rate into  apathy  ;  his  humility  is  signal, 
amidst  a  splendour  of  qualities  more  than 
human ;    his  fortitude  is  eminent    and  ex- 


JES 


2or 


JEW 


emplary  in  enduring  the  most  formidable 
external  evils,  and  the  sharpest  actual  suf- 
feriiigs.  His  patience  is  invincible  :  his  re- 
signation entire  and  absolute.  Truth  and 
sincerity  shine  throughout  his  whole  conduct. 
Thout^h  of  heavenly  descent,  he  shews 
obedience  and  aflection  to  his  earthly  pa- 
rents :  he  approves,  loves,  and  attaches  him- 
self to  amiable  qualities  in  the  human  race; 
lie  respects  authority,  religious  and  civil  ; 
and  he  evidences  regard  for  his  country,  by 
promoting  its  most  essential  good  in  a  pain- 
ful ministry  dedicated  to  its  service,  by  de- 
ploring its  calamities,  and  by  laying  down 
his  life  for  its  bei.eht.  Every  one  of  his 
eminent  virtues  is  regulated  by  consummate 
prudence  ;  and  he  both  wins  the  love  of  his 
friends,  and  extorts  the  approbation  and 
wontler  of  his  enemies.  Never  was  a  char- 
acter at  the  same  time  so  commanding  and 
natural,  so  resplendent  and  pleasing,  so 
amiable  and  A'enerable.  There  is  a  pecu- 
liar cuntrast  in  it  between  an  awful  great- 
ness, dignity,  and  majesty,  and  the  most 
conciliating  loveliness,  tenderness,  and  soft- 
ness. He  now  converses  with  prophets, 
lawgivers,  and  angels;  and  the  next  instant 
he  meekly  endures  the  dullness  of  his  dis- 
ciples and  the  blasphemies  and  rage  of  the 
multitude.  He  now  calls  himself  greater 
than  Solomon ;  one  who  can  command 
fegions  of  angels  :  and  giver  of  life  to  whom- 
soever he  pleaseth  ;  the  Son  of  God,  and 
who  shall  sit  on  his  glorious  throne  to  judge 
the  world.  At  other  times  we  find  him 
embracing  young  children  ;  not  lifting  up 
his  voice  in  the  streets,  nor  quenching  the 
smoking  flax ;  calling  his  disciples  not  ser- 
vants, but  friends  and  brethren,  and  com- 
forting them  with  an  exul)erant  and  paren- 
tal afF  ction.  Let  us  pause  an  instant,  and 
fill  our  minds  with  the  idea  of  ore  who 
i.ne\v  all  things,  heavenly  and  earthly; 
searched  and  laid  r.pen  the  inmost  recesses 
«)f  the  heart ;  rectified  every  prejudice, 
and  removed  every  mistake  of  a  moral  and 
religioi;s  kind  ;  by  a  w^rd  exercised  a  sov- 
ereignty over  all  nature,  penetrated  the  hid- 
den events  of  futurity,  gave  promises  of 
admission  into  a  happy  immortality,  had  the 
keys  of  life  and  death,  claimed  an  union 
with  the  Father  ;  and  yet  was  pious,  mild, 
gentle,  humble,  afFible,  social,  benevolent, 
friendly,  and  affectionate.  Such  a  charac-, 
ter  is  fairer  than  the  morning  star.  Each  j 
separate  virtue  is  made  stronger  by  opposi- 
tion and  contrast  ;  and  the  union  of  so  many 
virtues  forms  a  brightness  which  fitly  re- f 
presents  the  glory  of  that  God,  '  who'inha- 
biteth  light  inaccessible."  See  Robinson's 
Plea  for  the  Divi7iity  of  Christ,  from  which 
manv  of  the  above  remarks  are  taken  ; 
Jiishofi  Bull's  Jud^7ne7it  of  the  Catholic 
Church.  Jbhadie,  IFaterland,  Hawker,  and 
Hey,  on  the  Divinity  of  Christ.  Reader,  \ 
Stacfchouse,  and  Doyley's  Lives  ofihrist.l 
Dr.  Jamifson's  Vieiv  of  the  Doctrine  of\ 
Scri/iture.  and  the  Primitive  Faith  concern- \ 
ing  the   Deity  of  Christ.     Owen   on  the ' 


Glory  of  Christ's  Person.  Hirrion's 
Christ  Lrucijied.  tiishop  A'civcomt's  Ob- 
servations on  our  Lords  Conduct;  and 
Paley's  Evidences  of  Christianity. 

JEWS,  a  name  derived  fron\  the  patriarch 
Judea,  and  given  to  the  descendants  of 
Abraham  by  his  eldest  son  Isaac.  We 
shall  here  present  the  reader  with  as  com- 
prehensive a  view  of  this  singular  people  as 
we  can. 

1.  Jews,  history  of  the. — The  Almighty 
promised  Abraham  that  he  w^uld  rentier 
his  seed  extremely  numerous  ;  this  pnimise 
began  to  be  fulfilled  in  Jacob's  twelve  sons. 
In  about  two  hundred  and  fifteen  years  th<.y 
increased  in  Egypt  from  seventeen  tc'  be- 
tween two  and  th.ree  miilions,  men,  women 
and  ckildren.  While  Joseph  lived,  they 
were  kindly  used  by  the  Egyptian  mon- 
archs ;  but  soon  after,  fron^  a  suspicion  that 
they  would  become  too  strong  for  the  na- 
tives, they  were  condemned  to  slavery ; 
but  the  more  they  were  oppressed,  the  more 
they  grew.  The  midwives,  and  others, 
were  therefore  ordered  to  murder  every 
male  infant  at  the  time  of  its  birth  ;  but 
they,  shitting  the  horrible  task,  every  body 
was  then  ordered  to  destroy  the  male 
children  wherever  they  found  thern.  After 
they  had  been  thus  oppressed  for  about  one 
hundred  years,  and  on  the  very  ckiy  that 
finished  the  foAir  hundred  and  thirtieth  year 
from  God's  first  promise  of  a  seed  to  Abra- 
ham, and  about  four  hundred  years  after 
the  birth  of  Isaac,  God  by  terrible  plagues 
on  the  Egyptians,  obliged  them  to  liberate 
the  Hebrews  under  the  direction  of  Moses 
and  Aaron.  Pharoah  pursued  them  with 
a  mighty  army  ;  but  the  Lord  opened  a  pas- 
sage for  them  through  the  Red  Sea ;  and 
the  Egyptians,  in  attempting  to  follow  them, 
were  drowned.  After  this,  we  find  them 
in  a  dry  and  barren  desert,  without  any 
provision  for  their  journey ;  but  Gcd  suj)- 
plied  them  with  Water  from  a  rock,  and 
manna  and  quails  from  heaven.  A  little 
after,  they  routed  the  Amalekites,  who  fell 
on  tlieir  rear.  In  the  wilderiess  God  de- 
livered them  the  law,  and  confirmed  the 
authority  of  Moses.  Three  thousand  of  them 
were  cut  off  for  worshipping  tlie  golden  ciilf: 
and  for  loathing  the  manna,  they  were  pun- 
ished with  a  month's  eating  of  fiesh,  til!  a 
plHgue  brake  out  among  them  ;  and  lor 
their  rash  belief  of  ten  v.  icked  spies,  and 
their  contempt  of  the  promised  land,  God 
had  entirely  destroyed  diem,  had  not  Mo- 
ses's prayers  prevented.  They  were  con- 
denmed,  however,  to  v^ander  in  the  desert 
till  the  end  of  forty  years,  till  that  whole 
generation,  except  CaU-b  and  Joshua,  should 
be  cut  off  by  death.  Here  they  were  often 
punished  for  their  I'ebelliou,  idolatry,  whore- 
dom, (kc.  God's  marvellous  favours,  hi;w- 
ever,  were  still  continued  in  conducting  aid 
supplying  them  with  meat :  and  the  streams 
is.5uing  from  the  rock  of  Meribah,  followed 
their  camp  about  thirty-nine  years,  and 
their  clothes  never  wuxed  old.    On  their 


JEW 


208 


JEW 


enti'ance  into  Canaan,  God  ordered  them 
to  cut  off  every  idolatrous  Canaanite ;  but 
they  spared  vast  numbers  of  them,  who  en- 
ticed them  to  wickedness,  and  were  sonie- 
timt-s  God's  rod  to  punish  them.  For  many 
ages  they  had  enjoyed  little  prosperity,  and 
often  relapsed  into  awful  idolatry,  worship- 

Eiiig  Baalim,  Ashtaroth  Micah  and  the 
>anites  introduced  it  not  long  after  Joshua's 
death.  About  this  time  the  lewdness  of 
the  men  of  Gibeah  occasioned  a  war  of  the 
eleven  tribes  against  their  brethren  of  Ben- 
jamin :  they  were  twice  routed  by  the  Ben 
jamites,  and  forty  thousand  of  them  were 
slain.  In  the  third,  however,  all  tiie  Ben- 
jam;tes  were  slain,  except  six  hundred. 
Vexed  for  the  loss  of  a  tribe,  the  other 
Hebrews  provided  wives  for  these  six 
hundred  at  the  expence  of  slaying  most  of 
the  inhabitants  of  Jabesh  Gilead.  'I'heir  re- 
lapse into  idolatry  also  brought  on  them  re- 
peated turns  of  slavery  from  the  heathen 
among  or  around  tliem.  See  books  of 
Judges  and  Samuel.  Having  been  governed 
by  Judges  for  about  three  hundred  and 
forty  years,  after  the  death  of  Joshua,  they 
took  a  fancy  to  have  a  king.  Saul  was 
their  first  sovereign,  under  whose  reign  they 
had  perpetual  struggles  with  the  Amonites, 
Moabites,  and  Philistines.  After  about 
seven  years'  struggling  between  the  eleven 
tribes  that  clave  to  Ishbosheth,  the  son  of 
Saul,  and  the  tribe  of  Judah,  which  erected 
themselves  into  a  kingdom  under  David, 
David  became  sole  monarch.  Under  him 
they  subdued  their  neighbours,  the  Philis- 
tines, Edomites,  and  others ;  and  took  pos- 
session of  the  whole  dominion  which  had 
been  promised  them,  from  the  border  of 
Egypt  to  the  banks  of  the  Euphrates.  Under 
Solomon  they  had  little  war ;  when  he 
died,  ten  of  the  Hebrew  tribes  formed  a 
kingdom  of  Israel,  or  Ephraim  for  them- 
aelves,  under  Jeroboam,  the  son  of  Nebat,  in 
opposition  to  the  kingdom  of  Judah  and 
Benjamin,  ruled  by  the  family  of  David. 
The  kingdom  of  Israel,  Ephraim,  or  the 
ten  tribes,  had  never  so  much  as  one  pious 
king  :  idolatry  was  always  their  established 
I'eligion.  The  kingdom  of  Judah  hiid  pious 
and  wicked  sovereigns  by  turns,  though  they 
often  relapsed  into  idolatry,  which  brought 
great  distress  upon  them.  See  books  of 
Samuel,  Kings,  and  Chronicles.  Not  only 
the  kingdom  of  Israel,  but  that  of  Judah, 
was  brought  to  the  very  brink  of  ruin  after 
the  death  of  Jehosajjhat.  After  various 
changes,  sometimes  for  the  better,  and 
sometimes  for  the  worse,  the  kingdom  of 
Israel  was  ruined,  two  hundred  and  fifty- 
four  years  after  its  erection,  by  So,  king 
of  Egypt,  and  Halmanaser,  king  of  Assy- 
ria, wlu)  invaded  it,  and  destroyed  most  of 
the  people.  Judah  was  invaded  by  Sennac- 
herib: but  Hezekiah's  piety,  and  Isaiah's 
prayer,  were  the  means  of  their  preserva- 
tion ;  but  under  Mannasseh,  the  Jews  aban- 
doned themselves  to  horrid  impiety  :  for 
•<vhirh  they  were  pupishcd  by  Esarbaddon, 


king  of  Assyria,  who  invaded  and  reduced 
the  kingdom,  and  carried  Mannasseh  pris- 
oner to  Babylon.  Manasseh  repented,  and 
the  Lord  brought  him  back  to  his  kingdom, 
where  he  promoted  the  reformation :  but 
his  son  Amon  defaced  all.  Joshua  however 
again  promoted  it,  and  carried  it  to  a  high- 
er pitch  than  in  the  reigns  of  David  and 
Solomon.  After  Joshua  was  slain  by  Pharaoh 
Necho,  k  ng  of  Egypt,  the  people  returned 
to  idolatry,  and  God  gave  them  up  to  ser- 
vitude to  the  Egyptians  and  the  Chaldeans. 
The  fate  of  their  kings  Jehoaz,  .Tehdakim, 
Jehoiachi  I,  and  Zedekiah,  was  unhappy. 
Provoked  by  Zedekiah  s  treachery,  Nebu- 
chadnezz  r  invaded  the  kingdom,  murder- 
ed vast  numbers,  and  reduced  them  to  cap- 
tivity. Thus  the  kingdom  of  Judah  was 
ruined,  A  M.  3416,  about  three  hundred 
and  eighty-eight  years  after  its  division 
from  that  of  the  ten  tribes.  In  the  seven- 
tieth year  from  the  begun  captivity,  the 
Jews,  according  to  the  edict  of  Cyrus,  king 
of  Persia,  who  had  overturned  the  empire 
of  Chaldea,  returned  to  their  own  coun- 
try. See  Nehemiah,  Ezra.  Vast  num- 
bers of  them,  who  had  agreeable  settle- 
ments, remained  in  Babylon.  After  their 
return  they  rebuilt  the  temple  and  city 
of  Jerusalem,  put  away  their  strange 
wives,  and  renewed  their  covenant  with 
God. 

About  .'^490,  or  3546,  they  escaped  the 
ruin  designed  them  by  Haman.  About 
3653,  Darius  Ochus,  king  of  Persia,  rav- 
aged part  of  Judea,  and  carried  off  a  great 
many  prisoners.  VVhen  Alexander  was  in 
Canaan,  about  3670,  he  confirmed  to  them 
all  their  privileges ;  and,  having  built 
Alexandria,  he  settled  vast  numbers  of 
them  there.  About  fourteen  years,  after 
Ptolemv  .  gus,  the  Greek  king  of  Egypt, 
ravage  jidea,  and  carried  one  hundred 
thousand  prisoners  to  Egypt,  but  used  them 
kindly,  and  assigned  them  many  plac(  s  of 
trust.  About  eight  yeai's  after,  he  trans- 
ported another  multitude  of  Jews  to  Egypt, 
and  gave  them  considerable  privileges.  About 
the  same  time,  Seleucus  Nicator,  having 
built  about  thirty  new  cities  in  Asia,  settled 
in  them  as  many  Jews  as  he  could  ;  and 
Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  of  Egypt,  about  3720, 
bought  the  freedom  of  all  the  Jew  slaves  in 
Egypt.  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  about  3834, 
enraged  with  them  for  rejoicing  at  the  re- 
port of  his  death,  and  for  the  peculiar  form 
of  their  worship  in  his  return  from  Egypt, 
forced  his  way  into  Jerusalem,  and  murder- 
ed forty  thousand  of  them ;  and  about  two 
years  after  he  ordered  his  troops  to  pillage 
the  cities  of  Judea,  and  mnrder  the  men  and 
sell  women  and  children  for  slaves.  Multi- 
tudes were  killed,  and  ten  thousand  prisoners 
carried  off;  the  temple  Avas dedicated  to  Olym- 
plus,  an  idol  of  Greece,  and  the  Jews  exposed 
to  the  basest  treatment,  Mattathias,  the  priest, 
with  his  sons,  chiefly  Judas,  Jonathan,  and 
Simon,  who  were  called  Maccabees,  hiavely 
fought  for  their  religion  and  liberties.  Judas, 


JEW 


209 


JEW 


who  succeeded  his  father  about  3840,  gave 
Nicaiior  aud  the  kings  troops  a  terrible  de- 
feat, regained  the  teinplt^,  and  dedicated  it 
anew,  restored  the  daily  worship,  and  re- 
paired Jerusalem,  which  was  almost  in  a 
ruinous  heap  After  his  death,  Junathan 
and  Simon,  his  brethren,  successively  suc- 
ceeded hi  in;  and  both  wisely  and  bravely 
prom>ited  the  welfare  of  the  church  and 
state.  Si;non  was  succeeded  by  his  son 
Hlrcanus,  who  subdued  Iduniea,  and  redu- 
ced the  Sartiaritans.  In  3899  he  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  son  Janneus,  who  reduced  the 
Philistines,  the  country  of  Aloab,  Ammon, 
Gilead,  and  part  of  Arabia.  Under  these 
three  reigns  alone  the  Jewish  nation  was 
independent  after  the  captivity.  After  the 
death  of  the  widow  of  Janneus,  who  go- 
verned nine  years,  the  nation  was  almost 
ruined  with  civil  broils.  In  3939,  Aristobu- 
lus  invited  the  Romans  to  assist  him  against 
Hircanus,  hi.3  elder  brotlier  I'iie  Cduniry 
WHS  quicklv  reduced,  and  Jerusalem  took. 
by  force;  and  Piiiipey,  and  a  number  of  his 
officers  puslied  their  way  into  the  Sanctu- 
ary, if  not  into  the  Holy  of  Holies,  to  view 
the  furniture  thereof.  Nine  years  after, 
Crassus,  the  Roman  general,  pillaged  the 
temple  of  its  valuables.  After  Judea  had 
for  more  than  thirty  years  been  a  scene  of 
ravage  and  blood,  and  twenty-four  of  which 
had  been  <  ppressed  by  Herod  the  (ireat, 
Herod  got  himself  installed  in  the  kingdom. 
About  twenty  years  before  our  Saviour's 
birth,  he,  with  the  Jews'  consent,  began  to 
build  the  temple.  Ab  ut  this  time  the 
Jews  had  hope  of  the  Messiah ;  and  abmt 
A.  M  4000,  Christ  actually  came,  whom 
H.T  d  (instigated  by  the  fear  of  losing  his 
throne)  sought  to  murder.  The  Jews,  how- 
ever, a  few  excepted,  rejected  the  Messiah, 
and  put  him  to  death.  The  sceptre  was 
now  wholly  departed  from  Judah  ;  and  Ju- 
dea, about  twenty-seven  years  before,  redu- 
ced to  a  province.  The  Jews  since  that 
time  have  been  scattered,  contemned,  per- 
secuted, and  enslaved  among  all  viations,  not 
mixed  with  ^ly  in  the  common  manner, 
but  have  remained  as  a  bcxiy  distinct  by 
themselves. 

2.  Jews,  sentiments  of.  The  Jews  com- 
m!>;ily  reckon  but  thirteen  articles  of  their 
fa'th.  M  timonides,  a  famons  Jewish  Rab- 
bi, reduced  them  to  this  number  when  he 
drew  up  their  confession  abnut  the  end  of 
the  eleventh  century,  and  it  was  generally 
received.  All  the  J  ws  are  obliged  to  live 
and  die  in  the  profession  of  these  thirteen 
articles,  which  are  asf  jUow: — 1.  That  God 
is  tiie  creator  of  all  things;  that  he  guides 
and  supports  .^11  creatures ;  that  he  has 
done  every  th  ng;  and  that  he  still  acts,  and 
shall  act  during  the  whole  eternity. — 2. 
That  God  is  one  :  there  is  no  unity  like 
his.  He  alone  hath  been,  is,  and  shall  be 
eternally  our  G  d — 3.  That  God  is  incor- 
poreal, and  cannot  have  any  material  pro- 
perties ;  and  no  crporeal  essence  can  be 
compared  with  him. — 4.  That  God  is  the 


beginning  and  end  of  all  things,  and  shall 
eternally  su!jsist. — 5  That  God  alone  ought 
to  be  worshipped,  and  none  beside  him  is 
to  be  adc;red  — 6.  That  whatever  has  been 
taught  by  the  prophets  is  tiue  — 7.  That 
Moses  is  the  head  and  father  of  all  contem- 
porary doctors,  of  those  who  lived  before  or 
sha  1  hve  after  him. — 8.  That  the  law  was 
given  by  Muses. — 9.  That  the  law  shall  ne- 
vei'  be  altered,  and  that  God  will  give  no 
other. — 10  That  God  knows  all  the  thoughts 
and  actions  of  m  n. — 11.  Thai  God  will  re- 
gard the  works  of  all  those  who  have  per- 
il rnied  what  he  conimands,  and  punish 
chose  whii  have  transgressed  his  laws.— 
IJ.  That  the  Messiah  is  to  come,  thinigh 
he  tarry  a  f  ng  time — 13.  That  there  shall 
be  a  resurrection  of  the  dead  when  Gcd 
saall  think  fit. 

The  modern  Jews  adhere  still  as  closely 
t;i  tlm  Mosaic  dispensation,  as  their  disper- 
sed and  d-^spised  condition  will  permit  them. 
Their  service  consists  chiefly  in  reading  the 
law  in  their  synagogues,  together  wih  a  va- 
riety of  jjrayers  Tiiey  use  no  sacrifices 
since  the  destruction  of  the  temple.  They 
repeat  blessings  and  particular  praises  to 
God,  not  only  in  their  prayers,  but  on  all  ac- 
cidental occasions,  and  in  almost  all  their 
actions.  They  go  to  prayers  three  times  a 
day  in  their  synagogues.  Their  sermons 
are  not  made  in  Hebrew,  which  few  of 
them  now  perfectly  understand,  but  in  the 
language  of  the  country  where  they  reside. 
They  are  forbidden  all  vain  swearing,  and 
pronouncing  any  of  the  names  of  God 
without  necessity.  They  abstain  from  meat^ 
prohii^ited  by  the  Levitical  law ;  for  which 
reason,  whatever  they  eat  must  be  dressed 
by  Jews,  and  after  a  manner  peculiar  to 
themselves.  As  soon  as  a  child  can  speak, 
they  teach  him  to  read  and  translate  the 
Bible  into  the  language  of  the  country  where 
they  live.  In  general  they  observe  the 
same  ceremonies,  which  were  practised  by 
their  atiCcstors  in  the  celebration  of  the 
passover.  They  acknowledged  a  twofold 
law  of  God,  a  written  and  an  unwritten 
one ;  tfie  former  is  contained  in  the  Pen- 
tateuch, or  five  books  of  Moses  :  the  latter, 
they  pretend,  was  delivered  by  God  to  Mo^ 
ses,  and  handed  down  from  him  by  oral  tra^- 
dition,  and  now  to  be  received  as  of  equal 
authority  with  the  former.  They  assert 
the  perpetuity  of  their  law,  together  with 
its  perfection  Ti.ey  deny  the  accomplish- 
ment  of  the  pro]>hecies  in  the  person  of 
Christ :  alleging  that  the  Messiah  is  not 
come,  and  that  he  will  make  his  appear^ 
ance  with  the  greatest  worldly  pomp  and 
grandeur,  subduing  all  nations  before  him, 
and  subjecting  them  t"  the  house  of  Judah 
Since  the  prophets  have  predicted  his  mean 
condition  and  sufferings,  they  confidently 
talk  of  two  Messiahs  One  Ben-Ephraim, 
whom  they  grant  to  be  a  person  of  a  mean 
and  afflicted  condition  in  this  world:  and 
the  other,  Ben-David,  who  shall  be  a  victo- 
rious and  powerful  prince. 


JEW 


210 


JEW 


The  Jews  pray  for  the  souls  of  the  dead, 
because  they  suppose  there  is  a  paradise  for 
the  souls  of  good  men,  where  tliey  enjoy 
glory  in  the  presence  of  Cii  d.  Thty  be- 
lieve that  tiie  souls  of  tlu:  wicked  are  tor- 
mented in  hell  with  fire  and  other  punish- 
ments; that  some  are  condemned  to  be 
punished  in  tins  manner  forever,  while 
others  continue  only  for  a  limited  time;  and 
this  they  call  fmrgatory ,  which  is  not  dif- 
ferent from  hell  in  respect  of  the  place, 
but  of  the  duration.  They  suppose  no 
Jew,  unless  guilty  of  liercsy,  or  Ci-rtain 
crimes  specified  by  the  rabbins,  shall  coi^- 
tinue  in  purgatory  above  a  twelve  moritii ; 
and  that  there  are  but  few  wiio  suffer  eter- 
nal punishment. 

Almost  all  the  modern  Jews  are  phari- 
sees,  and  are  as  much  attached  to  tradition 
as  their  ancestors  were ;  and  assert  that, 
whoever  rejects  the  oral  law  de.<trves 
death.  Hence  they  entertain  an  implacaljle 
hatred  to  the  Caraites,  who  adhere  to  the 
text  of  Moses,  rejecting  the  rabbinistical  in- 
terpretation    See  Cakaites. 

There  are  still  some  of  tiie  sadducees  in 
Africa,  and  in  several  other  places;  but  they 
are  few  in  number  :  at  least  there  ai-e  but 
very  few  who  declare  openly  for  these  opi- 
nions. 

There  are  to  this  day  some  remams  of 
the  ancient  sect  of  the  Samaritans,  Avho 
are  zealous  for  the  law  of  Moses,  but  are 
despised  bv  the  Jews,  because  they  receive 
only  the  Pentateuch,  and  observe  different 
ceremonies  from  theirs.  They  declare  they 
are  no  sadducees,  but  acknowledge  the  spi- 
rituality and  immortality  of  the  soul.  There 
are  '.mmbers  of  this  sect  at  Gaza,  Damas- 
cus, Gi-and  Cairo,  and  in  some  odxer  places 
of  the  east  but  especiallv  at  Sichem,  n  w 
called  Naplouse,  which  is  risen  out  of  the 
ruins  of  the  ancient  Samaria,  where  tl^.e) 
sacrificed  not  many  yeai's  ago,  liavii^g  a 
place  for  this  purpose  on  Mount  Gcnzim 

David  Levi,  a  learned  Jew,  wlio,  in  1796 
published  "  Dissertations  on  the  Prophecies 
of  the  Old  Testament,"  observes  in  that 
work,  that  deism  and  infidelity  have  made 
such  large  strides  in  the  world,  that  they 
have  at  length  readied  even  tho  Jewish  na- 
tion ;  many  of  whom  are  at  this  time  so 
greatly  infected  with  scepticism*  by  reading 
Bolingbroke,  Hume,  Voltaire,  &c.  that  they 
scarcely  believe  in  a  revelation  ;  much  less 
have  they  any  hope  in  their  future  resto- 
ration. 

3.  Jeivs,  calamities  of — All  history  cannot 
furnish  us  witli  a  parallel  to  the  calamities 
and  miseries  of  the  Jews  ;  rapine  and  mur- 
der, famine  and  pestilence,  within  ;  fire  and 
sword,  and  all  the  terrors  of  war,  without. 
Our  Saviour  wept  at  the  foresight  of  thesr 
calamities ;  and  it  is  almost  im]KissibJe  for 
persons  of  any  humanity  to  read  the  account 
without  being  affected.  The  predictions 
concerning  them  were  remarkable,  and  the 
calamities  that  came  upon  them  were  the 
greatest  the  world  ever  saw,  Deut,  xxviii. 


xxiji.  Matt.  xxiv.  Now,  what  heinous 
sin  was  it  that  could  be  the  cause  of  such 
heavy  judgments?  Can  any  other  be  as- 
signed than  wiiat  the  scripture  assicjns  ? 
1  Thes.  ii.  15,  16.  ^'  They  both  killed'  the 
Le.rd  Jesus,  and  their  own  prophets,  and 
persecuted  the  apostles :  and  so  filled  up 
their  sins,  and  wrath  came  upon  them  to 
the  uttermost."  It  is  hardly  possible  to 
consider  the  nature  and  extent  of  their  suf- 
ferings, aiid  not  conclude  the  Jews'  own  ini- 
precation  to  be  singularly  fulfilled  upon 
them.  Matt,  xxvii.  25.  "His  biood  be  on 
us  and  our  children."  At  Cesarea  twenty 
thousand  of  the  Jews  were  killed  by  the 
Syrians  in  their  mutual  broils.  At  Damas- 
cus ten  tliousand  unarmed  Jews  were  kil- 
led ;  and  at  Bethshan  the  Heathen  inhabi- 
tants caused  their  Jewish  neighbours  to  as- 
sist them  against  their  brethren,  and  then 
murdered  thirteen  thousand  of  these  inlia- 
bitants.  At  Alexandria  the  Jevvs  murdered 
multitudes  of  tlie  Heatliens,  and  were  mur- 
dered in  their  turn  to  about  fifty  thousand. 
The  Rvimans  under  Vespasian  invaded  the 
country,  and  took  the  cities  of  Galilee, 
Chnrazen,  Bethsaida,  Capernaum,  &c. 
where  Christ  had  been  especially  rejected, 
and  murdered  numbers  of  the  inhabitants. 
At  Jerusalem  the  scene  was  most  wretched 
of  all.  At  the  passover,  when  there  might 
be  two  or  three  miUions  of  people  in 
the  city,  the  Romans  surrounded  it  with 
troops,  trenches,  and  walls,  that  none  migl>t 
escape  The  three  different  factions  within 
murrlered  one  another.  Titus,  one  of  the 
most  merciful  generals  that  ever  breathed, 
dif'i  all  in  his  power  to  persuade  them  to  an 
advantageous  surrender,  but  they  scorned 
every  proposal.  The  multitudes  of  unburi- 
ed  carcasses  corrupted  the  air,  and  piodu- 
ced  a  pestilence.  The  pecple  fed  on  c;ne 
another  ;  and  even  laclif  s,  it  is  said,  broiled 
their  sucking  infants,  and  ate  them.  After 
a  siege  of  six  months  the  city  was  t;.)ien. 
They  murdered  almost  every  Jew  they  met 
with,  Titus  was  bt  nt  to  save  the  temple, 
but  could  not ;  there  were  six.tliousand  Jew.s 
who  had  taken  shelter  in  it,  all  burnt  or 
murdered  !  I'lie  outcries  of  the  Jews, 
when  they  saw  it,  were  most  dreadful :  the 
whole  city,  except  three  tow<  rs  and  a  small 
part  of  the  wall,  were  razed  to  the  ground, 
and  the  foundations  of  the  temple  and 
other  places  were  pleuglied  up  Soon  after 
tile  forts  of  Herodian  and  Macheron  were 
taken,  the  garrison  of  Massada  murdered 
themselves  rather  than  surrender.  At  Je- 
rusalem alone,  it  is  said,  one  million,  one 
hundred  thousand  perished  by  sword,  fa- 
mine, and  pestilence.  In  other  places  we 
hear  of  two  hundred  and  fifty  tliousand  that 
were  cut  (fl',  besides  vast  numbers  sent  into 
Egypt  to  labour  as  slaves.  About  fifty  years 
after,  the  Jews  murdered  nbout  five  hundred 
thousand  of  the  Roman  subjects,  for  which 
they  were  severely  punished  by  Tn^jan. 
About  130,  one  Barocaba  pretend' d  that  he 
was  the  Messiah,  and  raised  a  Jewish  army 


JEW 


211 


JEW 


of  two  luindred  thousanrl,  wlio  murdered 
all  the  Heathciib  and  Christiai>s  >vho  came 
ill  their  way ;  but  he  was  defeated  by 
Adrian's  forces,  in  this  war  it  is  said, 
about  sixty  thousand  Jews  were  slain,  and 
perished.  Adrian  built  a  city  on  Mount 
Calvary,  and  erected  a  niarbie  statue  of 
swine  over  the  gate  that  led  to  B  thteham. 
No  Jew  was  allowed  to  enter  the  city,  or 
to  look  to  it  at  a  distance,  under  pain  of 
death.  In  360  they  began  to  rebuild  their 
city  and  temple ;  but  a  terrible  eartliquake 
and  Hames  of  fire  issuing  fron)  the  earth, 
killed  the  workmen,  and  scattered  their 
materials.  Nor  till  the  seventii  century 
durst  they  so  much  as  creep  over  tiie  rub- 
bish to  bewail  it,  without  bribing  the  guartls. 
In  the  third,  fourth,  and  fifth  centuries, 
there  were  many  of  them  furiously  haras- 
sed and  murdered.  In  the  sixth  century 
twenty  thousand  of  them  we7-e  slain,  and 
as  many  taken  and  sold  for  slaves.  In  602 
they  \j;ere  severely  punished  for  their  hor- 
rible massacre  of  the  Christians  at  Antioch. 
In  Spain,  in  700,  they  were  ordeyed  to  be 
enslaved.  In  the  eighth  and  ninth  centuries 
they  were  gi-eatly  derided  and  abused.  In 
some  places  tliey  were  made  to  wear  leath- 
ern girdles,  and  ride  without  stirrups  on 
asses  and  mules.  In  France  and  Spain  they 
were  much  insulted.  In  the  tenth,  eleventh,  f 
and  twelfth  centuries,  their  miseries  rather 
increased :  they  were  greatly  persecuted 
in  Egypt.  Besides  what  they  suffered  in 
the  East  by  the  Turkish  and  sacred  war,  it 
is  shocking  to  think  what  multitudes  of 
them  the  eight  croisades  murdered  in  Ger- 
many, Hungary,  Les.ser  Asia  and  elsewhere. 
In  France  multitudes  were  burnt. — In  Eng- 
land, in  1020,  they  were  banished  ;  and  at 
the  coronation  of  Richard  I.  the  mob  fell 
upon  them,  and  murdered  a  great  many  of 
them.  About  one  thousand  five  hundred 
of  them  were  burnt  in  the  ])alace  in  tlie 
city  of  York,  which  they  set  fii'e  to  them- 
selves after  killing  their  wives  and  children. 
In  the  thirteeiith  and  fourteenth  centuries 
their  condition  was  no  better.  In  Egypt, 
Canaan,  and  Syria,  the  croisadcrs  still  ha- 
rassed tliem.  Provoked  with  their  mad  run- 
ning after  pretended  M-.  ssiaiis,  Caiiff  Nas- 
ser scarce  left  any  of  them  alive  in  his 
dominions  of  Mesopotamia.  In  Persia,  the 
Tartars  murdered  them  in  multitudes.  In 
Spain,  Ferdinand  j>ersecuted  them  furious- 
ly. About  IS-IQ,  the  terrible  massacre  of 
them  at  Toledo  forced  many  of  them  to 
murder  themselves,  or  change  their  reli- 
gion. About  1253  many  were  nmrdered, 
and  otliers  banislied  from  France,  i)ut  in 
1275  recalled.  In  1320  and  1330,  the  crois- 
ades of  the  fanatic  sheplierds.  who  wasted 
the  south  of  France,  massacred  them  ;  lie- 
sides  fifteen  hundred  that  were  murdered 
on  another  occasion.  In  1358  thev  vv-cj-e 
totally  banished  from  France,  since  which 
few  of  them  have  entered  that  coimtry.  In 
1291  king  Edward  expelled  them  from  Eng- 
land, to  the  number  of  one  hundred  and 


sixty  thousand.  In  the  fifteenth,  sixteenth, 
and  seventeenth  centuries,  their  misery  con- 
tinued. In  Persia  they  iui\  t-  been  terribly 
used  ;  from  1663  to  1666.  the  murder  of 
them  was  so  univeisal,  that  but  a  few  es- 
caped to  Tuikey.  In  Portugal  and  Spain, 
tluy  have  been  miserably  hai/iied.  About 
1392,  SIX  or  eight  hundred  tiiousand  wt-re 
banished  f n  m  Spain.  Some  were  drowned 
in  their  passage-  to  Africa;  some  by  haid 
usage  ;  and  many  of  their  carcasses  lay 
in  the  field  till  tlie  wild  beasts  devoured 
them.  In  Geriiiany  they  have  endured 
many  iiardshijis.  They  have  been  banished 
from  Bohemia,  Bavaria,  Cologne,  ISureni- 
berg,  Augsburg,  and  Vienna :  thty  have 
been  teri'ibly  massacred  in  Moravia,  and 
plundered  in  Bonn  and  Bamberg.  Except 
in  Portugal  and  Spain,  their  present  con- 
dition is  genei'ally  tolerable  In  Holland, 
Poland,  and  at  Frankfort  and  Hamburgh, 
they  have  their  liberty.  They  have  re- 
peatedly, but  in  vain,  attempted  to  ob- 
tain a  naturalization  m  England,  and  other 
nations    among   whom    they  are    scattered. 

4.  JetuSy  preservation  of — "  The  pre- 
servation of  the  Jews,"  says  Basnage,  "  in 
the  midst  of  the  miseries  which  they  have 
undergone  during  1700  years,  is  the  great- 
est prodigy  that  can  be  imagined.  Reli- 
gions depend  on  temporal  prosperity  :  they 
triumph  under  the  protection  of  a  con- 
queror ;  they  languish  and  sink  with  sink- 
ing monarchies.  Paganism,  whicli  once 
covered  the  eartli,  is  extinct.  I'he  Chris- 
tian church,  glorious  in  its  martyrs,  yet  was 
considerably  diminished  by  the  persecutions 
to  which  it  was  ex])osed  ;  nor  was  it  easy 
to  repair  the  breaches  in  it  made  by  those 
acts  of  violence.  But  here  we  behold  a 
church  hated  and  persecuted  for  1700  ages, 
and  yet  sustainirig  itself,  and  widely  ex- 
tended. Kings  have  often  employed  tlie 
severity  of  edicts  and  the  hand  of  execu- 
tioners to  ruin  it.  The  seditious  multitudes, 
by  murders  and  massacres,  have  commit- 
ted outrages  aj^ainst  it  still  more  violent  and 
tragical.  Princes  and  people.  Pagans,  Ma- 
hometans, Christians  disagreeing  m  so  many 
things,  have  united  in  the  design  of  exter- 
minating it,  and  have  not  been  able  to  suc- 
ceed. The  bjish  of  Afosrs,  surrounded  with 
flames,  ever  burns,  and  is  never  consumed. 
The  Jews  have  been  expelled,  in  diffVrf  nt 
times,  from  every  part  of  the  world,  which 
hath  only  served  to  spread  them  in  all  re- 
gions. From  age  to  age  they  have  been 
exposed  to  misery  and  persecution;  yet 
still  they  subsist,  in  spite  of  the  ignominy  and 
the  hatred  which  hath  pursued  them  in  all 
places,  whil.'it  the  greatest  monarchies  are 
fallen,  and  nothing  remains  of  them  besides 
the  name. 

"  The  judgments  which  God  has  exer- 
cised upon  his  jjeople  are  terrible,  extend- 
ing to  the  men,  the  religion,  and  the  very 
land  in  which  they  dwelt.  The  ceremonies 
essential  to  their  religion  can  no  more  be  ob- 
served ;  the  ritual  law,  which  cast  a  splKi- 


JEW 


212 


1  GN 


dour  on  the  national  worship,  and  struck 
thf  Pagans  so  much  ihat  they  sent  their 
presents  and  their  victims  to  Jerusalem, 
is  absolutely  fallen,  for  they  have  no  temple, 
no  altar,  no  sacrifices.  Iheir  land  itself 
seems  to  lie  under  a  never-ceasing  curse. 
Pagans,  Ci.fislians,  iVIahonmiedans,  in  a 
word,  almiist  all  nations,  iiave  by  turns 
seized  and  held  Jerusalem.  To  the  Jew 
only  hath  God  refused  the  possession  of 
this  small  tract  of  ground,  so  suprenulx 
necessary  for  him,  since  he  lught  to  worship 
on  this  mountani.  A  Jewish  writer  hath 
affirmed,  that  it  is  long  since  any  Jew  has 
been  seen  settled  near  Jerusalem  :  scarcely 
can  they  purchase  there  six  feet  of  land  for 
a  burying-place. 

"  In  all  tills  there  is  no  exaggeration  :  I 
am  only  pointing  out  known  facts :  and,  far 
from  having  the  least  design  to  raise  an 
odium  against  the  nation  frt  m  its  miseries, 
I  conclude  that  it  ought  to  be  looked  upon 
as  one  of  those  prodigies  which  Ave  admire  | 
without  comprehending:  siirce,  in  spite  of 
evils  so  durable,  and  a  patience  so  Vng  ex- 
ercised, it  is  preserved  by  a  particular 
providence.  The  Jew  ought  to  be  weary  of 
cxpectn.g  a  Messiah,  who  so  unkindly  dis- 
appoints his  vain  hopes  ;  and  the  Christian 
ought  to  have  his  attention  and  his  regard 
excited  towards  men  \\  i\om  God  preserves, 
for  so  great  a  lengtii  C'f  time,  under  calami- 
ties wliich  would  have  been  the  total  ruin  of 
any  ether  people." 

5  Jews,  number  and  disfiersion  of — 
They  are  lo<  ked  upon  to  be  as  numerous  at 
present  as  they  werf-  ft  rmerly  in  the  land 
of  Canaan.  Seme  have  rated  them  at  thn  e 
millions,  and  others  nn  re  than  dr  uble  that 
nuuiber.  Their  dispersi<'ii  is  a  remarkable  I 
particular  in  this  pet  pie  :  They  swarm  all 
over  the  east,  and  are  settled,  it  is  said,  in 
the  remotest  parts  of  China.  The  Turkish  ] 
empire  abounds  with  them.  Tliere  are 
more  r.f  them  at  Constantini.ple  and  Salo- 
nichi  than  in  any  other  place  :  they  are 
spread  through  most  of  tiie  nations  of  Eu- 
rope and  Africa,  and  mawy  familes  of  them 
are  established  in  the  West  Indies  ;  net  to 
mention  whole  nations  bordering  on  Prestcr 
John  s  country,  and  some  discovered  in  the 
inner  parts  ^i  America,  if  we  may  give  any 
credit  to  their  own  writers.  Their  being 
always  in  rebelions  (  as  Ardisrn  (ibserves) 
while  they  had  the  Holy  Temple  in  vie\v, 
has  excited  most  nations  to  banish  them. 
Brsides,  the  whole  people  are  now  a  race 
of  such  merchants  as  are  Wiindeiers  bv 
professi' n  ;  arc!  at  the  s;  me  tiir.e  are  in 
most,  if  not  in  all  places,  incapable  <'f  either 
lands  or  (ifiices,  thnt  migl  t  <  ngage  them  lo 
m-ike  a  y  put  of  the  w^  rid  their  heme. 
In  ''clflition  to  this,  we  m<iv  consider  what 
providetitial  reasons  may  he  assicned  for 
their  numlj^^rs  and  dispersion  Their  firm 
adherence  to  t'leir  rrlision.  ai  d  being  dis- 
persed all  ov^r  the  eartl'.  has  furnished 
■  le^eiy  age  atid  every  :^aTion  with  the  strong- 
dirt;  arguments  for  the  Chiistian  faith  ;  not 


only  as  these  ver}'  particulars  are  foretold 
of  them,  but  as  they  themselves  are  the 
depositaries  of  these  and  all  other  prophe- 
cies which  tend  to  their  own  confusion, 
and  the  estat)lishiuent  of  Christiaiiity. 
Their  number  furnishes  us  with  a  suffi- 
cient cloud  of  witnesses  that  attest  the 
truth  of  the  Bible,  and  their  dispersion 
spreads  these  witnesses  ihiough  ail  parts 
of  the  world, 

6,  Jenva,   restoration   of. — From  the  de- 
clarations of   scriptuie    we  have    reason  to 
suppose  the  Jews  shall  be  called  to  a  par- 
ticipation of   the  blessings    of   the    Gospel, 
Rem.   xi.     2   Cor.   iii.    16.     Hos.  i.  11.    and 
some  suppose  shall  return  to  their  own  land, 
Hos.  iii.  5.     Is.  Ixv.  17,  &c.     Ezek.   xxxvi. 
As  to  the  time,   some   think  about  1866  or 
£'016  ;  but   this,  perhaps,   is   not  so  easy  to 
determine  altogether,  though   it  is  probable 
it  will  not  be  before   tlie   fall   of  Antichrist 
and  the  Ottoman  empire.    Let  us,  however, 
avoid  putting  stumbling  blocks  in  their  way. 
If   we    atttn;pt  any  thing    for    their    con- 
version,   let    it    be   with   peace    and    love. 
Let    us,    says    one,   propose  (/hrisiianity  to 
them,  as  Christ  proposed  it  to  them.  Let  us 
lay  before  them  their  own  prophecies.    Let 
us    shew    them    their    acconiplishment    in 
Jesus.     Let  us  applaud  their  hatred  of  idol- 
atry.    Let  us  siiew   them   the   morality  of 
Jesus  in  (ur  live*   and    tempers       Let  us 
never  abridge  their  civil  liberty,   nor  ever 
try  to  force  their  consciences.      Josephus' 
Jiist.  of  the  Jeivs.     ijpec.  Ne.  495,   vol.   iv. 
Levi's  Ceremonies  of  the  Jewish  Beligion. 
Buxtorf  de   Synagoga    Jitdaica.     S/ie?ictr 
de  Jegibus  Heb.   Hit.    J^'ewton  on  Proph. 
Warburto7i'&  jlddrcss  to  the  Jews,   in  the 
Dedication  of  the  2d  vol.  of  his  Legation. 
Sermons  preached  to   the  Jtws  at  lierry- 
strect,  by   Dr    Haweis  and  others.     J'as- 
ncge's  and   OrcAiey's    Hi&t.  of  the   Jtws. 
Shaw's   Philosophy  of  Judaism.     Hartley 
on  Man,  vol.  ii.  prop.  8    vol.  iii.  p.  455,  487. 
Bichcno's  Restoration  of  the  Jews-  Jortin's 
Pern,  on    Ecc   Hist.   vcl.  iii.   p.  427,  447. 
Dr    H    Jackson's    IVorks,  vol    i.   j).   153. 
J\j'eale's  Hist,   of  the  Jtws-     Prrie's  Post. 
Works,   vol    i.    Puller's    Sermon    on   the 

Mes.yiah 

IGNORANCE,  the  want  rf  knowledge 
or  instruction.  It  is  often  dene  to  dtnt'te 
il'iteracy.  Mr.  Locke  observes,  that  the 
causes  of  ignorance  are  chiefly  tl  ree  —  I. 
Want  of  ideas — 2.  V\'ant  of  a  discoverable 
connection  between  the  ideas  we  have.-"— 
S.  Want  of  tracing  and  examir.ing  rur 
ideas.  As  it  respects  religii  n,  ignc  ranc« 
has  been  distinguished  into  three  sorts:  1. 
An  in-vincible  ignorance,  in  which  the  will 
has  no  part.  It  is  an  insult  nprn  justice  to 
suppc  se  it  will  pu'  ish  men  because  they 
were  ignorant  of  thines  wiiich  they  were 
physically  inciipab'e  of  km  wing. — 2.  There 
is  a  ivifnl  and  obstinate  ignortmce  ;  such 
an  ignornnce,  far  from  exculpating,  aggra- 
vates a  man's  crimes. — ?,.  A  sort  of  igno- 
raiice  which  is  neither  entirely  wilful,  nor 


ILL 


213 


ILL 


entirely  invincible  ;  as  -when  a  man  has  the 
nieans  of  knowledge,  and  does  not  use  them. 
See  Knowlkdge  ;  and  Locke  on  the  Unci., 
vol.  ii  p.  178;  Grove''s  Mor.  Phil,.,  vol  ii. 
p.  26,  29,  64:    IVatts  on  the  Mmd. 

ILLUiVllNA  ri,  a  term  anciently  applied 
to  such  as  hud  received  baptism.  The 
name  whs  occasioned  by  a  ceremony  in  the 
baptism  i  f  adults,  which  consisted  in  putting 
a  li'^hted  taper  in  the  hand  of  the  person 
baptize  d,  as  :i  svmbol  of  the  faith  and  grace 
he  had  rocix ed  in  the  sacrament. 

ILLUMINATI  was  also  the  name  of  a 
sect  which  ai)peared  in  Spain  about  the 
year  1575  They  were  charged  with  main- 
taining tliat  mental  prayer  and  contemplation 
had  so  intimately  united  them  to  God,  that 
they  were  arrived  to  such  a  state  ot  perfec 
tion,  as  to  stand  in  no  need  of  good  works, 
or  the  sacraments  of  the  church,  and  that 
they  might  commit  the  grossest  crimes  with- 
out sin 

After  the  suppression  of  the  Illuminati  in 
Spain,  there  appeared  a  denomination  in 
France  which  took  the  same  name.  They 
maintained  that  one  Anthony  Buckuethad  a 
system  of  belief  and  practice  revealed  to 
him  which  exceeded  everything  Christiani- 
ty had  yet  been  acquainted  with :  that  by 
this  method  persons  might  in  a  short  time 
arrive  at  the  same  degrees  of  perfection  and 
glory,  to  which  the  saints  and  the  Blessed 
Virgin  have  attained  ;  and  this  improve- 
ment might  be  carried  on  till  our  actions  bf- 
came  divine,  and  our  minds  wholly  given 
up  to  the  influence  of  the  Almighty.  Thty 
said  further,  that  none  of  the  doctors  of  the 
church  knew  any  thing  of  religion ;  that 
Paul  and  Peter  were  well-meaning  men,  but 
knew  nothing  of  devotion;  that  the  whole 
church  lay  in  darkness  and  unbelief:  that 
every  one  was  at  hberty  to  follow  the  sug- 
gestions of  his  conscience  ;  that  God  regard- 
ed nothing  but  himself;  and  that  within  ten 
years  their  doctrine  would  be  received  all 
over  the  world ;  then  there  would  be  no 
more  occasion  for  priests,  monks,  and  other 
such  relie;i  us  distinctions. 

IL'  UMINATI,  a  name  assumed  by  a 
secret  society,  founded  on  the  1st  of  May, 
1776,  by  Dr.  Adam  VVeishaupt,  professor  of 
Canon  law  in  the  university  of  Ingoldstadt. 
The  avowed  object  of  this  order  was,  "  to 
diffuse  from  secret  societies,  as  from  so  ma- 
ny centres,  the  light  of  science  over  the 
world;  to  propagate  the  purest  principles 
of  virtue;  and  to  reinstate  mankind  in  the 
happiness  which  they  enjoyed  during  the 
golden  age  fabled  by  the  poets."  Such  a 
philanthropic  object'  was  doubtless  well 
adapted  to  make  a  deep  impression  on  the 
minds  of  ingenious  young  men;  and  to  such 
alone  did  Dr.  Weishaupt  at  first  address 
himself  But  "  the  real  object,"  we  are  as- 
sured by  Professor  Rnbison  and  Abbe  Bar- 
ruel,  "  was,  by  clandestine  arts,  to  overturn 
every  government  and  every  religion  ;  to 
bring  the  sciences  of  civil  life  into  contempt  ; 
and  to  reduce  mankind  to  that  imaginaiy 


state  of  nature,  when  they  lived  independent 
of  each  otl\er  on  the  spontaneous  productions 
of  thf  earth."  Fixe  Masonr)  being  in  lijgh  re- 
putation all  over  Europe,  when  W'ei.-^hanpt 
first  formed  the  plan  of  his  society,  he  availed 
himself  of  its  secrecy,  to  introduce  his  new 
order;  of  which  he  constituied  himself  gT- 
neraU  after  initiating  some  of  his  j)upiis, 
whom  lie  styled  .rlreofiugiles^  in  its  myste- 
ries. And  when  report  spread  the  news 
throughout  Germany  of  the  institution  ot  the 
Order  of  liiumiiiees,  it  was  generally  con- 
sidered as  a  mere  college  lodge,  which  could 
interest  the  students  no  longer  than  during 
the  period  of  their  studies.  VVeishaupt's  cha- 
racter, too,  which  at  this  time  was  respect- 
able for  morality  as  well  as  erudition,  pre- 
vented all  suspicion  of  his  harbouring  any 
such  dark  designs  as  have  since  come  to 
light.  But  it  would  far  exceed  the  limits 
to  which  this  work  is  restricted,  to  give 
even  an  outline  of  the  nature  and  constitu- 
tion of  this  extraordinary  society  ;  of  its  se- 
crets and  mysteries  ;  of  the  deep  dissimula- 
tion, consummate  hypocrisy,  and  shockiiig 
impiety  of  its  founder  and  his  associates  of 
their  Jesuitical  art  in  concealing  their  real 
objects,  and  their  incredible  industiy  and  as- 
tonishing exertions  in  making  converts  ;  of 
the  absolute  despotism  and  complete  system 
of  esfiionnage  established  throughout  the  or- 
der ;  of  its  difft  rent  degrees  of  A'ovices,  Mi- 
neiT'als,  AHnor  and  Major  Illuminees : 
Efiofiis.,  or  Prieats,  Reg-'-nts,  Magi,  and 
Man-kings;  of  the  Rr  cruiters, or  Insiriuaiors, 
with  their  various  subtle  metliods  of  insinua- 
ting into  all  cliaracters  and  companies;  of  the 
blind  obedience  exacted  of  the  Novices,  and 
the  absolute  power  of  life  and  death  assumed 
by  the  order,  and  conceded  by  the  Novices; 
of  the  dictionary,  geography,  kalendar,  and 
cipher  of  the  order ;  of  the  new  names  as- 
sumed by  the  members,  such  as  Spurt aiiis. 
by  Weishaupt,  because  he  pretended  to 
wage  war  against  oppressors ;  Cato  by 
Zwack  :  jljax  by  Massenhausen,  &c.;  of  the 
Mineral  Academy  and  Library ;  of  the 
questions  proposed  to  the  candidates  for 
degrees,  and  the  various  ceremonies  of 
"admission  to  each  ;  and  of  the  pretended 
morality,  real  blasphemies,  and  absolute 
atheism,  of  the  founder  and  his  tried  friends. 
Such  of  our  readers  as  wish  to  be  fully  in- 
formed of  these  matters,  we  must  refer  to  the 
Abbe  Barruel's  works,  and  to  Vni  Kobi- 
son's  Proofs  of  a  conspiracy  agaijiat  all  the 
Religions  and  Governments  of  Europe. 
But  while  credit  may  be  given  to  the  general 
facts  related  in  these  works,  some  doubts 
respecting  the  ultimate  object  of  Dr.  Weish- 
aupt and  his  associates  in  this  cons|>ir?.cy, 
may  be  expressed  :  as,  That  men  of  their 
principles  should  secretly  C(  nspire  to  cver- 
throw  all  the  religions  ai  d  gcvernments  at 
present  in  Europe,  is  by  no  means  ircredi- 
ble :  that  they  should  even  prevail  on  many 
well-meaning  philanthropists,  who  are  nr> 
enemies  to  ratioral  rtligion  or  good  gnve/n- 
Iment,   to  join  them,  is  also  very  credible. 


ILL 


214 


IMA 


Bat  that  a  set  of  men  of  learning  and  aljili- 
tifs,  sucli  as  Weishiiupt  and  his  associates 
are  allowed  to  be,  shiiuld  toriii  a  criiispij-acy 
to  overturn,  and  with  more  ttian  Guthic 
rage,  utterly  ahuiish  the  arts  awd  sciences, 
and  to  restore  the  nup/iosed  original  navai^e 
state  uf  man,  appears  lo  us  a  plitnomeiion  in 
the  history  of  tlie  human  heart  totally  unac- 
countable, Tiiat  *'  the  heart  of  man  is  de 
ceitful  above  all  things,  and  desperately 
wicked,"  is  a  ineianch.ily  truth,  which  not 
scripture  alone,  but  the  history  of  mankind 
in  ail  agcs  and  riatioiis,  :'.fibrds  full  proof  of, 
as  well  as  the  shocking  history  of  the  IJlu- 
minati :  but  while  fM-itle  and  vanity  liave  a 
place  in  the  human  heart,  to  say  nothing  of 
our  other  passif^ns,  which  are  more  or  less 
interested  in  the  preservation  of  the  disco- 
veries and  improvements  in  arts,  sciences, 
and  their  inseparable  concomitant  luxury, 
we  are  persuaded  no  man,  or  body  of  men, 
who  have  enjoyed  tlie  sweets  of  civilized 
life,  ever  formed  a  serious  wish  for  the  total 
abolition  of  the  arts  and  sciences.  In  the 
fury  and  rage  of  war,  (iolhs.  Vandals,  and 
Turks,  may  burn  and  destny  monun.tnts 
of  art  and  repositories  of  science;  but  when 
the  wars  are  over,  instead  of  returning  to 
the  savage  state,  the  barbarous  conquerors 
mix  and  amalgamate  with  the  conquered, 
and  became  themselves  more  or  less  civilized. 
Dr.  Weishaupt  is  allowed  to  be  influenced 
by  a  high  degree  of  vanity;  as  an  evidence 
of  which  he  communicates  as  the  laat  se- 
cret to  his  iiK.st  favoured  adepts,  that  the 
mysteries  of  Illuminism,  which,  in  going 
thr  ugh  the  inferior  degrees,  had  been  suc- 
cessively attributed  to  the  most  ancient  pa- 
triarclis  and  philosopiiers,  and  even  to 
Christ  himself,  owed  its  origin  to  no  other 
than  Adam  Weishaupt,  known  in  the  order 
by  the  name  of  Spartacus.  The  same  \ani- 
^  ty  which  leads  the  doctor  to  take  this  tra- 
ditional method,  while  secrecy  is  deemed 
necessary,  of  securing  to  himself  the  honour 
of  having  founded  the  society,  would  lead 
him,  were  the  llluminati  actually  victorious 
over  ail  religions  and  governments,  to  wish 
to  have  his  memory  recorded  in  a  more 
durable  manner  by  writing  or  printing. 
But  if  these  and  all  the  other  arts  were  to 
perish  in  a  mass,  then  the  memory  of  the 
doctor,  and  tiie  important  services  he  had 
done  1 1  ttie  order  and  to  sovagism,  must, 
within  a  century  at  the  utmost,  perish  along 
with  them.  But  if,  in  fact,  tlie  total  annihi- 
lation of  the  arts  and  sci<  nces.  as  well  as  of 
all  religion  and  government,  be  really  the 
objtct  of  Weishaupt  and  his  lUuminees, 
then  we  may  agree,  with  the  celebrated 
Mandeville,  that  "  human  nature  is  the  true 
Lyban  desert,  daily  producing  new  ?non- 
slers,"  and  that  of  these  monsters  the  doc- 
tor and  his  associates  are,  beyond  a  doubt, 
the  most  extraordinary.  Professor  Robison 
informs  us,  thai  "  the  order  of  the  lllumi- 
nati was  abolished  in  1786,  by  the  elector 
of  Bavaria,  but  revived  immediately  after, 
under  another   name,   and   in    a    different 


form,  all  over  Germany.  It  was  again  de- 
tected and  seemingly  broken  up  ;  bu^  it  had 
by  this  time  taken  so  deep  root,  tiuu  it  siill 
subsists  with'-ul  being  detected,  and  has 
sjiread,  we  are  told,  into  all  the  countries 
of  Europe. 

IMAGE,  in  a  religious  sense,  is  an  arti- 
ficial rejjiesentation  of  some  person  or 
thing  used  as  an  object  of  adoration;  in 
wai'h  sense  it  is  used  synonymously  with 
idol.  The  use  and  adoraiitju  of  images 
have  been  long  controverted.  It  is  plain, 
from  the  practice  of  the  primitive  church, 
recorded  by  the  earlier  fathers,  that  Cliris- 
uaus,  during  the  first  three  cerituries,  and 
the  greater  part  of  the  fourth,  neither  wor- 
shipjjed  images  nor  used  them  in  their 
worsh  p.  However,  the  generality  of  thfe 
popish  divines  maintain  tiiat  the  use  and 
worship  of  images  are  as  ancient  as  tlie 
Chri.stian  religion  itself:  to  prove  this,  they 
allege  a  decree,  said  to  have  Ixen  nuide  in 
a  council  held  by  the  apostles  at  Antioch, 
commar.ding  the  faithful,  that  tliey  may  not 
err  about  the  object  ot  their  worship,  to 
make  images  ot  Ctirist,  and  worship  t.hem. 
Baron,  ad  aim.  102.  But  n.)  notice  is  taken 
of  this  decree  until  seven  hundred  years  af- 
ttr  the  apostolic  times,  after  the  disjjute 
about  images  had  comnunced.  The  first 
instance  that  occuis,  in  any  credibie  author, 
of  images  among  Christians  is  that  record- 
ed by  Tertuliian  de  Pudicit.  c  10,  of  certain 
cups  or  chaiices,  as  Beliarmine  pretends,  on 
which  was  represented  the  parable  of  the 
good  shepherd  carr)  ing  the  lost  sheep  en 
his  shoulders ;  but  this  instance  only  proves 
that  th.e  church,  at  that  time,  did  not  think 
emblematical  figures  unlawful  ornanients  of 
chalices  Anothi  r  instance  is  taken  from 
Eusebius  {Hist.  jEccI ,  lib.  vii.  cap  18.)  who 
says,  that  in  his  time  there  were  to  be  sfen 
two  brass  statues  in  the  city  of  Paneas,  or 
Cxsarea  Philippi  ;  the  one  of  a  woman  on 
her  knees,  with  her  arms  stretched  out;  the 
other  of  a  man  over  against  her,  with  his 
hand  extendird  to  receive  her  :  these  statues 
were  said  to  be  the  images  of  our  Savit  ur, 
and  the  woman  whom  he  cured  of  an  issue 
of  blood.  From  tlie  foot  of  the  statue  repre- 
senting our  Saviour,  says  the  historian, 
sprung  up  an  exotic  plant,  which,  as  soon  as 
it  grew  to  touch  the  border  of  his  garment, 
was  said  to  cure  all  sorts  of  distempers. 
Eusebius,  however,  vouches  none  of  these 
things:  nav,  he  su]iposis  that  the  woman 
who  erected  tl:is  statue  of  our  Savi(.ur  was 
a  pagan,  and  ascribe  s  it  to  a  pagan  custom. 
Philostorgius,  (Eccl.  Hist,  lib,  vii.  c  3.)  ex- 
pressly says,  that  this  statue  was  carefully  , 
preservtd  by  the  Christiaiis,  but  that  they  |l 
paid  no  kind  of  worship  to  it,  because  it  is  * 
not  lawful  for  Christians  to  worship  brass, 
or  any  other  matter.  The  primitive  Chris- 
tians abstained  from  the  worship  of  images, 
not  as  the  Papi.sts  pretend,  from  tendeiness 
to  heathen  idolaters,  but  because  they 
thought  it  unlawful  in  itself  to  make  any 
images  of  the  Deity.    Tertuliian,  Clemens 


IMA 


215 


I  MM 


Alexandriiius,  and  Origen,  were  of  opinion, 
that,  Ijy  tlie  second  commandment,  painting 
and  eni^raving  were  unlawful  to  a  Ciiris- 
tian,  styling  iliem  evil  and  wicked  arts. 
Tert.  de  ld"l.  cap.  3  Clem.  Alex.  .*\.dmon. 
ad  Gent.  p.  4S1.  Origen  contra  Celsum,  lib. 
vi.  p.  182.  The  use  of  images  in  churches, 
as  ornaments,  was  first  introduced  by  some 
Christians  in  Spain,  in  the  beginning  of  the 
fourth  century  ;  but  the  practice  was  con- 
demned as  a  dangerous  innovation,  in  a 
council  held  at  Eliberis  in  305.  Epiphanius, 
in  a  leit'.  r  preserved  1))  Jerom,  tom.  li.  ep.  6. 
bears  strong  ti:stim()ny  against  images;  and 
he  may  be  considered  as  one  of  the  first 
Iconoclasts.  The  custom  of  admitting  pic- 
tures of  saints  and  martyrs  into  churches 
(for  this  was  the  first  source  of  image  wor- 
sliip)  was  rare  in  the  end  of  the  fourth  cen- 
tury, but  became  common  in  the  fiftli.  But 
t!»ey  were  still  considered  only  as  orna- 
ments, and,  even  in  this  view,  they  met 
with  very  crnsiderable  opposition.  In  the 
following  century,  the  cusu.m  of  thus  adc'in- 
ing  churches  became  almost  universal,  bothj 
in  the  East  and  West.  Petavius  expressly 
says  {de  Incar.,  lib.  xv.  cap  14,)  that  no 
statues  were  yet  allowed  ui  the  churches, 
Because  they  b(;re  too  near  a  resemblance 
to  the  idols  i^.f  the  Gentiles.  Towards  the 
close  of  the  f  lurtti,  or  beginning  of  the  fifth 
century,  images,  which  were  introduced  by 
way  of  ornament,  and  iheij  used  as  an  aid  to 
devotion,  began  to  be  actuallv  worshipped. 
However,  it  continued  to  be  the  dortnuv  of 
the  church  in  the  sixth,  and  in  the  begin- 
ning of  the  seventh  century,  that  images 
were  to  be  used  only  as  helps  to  devotion, 
and  not  as  objects  of  w  rship.  The  wor- 
ship of  them  was  condemned  in  the  strong-  \ 
est  terms  by  Gregory  the  Great,  as  appears  j 
by  two  of  his  letters  written  in  601  From  | 
this  time  to  the  beginning  cf  the  eighth  cen- 
tury, there  occurs  no  instance  of  any  wor- 
ship given,  or  allowed  to  be  given  to  images, 
by  any  council  or  assembly  cf  bishops  what- 
ever Hut  t!;ey  were  coiimonly  worshipped 
by  the  monks  and  populace  in  the  begin- 
ning  of  the  eighth  century  ;  insomuch,  that 
in  726,  when  Leo  published  his  famrus 
edict,  it  had  already  spread  into  all  the 
provinces  subject  to  the  empire.  The  Lu- 
therans condemn  the  Calvinists  for  breaking 
the  images  in  the  churches  of  the  Catholics, 
looking  oil  it  as  a  kind  of  sacrilege  ;  and  yet 
they  condemn  the  Romanists  (who  are  pro- 
fessed ima^e  nvorisliipfiers)  as  idolaters  :  ror 
can  these  last  keep  pace  witli  the  Greeks, 
who  i:o  far  beyond  them  in  this  point,  which 
has  occasioned  abundance  of  disputes  among 
th'  m  See  Iconoclastes.  The  Jews  al> 
solutely  condemn  all  images,  and  do  not  so 
much  as  suff  r  any  statues  or  figures  in  their 
houses,  much  'ess  in  their  synagegues,  or 
places  of  worship.  The  Mahometans  have  an 
equal  aversion  to  images  ;  which  led  them  to 
destroy  most  of  the  beautiful  monuments  of 
antiquity,  bfith  sacred  and  profane,  at  Con- 
stantinople.— Bingham's  Orig.  Ecd.  b.  viii. 


c.  8.  Middleton''s  Letters  from  Rome,  p. 
Jl  :  Burnei  on  the  Art.  p  :.09,  219  ;  Dod- 
dridge's Led ,  lect.  19J ;  'I'tJuiiaon  on 
Idolutry,  p.  269,  275;  Ridgleifs  -.odu  of 
Diimiid!,  qu.  110.      ' 

LMAGE  OF  GOD  in  the  soul,  is  d,  an- 
guished into  natural  and  moral.  By  naiural 
is  meant  the  understaiiding,  reason,  will, 
and  other  iiittllecuial  faculties.  B)  the  mo- 
ral image,  the  right  use  of  those  faculties,  or 
what  wr  tei'ni  lioiiiiess. 

IMAGINATION  is  a  power  or  faculty 
of  the  mind,  wliertby  it  conceives  and  forms 
ideas  of  things  communicated  to  it  by  the 
outward  orgaiis  of  sense  ;  or  it  is  the  power 
of  recollecting  and  assembling  images,  and 
of  painting  forcibly  those  images  on  our 
minds,  or  on  the  minds  of  ctneis.  The 
cause  of  the  pleasures  of  the  imaginaticn  in 
wh.itever  is  great,  uncx)mmon,  or  beautiful, 
is  this;  that  God  has  annexed  a  secret 
pleasure  to  the  idea  of  any  thing  that  is  new 
or  rare,  that  he  might  encourage  and  stimu- 
late us  in  the  eager  and  keen  pursuits  after 
knowledge,  and  intlame  liur  best  passions  to 
search  into  the  wonders  (.f  creati(.n  and  re- 
velation ;  for  every  new  idea  brings  such  a 
pleasure  along  with  it,  as  rewards  any  pains 
we  have  taken  in  its  acquisition,  and  conse- 
quently serves  as  a  striking  and  powerful 
motive  to  put  us  upon  fresh  discoveries  in 
learning  and  science,  as  well  as  in  the  word 
and  works  of  God.  See  Rev.  W.  Jones's 
Works,  vol.  vi.  sen  17  •  Rrjland's  (  onte?n- 
fila'ions,  vol.  i  p.  64 ;  Akenside's  Pleai^ures 
of  Imagination  ;  yiddison's  beauiful pafiers 
on  the  Imagination,  vol  vi.  Spect.  p  64, 
8cc  ;  Grove's  Mor.  Phil.;  p.  354,  355,  410, 
vfil  i. 

IMMATERIALISM,  the  belief  that  the 
soul  IS  a  spiritual  substaice  distinct  from  the 
body.     See  AIaterialism  and  Soul. 

IMMENSITY,    unbounded  or  incompre- 
hensible greatness ;  an  unlimited    extension 
which  no  firite  and  determinate  space,    re- 
j  peated  ever  so  often,  can  equal.     See  Infi- 
;  NiTY  OF  Goo. 

j  IMMORALITY,  an  action  incrnsistent 
with  our  duty  towards  men,  and  c(  nse- 
I  quently  a  sin  against  God,  who  hath  com- 
I  mafided  us  to  do  justly,  and  love  mercy 
jSee  MORALITY. 

j  IMMORTALITY,  a  state  which  has  no 
end;  the  imptiSMbility  of  dying.  It  is  ap- 
;  plied  to  God,  who  is  absolutely  immortal,  1 
jTim.  i.  17.,  and  to  the  human  soul,  which  is 
'only  hypothetically  immortal  ;  as  God,  who 
;  at  first  gave  it,  can,  if  he  pleases,  deprive 
us  of  rnr  existence.     See  SotJL. 

IMMUTABILITY  OF  GOD,  is  his  un- 
changeableness.  He  is  immutable  in  his  es- 
sence,  James  i.  17.  In  his  attributes.  Is.  cii. 
27.     In  his  fiur/wses,  Isa.  xxv.  1.  Ps.  xxxiii. 

11.  In  his /iro?«/6e,s%  Mai   iii.  6.    2  Tim.  ii. 

12.  And  in  his  threatenings.  Matt  xxv. 
41.  "  This  is  a  perfection,"  says  Dr.  Blair, 
"  which,  perhaps,  more  than  any  other,  dis- 
tinguishes the  divine  nature  from  the  human, 
gives  complete  energy  to  all  its  attributes, 


IMP 


216 


IMP 


and  entitles  it  to  the  highest  adoration.  From 
hence  are  derived  the  regular  order  of  na- 
ture, and  the  steadfastness  of  tiie  universe. 
Honce  flows  the  unchanging  tenor  of  those 
laws  which  from  age  to  as^e  regulate  the 
Cduduct  of  mankind.  Hence  die  uniformity  of 
that  governtnent,  and  the  certainty  of  thnse 
])r()n\ises,  which  are  the  ground  of  our  trust 
and  security.  An  ebjection,  however,  may 
be  riised  against  this  drctrine,  from  the 
coniiTiands  given  us  to  prayer,  and  other  re- 
ligiou  exercises.  To  what  jmrpose,  it  may 
be  urged,  is  homage  addresse  1  to  a  Being 
Avhose  plan  is  unalterably  fixed  ?  This  ob- 
jection would  have  weight,  if  our  religious 
;id(lresses  were  designed  to  work  any  altera- 
tion in  God,  either  by  giving  him  jnfnrma 
tion  of  what  he  did  not  know,  or  by  exci- 
ting affections  which  he  did  not  possess  ;  or 
by  inducing  him  to  change  measures  which 
he  had  previously  formed:  but  they  are 
only  crude  and  imperfect  notions  of  religion 
which  can  suggest  such  ideas.  The  change 
wliich  our  devotions  are  intended  to  make, 
are  upon  ourselves,  not  upon  tlie  Almighty. 
By  pouring  out  our  sentiments  and  desires 
before  God,  by  adoring  his  perfections,  and 
confessing  our  unworthiness  ;  by  expressing 
our  dependence  on  his  aid  ;  our  gratitude  for 
his  past  favours;  our  submission  to  his  pre- 
sent will,  and  our  trust  in  his  future  mercy, 
"we  cultivate  such  affections  as  suit  our  place 
and  station  in  the  universe,  and  are  to  be  ex- 
ercised by  us  as  men  and  as  Christians 
The  contemplation  of  this  divine  perfection 
should  raise  in  our  minds  admiration  ;  should 
teach  us  to  imitate,  as  far  as  our  frailty 
will  permit,  that  constancy  and  steadfast- 
ness which  we  adore,  2  Cor.  iii.  18.  And, 
lastly,  should  excite  trust  and  confidence  in 
the  i)ivine  Being,  amidst  all  the  revolutions 
of  this  uncertain  world."  ■  B lairds  Sermons, 
ser.  4.  vol.  ii ;  ChaTnock^s  Works,  vol.  i  p. 
203;  Gill's  Body  of  Div  vol.i.  p.  50;  La7n- 
bcrt's  Sermons,  ser.  on  Mai.  iii.  6 

IMPANATION,  a  term  used  by  divines 
to  signify  the  opinion  of  the  Lutherans  with 
regard  to  the  eucharist,  who  believe  that 
the  species  of  bread  and  wine  remain  toge- 
ther with  the  body  of  our  Saviour  after  con- 
.secration. 

IMPECCABILES,  a  name  given  to  those 
heretics,  who  boasted  that  they  were  im- 
peccable, and  that  there  was  no  need  of  re- 
pentance ;  such  were  the  Gnostics,  Priscil- 
lianists,  &c. 

IMPECCABILITY,  the  state  of  a  per- 
son who  cannot  sin ;  or  a  grace,  privilege, 
or  principle,  wtiich  puts  him  out  of  a  pos- 
sibility of  sinning.  Divines  have  distinguish- 
ed several  kinds  of  impeccability:  that  of 
God  belongs  to  him  by  nature ;  that  of  Jesus 
Christ,  considered  as  man,  belongs  to  him 
by  the  hypostatical  union  :  that  of  the  bles- 
sed,  in  consequence  of  their  condition,  8cc 

IMPLICIT  FAITH,  is  that  by  which  we 
take  up  any  system  or  opinion  of  another 
without  examination.    This  has  been  one 


of  the  chief  sources  of  ignorance  and  er- 
ror in  the  church  of  Rome.  The  dvines 
•f  tliat  c<immuniiy  teach,  "  That  we  are  to 
oh.serve,  not  huw  the  churcii  proves  any 
thing,  but  what  she  says.  That  the  will  of 
God  is,  that  we  should  believe  and  ciihde 
in  his  ministers  in  the  same  manner  as  him- 
seit."  Cardinal  Toletns,  in  his  instructions 
for  priests,  asserts,  "  That  if  a  rustic  be- 
heves  his  bishop  proposing  an  heretical  tenet 
for  an  article  of  faitli,  such  belief  is  merito- 
rious," Cardinal  Cusanus  tells  us,  "  That 
ii  rational  obedience  is  the  nmst  consummate 
and  perfect  obedience,  when  we  obey  with- 
out attending  to  reason,  as  a  beast  obeys  his 
driver."  In  an  epistle  to  the  Bohemians  he 
has  these  words:  "  I  assert,  that  there  are 
no  precepts  of  Christ  but  those  which  are 
received  as  such  by  the  church,  (meaning 
the  church  of  Rome.)  When  the  church 
changes  her  judgment,  God  changes  his 
judgment  likewise"  What  madness  !  what 
blasphemy!  For  a  church  to  demand  belief 
of  what  she  teaches,  and  a  submission  to 
what  slie  enjoins,  merely  upon  her  assumed 
authority,  most  appear  to  unprejudiced 
minds  the  height  of  unreasonablei'.ess  and 
>piritual  despotism  We  could  wi.sh  this 
doctrine  had  been  confined  to  this  church  ; 
but  alas  !  it  has  been  too  prevalent  in 
other  communities.  A  theological  system, 
says  Dr.  Jortin,  is  too  often  no  more  than 
a  temple  consecrated  to  implicit  faith ; 
and  he  who  enters  in  there  to  worship,  in- 
stead of  leaving  his  shoes,  after  the  eastern 
manner,  must  leave  his  understanding  at  the 
door ;  and  it  Avill  be  well  if  he  find  it  when 
he  comes  out  again. 

IMPOSITION  OF  HANDS,  an  ecclesi- 
astical action  by  which  a  bishop  lays  his 
hand  on  the  head  of  a  person  in  ordination, 
confirmation,  or  in  uttering  a  blessing.  This 
practice  is  also  frequently  observed  by  the 
Dissenters  at  the  ordination  of  their  preach- 
ers ;  when  the  ministers  present  place  their 
hands  on  the  head  of  him  wliom  they  are 
ordaining,  while  one  of  them  prays  for  a 
blessing  on  him  and  on  his  future  labours. 
They  are  not  agreed,  however,  as  to  the 
propriety  of  this  ceremony.  Some  suppose 
it  to  be  confined  to  those  who  received  ex- 
traordinary gifts  in  the  primitive  times; 
others  think  it  ought  to  be  retained,  as  it 
was  an  ancient  practice  used  where  no  ex- 
traordinary gifts  were  conveyed  Gen.  xlviii. 
14.  Matt  xix.  15.  They  do'  not  suppose  it 
to  be  of  such  an  impnitant  and  essential 
nature,  that  the  validity  and  usefulness  of  a 
man's  future  ministry  depend  upon  it  in  any 
degree.  Imposition  of  hards  was  a  Jewi.sh 
ceremony,  introduced  not  by  any  divine  au- 
thority, but  by  custom  :  it  being  the  practice 
among  those  people,  whenever  they  prayed 
to  God  for  any  person,  to  lay  their  hands  on 
his  head.  Our  Saviour  observed  the  same 
custom,  both  when  he  conferred  his  blessing 
on  children,  and  when  he  healed  the  sick, 
adding  prayer  to  the  ceremony.    The  apos- 


IMP 


217 


IMP 


ties,  likewise,  l.tid  hands  on  those  upon 
whom  thfv  i)Cstowed  the  Holy  Ghost.  The 
prieits  oiiserved  the  same  custnm  wlien  aii\- 
one  was  received  in  their  bndy.  And  tlie 
Apnitles  tlieniselves  underwent  the  inipi/si- 
ti'in  of  hands  afresh  every  time  tliey  enter- 
ed u])on  any  new  design  In  the  ancient 
church,  imposition  of  hands  was  even  i)rac- 
tised  on  jjrrsons  when  Uuy  married,  which 
custom  the  Abyssinians  still  obsene.  AJau- 
Tict'»  Dial,  on  Soc  RcCig.  p.  163,  16H. 
Watls"  RationLil  I'oimclaiion  of  a  Christian 
(Jh  ]).  31.  Turner  on  Church  Govtrn- 
mtrii,  p  70.  King's  J-'rimitive  Chri.il.  Ch. 
p.  49. 

IMPOS  I'ORS  RELIGIOUS,  are  such  as 
pretend  to  an  extraordinary  cummission 
from  heaven,  and  who  terrify  the  people 
•with  false  denunciations  of  judijments  T"o 
many  of  tliese  have  aboun:'itd  in  almrst  all 
ages.  They  are  i>unishable  in  the  temporal 
courts  with  fine,  imprisfinmcnt,  an  *  corpo- 
real punishment.    See  False  Mkssiahs. 

IMFO  I'KNCY,  or  IjiPOTtKCK,  is  consi- 
dered as  natural  and  moral.  A'ulural  is 
the  want  of  some  pliysicai  principle  neces- 
sary to  an  action,  or  where  a  being  is  abso- 
lutely deffCtive,  or  not  free  and  at  liberty 
to  act.  liloral  impoiency  imports  a  greai 
difficulty,  as  a  strong  habit  to  the  contrary; 
a  vio'ent  passion  ;  or  the  like. 

IMPROPRIATION,  a  parsonage  or  ec- 
clesiastical living,  the  profits  of  which  are 
in  the  hands  of  a  layman  ;  in  which  case  it 
stands  distinguished  from  afipropriatvm, 
which  is  where  the  profits  of  a  benefice  are 
ill  the  hands  of  a  bishop,  college,  &c.  though 
the  terms  are  now  used  promiscuously. 

IMPULSE,  an  intluence.  idea,  or  motive 
acting  upon  the  mind.  We  must  be  care- 
ful how  we  are  guided  by  imjmlscs  in  reli- 
gion. "  There  are  many,"  as  one  observes, 
"  who  frequently  feel  singular  impressions 
upon  their  minds,  and  are  inclined  ro  pay  a 
veiy  strict  regard  unto  them.  Yea,  some 
cany  '.his  point  so  far,  as  to  make  it  almrst 
the  only  rule  of  their  judgment,  and  will  not 
determine  any  thing  until  they  find  it  in 
their  hearts  to  do  if,  as  their  jihrase  is. 
Others  take  it  fur  granu  d,  that  the  divine 
mind  is  notified  to  them  by  sweet  or  power- 
ful impressions  of  some  passages  of  sac;ed 
writ.  There  are  others  who  are  determin- 
ed by  visionary  manifestations,  or  by  the  im- 
pressions made  in  dreams,  and  the  interpre- 
tations they  put  upon  them.  All  these  things 
being  of  the  same  general  nature,  may  very 
justly  be  considered  together;  and  it  is  a 
matter  of  doubt  with  many  how  far  these 
things  are  to  be  regarded,  or  attended  to  by 
us  ;  and  how  we  may  distinguish  any  divine 
impressions  of  this  kind  from  the  di  lusions 
of  the  tempter,  or  of  our  own  evil  hearts. 
But,  whoever  makes  any  of  these  things 
his  rule  and  standard,  he  forsakes  the  divine 
Word  ;  and  i<othing  tends  more  to  make  per- 
sons unhappy  in  themselves,  unsteady  in  their 
conduct,  or  more  dangerously  deluded  in 
their  practice,  than  paying  a  random  re- 

Ee 


gard  to  the.se  impulses,   as  notificatioTis  of 
the  divine  will."     See  Enthusiasm.  Pho- 

VIDKNCiE. 

IMPURirV,  want  of  that  regard  to  de- 
cency, ciiastity,-or  holiness,  which  our  duty 
requires.  Impurity,  in  the  law  of  M(;Scs,  is 
any  legal  defilement.  Of  dicse  there  were 
.several  sons:  s<.nie  were  voluntary,  as  the 
toucning  a  liicua  body,  or  any  creature  that 
was  cstiemed  unclean  ;  or  any  aiiimal  that 
died  of  itseif;  or  touching  thnig.s  h(ily  by  one 
who  was  not  clean,  cv  was  not  a  piicst;  the 
touching  one  who  had  a  It-jjroby,  rjie  vv^ho 
had  a  gonorrhcja,  or  who  was  piilluted  by  a 
flead  carcass,  &c.  L<-mttin\es  these  impu- 
rities were  in\nluntary;  as  wi.en  anv  one 
inadvertently  t«  iicheti  boiits,  or  a  sepuichre, 
or  any  thing  polluted ;  or  fell  into  such  dis- 
eases as  pollute,  as  the  lejirosy,  kc. 

The  beds,  clothes,  and  moveables  which 
had  touched  any  thing  unclean,  a.niracted 
aLsri  a  kind  of  impuri'.y,  and  in  some  cases 
conmiunicattd  it  to  others. 

These  legal  pollutions  were  generally  re- 
moved by  bathing,  and  lasted  no  h  nger  than 
the  evening.  The  perS'  n  polluted  ptungecl 
over  head  in  the  water  ;  aijd  either  had  his 
clothes  on  when  he  did  so,  or  washed  him- 
self and  his  clothes  separately.  Other  jiol- 
lutions  continued  seven  days;  as,  that  wliich 
was  contracted  by  touching  a  dead  Ixjdy. 
Some  impurities  Lasted  forty  or  fifty  days; 
as,  that  of  women  .'hi  were  lately  deliver- 
ed, who  were  unclean  forty  days  after  the 
birth  of  a  boy,  and  fifty,  afti.r  ti.e  birth  of  a 
girl.  CUhers,  again  lasted  till  the  person 
was  cured. 

Many  of  these  pollutions  were  expiated 
by  sacrifices,  and  others  by  a  certain  water 
or  lye  n  ade  with  the  aslies  of  a  red  heifer, 
sacrificeO  on  the  i'reat  day  of  expiation. 
When  the  leper  was  cured,  he  went  to  the 
temple,  ar.d  offered  a  sacrifice  of  tv.o  birds, 
one  of  wiiich  was  killed,  and  the  other  set 
'^i  liberty  He  who  liad  tonched  a  dead 
body,  or  had  been  present  at  a  funeral,  was 
to  be  purified  with  the  water  of  expiation, 
and  this  upon  pain  of  deatli.  The  woman 
who  had  been  delivered,  offered  a  turtle  and 
a  iamb  for  her  expiation ;  or  if  she  was 
poor,  two  turtles  or  two  young  pigeons. 

These  imjmritics.  which  the  law  of  Moses 
has  expressed  with  the  greatest  accuracy 
and  care,  wen?  only  fi:;ures  of  other  more 
important  impurities,  such  as  the  sins  and 
iniquities  committed  against  God,  or  faults 
committed  against  cur  neighbour.  The  saints 
and  prophets  of  the  Old  Testament  were 
sensible  of  this  ;  and  our  Saviour  in  the  Gos- 
pel, has  strongly  inculcafd,  that  they  are 
not  outward  arid  corporeal  pollutions  which 
render  us  unacceptable  to  God,  but  such  in- 
ward pollutions  as  infect  the  soul,  and  are 
violations  ot  justice,  truth,  and  charitv. 

IMPUTATION  is  the  attriliutirg  any 
matter,  quality,  or  ci^aracter,  vhether  good 
or  evil,  to  any  ])ers<'n  as  his  own.  It  may 
refer  to  what  was  originalh"  his,  antecedent- 
ly to  such  imputation ;  or  to  what  was  not 


INC 


218 


INC 


antecedently  his,  but  becomes  so  by  virtue 
of  sucli  imputatidii  mily,  .  Sam,  xix  19.  Ps. 
cvii  31.  The  imputaiiiMi  that  rtspi'Cts  our 
juslihcation  before  Ckicl  is  <  f  the  huter  kind, 
and  may  be  (tetinud  thus :  it  is  God's  gru- 
cious  donaiion  of  the  rightefiusuess  of  Christ 
to  believers,  and  his  acceptance  of  their  per- 
sons as  righteous  on  the  account  there<i 
Their  sins  !k  ing  imputed  to  him,  and  his 
obedience  being  imputed  to  tliem,  they  are, 
in  virtue  hereof,  both  accepted  as  righteous 
btfure  Gud)  Horn.  iv.  6,  7.  Rom.  v.  l8, 
19  2.  Cor.  V.  21.  See  Righteousnkss. 
Sin.  Dickinson's  Lettera,  p.  156.  Hti-- 
vei/s  Tfivron  and  ji^fia&iOy  vol.  ii.  p.  43. 
Doddridge's  lVx)rks,  vol.  iv.  p.  562.  Watts' 
Works,  vol.  iii.  p.  532. 

INABILITY,  Want  of  poAver  sufficient 
for  the  peril mnance  of  any  particular  ac- 
tion or  design.  It  has  been  divided  into  na- 
tural and  moral.  We  are  said  to  be  natu- 
rally unable  to  do  a  thing  when  we  cannot 
do  It  if  we  wish,  because  of  some  impiding 
diiecl  or  obstacle  that  is  extrinsic  to  tlie 
will,  either  in  the  understaiuling,  constitu- 
tion of  tne  body,  or  exttrnal  objects.  Mo- 
ral inability  consists  not  in  any  of  these 
things,  but  either  in  the  want  of  inclination, 
or  tiie  strength  of  a  contrary  inclination ; 
or  the  want  of  sufficient  motives  in  view  to 
induce  and  excite  the  act  of  the  will,  or  the 
strength  of  apparent  metises  to  the  contra- 
ry, ror  the  sake  of  iUustration,  we  will 
here  present  the  reader  with  a  few  exam- 
ples of  b')th 

Natural  Mutal. 

Cain  could  iiui  have  killed  Cain  eoiM  not  have  killed 

Abel,  i'"  Cain   liad  been  the  Abtl,  if  Cain  had  feared  God, 

Weakest,  and  Abi-I  a\Vare  of  and  loved  his  bvother. 

hint.  Potijihar's  vi'itv  could  not  re- 

.(acob  couLl  iint  rejoice  in  joice  in  it,  if  she  continued 

Joseph's  exaltation  belbre  he  Under  it. 

beaid  of  it.  Had   that  woman  been  a 

The  noman  mentioned  iB  \"evy  affectionate  mother,  she 

2  k'ng^  vi.  20,  could  not  kill  could  not  have  killed  her  own 

hei"  neighbour's  son  and  eat  son  in  a  time  of  plenty,  as 

hini,  Wnm  he  was  hid,  and  she  did  in  a  time  of  famine, 

she  could  not  find  him.  If  a    dutiful   affectionatic 

Haza^l    toiild     )Mit    haVe  son   had    been    waiting   on 

Smothered   Benliadad,  if  he  Benhadad  in  Hazael's  stead, 

bad  not  l)een  suifered  to  en»  he  could  not  have  snioihered 

ter  his  chamber.  him,  as  Uazael  did. 

These  are  a  few  instances  from  which 
we  may  clearly  learn  the  distinction  of  na- 
tural and  moral  inability.  It  must  not,  how- 
ever, be  forgott(  n,  that  moral  inability  or 
disinclination  is  no  excuse  for  our  omission 
of  duty,  though  want  of  natural  faculties  or 
necessary  means  woukU  'that  God  may 
command,  thout^h  man  has  not  a  present 
moral  ability  to  perform,  is  evident,  if  we 
consider,  1.  Tliat  mah  once  had  a  power  to 
do  whatsoever  God  would  command  him, 
he  had  a  power  to  cleave  to  God. — 2. 
That  Gfd  did  hot  deprive  man  of  his  abili- 
tyv-^3  I'hen  foi-e  G'  d's  right  of  command- 
ing, and  man*s  obligation  of  returning  and 
cleaving  toti'  d,  remains  firm  See  LIbfr- 
ty;  anfl  'rbcol  Misc.  vol.  ii.  p.  48R  Kcl- 
ivurdu  071  the  Will  Cuarnock's  Marks, 
vol.  ii    ])    1H7.     H'utts  on  iJdtrrv,  ]).  4. 

INCARNATION,  the  act  whertbv  the 
SiMii  of  God  assumed   the  human  nature  ; 


or  the  mystery  by  which  Jesus  Christ  thtt 
Eternal  VVc  rd,  was  made  man,  in  order  to 
accumplish  the  work  of  our  s-alvaiion.  See 
Nativity,  and  JMcLdrum  on  the  Iniarna- 
lion. 

INCEST  the  crime  of  criminal  and  un-» 
natural  c^immeiCe  with  a  ptr«:on  within  the 
degrees  forbiddni  by  the  law.  By  the  rules 
<  f  the  church,  incest  was  formei-iy  \  cry  ab- 
surdly extended  even  to  the  seventh  de- 
gree ;  but  is  now  restricted  to  the  third  or 
fniirth  Most  nations  lock  on  incest  with 
hornr;  Persia  and  Eeypt  '.  xcej?ted.  In 
the  history  of  the  anci'  nt  kings  of  those 
ciiuntries  we  meet  with  instances  of  bro- 
thers mairying  their  own  sisters,  because 
they  thought  it  too  mean  to  join  in  alliance 
with  their  own  subjeCs,  and  still  mere  so 
to  marry  into  any  f  reign  family.  Vortigern, 
king  of  South  Eiitain,  equalled  or  rather 
excelled,  them  in  wickedness,  by  tnarrying 
his  own  daughter.  The  queen  of  Portugal 
was  married  to  her  uncle  ;  and  the  prince 
of  Brazil,  the  son  of  that  incestuous  mar- 
riage, is  wedded  to  his  aunt.  But  they  had 
dispensations  for  these  unnatural  marriages 
from /hs  holiness.  "In  ordtr,"  says  one, 
"  to  preserve  chastity  in  families,  and  be-* 
tween  persons  of  different  sexes  brought  up 
and  living  together  in  a  state  of  unreserved 
intimacy,  it  is  necessary,  by  every  method 
possib'e,  to  inculcate  an  abhorrence  of  in- 
cestuous conjunctions ;  which  abhorrence 
can  only  be  upheld  by  the  absolute  n  pro* 
bation  of  a'l  ct,mmerce  of  the  sexes  between 
near  relations.  Upon  this  principle  the 
marriage,  as  well  as  other  ccjhabitation  of 
bn  thers  and  sisters  of  lineal  kindred,  and 
of  all  who  usually  live  in  the  same  family, 
may  be  said  to  be  forbidden  by  the  law  of 
nature.  Restrictions  which  extend  to  re- 
moter degrees  of  kindred  than  what  this 
reason  makes  it  necessary  to  prohibit  from 
intermarriage,  are  founded  in  the  autlnrity 
of  the  positive  law  which  ordains  them, 
and  can  ohly  be  justified  by  their  tendency 
to  diffuse  wealth,  to  connect  families,  or  to 
promote  some  political  advantage. 

'*  The  Levitical  law,  which  is  received  in 
this  country,  and  from  which  the  rule  <  f  the 
Roman  law  differs  very  httle,  prohibits  mar- 
riage between  relations  within  three  de» 
grees  of  kindred  ;  computing  the  genera- 
tions not  from,  but  through  the  common  an- 
cestor, and  accounting  affinity  the  same  a» 
consanguinity.  The  issue,  however,  of  such 
marriages  are  not  bastardized,  unless  the 
parents  be  divorced  during  their  lifetime.** 
Falcy'f)  Mor.  Phil.  p.  316,  vol.  i. 

INCEST  SPIRITUAL,  an  ideal  crime* 
Cor\imitted  bet^v^een  two  persons  who  have 
a  spiritual  alliance,  by  means  of  baptism  or 
confirttiation.  This  ridiculous  fancy  was 
made  hse  of  as  an  instrument  of  great  ty- 
ranny in  times  when  the  power  of  the  [)ope 
was  unlimited,  even  queens  being  sometimes 
divorced  upon  this  preterce.  Inceat  Spi- 
ritual 's  also  nndersood  of  a  vicar,  or  other 
beneficiary,  who  enjoys  both  tlie  mother  and 


INC 


219 


IND 


the  daughter  ;  that  is,  holds  two  benefices,  \ 
one   wherfot"  dejieiids  upon  the   collation  ot 
tSie  other.  Sucli  spiritual  inctst  renders  both 
the  one  and  tiie  other  of  these  benefices  vu- 
caiit. 

IXCLINA'l'ION  is  the  disposition  or 
pr(ipensU)  ot"  the  mind  to  uny  particular  ob- 
ject fir  HCii'n  ;  or  a  kinil  ut  bias  upon  na- 
ture, by  lUe  h.rce  of  wuich  it  is  carried  to- 
wards certain  acii  MS  previously  to  the  ex- 
ercise of  tiKiught  and  reasoniiig  about  the 
nature  and  conseqiK-nces  of  t  leni.  Inclina- 
tions are  of  twij  ii.ni. is,  natural  or  acquired. 
1.  jYuitirat  are  such  us  wc  ottcn  see  in  chil- 
dren, who  from  their  earliest  years,  differ 
in  their  tempers  and  dispositions.  In  one 
you  see  the  ti  iwnings  of  a  liberal  diffusive 
soul ;  an(.'ther  guvs  us  cause  to  fes-.;  ho  will 
be  altogether  as  narrow  and  sordid  Of 
one  We  may  say  he  is  naturally  revengeful  ; 
of  anf'th<-r  tliat  he  is  jiacient  and  foi^iving. 
— 2.  Acquired  inclinations  are  such  as  are 
superinduced  by  custom,  which  are  called 
habits  ;  and  these  are  either  good  or  evil.  See 
Habit. 

INCOMHREHENSIDIUT Y  OF  GOD. 
This  is  a  relative  term,  and  indicates  a  re- 
lati  in  btiween  an  object  and  a  faculty;  be- 
tw  en  God  ■.'nc^a  created  understanding;  so 
that  the  meaning  of  it  is  this,  that  no  crea- 
ted understanding  can  C'  mprehend  G(  d  , 
that  is,  have  a  perfect  and  exact  knowledge 
of  him,  such  a  knowledge  as  is  adequate  f 
the  perfection  of  tlie  object,  Job  xi.  7.  Is. 
xl.  God  is  incomprehensible,  1  As  to  the 
nature  of  his  essence.  2  I'he  excellency  ( f 
his  attributes.  3.  The  depth  of  liis  coun- 
sels 4.  The  works  of  his  providence.  5. 
The  dispensation  of  his  grace,  Eph  iii.  8. 
Job.  xxxvii.  25,  Rem  xi.  The  incompre- 
hensibility of  God  folUnvs,  1.  From  his  Ije- 
ing  a  spirit  endued  with  perfections  greatly 
superior  to  our  own..=— 2.  There  ma\  be 
(for  any  thing  we  certainly  know)  attributes 
and  perfections  in  Gi.d  of  which  we  have 
not  the  least  idea. — .3  In  those  perfectivins 
of  tlie  Divine  nature  of  which  we  have 
some  idea,  tliere  are  many  things  to  us  in- 
explicable, and  with  wliich,  the  more  deep- 
ly and  attentively  we  think  of  them,  the 
more  we  find  our  thoughts  swallowed  up : 
"such  as  his  self-existence,  eternity,  omnipre- 
sence, &c.  This  should  learn  us,  therefore, 
1.  To  admire  and  reverence  the  Divine  Be- 
ing, Zech.  ix.  17  Neh.  ix.  5  — 2,  To  be 
humble  and  modest,  Ps  viii.  1.  4.  Eccl. 
V.  2,  3.  Job  xxxvii.  19. — 3.  To  be  serious 
in  our  addresses,  and  sincere  hi  our  beha- 
viour towards  him  Caryl  on  Job  xxvii. 
25.  TiUofson's  Sermons,  sermon  156. 
^bemel/iy^s  Sermons,  vol.  ii.  N(j.  6,  7. 
Doddridge's      ect   lee    59. 

INCONTINENCY,  not  abstaining  from 
unlawful  desires.     See  Continency. 

INCORPOREALITY  OF  GOD,  is  his 
being  without  a  body.  That  God  is  incor- 
poreal is  evident;  for,  1,  Materiality  is  in- 
compatible with  self-existence,  and  God 
being  self-existent,  must  be  incorporeal.— 2. 


If  God  were   corporeal,  he  could  not  be 

present  in  any  part  of  tlie  world  where  bc^y 
is  ;  yet  his  presence  is  necessary  for  U.e 
support  and  motiuti  of  booy — 3.  A  b<  py 
cannot  be  in  two  places  at  the  same  time  : 
yet  he  is  every  where,  and  fills  heaven  aod 
ear  h. — 4.  A  body  is  to  be  oeeii  and  tclt, 
but  God  is  invisible  and  impalpable,  John 
i  18.  Charnock's  Works,  vol.  i.  p.  "117. 
iJoddiidg-e'ii  Ltd  lect.  47.  Giira  I^qU^ 
of  DixK  vol.  i.  p.  4.T.  8vo. 

INCORRUPTIBLES,  or  Incorrupti- 
BiLns,  th'  name  of  a  sect  which  sprang 
out  of  the  Eutychians.  Their  distinguish- 
ing tenet  was,  that  the  beKJy  of  JeSUS  V.  inist 
was  incorruptible  ;  by  w.dch  they  nieant, 
that  after  and  from  the  time  wherein  he 
was  formed  in  the  womb  >  f  his  miiher,  he 
was  not  susceptible  of  any  change  cr  altera- 
tion ;  not  even  of  any  natural  or  innocer.t 
passion,  as  of  hunger,  thirst,  &q.  so  that 
he  ate  without  occasion  before  his  death, 
as  well  as  aner  his  resurrection, 

INCREDULITY,  the  withholding  our 
assent  to  aiiy  proposition,  notwithstanding 
arguments  sufficient  to  demand  as.sent.  See 
Duncan  Forlx-s'  piece,  entitled  L- flections 
on  tlie  Sources  of  Incredulity  ivitli  regard 
to  Religion,  and  Lasaubon  on  Credulity 
and  Incredulity, 

I      INDEPENbKNCY  OF  GOD  is  his  ex^ 
I  i--ience  in  and  of  himself,  without   depend- 
I  ihg  on  any  <>tiier.     "  H  s  being   and   perfec- 
I  tions,"   as   Dr.    Ridgley  observes,  (Body   of 
j  Div.  qu.  7)  "are  underivtd,  and  not  com- 
municated  to  nim,  as  all  finite    perfections 
are  by  him  to  the  creature.     This  attribute 
of  indepindency  belongs  to  all  his  perfec- 
tions.    1.  He  is  independent  as  to  his  know- 
ledge.    He    doth    not    receive    ideas    from 
any    object    out    of   hiniself,   as    int>  lligent 
■  creatures  do.     This  is   elegantly  described 
j  by  the  prophet.  Is.  xl-  13,  14..,— 2.  He  is  in- 
dependent    in    power.      As    he    receives 
I  strength  from  no  one,    so  he    dotli  not  act 
deptndently  on  the    will    of  the    creature, 
]  Job.  xxxvi    ^3—3.  He  is  indi  pendent  as  to 
his  holiness,  hating  sin  necessarily,  and  not 
bare-y  depending    on   some    reasons  out  of 
himst  If  inducing  him  thereto  ;  for  it  is  es- 
sential to  the   Divine  nature  to  be  infinitely 
opposite  ta  sin,  and  tlurefore  to  be  indepen- 
dently holy..p— 4.  He  is  independent  as  to  his 
bounty    and    goc:di  ess.     He    communicates 
blessings  not  by  constraint,  but  according  to 
his  sovereign  will.     Thus  he  gave  b^ing  to 
the  world,  and  all  things  therein,  which  was 
the  first  instance  of  bi  unty  and   g(idn(!=s; 
and  this  not  by  cnstraint.   but   by  his  free 
will  ;  '  for  his  pleasure  thev  are  and    were 
created.'     In  like  manner,  whatever  irstan* 
ces  of  mercy  he  extenr's  to  miserabl'   crea- 
tures,  he  acts  independently,   and  not  by 
force       He    shews     mercy   becausp    it     is 
his  pleasure  to  do  so,  Rnn    ix.    18.     That 
God  is  independent,  let  it  farther  be   consi- 
dered, 1.  That  all  things  depend  on  his  pow- 
er which  brought  tht  ni  into    and   preserves 
them  in  being.    Jf,  therefore,  all  thmjjs  de- 


1  XD 


220 


lis  D 


pend  on  God,  then  it  would  be  absurdity  to 
say  that  God  depends  on  any  thing,  for  this 
would  be  to  suppose  the  cause  and  the  ef- 
fect to  be  mutually  dependent  on  and  deri- 
ved from  each  other,  which  infers  a  contra- 
diction.—2.  If  God  be  intinitely  above  the 
highest  creatures,  he  cannot  depend  on  any 
of  tiiem,  for  dependence  argues  inferiority. 
Is.  xl.  15.  17. — 3  If  (iod  depend  on  any 
creature,  he  does  not  exist  necessarily ;  and 
if  so,  then  he  might  not  have  been  :  for 
the  same  will  by  which  he  is  supposed  tu 
exist,  might  have  determined  that  he  should 
not  have  LXistfci,  which  is  altogtthcr  ir.coii- 
sistent  witti  the  idea  of  a  God  From  Gcd's 
being  independent,  we  infer,  1.  That  we 
ought  to  conclude  that  the  creature  cannot 
la}  a '.y  obiijjation  on  him,  or  do  any  thing 
that  may  tend  to  maK.e  him  more  happy 
than  he  is  in  himself,  Rom.  xi.  35.  Job 
xxii.  2,  3. — "2.  If  independency  be  a  divhie 
perfection;  then  let  it  not  in  any  instance,  or 
by  any  consequence,  be  attributed  to  tht 
creature  ;  let  us  conclude  that  all  our  springs 
are  in  him  ;  and  tuat  all  we  enjoy  and  hope 
for  is  from  lum,  who  is  'he  author  and 
finisher  of  our  faith,  and  the  fountain  of  all 
our  blessedness 

INDEPENDENTS,  a  sect  of  Protestants, 
socalUd  from  their  maintaining,  that  each 
congregation  of  Christians  wii  ch  meet  in 
one  house  i\  r  public  w,rsh;p,  is  a  complete 
church  ;  has  sufficient  p'wer  to  act  and  per- 
forin every  thing  relating  to  rehgious  go- 
vernment within  itself;  and  is  in  no  respect 
subji'Ct  or  accountable  to  other  churches.. 

Th  ugh  the  Episcopalians  contend  that 
there  is  not  a  shadow  of  the  independent 
disci  [)line  to  be  found  cither  in  the  Bible  or 
th.*  primitive  church,  the  Ind-  pendents,  on 
the  contrary,  believe  that  it  is  most  clearly 
to  Ije  deiluced  from  the  practice  ci  the  apos- 
tles in  planting  the  hi'st  clmrches.  See 
Church  Conguegationai.,  and  Epis- 
COHACY.  The  Independents,  however, 
were  not  distniguished  as  a-body  till  the  time 
of  queen  Elizabeth  The  hierarchy  esta- 
blished by  that  princess  in  the  churches  of 
her  dominions,  the  vestments  worn  by  the 
clergy  in  the  celebration  of  divine  worshi]>, 
the  bnulc  of  Common  Prayer,  and  abo\'€  all, 
the  si,.i,n  of  the  cross  used  m  the  administra- 
ti''n  f  baptism,  were  very  offensive  to  ma- 
ny of  her  subjects,  who,  (hiring  the  perse- 
cutions of  the  former  reign,  had  taken  re- 
fuge among  the  Protestants  of  Germany 
and  Geneva.  Tliese  men  thought  that  the 
church  of  England  resembled  in   too  many 

Kirciculars  the  antichristian  church  of 
.me  :  they  therefore  called  perpetually 
for  a  more  thorough  reformation,  and  a  /lu- 
rer  w.rship.  From  this  circumstance  they 
Wf  re  stigmatized  with  the  general  name  of 
Puritans,  as  the  followers  of  Novatian  had 
been  in  the  ancient  church.  See  Nova- 
TIANS.  Elizabeth  was  not  disposed  to  com- 
ply wiUi  their  demands  ;  and  it  is  difficult 
to  say  what  might  have  been  the  issue  of 
the  contest,  had  the  Puritans  lieen  united 


among  themselves  in  sentiments,  views,  and 
measures.  But  the  case  was  quite  other- 
wise :  tl'.at  large  b(-dy,  cc.mjjosed  of  per- 
sons of  diftercnt  ranks,  characters  ai.d  cpi- 
nions,  and  intentions,  and  unanimous  in  no- 
thing but  theii  antipathy  to  the  established 
church,  was  all  of  a  sudden  divided  into  a 
variety  of  sects.  Of  these  the  most  fa- 
mous was  that  which  was  formed  about  the 
year  1581,  by  11  bert  Brown,  a  man  insinu- 
ating in  his  manners,  b^.^  unsteady  and  in- 
consistent in  his  views  aiid  notions  of  men 
and  things.  Brown  was  for  dividing  the 
wliole  body  'f  the  faithful  into  separate  so- 
cieties or  congregations;  and  maintained 
that  such  a  number  of  persons  as  cculd  be 
contained  in  an  ordinary  place  of  worship 
I  ought  to  be  considered  as  a  church,  and  en- 
joy all  the  rights  and  privileges  that  are 
competent  to  an  ecclesiastical  community. 
j  These  small  societies  he  pronounced  i7ide- 
fiendent,  juro  divino^  and  entirely  exempt 
from  the  jurisdiction  of  the  bishop,  in  whose 
hands  the  court  had  placed  the  reigns  of  a 
spiritual  government ;  and  also  from  that  of 
presbyteries  and  syncds,  which  the  Puritans 
regarded  as  the  supi'eme  visible  sources  of 
ecclesiastical  authority-  But  as  we  have 
given  an  account  of  the  general  opinions 
and  discipline  of  the  Brownists,  we  need 
not  enumerate  them  here,  but  must  beg  the 
reader  to  refer  to  diat  article.  The  zeal 
with  which  Brown  and  his  associates  main- 
tained and  propagated  his  notions,  was,  in  a 
high  degree,  intemperate  and  extravagant. 
He  affirmed  that  all  communion  was  to  be 
broken  off  with  those  religi'us  societies 
that  were  founded  upon  a  different  plan 
I  from  his;  and  treated  more  tsi)ecially  the 
'church  of  England  as  a  spurious  cliurch, 
j  whose  ministers  were  unlawfully  ordained; 
whose  discipline  was  popish  and  antichvis- 
Itian  ;  and  whose  sacraments  and  institutions 
Iwere  destitute  of  all  eilicacy  and  virtue. 
His  followers  not  being  able  to  endure  the 
severe  treatment  which  they  met  with  from 
an  administrati(  n  th.l  was  not  di.-tinguished 
jfor  its  mildness  and  indulgence,  retired  into 
ithe  Netherlands,  and  founded  churches  at 
I Middlebourg,  Amsterdam,  and  Leyden. 
i  Their  founder,  however,  returned  into  En- 
gland, renounced  his  princi])les  of  separa- 
tion, and  took  orders  in  the  established 
! church.  The  Puritan  exiles  whom  he  thus 
; abandoned,  disagreed  among  themselves, 
were  split  into  parties,  and  their  affairs  de- 
clined from  day  to  day.  This  engaged  the 
wiser  part  of  them  to  mitigate  the  severity 
of  their  founder's  plan,  and  to  soften  the 
rigour  of  his  uncharitable  decisions. 

The  person  who  had  the  chief  merit  of 
bringing  about  this  reformation  was  one  of 
'heir  pastors,  of  the  name  of  Robinson  ;  a 
man  who  had  much  of  the  solemn  piety  of 
the  times,  and  no  inconsiderable  portion 
of  learning.  This  well-meaning  reformer, 
perceiving  the  defects  that  reigned  in  the 
disc  ipline  of  Brown,  and  in  the  spirit  and 
temper  of  his  followers,  employed  his  zeal 


IND 


221 


IND 


and  diligence  in  correctinfj  them,  and  in 
new  moduiliiig  the  society  in  buch  a  nian- 
ner,  as  to  rtiKler  it  less  odious  to  his  adver- 
saries, and  kss  liable  to  the  just  censure  of 
those  true  Curistians  who  look  upon  cha- 
rity as  the  end  of  tiie  conimar.dments. 
Hitherto  the  sect  had  been  called  Brown- 
ists  ;  but  Robinson  having  in  his  apology 
affirmed,  that  ail  Christian  cimgrtgations 
were  so  many  indcfitHdent  religious  socie- 
ties, that  had  a  right  to  be  governed  l)y 
iheir  own  laws,  iiidiJitJulcnt  of  any  farther 
or  foreif^n  jurisiiictinn,  tiie  sect  was  hence- 
fortli  called  Indcjicndents,  of  which  the 
.  apologist  was  considered  as  the  founder. 

The  first   independent  or  congregational 
church   in    England,    was  established  by  a 
Mr.  Jacob,  in  the  year  1616.      Mr.  Jacob, 
who    had    fled    from    the    persecution    of 
bishop  Bancroft,  going  to  Holland,  and  ha"-- 
ing   imparted    his    design    ot    setting  up  a 
separate  congregatii-n,    like    those    in  Hol- 
land, to  the  most  learned  Pui  itans  of  those 
times,    it  was  not  condemned  as  unlawful, 
considering  tliere  was  no  prospect  of  a  na- 
tional   reformation.     Mr.   Jacob,    therefore, 
having    summoned    several  of   his   friends 
together,    and    having  obtained  their    con- 
sent to  unite  in  church    fellowship    for  en- 
joying   the    ordinances    of    Christ    in     the  ! 
purest  manner,  they  laid  the  foundation  ofj 
the  first  independent  church  in  England  in  \ 
the  following  way.     Having  observed  a  day  | 
of  -solemn  fasting  and  prayer  for  a  blessing  : 
upon  their  undertaking,  towards  tlie  clrse  \ 
of  the  solemnity,    each  of   theni  made  an  j 
open    confession  of    their    faith  io   Christ ;  | 
and   then,    standing    together,   they    joined  | 
hands,   and  solemnly  covenanted  with  cvach  j 
other  in  the  presence  of  Almighty  Gid,  t< 
walk,    together    in    all  God's  ways  and  or-  j 
dinances,   according  as  he  had  already  re- 
vealed or  should  farther  make    known    t; 
them.       Mr  Jacob  was  then  chosen  pastor 
by  the  suffrage    of  the   brothcrhocjd  ;    and 
others    were    appinnted    to    the    office    of 
deacf  ns,    with  fasting  and  prayer,  and  im- 
position of  hands' 

The  Inde])endents  were  much  more  com- 
mendable than  the  Brownists  :  they  sur- 
passed them  both  in  the  moderation  of 
their  sentiments,  and  in  the  order  of  their 
discipMne.  They  did  not,  like  Brown,  pr.ur 
forth  bitter  and  uncharitable  invectives 
against  the  churches,  which  were  govern- 
ed by  rules  entirely  different  from  theirs, 
nor  pronounce  them,  on  that  account,  un- 
worthy of  the  Christian  name.  On  the 
contrary,  though  they  considered  their  own 
form  of  ecclesiastical  government  as  of  di- 
vine institution,  and  as  originally  introdu- 
ced by  the  authority  of  the  apostles,  nay, 
by  the  apostles  themselves,  they  had  yet 
candour  and  charity  enough  to  acknow- 
ledge, that  true  religion  and  solid  piety 
might  flourish  in  those  communities  which 
were  under  the  jurisdiction  of  bishops,  or 
the  governments  of  synods  and  presbyteries. 
They  were  also  much  more  attentive  than 


the  Brownists  in  keeping  on  foot  a  regular 

ministry  in  their  comnmnitics  ;  fir,  while 
the  latter  allowed  prumiscuoubly,  all  ranks 
ayd  orders  of  men  to  teach  hi  (.ublic,  the 
ludependents  had,  and  stiil  have  a  certain 
number  of  minisltrs,  chosen  respe(ti\ely 
by  tiie  congreijations  where  they  are  fixed; 
nor  is  it  comnu-n  for  any  perscn  among 
them  to  speak  in  public  before  he  has  sui)- 
mitted  to  a  pniper  examination  of  ins  capa- 
city and  talents,  and  been  approved  ot  by 
the  heads  of  the  congregation. 

From  1642,  tiie  indei^endents  are  very 
frequently  meuti(.ned  in  the  English  annals. 
The  charge  alleged  against  thtm  b_v  Rapin 
(in  his  history  of  England,  vol.  ii.  p.  j14. 
folio  ed.)  that  they  could  not  so  much  as 
endure  ordinary  ministers  in  the  church, 
&c.  is  groundless.  He  was  kd  to  this  mis- 
take by  confounding  the  Incependents  with 
the  Brownists.  Other  charges,  no  less  un- 
justifiable, have  been  urged  agrtUisttne  Inde- 
pendents by  this  celebrated  histori;m,  and 
others.  Rapin  says,  that  they  abhorred 
monarchy,  and  appro\ed  of  a  rejjublican 
government :  this  might  have  been  true 
with  regard  to  many  persons  among  tliem, 
in  common  with  other  sects;  but  it  does  not 
appear,  from  any  of  their  public  writings, 
that  republican  principles  formed  their  dis- 
tinguishing ciiaracteriidc  ;  on  the  contrary, 
in  a  public  memorial,  d'-awn  up  by  them  in 
164r,  they  declare  that  they  do  not  disap- 
prove of  any  form  of  civil  g^  vernment, 
but  do  freely  acknowledge,  that  a  kingly 
government,  bounded  by  just  and  vvhdesome 
laws,  is  allowed  by  God,  and  also  a  good 
accommodation  unto  men.  The  Indepen- 
dents, however,  have  been  geneial'y  ranked 
among  the  regicides,  and  charged  with  the 
death  of  Charles  ].  Whether  this  fact  be 
admitted  or  denied,  no  conclusion  can  be 
fairly  drawn  from  the  greater  prevalence 
nf  republican  principles,  or  from  vii  lent  pro- 
ceedings at  that  period,  that  can  effect  the 
distinguished  tenets  and  conduct  of  the  In- 
dependents in  cur  times.  It  is  certain,  that 
the  present  Independents  are  steady  friends 
to  a  Umited  monarchy.  Rapin  is  fartiier 
mistaken,  when  he  represents  the  religious 
principles  of  the  English  Independents  as 
contrary  to  those  of  all  the  rest  of  the  w(  rid. 
It  appears  from  two  confessions  of  faith,  one 
composed  by  Robinson  in  l)ehaU  of  the  En- 
glish Independents  in  Holland,  and  publish- 
ed at  Leyden  in  1619,  tntitlcA  ^/lologia  p7'o 
Exiilibus  jiiiglis,  qui  Broronistte  vulgo 
ap/iellanttr;  and  anotherdrawnup  in  London 
ill  16jS,  by  the  principal  members  of  this 
cnmmunily,  entitled,  "  A  declaration  of  the 
Faith  and  Order  owned  and  practised  by 
the  Congregational  Churches  in  England, 
agreed  upon  and  consented  unto  by  their 
Elders  and  Messengers,  in  their  meeting,  at 
the  Savoy,  Oct  12,  1658,"  as  well  as  from 
other  writings  of  the  Independents,  that  they 
differed  from  the  rest  of  the  reformed  in  no 
single  point  of  any  consequence,  except  that 
of  ecclesiastical  government;  and  their  re- 


IND 


222 


IND 


ligious  doctrines  were  almost  entirely  the 
same  with  those  adopted  by  the  church  of 
Geneva.  During  the  administration  ot  Cvom- 
well,  tlie  Independents  acquired  very  con- 
siderable rtputation  and  iuttuence  :  and  he 
made  use  of  them  as  a  check  to  the  ambi- 
tion of  the  Presbyterians,  who  aimed  at  a 
very  high  degre  of  ecclesiastical  power,  and 
who  had  succeeded,  soon  after  the  elevation 
of  Cromwell,  in  obtaining  a  parliamentary 
establishment  of  their  own  church  govern- 
ment. But  after  tht-  restoration,  their  cause 
declined;  and  in  1691  they  entered  into  an 
assi)ciati;>n  with  the  Presbyterians  residing  in 
and  about  London,  cnmprisid  in  nine  arti- 
cles, that  tended  to  the  maintenance  of  their 
respt-ctive institutions.  These  may  behund in 
the  second  vohmie  of  V^'histon's  Memoirs, 
and  the  substance  of  them  in  Mosheim.  At 
this  time,  the  Independents  and  Presbyteri- 
ans, called  from  this  association  the  United 
Brethren,  were  agreed  with  regard  to  doc- 
trines, being  generally  Calvinists,  and  dif- 
fered only  with  respect  to  ecclesiastical  dis- 
cipline. Bv.t  at  present,  though  the  Englisli 
Independents  and  Presbyterians  form  two 
distinct  parties  of  Protestant  Dissenters, 
they  are  distinguished  by  very  trifling  differ- 
ences with  regard  to  church  government, 
and  the  denominations  are  more  arbitrarily 
used  to  comprehend  those  who  differ  in 
theological  opinions.  The  independents  are 
generally  moie  attached  to  Calvinism  than 
the  Presbyterians.  Independentisn)  is  pecu 
liar  to  Great-Britain,  the  United  States,  and 
the  Batavian  Republic.  It  was  carried  first 
to  the  American  coh.ni*  s  in  1620,  and  by 
successive  Puritan  emigrants,  in  1629,  and 
1633,  from  England.  One  Morel,  in  the 
sixteenth  century,  endeavoured  to  introduce 
it  into  France  ;  but  it  was  condemned  at 
the  synod  of  Rochelle,  where  B'  za  presi- 
ded ;  and  again  at  the  synod  of  Rochelle,  in 
1644. 

Many  of  the  Independents  reject  the 
use  of  all  creeds  and  confessions  drawn 
up  by  fallible  men,  though  they  require 
of  their  teachers  a  declaration  of  their 
belief  in  the  Gospel,  and  its  various  doc- 
trines, and  their  adherence  to  the  scriptures 
as  the  sole  standard  of  faith  and  practice. 
They  attribute  no  virtue  whatever  to  the 
rite  of  ordination,  upon  which  some  other 
churches  lay  so  much  stress.  According  to 
them,  the  qualifications  which  constitute  a 
regular  minister  of  the  New  Testament  are, 
a  firm  belief  in  the  Gospel,  a  principle  of 
sincere  and  unaffected  piety,  a  competent 
stock  of  knowledge,  a  capacity  for  leading 
devotion  and  communicating  instruction,  a 
serious  inclination  to  engage  in  the  import- 
ant employment  of  promoting  the  everlast- 
ing salvation  of  mankind,  and  ordinarily  an 
invitation  to  the  pastoral  office  from  some 
particular  society  of  Christians.  Where 
these  things  concur,  they  consider  a  person 
as  fitted  and  authorised  for  the  discharge  of 
every   duty  which  belongs   to  the  minis- 


terial function :  and  they  believe  that  the 
inij.osition  of  hands  of  bishops  or  pres- 
byters would  convey  to  him  rio  powers 
or  prerogatives  of  which  he  was  not 
before  possessed.  But  though  they  attri- 
bute no  virtue  to  ordination,  as  convey- 
ing any  new  powers,  yet  they  hold  with 
and  practice  it.  Many  of  them,  indet-d, 
supptise  that  the  essence  of  ordinati(;n  dtes 
not  lie  in  the  act  of  the  ministers  v.  ho 
assist,  but  in  the  choice  and  call  of  the  j)eo- 
pie,  and  the  candidate's  acceptance  <;f  that 
call ;  so  that  their  ordination  may  be  C(  n- 
sidered  only  as  a  public  declaration  of  that 
agreement.  SeeORDiNATiON.  They  con- 
sider it  as  their  right  to  choise  their  own 
Tniiiisttrs  and  deacons.  They  own  no  man 
as  head  of  the  church.  They  disallow  of 
parochial  and  provincial  subordination  ;  but 
though  they  do  not  think  it  necessary  to 
assemble  synods,  yet,  if  any  be  held,  they 
look  upon  their  resolutions  as  prudential 
councils,  but  not  as  decisions  to  which 
they  are  obliged  to  conform.  They  C(^n- 
sider  the  scriptures  as  the  only  criterion 
of  truth.  Tlieir  worship  is  conducted  in  a 
decent,  plain,  and  simple  manner,  without 
the  ostentation  of  form  and  the  vain  pomp 
of  ceremony. 

The  congregations  of  the  Independpnts 
are  very  numerous  both  in  t.ngland,  and 
America,  and  some  of  them  very  respects 
able.  This  denomination  has  produced 
many  characters  as  eminent  for  learning 
and  piety  as  any  church  in  Christendom  ,- 
whose  works,  no  doubt  will  reflect  last-^ 
ing  honour  on  their  characters  and  abil- 
ities. See  Church  Congregational  ; 
Nonconformists,  and  books  under  those 
articles. 

INDEX  EXPURGATORY,  a  catalogue 
of  prohibited  bocks  in  the  church  of  Rome. 
The  first  catalogues  of  this  kind  were  made 
by  the  inquisitors,  and  these  were  after- 
wards approved  of  by  the  council  of  J'rent, 
after  some  alteration  was  inade  in  them  by 
way  of  retrenchment  or  addition.  Thus  an 
index  of  heretical  books  being  fcrmed,  it 
was  confirmed  by  a  bull  of  Clement  Vlll. 
in  1595,  and  printed  with  several  introduc- 
tory rules ;  by  the  fourth  of  which,  the 
use  of  the  scriptures  in  the  vulgir  t(  ngue 
is  forbidden  to  all  persons  without  a  par-r 
ticular  licence  ;  and  by  the  tenth  rule  it 
is  ordained,  that  no  book  shall  be  printed  at 
Rome  without  the  approbation  of  the  pope's 
vicar,  or  some  person  delegated  by  the 
pope  ;  nor  in  any  other  place,  ui'less  al- 
lowed by  the  bishop  of  the  diocese,  or  some 
person  deputed  by  him,  or  by  the  inquisitor 
of  heretical  pravity.  The  Trent  index 
being  thus  published,  Philip  II,  of  Spain 
ordered  another  to  be  printed  at  Antwerp 
in  1571,  with  considerable  enlargements. 
Another  index  was  published  in  Spain, 
in  1584,  a  copy  of  which  was  snatched 
out  of  the  fire  when  the  Enjilish  plun- 
Idered    Cadiz.      Afterwards    there    Yfere 


IND 


223 


IND 


several  expurgatory  indexes  printed  at 
kome  and  Naples  and  particularly  in 
Spain. 

INDIGNATION,  a  strong  disapprobation 
of  mind,  txcited  by  something  ttagitious  in 
the  conduct  of  another.  It  does  not,  as 
Mr.  Cogan  observes,  always  suppose  that 
excess  of  depravity  which  alone  is  capable 
of  comnartiiig  deeds  of  horror.  Indignation 
always  refers  to  culpability  of  conduct,  and 
cannot,  like  the  passion  of  horror,  be  ex- 
tended to  distress  either  of  body  or  mind. 
It  is  produced  by  acts  of  treachery,  abuse 
of  contidence,  base  ingratitude,  &c.  which 
we  cup.not  cdntemplate  without  being  pro- 
voked to  anger,  and  feeling  a  generous  re- 
sentment. 

INDULGENCES,  in  the  Romishchurch, 
are  a  n  niission  of  the  punishment  due  to 
sin.  granted  by  the  church,  and  suppposed 
to  save  the  sinner  from  purgatory. 

According  to  the  doctrine  of  the  Romish 
church,  ail  the  good  works  of  the  saints, 
over  and  above  those  which  were  necessa- 
ry towards  their  own  justification,  are  de- 
posited together,  with  the  infinite  me- 
I'its  of  Jesus  Christ,  in  one  inexhaustible 
treasurv.  1  he  keys  of  this  were  commit- 
ted to  St.  Peter,  and  to  his  successors,  the 
popes,  who  may  open  it  at  pleasure;  and, 
by  transferring  a  portion  of  this  superabiui- 
dant  merit  tc)  any  particular  person  fVa-  a 
sum  of  money,  may  convey  to  him  either 
the  pardon  of  his  own  sins,  or  a  release  for 
any  oite  in  whom  he  is  interested  from  the 
pains  of  pnrgat<iry.  Such  indulgencies  were 
first  invented  in  the  eleventh  century,  by 
Urban  II.  as  a  recompence  for  those  who 
■went  in  ptM'«on  upon  the  glorious  enterprize 
of  cnnqueviiig  the  Holy  Land.  They  were 
afterwards  tjranted  to  those  who  hired  a 
soldier  for  that  purpose  ;  and  in  process  of 
time  were  bestowed  on  such  as  gave  moiu-y 
for  accomplishing  any  pious  work  enjoined 
by  the  pope  The  power  of  granting  in- 
dulgences has  been  greatly  abui-ed  in  the 
church  of  Rome.  Pope  Leo  X.  in  order  to 
carry  rn  tlie  magnificent  structure  of  St. 
PettTS,  at  Rome,  published  indulgences,  and 
a  plenary  remission  to  all  such  as  should  con- 
tribute money  towards  it  Finding  the  pro- 
ject take,  he  granted  to  All)ert,  elector  of 
Mentz,  and  archbistiop  of  Magdeburg,  the 
benefit  of  the  indulgences  of  Saxony,  and 
the  neighbouring  parts,  and  farmed  out  of 
those  of  other  countries  to  the  highest  bid 
ders:  who,  to  make  the  best  of  their  bar- 
gain, procured  the  ablest  preachers  to  cry 
up  the  value  of  the  ware.  The  form  of 
these  indulgences  was  as  follows  :—*' May 
our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  have  mercy  upon 
thee,  and  absolve  thee  by  the  merits  of  his 
mr^st  holy  passion.  And  I,  by  his  authority, 
that  of  his  blessed  apostles,  Peter  and  Paul, 
and  of  the  most  holy  pope,  granted  and  cnm- 
tnitted  to  me  in  these  parts,  do  absolve 
thi^e,  first  from  all  ecclesiastical  censures, 
in  whatever  manner  they  have  been  incur- 
red i  then  from  all  thy  sins,  transgressions, 


«. 

d. 

7 

6 

10 

6 

10 

6 

9 

0 

12 

0 

12 

0 

9 

0 

7 

6 

7 

6 

10 

6 

and  excesses,  how  enormou?  soever  they 
may  be :  even  fnnn  ".^uch  as  are  reserved 
for  the  cognizance  of  the  holy  see,  and  as 
far  .-;  the  keys  of  thf  holy  churcli  ex- 
tcn<l — I  remit  to  yen  all  puiiishnient  which 
yo\i  deserve  in  purg-atovy  on  their  acci-'unt : 
and  I  restore  ynu  to  the  h-ly  j-acrauvnts  of 
the  church,  to  the  unity  oi  the  faiihfiil,  and 
to  that  innocence  and  pui-ity  which  you 
possessed  at  baptism  :  so  that  when  you  die, 
the  gates  of  punishment  shall  be  shut,  and 
the  gales  of  the  paradise  of  delight  sliall  be 
opened  ,  and  if  yi  u  shall  not  die  at  present, 
this  grace  shall  remain  in  full  force  when 
you  are  at  the  point  of  death.  In  the  name 
of  the  Father,  the  Son,  and  the  Holy 
Ghost."  According  to  a  book,  called  the 
Tax  of  the  sacred  Roman  Chancery,  in 
which  are  contained  the  exact  sums  to  he. 
levied  for  the  pardon  of  each  particular  sin, 
we  find  some  of  the  fees  to  be  thus : 

For  procuring  abortion     -     -    -    - 

For  simony     -------- 

For  s;  crilege      ------- 

For  taking  a  false  oath  in  a  crimiiial 

case        -__-.__-- 
For  robbing     -------- 

For  Ixirning  a   neighbour's  house     - 
For  defiling  a  virgin    ----- 

For  lying  with  a  mother,  sister,  &c. 
For  murdering  a  layman     -    -    -    - 

For  keeping  a  concubine    -    -    -    - 

For  laying  violent  hands  on  a  cler- 
gyman   --------- 

And  so  on. 

The  terms  in  which  the  retailers 
dulgences  describe  their  benefits,  and  the 
necessity  of  purchasing  them,  were  so  extra- 
vagant, that  they  appear  almost  incredit:))e. 
If  any  man,  said  they,  purchase  letters  of 
indulgence,  his  soul  may  rest  secure  with 
respect  to  its  salvation.  The  souls  confined 
in  purgatory,  for  whose  redemption  indul' 
gences  are  purcliased,  as  soon  as  the  money 
tinkles  in  the  chest,  in.stantly  escape  from 
that  place  of  torment,  and  ascend  into  hea- 
ven That  the  efficacy  of  indulgences  was 
so  great,  that  the  most  heinous  sins,  even  if 
one  should  violate  (which  was  impossible) 
the  Mother  of  God,  would  be  remitted  and 
expiated  by  them,  and  the  person  be  freed 
both  from  punishment  and  guilt.  That  this 
was  the  unspeakable  gift  of  God,  in  order 
to  reconcile  man  to  himself,  'ihat  the 
cross  erected  by  the  jjreachers  of  indulgen- 
ces was  equally  efficacious  with  the  cross 
of  Christ  itself.  "  Lo,"  said  they,  "  the  hea- 
vens are  open  ;  if  you  enter  not  now,  when 
will  you  enter  ?  For  twelve  pence  you  may 
redeem  the  soul  of  your  father  out  of  pur- 
gatory ;  and  are  you  so  ungrateful  that  you 
will  not  rescue  the  soul  of  your  parent 
from  torment  ?  If  you  had  but  one  coat, 
you  ought  to  strip  yourself  instantly,  and 
sell  it,  in  order  to  purchase  such  benefit," 
&c.  It  was  this  great  abuse  of  indulgences 
that  contributed  not  a  little  to  the  reforma- 
tion of  religion  in  Germany,  where  Martin 


10    6 
of  in- 


I  N  F 


224- 


INF 


Luther  bcg^n  first  to  declaim    ao:ainst  the  i1 
preachers   vi   indulgences,  and   atterwards  ii 
against     indulgences     themselves,      Since  '| 
that  time  tiie  ]).|>ts  liave  been  more  s;;aving  ' 
in  tlie   exercise  (^t  this  power;  aklioiigh   it  1: 
is  said,   they  still  earn'  on  a   great   trade  11 
with  tlieu)  to  the  Indies,  where  they  are  pur-  I 
chased  at  two  rials  a  jjiece,  and  sometimes  i 
more.     We  are  toid  also   tiiat  a  gentleman  'I 
not  long  since  being  at  Naples,  in  order  that  j, 
he  migiit  be  fully  ascertained  respecting  in-  '| 
dulgences,  went  to  tiie   office,   and   for'twoji 
sequins  purchased   a  plenary  remission    ofij 
all  sins  for  iiimself  and   any  two  other  per   ; 
sons  of  his  friends  or  relations,  whose  names  II 
he    was   empowered   to    insert.       Hawcis' 
Lhiirch  Hist.  vol.  iii.  p.   147.    Smith's  Er- 
rors  of  the    Church    of  Rome.     IVatson's 
Theol.  Tracts,   vd.  v.  p.  274.     Mosheim's 
£cci  Hist.  x<\  1.  p.  594,  quarto. 

INDUSTRY,  diligence,  eonstant  applica- 
tion of  the  mind,  or  exercise  of  the  body. 
See  DiLiGENCK  and  Idleness. 

INDWELLING  SCHEME,  a  scheme 
whicli  derives  its  name  fr.^m  that  passage 
in  Col.  ii.  9.  "  In  him  dwcUeth  all  tlie  ful- 
ness of  tlie  Godhead  bodily,"'  v/hich,  ac- 
cording to  some,  asserts  the  drctrine  of 
Christ's  consisting  of  two  Ixings  ;  one  the 
self-existent  Creator,  and  the  other  a  crea- 
ture made  into  one  person  by  an  ineft'able 
union  and  inckvelling  which  renders  the  same 
attributes  and  luMiours  equally  appUcable  to 
both.  See  Pre-existence.  Dr.  Onoei^'s 
Glory  of  Christ,  p.  368,  369,  Londnn  edi- 
tion, 1679  A  Sermon  entitled  "  The  true 
Christ  of  God  above  the  false  ( 'hrist  of 
men"  Ipswich,  1799  IVatts^  Glory  of 
Christ,  p.  6 — 203.  Adams'  Fieiv  of  Reli- 
gions, p.  267. 

INFALLIBILITY,  the  quality  of  not  be- 
ing able  to  be  deceived  or  mistaken. 

Tlie  Infallibility  of  the  church  of  Rome 
has  been  one  of  the  great  controversies  be- 
tween t!ie  Protestants  and  Papists.  By  this 
infallibility,  it  is  understood,  tliat  she  can- 
not at  any  time  cease  to  be  orthodox  in  lier 
doctrine,  or  fall  into  any  pernicious  errors; 
but  that  she  is  constituted,  liy  divine  autho- 
rity, the  judge  of  all  controversies  of  reli- 
gion, and  that  .all  Christians  are  obliged  to  i 
acquiesce  in  her  decisions.  This  is  the  ' 
chain  which  keeps  its  members  fast  bound 
to  its  communion  :  the  charm  which  retains 
them  within  its  magic  circle  ;  the  opiate 
which  laj's  asleep  all  their  doubts  and  diffi- 
culties ;  it  is  likewise  the  magnet  which  at- 
tracts the  desultory  and  unstable  in  other 
persuasions  within  the  sphere  of  prpery, 
the  foundation  of  its  whole  superstructure, 
the  cement  of  all  its  parts,  and  its  fence 
and  fortress  against  all  inroads  and  attacks. 

Under  the  idea  of  this  infallibility,  the 
church  of  Rome  claims,  1.  To  determine 
what  books  are  and  what  arc  not  canonical, 
and  to  oblige  all  Cliristians  to  receive  or  re- 
ject them  accorfiinglv.  2.  To  communi- 
cate authrrity  to  the  scripture;  or,  in  other 
words,  that  the  scripture  (quoad  nos)  as  to 


us,  receives  its  authority  from  her  — 3.  IV, 
assign  and  fix  tlie  sense  of  scripture,  wliicli 
all  Christians  aie  submissively  to  reccivp. 
4.  lo  decree  as  necessary  to  salvation  wliat- 
ever  she  judges  so,  although  not  coiitained 
in  scri])tur..  — 5.  'lo  decide  all  controver- 
sies respecting  matters  of  faith.  These 
are  the  claiir.s  to  which  the  church  i-f  Rome 
pretends,  i)nt  which  we  shall  not  iiere  at- 
tempt to  refute,  because  any  man  with  the 
Bible  in  his  hand,  and  a  little  common 
sense,  will  easily  see  that  they  are  all  found- 
ed upon  ignorance,  superstition,  and  error. 
It  is  not  a  little  remarkable,  however,  that 
the  Roman  ('atholics  themselves  nre  much 
divided  as  to  the  seat  of  this  infallibility  : 
and,  which  indeed,  may  be  considered  as  a 
satisfactory  proof,  that  no  such  privilege 
exists  in  the  church.  Fcsr  is  it  consistent 
with  reason,  to  think  that  God  would  have 
imparted  so  extraordinaiy  a  gift  to  pre- 
vent errors  and  dissentions  in  the  church, 
and  jet  have  left  an  additional  cause  of  er- 
ror and  dissention,  viz.  the  uncertaintv  of 
the  place  of  its  abode .''  No,  surely  S'lrhe 
place  this  infallibility  in  the  pope  or  bishop 
of  Jiome ;  some  in  a  general  council  ;  others 
in  neither  pope  nor  council  separately,  but 
in  both  conjointly;  whilst  others  are  said  to 
place  it  in  the  church  diffusive,  or  in  all 
churches  througliout  the  world.  -But  that  it 
could  not  be  dejjosited  in  the  pope  is  evi- 
dent, for  many  popes  have  been  heretics,  and 
on  tliat  account  censured  and  deposed,  and 
tiicrefore  could  not  have  been  infallible. 
That  it  could  not  be  placed  in  a  general 
council  is  as  evident ;  for  general  councils 
have  actually  erred  Neither  could  it  be 
placed  in  tlie  pope  and  council  conjointly  ; 
for  two  faliibles  could  not  make  one  infalli- 
ble any  more  than  two  ciphers  could  make 
an  integer.  To  say  that  it  is  lodged  in  the 
church  universal  or  diflFusive,  is  equally  as 
erroneous  ;  for  this  would  be  useless  and  in- 
significant, Ijecause  it  could  never  be  exer- 
cised, 'i'he  whole  church  could  not  meet  to 
m.ake  decrees,  or  to  choose  representatives, 
or  to  deliver  their  sentiments  on  any  ques- 
tion started  ;  and,  less  than  all  would  not  be 
the  whole  cliurch,  and  so  could  not  claim 
that  privilege. 

The  most  general  opinion,  however,  it  is 
said,  is,  that  of  its  being  seated  in  the  pope 
and  a  general  council.  The  advocates  for 
this  opinion  consider  the  pope  as  the  vicar 
of  Christ,  head  of  tlie  chnrcn,  and  centre 
of  unity  ;  and  therefore  ccnclude,  that  his 
concurrence  with,  and  approbation  of,  the 
decrees  of  a  general  council  are  nccessaiy, 
aud  sufficient  to  afford  it  an  indispensable 
sanction  and  plenary  authority.  A  general 
council  thfv  regard  as  the  church  represen- 
tative, and  suppose,  that  nothing  can  be 
wanting  to  ascertain  the  truth  of  any  contro- 
versiafpi  int,  when  the  pretended  head  of 
the  church  and  its  members,  assembled  in 
their  supposed  rejiresentatives,  mutunily 
concur  and  coincide  in  judicial  definitions 
and   decrees,  but   that  infallibility  attends 


INF 


225 


INF 


their  coalition  and  conjunction  ia  ali  their 
dt'ierniUKilions. 

Every  iiupaitial  pers(jn,  who  considers 
tliis  sul>ject  witli  the  least  degree  of  iitien- 
tioii,  nuisL  cleaisly  perceive,  tliac  neiiher  any 
individual  nor  body  ot  Clirii^liaiis,  Have  any 
■lejround  trom  rrabon  or  scnpiure,  tor  pie- 
fendnij,^  to  infalhbility.  It  is  evidently  tlie 
atciiljute  of  the  Supreme  Beiiig  aione, 
which  we  have  all  the  foundatiun  imaginable 
to  conclude  he  has  not  coniuniinicatea  to  any 
mortal,  or  associations  of  mortals.  The 
human  being  wiio  challenges  infalhbility, 
.seems  to  imitate  tilt  pride  and  picsumptiuii 
of  Lucifer,  when  he  said, — i  will  ascend, 
and  will  be  like  the  Most  High.  A  clai-.n  to 
it  was  unheard  of  in  the  primitive  and  pu- 
rest ages  of  the  church;  but  became,  after 
that  period,  the  arrogant  pretension  of  pa- 
pal ambition.  History  plainly  informs  us, 
that  the  bishops  of  Rome,  on  the  declension 
of  the  western  Roman  empire,  began  to  put 
in  their  chiim  of  being  the  supreme  and  in- 
fallible heads  of  the  Christian  churcn : 
which  tht-y  at  length  established  by  their 
deep  policy  and  unremitting  efforts ;  by  the 
concurrence  of  fortunate  circumstances ;  by 
che  advantages  which  they  reaped  from  the 
necessities  of  some  princes,  and  the  super- 
stition of  others ;  and  by  the  general  and  ex- 
cessive credulity  of  the  people.  However, 
when  they  had  grossly  abused  this  absurd 
pretension,  and  committed  various  acts  of 
injustice,  tyranny,  and  cruelty;  when  the 
blind  veneration  for  the  papal  dignity  had 
been  greatly  diminished  by  the  long  and 
scandalous  schism  occasioned  by  contending 
popes  ;  when  these  had  been  for  a  consi- 
derable time  roaming  about  Europe,  fawn- 
ing on  princes,  squeezing  their  adherents, 
and  cursing  their  rivals ;  and  when  the 
councils  of  Constance  and  Basil  had  challen- 
ged and  exercised  the  right  of  deposing  and 
electing  the  bishops  of  Rome,  ihe-i  their 
pretensions  to  infallibility  were  called  in 
question,  and  the  world  discovered  that 
councils  were  a  jurisdiction  superior  to  that 
of  the  towering  pontiff's.  Then  it  was  that 
this  infallibility  was  transferred  by  many  di- 
vines from  popes  to  general  councils,  and 
the  opinion  of  the  superior  authority  of  a 
council  above  that  of  a  pope  spread  vastly, 
especially  under  the  profligate  pontihcateof 
Alexander  VI.  and  the  martial  one  of  Julius 
II.  The  popes  were  thought,  by  numbers, 
T.0  be  too  unworthy  possessors  of  so  rich  a 
jewel ;  at  the  same  time  it  appeared  to  be 
of  too  great  a  value,  and  of  too  extensive 
consequence  to  be  parted  with  entirely.  It 
was,  therefore,  by  the  major  part  of  the  Ro- 
man church,  deposited  with  or  made  the 
property  of,  general  councils,  either  solely 
or  conjointly  with  the  pope.  See  Smilh's 
Errors  of  llie  L'hurch  of  Rome  detccied  ; 
and  a  hst  of  writers  under  article  Popery. 

INFAN  r  COMMUNION,  the  admis- 
sion of  infants  to  the  ordinance  of  the 
Lord's  supper.  It  has  been  debated  by 
some,  whether  or  uo  infants  should  be  ad- 

Ff 


mitted  to  this  ortlinai.ce.  One  of  the  great- 
est advocates  tor  this  practice  wus  Mr. 
Pierce,  iie  jjleads  the  use  of  it  even  untu  tuis 
day  among  the  Greeks,  and  in  the  buhe- 
ii.ian  cnuiches,  tid  near  the  time  of  the  re- 
formation;  but  especially  irom  tlu  cusion'v 
ot  the  ancient  churches,  as  it  appears  iruin 
many  passages  in  PmAius,  Augusiiii,  unci 
Cyprian,  but  Dr  D(,ddridge  (ibservci;,  that 
Mr.  Pierce's  proof  from  the  more  a.iient 
fatuers  is  very  uehctive.  His  arguments 
from  scripture  cliieliy  d;  p.  nd  upon  this  ge- 
neral medium  ;  that  Christians,  succecoing 
to  tlie  Jews  as  Gcd's  pec-pIe,  and  being 
grafted  upon  that  stuck,  their  mfnts  have 
a  right  to  all  the  privileges  <jf  vviiich  they 
are  capable,  till  forfeited  by  scn.e  jmnmrah- 
ties  ;  and  consequently,  have  a  rigiit  to  par- 
take of  tills  ordinance,  as  the  Jewish  chil- 
dren had  to  eat  of  the  passuver  and  otlier 
sacrifices :  besides  this,  he  pleads  those 
tc-xts  which  speak  of  the  Lord's  tupptr  as 
received  by  all  Christians. 

'I'he  moot  obvious  answer  to  all  this,  is, 
that  which  is  taivcn  from  the  incapacity  of 
infants  to  examine  themselves,  and  discern 
the  Lord's  body  ;  but  he  answers,  that  this 
precept  is  only  given  to  persons  capable  of. 
understanding  and  comply hig  with  it,  as 
those  which  require  faith  in  order  to  bap- 
tism are  interpreted  by  the  Psedo-baptists. 
As  for  his  argument  from  the  Jewish  child- 
ren eatiiig  tlie  sacrifice,  it  is  to  be  consider- 
ed, that  this  was  not  required  as  circum- 
cision was ;  the  males  were  not  necessarily 
brought  to  the  temple  tid  they  were  twelve 
years  old,  Luke  ii.  42.  and  the  sacrifices 
they  eat  of  were  chiefly  fitace  offcrmg.s^ 
which  became  the  common  food  to  all  thac 
were  clean  in  the  family,  and  were  net 
looked  upon  as  acts  of  devotion  to  such  a 
degree  as  our  eucharist  is;  though,  indeed, 
they  were  a  token  of  their  ackiiowltdgint; 
the  divinity  of  that  God  to  whom  thty  hatl 
been  offered,  1  Cor.  x.  IS  and  even  the  pass- 
over  was  a  commemoration  of  a  temporal 
deliverance  ;  nor  is  there  any  reason  to  be- 
lieve that  its  reference  to  the  Messiah  was 
generally  understood  by  the  Jews. 

On  the  whole,  it  is  certain  there  woidd 
be  more  danger  of  a  Cintempt  arising  to  the 
Lord's  supper  from  the  admission  of  inf.ints, 
and  of  confusion  and  trou!)le  to  other  com- 
municants ;  so  that  nnt  being  requirtd  in 
scripture,  it  is  much  better  to  omit  it.  When 
children  are  grown  up  to  a  capacity  of  be- 
having decently,  they  may  soon  be  instruct- 
ed in  the  nature  and  design  of  the  oi-di- 
nance  ;  and  if  they  appear  to  understand  it, 
and  behave  for  some  competent  time  cf  trial 
in  a  manner  suitable  to  that  profe-.^ion,  it 
would  prof)ably  be  advisable  to  admit  them 
to  communion,  though  very  young;  which, 
by  tiie  way,  laight  l>e  a  good  security 
against  many  of  the  snares  to  whicli  youth 
are  exposed. — Doddridge's  Lecticres,  lee. 
'07.  Pierce's  Essay  on  the  Eucharist,  p. 
76,  &c.  JVitsius  on  i  ov.  bonk  4.  chap.  17. 
5  30,  Z2.    J.  Frid.  Mai/er  Diss,  de  Eucha- 


INF 


226 


INF 


riatia  Infantum.  Zoruius  Hist.  Eucharist. 
Infantum,  p.  18.  Tlitol.  and  Bib.  Mag. 
Jan  and  April  1806 

INFANTS,  .solvation  of.  "  Various  opi- 
nions," saysan  acute  writer,  "concerning  the 
tuture  state  of  infants  have  been  adopted. 
Sorne  tliink,  all  dying  in  infancy  are  annihila- 
ted ;  for,  say  they,  infants  being  incapable  of 
moral  good  or  evil,  are  not  proper  objects  of 
reward  or  punishment.  Others  think,  that 
they  ahare  a  fate  similar  to  adults ;  a  part 
saved,  and  a  part  perish.  Others  affirm  all 
are  saved,  because  all  are  immortal,  and 
all  are  innocent.  Others,  perplexed  with 
these  divers  sentiments,  think  best  to  leave 
the  subject  untouched.  Cold  comfort  to  pa- 
rents, who  bury  their  families  in  infancy  ! 
The  most  probable  opinion  seems  to  be,  that 
they  are  all  saved,  through  the  merits  of 
the  Mediator,  with  an  everlasting  salvation. 
This  has  nothing  in  it  contrary  to  the  per- 
fections of  God,  or  to  any  declaration  of  the 
holy  scriptures  :  and  it  is  highly  agreeable 
to  all  those  passages  which  aflirm,  where  sin 
hatli  abounded,  grace  hath  much  more 
ab  lunded.  On  these  principles,  the  death  of 
Christ  saves  miire  than  the  fall  of  Adam 
lost."  If  the  reader  be  desirous  of  examin- 
ing the  subject,  we  refer  him  to  page  415.  v.  ii. 
Robinson''s  Cloude  Giltard  and  WUliami,''s 
assays  on  Infant  Salvation.  An  Attempt 
to  elucidate  Kom.  v.  12  by  an  anonymous 
writer.  Watis's  Btiin  and  Recovery,  page 
324,  327.  Edivards  on  Original  Sin,  page 
431,  434.  Doddridge  s  Lectures,  lecture 
168.    Ridgley's  Body  of  Divinity,  v.  i.  p. 

INFIDELITY,  want  of  faitli  in  God,  or 
the  disbt  lief  o*'  the  trutlis  of  revelation,  and 
the  great  principles 'if  religion.  If  we  en- 
quire into  the  rise  of  inhdelity,  we  shall  find 
it  does  not  take  its  origin  from  the  result  of 
sober  enquiry,  close  investigation,  or  full 
conviction;  but  it  is  rather,  as  one  ob- 
serves, "  The  slow  production  of  a  careless 
and  irreligious  'ife,  operating  together 
with  prejudices  and  erroneous  conceptions 
concerning  the  nature  of  the  leading 
doctrines  -i  Christianity.  It  may,  therefore, 
be  laid  down  as  an  axiom,  that  infidelity  is, 
in  gr?ieral,  a  disease  of  the  hart  more  than 
of  the  widersianding  ;  for  we  always  find, 
tiiat  infidelity  increases  in  proporti"n  as  the 
general  morals  decline  If  we  consider  the 
nature  and  effect  of  this  principle,  we  shall 
find  that  it  subverts  the  wliole  fuundation  of 
morals ;  it  tends  directly  to  the  destruction  of 
a  taste  for  moral  excellence,  and  promotes 
the  growth  of  those  vices  which  are  most 
hostile  to  social  happiness,  especially  vanity, 
ferocity,  and  unbridled  sensuality.  As  to 
l!ie  progress  of  it,  it  is  certain  that,  of  late 
years,  it  has  made  rapid  strides.  Lord 
Herbert  did  not,  indeed,  so  much  impugn 
the  doctrine  or  the  morality  of  the  scrip- 
tures, as  attempt  to  supersede  their  luecessi- 
ty,  ijy  endeavouring  to  shew,  that  the  great 
principles  of  the  unity  of  God,  a  moral  eo- 
vernrucnt,  and  a  tuture  world,  are  taught 


with  sufficient  clearness  by  the  light  of  na- 
ture. Bolingbroke,  and  others  of  his  succes- 
sors, advanced  nmch  farther,  and  attempt- 
ed to  invalidate  the  proofs  of  the  moral  cha- 
racter of  the  Deity,  and  consequently,  all 
expectations  of  rewards  and  punishments, 
leaving  the  Supreme  Being  no  (jther  perfec- 
tions than  those  which  belong  to  a  first 
cause,  or  Almighty  contriver.  After  him, 
at  a  considerable  distance,  followed  Hume, 
the  most  subtle  of  all,  who  boldly  aimed  to 
introduce  an  universal  scepticism,  and  to 
pour  a  more  tlian  Egyptian  darkness  into 
the  whole  region  of  morals.  Since  his  time, 
sceptical  writtrs  have  sprung  up  in  abun- 
dance, and  infidelity  has  allured  multitudes 
to  its  standard;  the  young  and  superficial, 
by  its  dexterous  sophistry  ;  the  vain,  by  the 
literary  fame  of  its  champion  ;  and  the  pro- 
fligate, by  the  licentiousness  of  its  princi- 
ples." But  let  us  ask.  What  will  be  its 
end  ?  Is  there  any  thing  in  the  ge- 
nius of  this  principle  that  will  lead  us  to 
suppose  it  will  reign  triumphant.-'  So  fur 
from  it,  we  have  reason  to  believe  that  it 
will  be  banished  from  the  earth.  Its  incon- 
sistency with  reason;  its  incongruity  with  the 
nature  of  man ;  its  cloudy  and  obscure 
prospects;  its  unsatisfying  nature  ;  its  oppo- 
sition to  the  dictates  of  conscience ;  its  per- 
nicious tendency  to  eradicate  every  just 
principle  from  the  breast  of  man,  and  to 
lead  the  way  for  evt-ry  species  of  vice  and 
immorality,  shews  that  it  cannot  flourish,  but 
must  finally  fall.  And,  as  Mr.  Hall  justly  ob- 
serves, "  VV  e  have  nothir  g  to  fear ;  for,  to  an 
attentive  observer  of  the  signs  of  Uie  times, 
It  will  appear  one  of  the  most  extraordinary' 
phenomena  of  this  eventful  crisis,  that, 
amidst  the  ravages  of  atheism  and  infidelity, 
real  religion  is  on  the  increase ;  for  while 
infidelity  is  marking  its  progress  by  devasta- 
tion and  ruin,  by  the  prostration  of  thrones 
and  concussion  of  kingdoms,  thus  appal- 
ling the  inl>abitants  of  the  world,  and 
compelling  them  to  take  refuge  in  the  church 
of  G:  d,  the  true  sanctuary;  the  stream 
of  divine  knowledge,  unobserved,  is  flowing 
in  new  channels ;  winding  its  covirse  among 
humble  vailies,  refreshing  tliirsty  deserts, 
and  enriching,  with  far  other  and  higher 
blessings  than  those  of  commerce,  the  most 
distant  climes  and  nations  ;  until  agreeably  to 
the  prediction  of  prophecy,  the  knowledge  of 
the  Lord  shall  fill  and  cover  the  Avhole  earth." 
See  Hairs  admirable  Sermon  on  Infidelity. 
Fuller's  Gos/iel  of  Christ  its  oivn  Witness, 
Bishop.  IVatson's  Apology  for  the  Bible. 
TVilde} force's  Practical  View,  §  3.  chap.  vii. 
Bishop  Home's  Letters  on  Bifidelity,  and 
books  under  article  Deisbi. 

INFIRMITY,  applied  to  the  mind,  de- 
notes frailty,  weakness.  It  has  been  a  ques- 
tion, what  may  properly  be  denominated 
sins  of  infirmity. 

1.  Nothing,  it  is  said,  can  be  excused  un- 
der that  name,  Avhich,  at  the  time  of  its 
commission,  is  k?ion<n  to  be  a  sin. — 2.  No- 
thing can  be  called  a  sin  of  infirmity  which 


INF 


227 


ING 


is  contraiy  to  the  express  letter  of  any  of 
the  commandments. — 3.  Nothing  will  ad- 
mit of  a  just  and  sufficient  excustf  upon  ihi 
account  ot  infirmity,  which  a  man  before 
hand  considers  and  deliberates  with  him- 
self, whether  it  be  a  sin  or  no.  A  sin  of  in- 
firmity is,  1.  Such  a  failing  as  proceeds 
from  excusable  ign.  .ranee. — 2.  Or  unavoida- 
ble surprise — 3.  Or  want  of  courage  and 
strength,  Rom.  xv.  1. 

By  infirmity  also  we  understand  the  cor- 
ruptions that  are  still  left  in  the  heart, 
(notwithstanding  a  person  may  be  sanctified 
in  part,)  and  which  sometimes  break  out. 
These  may  be  permitted  to  humble  us  ;  to 
animate  our  vigilance ;  perhaps  that  newl\ 
convinced  sinners  might  not  be  discouraged 
by  a  siglit  ()f  such  perfection  they  might 
despair  of  ever  attaining  to ;  to  keep  us 
prayerful  and  dependant ;  to  prevent  those 
honours  which  some  would  be  ready  to 
give  to  human  nature  rather  than  to  (iod  ; 
and,  lastly,  to  excite  in  us  a  continual  de- 
sire for  heaven  Let  us  be  cautious  and 
watchful,  however,  against  sin  in  all  its 
forms :  for  it  argues  a  deplorable  state  of 
mind  when  mtn  love  to  practise  sin,  and 
then  lay  it  upon  constitution,  the  infirmity  of 
nature,  the  decree  of  God,  the  influence  of 
Satan,  and  thus  attempt  to  excuse  them- 
selves, by  saying  they  could  not  avoid  it. — 
Clarke's  Sermon,  ser.  12,  vol.  ix.  Massil- 
lon's  Serm.  vol.  ii.  p.  213,  Eng.  trans. 

INFINITY.  Infinity  is  taken  in  two 
senses  entirely  different,  i.  e.  in  a  prsitive 
and  a  negative  one.  Positive  infinity  is  a 
qua'ity  of  being  perfect  in  itst-lf.  or  ca- 
pable of  receiving  no  addition,  ^''egaiivc  is 
the  quality  of  being  boundless,  unlimited,  or 
endless.  That  God  is  infinite  is  evident ; 
for  as  Doddridge  observes,  1  If  he  be  limit 
ed,  it  must  either  be  by  himself,  or  by  ano- 
ther;  but  no  wise  bting  would  abridge  him- 
self, and  there  could  be  no  other  being  to 
limit  God. — 2.  Infinity  follows  from  self-ex- 
istence ;  for  a  necessity  that  is  not  univer- 
sal must  depend  on  some  external  cause, 
•which  a  self-existent  Being  does  net — 3. 
Creation  is  so  great  an  act  of  power,  that 
•we  can  imagine  nothing  impossible  to  that 
Being  who  has  performed  it,  but  must 
therefore  ascribe  to  him  infinite  power.— 4. 
It  is  more  honourable  to  tlie  Divine  Being  to 
conceive  of  liim  as  infinite,  than  finite^— 5. 
The  scriptures  represent  all  his  attributes 
as  infinite.  His  understan;iing  is  infinite. 
Psalm  cxlvii.  5.  His  knowledge  and  wis- 
dom, Rom.  xi  33.  His  power,  Rom.i.  20.  Heb 
xi.  3.  His  goodness',  Psalm  xvi.  2.  His 
puritv,  holiness,  and  justice.  Job  iv  17,  18 
Isa.  vi  2,  3. — 6.  His  omnipotence  and  eter- 
nity prove  his  infinity :  h.r  were  he  not  in- 
finite, he  would  be  bounded  bv  space  and  by 
time,  which  he  is  not  Boddridir>-'s  Lect. 
lect.  49.  WatVs  Ontologn,  chap.'lZ.  Locke 
on  Underst.  vol  i.  chap.  17;  Hoove's 
nvorks   vol.  i.  p.  63,  64,  67. 

INFLUENCES  DIVINE,  a  term  made 
use  of  to  denote  the  operations  of  the  Divine 
Being  upon  the  mind.    This  doctrine  of  Di- 


vine Influences  has  been  much  called  in 
question  of  late  ;  but  we  may  ask,  1.  What 
d(jCtrine  can  be  more  reasonable?  "  The 
operations  which  the  power  cf  God  carries 
on  in  the  natural  world  are  no  less  mysteri- 
ous than  those  which  the  Spirit  performs  in 
the  moral  world.  If  men,  by  their  councils 
and  suggestions,  can  influence  the  minds  of 
one  another,  must  not  Divine  suggestion  pro- 
duce a  much  greater  effect?  Surely  the  Fa- 
ther of  Spirits,  by  a  thousand  ways,  has  ac- 
cess to  t^.e  spii'its  he  has  made,  so  as  to  give 
them  what  determination,  or  impart  to  them 
what  assistance  he  thinks  proper,  without 
injuring  their  frame  or  disturbing  their  ra- 
tional powers." 

We  may  observe,  2.  Nothing  can  be  more 
scriptural.  Eminent  men  from  the  patriar-i 
chal  age  down  to  St.  John,  the  latest  writer 
believed  in  this  doctrine,  and  ascribed  their 
religirus  feelings  to  this  source.  Our  Lord 
strongly  and  repeatedly  inculcated  this  truth; 
and  that  he  did  not  mean  miraculous,  but 
moral  influences  of  the  Spirit  is  evident,  John 
iii.  3.  IMatt  vii.  22,  23.  John  vi.  44,  46. 
See  also,  John  xii.  32,  40.  Rom.  viii,  9.  1 
Cor.  ii.  14. — 3.  And  we  may  add,  nothing 
can  be  more  necessary,  if  -we  consider  the 
natural  depravity  of  the  heart,  and  the  irr- 
sufficiency  of  all  human  means  to  render 
ourselves  either  holy  or  happy  without  a 
supernatural  power.  See  William''s  Historic 
Defence  of  Experimental  Religion.  Wil- 
liams' .Answer  to  Belsham,  letter  13.  Hiir- 
rion's  Sermons  on  the  S/iirit.  Owen  on  the 
Spirit. 

INCH  A  MITES,  a  denomination  of  Cal- 
vinistic  dissenters,  who  are  the  followers  of 
B  Ingham,  Esq.  who,  in  the  last  cevituiy, 
was  a  character  cf  great  note  in  the  north 
of  England.  About  the  year  1735,  Mr.  Ing- 
ham was  at  Queen's  college,  with  Mr.Hervey 
and  other  friends,  but  soon  afterwards  adopt- 
ed the  religious  opiiiions  and  zeal  of  Wesley 
and  Whitfield.  \\'e  do  not  know  the  cause 
':f  his  separation  from  these  eiiiinent  men; 
but  it  seems,  in  a  few  years  afterward.s,  he 
became  t!v.-  leader  of  many  numerous  socie- 
ties, distinct  from  the  metliodists.  They  re- 
ceived their  menibers  by  lot,  and  required 
them  to  dechire  befi're  the  church  their  ex- 
periaice,  that  the  vhole  society  might  judge 
of  the  gracious  change  which  had  been 
wrousht  upon  their  hearts.  It  happened  in 
a  few  years,  that  some  individuals,  who 
were  much  respected,  and  who  a])plied 
for  admission,  instead  of  speaking  of  their 
own  attainments,  or  the  comfortabk-impres- 
sions  on  their  minds,  which  they  only  consi- 
dered as  productive  cf  strife  and  vain  glory, 
declared  their  only  ho])e  was  the  finii^hed 
work  of  Jesus  Christ,  and  as  to  themselves, 
they  were  sensible  of  tb.eir  own  vilencss- 
Such  confession  as  this  threw  the  congrega- 
tion into  some  confusion,  which  was  consi- 
derably increased  when  they  found,  that  on 
their  having  recourse  as  usual  to  the  /of, 
that  there  were  votes  against  their  admis- 
"  sion,  which  was  considered  as  a  rejection 
from  the  Lord.    On  this  they  were  led  to 


IN  J 


228 


INQ 


examine  more  particularly  both  their  church 
order  and  d  ictnnes  After  tliis  time,  Mr. 
liignaiii  became  much  iiiorc  orthodox  in  his 
^enumeiitb,  and  new-modelled  liis  churches. 
The  honk  which  he  pubhahcd  is,  in  general, 
wel:  tliou^ht  if  by  the  Indi.'ptndents.  He 
coiiti  iuls  very  strongly  for  salvation  by  the 
iiiiputation  ot  Christ  s  righteousness;  and  as 
to  :l)ctriiie,  the  chief  point  wherein  the  Ing- 
liamites  difF  r  from  the  Independents,  is  rt- 
iipiccing  the  irinity.  The  common  man- 
iie-r  .  f  speaking  of  the  Divine  Thi«-e,  aselis- 
tinct  p^'sons,  they  decisively  condemn.  They 
do  !i.a  consider  a  plurality  of  elders  as  ne- 
cessary in  a  church  to  administer  tlie  Lord's 
Supper.  In  other  inspects,  they  much  es- 
teem the  writings  of  Mr.  R  Sandemau.  Their 
nuuibers  have  not  been  so  numerous  since  they 
became  more  strict  in  their  public  worship. 

INGRATITUDE,  the  vice  of  being  in- 
sensible to  favours  received,  without  any  en- 
deavour to  acknowledge  and  repay  them. 
It  is  sometimes  applied  to  the  act  of  return- 
ing evi!  for  good.  Ingratitude,  it  is  said,  is 
no  passion  :  for  the  God  of  nature  has  ap- 
pointed no  motitn  of  the  spirits  whereby  it 
might  be  excited ;  it  is  therefore,  a  mere 
>uce,  arising  from  pride,  stupidity,  or  nar- 
rowness of  soul. 

INIQUITY.    See  Sin. 

INJURY,  a  violation  of  the  rights  of  ano- 
thei".  S:>irie,  says  Grove,  dibtinguish  be- 
tween injitsiitia  and  injuria.  Injustice  is  op- 
posed to  justice  in  general,  whether  nega- 
tive or  positive  ;  an  injury  to  negative!^ us- 
tice  alone.  See  Justice.  An  injury  is, 
^viifully  doing  to  another  what  aught  not  to 
1  be  done  Tliis  is  injustice,  too,  but  not  the 
•whole  idea  of  it;  for  it  is  mjustice  also  to 
refuse  or  neglect  doing  >vhat  ought  to  be 
done.  An  injury  must  be  wilfully  commit- 
ted ;  whereas  it  is  enough  to  make  a  thing 
unjust,  that  it'  happens  through  a  culpable 
negligence.  1.  IVe  may  injure  a  person  in 
his  soul,  by  misleading  his  judgment ;  by 
corrupting  the  imagination  ;  perverting  the 
will ;  and  wounding  the  soul  with  grief. 
Persecutors  who  succeed  in  their  compul- 
sive measures,  though  they  cannot  aUer  the 
real  sentiments  by  external  violence,  yet 
sometimes  injure  the  soul  by  making  the 
man  a  hypocrite. — 2.  We  may  injure  ano- 
ther in  his  body,  by  hf.micide,  murder,  pre- 
venting life,  dismembering  the  body  by 
■wounds,  blows,  slave  ry  and  imprisonment, 
or  any  unjust  restraint  upon  its  liberty ;  by 
rr/libing  it  of  its  chastity,  or  prejudicing  its 
health. — 3.  We  may  injure  a^iother  in  hh 
name  and  character,  bv  our  own  false  and 
rash  ju!':<ments  of  him;  by  false  witness; 
by  charging  a  man  to  his  face  with  a  crime 
which  cither  v.'e  ourselves  have  forged,  or 
which  we  know  to  have  been  forged  In- 
some  other  person  ;  by  detraction  or  back- 
biting ;  by  reproach,  or  exposing  another 
for  some  natural  infelicity  either  in  body  or 
in  mind  ;  or  for  some  calamity  into  which 
he  has  fallen,  or  some  miscarriage  of  wliich 
he  has  been  guilty;  by  inuendos,  or  indirect 


accusations  that  are  not  true.  Now  if  we 
consider  the  value  of  character,  the  resent- 
ment which  the  injurious  person  has  of 
such  treatment  when  it  comes  to  his  own 
turn  to  suffer  it,  the  consequence  of  a  man'i? 
losing  his  good  name ;  and,  finally,  the  dif- 
ficulty of  making  reparatio)i,  we  must,  at 
once  see  the  injustice  of  lessening  another's 
good  character.  'I'here  are  two  considera- 
tuins  which  should  sometimes  restrain  us 
from  speaking  the  whole  truth  of  our  leigh- 
bour,  when  it  is  to  his  disadvantage.  (1.)  That 
he  may  possibly  live  to  see  his  folly,  and  re- 
pent and  grow  better. — (2.)  Admitting  that 
we  speak  the  truth,  yet  it  is  a  thr usand  to 
one  but  when  it  is  handed  about  for  some 
time,  it  will  contract  a  deal  of  falsehood. — 
4.  We  may  injure  a  person  in  his  relations 
and  depeiidcncies.  In  his  servants,  by  cor- 
rupting them  ;  in  his  children,  by  drawing 
them  into  evil  courses;  in  his  wife,  by  sow- 
ing strife,  attempting  to  alienate  her  affec- 
tions.— 5.  We  may  be  guilty  of  injuj'ing 
another  in  his  worldly  goods  or  possessions. 
1.  By  doing  him  a  mischief,  without  anv  ad- 
vantage to  ourselves,  through  envy  and  ma- 
lice— 2.  By  taking  what  is  another's,  which 
is  theft.  See  G?-ove''s  Moral  Philosophit, 
chap  8.  p.  2.  Wutis"  Sermons,  vol.  ii.  ser. 
33.    Tillotson^s  Sermo7is,  serm.  42. 

INJURIES,  Forgiveness   of.    See  FoR- 

GIVKNKSS. 

INJUSTICE.    See  Injury. 

INNOCENCE,  acting  in  perfect  conso- 
nance to  the  law,  without  incurring  guilt  or 
consequent  punishment.     See  Man. 

INQUISITION,  in  the  church  of  Rome, 
a  tribunal,  in  several  Rom.an  catholic  coun- 
tries, erected  by  the  popes  for  examination 
and  punishment  of  heretics.  This  court  was 
founded  in  the  twelfth  century,  under  the 
patronage  of  pope  Innocent,  who  issued  out 
orders  to  excite  the  Catholic  jjrinces  and 
people  to  extirpate  heretics,  to  search  into 
their  number  and  quality,  and  to  transmit 
a  faithful  account  thereof  to  Rome.  Hence 
they  were  called  inquisitors,  and  gave  birth 
to  this  formidable  tribunal,  called  the  Inquisi- 
tion. That  nothing  might  be  wanting  to  ren- 
der this  spiritual  court  formidable  and  tre- 
mendous, the  Roman  pontiffs  persuaded  th.e 
European  princes,  and  more  especially  the 
emperor  Frederick  II.  and  Lewis  IX.  king 
of  France,  not  nnlv  to  enact  the  most  barba- 
rous laws  against  heretics,  and  to  commit  to 
the  flames,  by  the  ministry  of  public  justice, 
those  who  were  pronounced  such  by  the  in- 
inquisitors,  but  also  to  maintain  the  in- 
quisitors in  their  office,  and  grant  them  their 
protection  in  the  mo.st  open  and  solemn  man- 
ner. The  edicts  to  this  ]Hirpose  issued  out 
by  Frederick  II.  are  well  known ;  edicts 
sufficient  to  have  excited  the  gre  itest  horror, 
and  which  rendered  the  most  illustrious 
piety  and  virtue  incapable  of  saving  from 
the  cruelcst  death  such  as  had  the  misfor- 
tune to  be  disagreeable  to  the  inquisitors. 
These  abominable  laws  were  not,  however, 
sufficient  to  restrain  the  just  indignation  of 


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229 


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the  people  against  those  inhuman  judges, 
whose  bartjarity  was  accompanied  with  su- 
perstition and  arrogance,  with  a  spirit  of 
suspicion  and  perfidy;  nay,  even  with  teme- 
rity and  imprudence.  Accordingly,  they 
were  insulted  by  the  multitude  in  many 
places,  were  driven  in  an  ii^nominious  man- 
ner out  of  some  cities,  and  were  put  to  death 
in  others ;  and  Conrad,  of  Marpurg,  the 
first  German  inquisitor  who  derived  his  com- 
mission from  Gregory  IX.  was  one  of  the 
many  victims  that  were  sacrificed  on  this 
occasion  to  the  vengeance  of  the  public, 
which  his  incredible  barbarities  had  raised 
to  a  dreadful  degree  of  vehemence  and 
fury. 

This  diabolical  tribunal  takes  cognizance 
of  heresy  J  Judaism,  Mahometanism,  sodomy, 
and  polygamy  ;  and  the  people  stand  in  so 
much  fear  of  it,  that  parents  deliver  up  their 
children,  husbands  their  wives,  and  masters 
their  servants,  to  its  officers,  without  daring 
in  the  least  to  murmur.  The  prisoners  are 
kept  for  a  long  time,  till  they  themselves 
turn  theii'  own  accusers,  and  declare  the 
cause  of  their  imprisonment,  for  which  they 
are  neither  told  their  crime,  nor  confronted 
with  witnesses.  As  soon  as  they  are  impri- 
soned, their  friends  go  into  mourning,  and 
speak  of  them  as  dead,  not  daring  to  solicit 
their  pardon,  lest  they  should  be  brought 
in  as  accomplices.  When  there  is  no  sha- 
dow of  proof  against  the  pretended  crimi- 
nal, he  is  discharged,  after  suffering  the 
most  cruel  tortures,  a  tedious  and  dreadful 
imprisonment,  and  the  loss  of  the  greatest 
part  of  his  effects.  The  sentence  against 
prisoners  is  pronounced  publicly,  and  with 
extraordinary  solemnity.  In  Portugal  they 
erect  a  theatre  capable  of  holding  three 
thousand  persons,  in  which  they  place  a  rich 
altar,  and  raise  seats  on  each  side,  in  the 
form  of  an  amphitheatre.  There  the  pri- 
soners are  placed,  and  over  against  them  is 
a  high  chair,  whither  they  are  called  one  by 
one  to  hear  their  doom  from  one  of  their  in- 
quisitors. These  unhappy  persons  know 
what  they  are  to  suffer  by  the  clothes  they 
wear  that  day :  those  who  appear  in  their 
own  clothes  are  discharged  on  paying  a  fine  ; 
those  who  have  a  santo  beliito,  or  strait 
yellow  coat  without  sleeves,  charged  with 
St.  Andrew's  cross,  have  their  lives,  but  for- 
feit all  tlieir  effects;  those  who  have  the 
resemblance  of  flames  made  of  red  serge 
sewed  upon  their  santo  I^enito,  without  any 
cross,  are  pardoned,  but  threatened  to  be 
burnt  if  ever  they  relapse  ;  but  those  wlio, 
besides  those  flames,  have  on  their  santo  be- 
nito  their  own  picture  surrounded  with  de- 
vils, are  condemned  to  expire  in  the  flames. 
The  inquisitors,  who  are  ecclesiastics,  do 
not  pronotmce  the  sentence  of  death,  bnt 
form  and  read  an  act,  in  which  they  say, 
that  the  criminal,  heins:  convicted  of  such  a 
crime,  by  his  own  confession,  is  with  much 
reluctance,  delivered  to  the  secular  power, 
to  ha  punished  according  to  his  demerits  : 
and    tills   Vriting   they  give  to  the    seven 


judges,  who  attend  at  the  right  side  of  tlie 
altar,  and  immediately  pass  sentence.  For 
the  conclusion  of  this  horrid  scene,  see  Act 
OF  Faith  We  rejoice  however,  to  hear, 
that  in  many  Roman  Catholic  countries,  the 
inquisition  is  now  shut.  May  the  (iod  of. 
mercy  and  love  prevent  its  ever  being  em- 
ployed a.i^ain  !  See  /iakcr'a  HUlory  of  the 
Inquisition,  and  Limborclis  History  of 
the  Inquisition,  translated  by  Chandler. 
A  View  of  the  Inquisition  in  Portugal  in 
Gedde's  Tracts.  Lavulle's  History  of  the 
Inquisition. 

INSPIRATION,  the  conveying  of  "certain 
extraordinary  and  supernatural  notions  or 
mstions  into  the  soul ;  or  it  denotes  any  su- 
pernatural influence  of  God  upon  the  mind 
of  a  rational  creature,  whereby  he  is  form- 
ed to  any  degree  of  intellectual  improve- 
ment, to  Aviiich  he  could  not,  or  wou'd  not, 
in  fact,  have  attained  in  his  present  circum- 
stances in  a  natural  way.  Thus  the  pro- 
phets are  said  to  have  spoken  by  divine 
inspiration.  1.  An  inspiration  of  sufierin- 
tendency,  in  which  God  does  so  influence 
and  direct  the  mind  of  any  person  as  to 
keep  him  more  secure  from  error  in  some 
various  and  comple.x  discourse,  than  he 
would  have  been  merely  by  the  use  of  his 
natural  faculties. — 2.  Plenary  supennten- 
dent  insfnraiion,  which  excludes  any  mix- 
ture of  error  at  all  from  the  performance  so 
superintended. — 3.  Inspiration  of  elevation, 
where  the  faculties  act  in  a  regular,  and,  as 
it  seems,  in  a  common  manner,  yet  are 
raised  to  an  extraordinary  degree,  so  that 
the  composure  shall,  upon  the  whole,  have 
more  of  the  true  sublime  or  pathetic  than 
natural  genius  could  have  given. — 4.  Inspi- 
ration of  suggestion,  where  the  use  of 
the  faculties  is  superceded,  and  God  does, 
as  it  were,  speak  directly  to  the  mind, 
making  such  discoveries  to  it  as  it  could 
not  otherwise  have  obtained,  and  dictating 
the  very  words  in  which  such  discoveries 
are  to  be  communicated,  if  they  are  design- 
ed as  a  message  to  others.  It  is  generally 
allowed  that  the  Scriptures  were  written 
by  divine  inspiration.  The  matter  of  them, 
the  spirituality  and  elevation  of  their  de- 
sign, the  majesty  and  simplicity  of  their 
style,  the  agreement  of  their  various  parts  ; 
tlieir  wonderful  eflScacy  on  mankind,  the 
candour,  disinterestedness,  and  uprightness 
of  the  penmen,  their  astonishing  preserva- 
tion, the  multitude  of  miracles  wrought, 
in  confirmation  of  the  doctrines  they  con- 
tain, and  the  exact  fulfilment  of  their  pre- 
dictions, prove  this.  It  has  been  dispu- 
ted, however,  whether  this  inspiration  is 
in  the  most  absolute  sense,  plenary.  As 
this  is  a  subject  of  importance,  and  ought 
to  be  carefully  studied  by  every  Chris- 
tian, in  order  that  he  may  render  a 
reason  of  the  hope  that  is  in  Iiim,  I  shall 
here  subjoin  the  remarks  of  an  able 
v/riter,  who  though  lie  may  differ  from 
some  others  as  to  the  terms  made  use  of 
above,   yet  I  am  persuaded  his  argtimhus 


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will  be  found  weighty  and  powerful.  "  There 
are  many  things  in  the  Scriptures,"  says  I 
Mr.  Dick,  "  which  the  writers  might  have 
known,  and  probably  did  know,  by  ordinary 
means.  As  persons  possessed  of  memory, 
judgment,  and  other  intellectual  faculties 
"which  are  common  to  men,  they  were  ab  e 
to  relate  certain  events  in  Avhich  they  had 
been  personally  concerned,  and  to  make 
such  occasional  reflections  as  were  suggest 
ed  by  paiticaiar  subjects  and  occurrences. 
In  these  cases  no  supernatural  influence 
Avas  necessary  to  invigorate  their  minds ; 
it  was  onl)-  nesessary  that  they  should  b^ 
infallibly  preserved  from  error  It  is  with 
respect  to  such  passages  of  Scripture  alone, 
as  did  not  exceed  tlie  natural  ability  of 
the  writers  to  compose,  that  I  would  ad- 
mit tlie  notion  of  siifierintendence,  if  it 
should  be  admitted  at  all.  Perhaps  this 
word,  thiiui^h  of  established  use  and  al- 
most undisputed  authority,  should  be  entire- 
ly laid  aside,  as  inhufficient  to  express 
even  the  lowest  degree  of  inspiratic  n.  In 
the  passages  of  Scripture  which  we  are 
now  considering,  I  conceive  the  writers  to 
have  been  not  merely  superintended,  that 
they  might  commit  no  error,  but  likewise 
to  have  been  moved  or  excited  by  the  Holy 
Ghost  to  record  particular  events,  and  set 
down  particular  observations.  The  pas- 
sages written  in  C'  nsequence  of  the  direc- 
tion and  under  the  care  of  the  Divine  Spirit, 
may  be  said,  in  an  inferior  sense,  to  be  inspi- 
red ;  whereas,  if  the  men  had  written  them 
at  the  suggestion  ot  their  own  spirit,  they 
would  not  have  possessed  any  moreauthrri- 
ty,  thougii  they  had  been  free  from  error, 
than  those  parts  of  preface  writings  which 
are  agreeable  to  truth. 

2.  "  There  are  other  parts  of  the  Scrip- 
tures in  which  the  faculties  of  the  writers 
weresupernaturalh  ii.vigorated  and  elevated- 
It  is  impossible  for  us,  and  perhaps  it  was 
not  possible  for  the  inspired  person  himself, 
to  determine  wliere  nature  ended  and  inspi- 
ration begim.  It  is  enough  to  know,  that 
there  arc  many  parts  of  Scripture  in  which, 
though  the  unassisted  mind  might  have 
proceeded  some  steps,  a  Divine  impulse 
was  necessary  tn  enable  it  to  advance.  I 
thii.k,  for  example,  that  the  evangelists 
could  not  have  written  the  histnn^  of  Christ 
if  they  had  not  enjoyed  miraculous  aid. 
Two  of  them,  Mattiiew  and  Jolm,  accom- 
panied our  Saviour  during  the  space  of 
three  years  and  a  half.  At  the  close  of 
this  period,  or  rather  several  years  after  it, 
when  they  wrote  their  Gospels,  we  may  be 
certain  tliat  they  had  forgotten  many  of  his 
discourses  and  miracles  ;  that  they  recol- 
lected others  indistinctly:  and  that  they 
would  have  been  in  danger  of  producing  an 
inaccurate  and  unfair  account,  bv  confound- 
ing one  thing  with  another.  Besides,  from 
so  large  a  mass  of  particidans,  men  of  un- 
cultivated minds,  who  were  not  in  the  habit 
of  distinguishuig  and  classifying,  could  not 


have  made  a  proper  selection ;  nor  would 
persons  unskilled  in  the  art  of  composition 
have  been  able  to  express  themselves  in 
such  terms  as  should  ensure  a  faithful  re- 
presentation of  doctrines  and  facts,  and  with 
such  dignity  as  the  nature  of  the  subject 
required.  A  divine  influence,  therefore, 
must  have  been  exerted  on  their  minds,  by 
which  their  memories  and  judgments  were 
strengthened,  and  they  were  enabled  to  re- 
late the  doctrines  and  miracles  of  their 
Master  in  a  manner  the  best  fitted  to  im- 
press the  readers  of  their  histories.  The 
promise  <  f  the  Holy  Ghost  to  bring  to  their 
remembrance  all  things  whatsoever  Christ 
had  said  to  them,  proves,  that,  in  writing 
their  histories,  their  mental  powers  were 
endowed,  by  his  agency,  with  more  than 
usual  vigour. 

"Farther;  it  must  be  allowed  that  in 
several  passages  of  Scripture,  there  is 
found  such  elevation  of  thotight  and  of  style, 
as  clearly  shews  that  the  powers  of  the 
writers  were  raised  above  their  ordinary 
pitch.  If  a  person  of  moderate  talents 
shruld  give  as  elevated  a  description  of  the 
majesty  and  attributes  of  God,  or  reastn  as 
profoundly  on  the  mysterious  doctrines  of 
religion,  as  a  man  of  the  most  exalted 
genius  and  extensive  leaniing,  we  could 
not  fail  to  be  convinced  that  he  was  super- 
naturally  assisted  ;  and  the  conviction  would 
be  still  stronger,  if  his  composition  should 
far  transcend  the  highest  efforts  of  the  hu- 
man mind.  Some  of  the  sacred  writers 
were  taken  from  the  lowest  ranks  of  life  ; 
and  yet  sentiments  so  dignified,  and  repre- 
sentations of  divine  things  so  grand  and 
majestic,  occur  in  their  writings,  that 
the  noblest  flights  of  human  genius,  when 
compared  with  them,  appear  cold  and  in- 
sipid. 

3.  "  It  is  manifest,  with  respect  to  many 
passages  of  Scripture,  that  the  subjects  of 
which  they  treat  must  have  been  directly 
revealed  to  the  writers.  They  could  not 
have  been  known  by  any  natural  mear.s,  nor 
was  the  knowledge  of  them  attainable  Ijy 
a  simple  elevation  of  the  faculties  With 
the  faculties  of  an  angel  we  could  not  dis- 
cover the  purposes  of  the  Divine  mind. 
This  degree  of  inspiration  we  attribiue  to 
those  who  were  empowered  to  reveal  hea- 
venly mysteries, '  which  eye  had  not  seen, 
and  ear  had  not  heard,'  to  those  who  were 
sent  with  particular  messages  from  God  to 
his  people,  and  to  those  who  were  employ- 
ed to  predict  future  events.  The  plan  of 
redemption  being  an  effect  of  the  sovereign 
councils  of  heaven,  it  could  not  have  been 
known  but  by  a  communication  from  the 
Father  of  lights. 

"  This  kind  of  inspiration  has  been  called 
the  inspiration  of  suggestion-  It  is  needless 
to  dispute  about  a  word  ;  but  suggestion 
seeming  to  express  an  operation  on  the 
miixl,  bv  which  ideas  are  excited  in  it,  is  of 
too  limited  signification  to  denote  the  various 


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modes  in  which  the  prophets  and  apostles 
wero  made  acquainted  with  supernatural 
truths.  God  revealed  himself  to  tUem  not 
only  by  suggestion,  but  by  dreams,  visions, 
voices,  and  ihe  ministry  of  angels.  This 
degree  of  inspiration,  in  strict  propriety  of 
speech,  should  be  called  revelation  ;  a  word 
preferable  to  suggestion,  because  it  is  ex- 
pressive of  all  tlie  ways  in  which  God  com- 
mutiicated  new  ideas  to  the  minds  of  his 
servants.  It  is  a  word,  too,  chostn  by  the 
Holy  Ghost  himself,  to  signify  the  discovery 
of  truths  formerly  unknown  to  the  apostles 
The  last  book  of  the  New  Testament, 
which  is  a  collection  of  prophecies,  is  called 
the  Revelation  nf  Jesus  Christ.  Paul  says. 
tliat  he  received  the  Gospel  by  revelation  ,• 
that  '  by  revelation  the  mystery  was  made 
known 'to  him,  which  in  other  ages  was 
not  made  known  unto  the  sons  of  men,  as  it 
was  then  revealed  unto  his  holy  apostlts 
and  prophets  by  the  Spirit :'  and  in  another 
place,  having  observed  that  '  eye  had  not 
seen,  nor  ear  heard,  neither  had  entered 
into  the  heart  of  man  the  things  which  God 
had  prepared  for  them  that  love  him,'  he 
adds,  "  But  God  hath  revealed  them  unto 
us  by  his  Spirit."  Rev.  i.  1.  Gal.  i.  12. 
Eph.  ii.  5.     1  Cor.  ii.  9,  10. 

"  I  have  not  names  to  designate  the 
ether  two  kinds  of  inspiration.  The  names 
used  by  Doddridge,  and  others.  Superinten- 
dence, Elevation,  and  Suggestion,  do  not 
convey  the  ideas  stated  in  the  three  pre- 
ceding particulars,  and  are  liable  to  other 
objections,  besides  those  which  have  been 
mentioned.  This  account  of  the  inspiration 
of  the  Scriptures  has,  I  think,  these  two 
recommendations;  that  there  is  no  part  of 
Scripture  which  does  not  fall  under  one  or 
other  of  the  foregoing  heads ;  and  that  the 
different  degrees  of  the  agency  of  the  Divine 
Spirit  on  the  minds  of  the  diflFerent  writers, 
are  carefully  discriminated. 

"  Some  men  have  adopted  very  strange 
and  dangerous  notions  respecting  the  inspi- 
ration of  the  Scriptures.  Dr.  Priestly  de- 
nies that  they  were  written  by  a  particular 
Divine  inspii-ation ;  and  as^-erts  that  the 
writers,  though  men  of  the  greatest  probity, 
were  fallible,  and  have  actually  committed 
mistakes  in  their  narrations  and  their 
reasonings.  But  this  man  and  his  follow- 
ers find  it  their  interest  to  weaken  and  set 
aside  the  authority  of  the  Scriptures,  as 
thev  have  adopted  a  system  of  religion  from 
which  all  the  distinguishing  doctrines  of 
revelation  are  excluded.  CJthers  consider 
the  Scriptures  as  inspired  in  those  places 
where  they  profess  to  deliver  the  word  of 
God ;  but  in  other  places,  especially  in  the 
historical  parts,  they  ascribe  to  them  only 
the  same  authority  which  is  due  to  the 
writings  of  well  informed  and  upright  men. 
But  as  this  distinction  is  perfectly  arbitrary, 
having  no  foundation  in  any  thing  said  by 
the  sacred  writers  themselves,  so  it  is  liable 
to  very  material  objections.  It  represents 
our  Lord  and  his  apostles,  when  they  speak 


of  the  Old  Testament,  as  having  attested, 
without  any  exception  of  limitation,  a  num- 
ber of  books  as  divinely  inspired,  while  some 
of  them  were  partly,  and  some  were  almost 
entirely,  human  compositions  ;  it  supposes 
the  writers  of  both  Testaments  to  have  pro- 
fanely mixed  their  own  pr  ductions  with 
the  dictates  of  the  Spirit,  and  to  have  pas- 
sed the  unhallowed  compound  on  the  world 
as  genuine.  In  fact,  by  denying  that  thev 
were  constantly  under  infallible  guidance", 
it  leaves  us  utterly  at  a  loss  to  know  when 
we  should  or  should  not  believe  them.  If 
they  could  blend  their  own  stories  with  the 
revelations  made  to  them,  how  can  I  be 
certain  that  they  have  not,  on  some  occa- 
sions, published,  in  the  name  of  God,  senti- 
.nents  of  their  own,  to  which  they  were 
desirous  to  gain  credit  and  authority? 
Who  will  assure  me  of  their  perfect  fidelity 
in  drawing  a  line  of  distinction  between  the 
divine  and  the  human  jiarts  of  their  wri- 
tings? The  denial  of  the  plenary  inspiration 
of  the  Scripture  tends  to  unsettle  the  foun- 
dations of  our  faith,  involves  us  in  doubt  and 
perplexity,  and  leaves  us  no  other  method 
of  ascertaining  how  ranch  we  should  believe, 
but  by  an  appeal  to  reason.  But  when  rea- 
son is  invested  with  the  authority  of  a 
judge,  not  only  is  revelation  dishonour- 
ed, and  its  author  insulted,  but  the  end 
for  which  it  was  given  is  completely  de- 
feated. 

"  A  question  of  very  great  importance  de- 
mands our  attention,  while  we  are  endea-' 
vouring  to  settle,  with  precision,  the  notion 
of  the  inspiration  of  the  Scriptures  :  it  re- 
lates to  the  words  in  which  the  sacred 
writers  have  expressed  their  ideas.  Some  . 
think,  that  in  the  choice  of  words  they 
were  left  to  their  own  discretion,  and  that 
the  language  is  human,  though  the  matter 
be  divine  ;  while  others  believe,  that  in  their 
expressions,  as  well  as  in  their  sentiments, 
they  were  under  the  infallible  direction  of 
the  Spirit.  It  is  the  last  opinion  which  ap- 
pears to  be  most  conformable  to  truth,  and 
it  may  be  supported  by  the  following  rea- 
soning : 

"  Every  man  who  hath  attended  to  the 
operations  of  his  own  mind,  knows  that  we 
think  in  words,  or  that,  when  we  form  a 
train  or  combination  of  ideas,  we  clothe 
them  with  words ;  and  that  the  ideas  which 
are  not  thus  clothed,  are  indistinct  and  con- 
fused. Let  a  man  try  to  think  upon  any 
subject,  moral  or  religious,  without  the  aid 
of  language,  and  he  will  either  experience 
a  total  cessation  of  thought,  or,  as  this  seems 
impossible,  at  least  while  we  are  awake,  he 
will  feel  himself  constrained,  notwithstanding 
his  utmost  endeavours,  to  have  recourse  to 
words  as  the  instrument  of  his  mental  ope- 
rations. As  a  great  part  of  the  scriptures 
was  suggested  or  revealed  to  the  writers ; 
as  the  thoughts  or  sentiments,  which  were 
perfectly  new  to  them,  were  conveyed  into 
their  minds  by  the  Spirit,  it  is  plain  that 
they   must  have    been  accompanied  with 


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words  proper  to  express  them  :  and  conse- 
quently, that  the  words  were  dictated  by 
the  same  influences  on  the  mind  whicli 
commuaicated  the  ideas.  The  ideas  could 
not  have  come  without  the  words,  because 
without  them  they  could  not  have  been  con- 
ceived. A  notion  of  the  form  and  qualities 
of  a  material  object  may  be  produced  by 
subjecting  it  to  our  senses ;  but  there  is  no 
conceivable  method  of  making  us  acquaint- 
ed with  new  abstract  truths,  or  with  things 
which  do  not  lie  within  the  sphere  of  sensa- 
tion, but  by  conveying  to  the  mind,  in  some 
way  or  other,  the  words  significant  of  them. 
— In  all  those  passages  of  scripture,  there- 
fore, which  were  written  by  revelation,  it  is 
manifest  that  the  words  were  inspired  ;  and 
this  is  still  more  evident  with  respect  to 
those  passages  which  the  writers  themselves 
did  not  understand.  No  man  could  write 
an  intelligible  discourse  on  a  subject  which 
he  does  not  understand,  unless  he  were  fur- 
nished with  the  words  as  well  as  the  senti- 
ments ;  and  that  the  penmen  of  the  scrip- 
tures did  not  always  understand  what  they 
wrote,  might  be  safely  inferred  from  the 
comparative  darkness  of  the  dispensation 
under  which  some  of  them  lived  ;  and  is  in- 
timated by  Peter  when  he  says,  that,  the 
prophets  '  enquired  and  searched  diligently 
what,  and  what  manner  of  time  the  Spirit 
of  Christ  which  was  in  them  did  signify, 
when  it  testified  beforehand  the  sufferings 
of  Chi-ist ;  and  the  glory  that  should  fol- 
low.'   1  Pet.  i.  10,  11. 

"  In  other  passages  of  scripture,  those  not 
excepted  in  which  the  writers  relate  such 
things  as  had  fallen  within  the  compass  of 
their  own  knowledge,  we  shall  be  disposed 
to  believe  that  the  words  are  inspired,  if 
we  calmly  and  seriously  weigh  the  follow- 
ing considerations:  If  Christ  promised  to 
his  disciples,  that  when  they  were  brought 
before  kings  and  governors  for  his  sake,  '  it 
should  be  given  them  in  that  same  hour  what 
they  should  speak,  and  that  the  Spirit  of 
their  Father  should  speak  in  them,'  Mat. 
X  19,  20.  Luke  xii.  11,  12.  a  proiiiise 
which  cannot  be  reasonably  understood  to 
signify  less  than  that  both  words  and  senti- 
ments should  be  dictated  to  them,  it  is  ful- 
ly as  credible  that  they  should  be  assisted 
in  the  same  manner  when  they  wrote,  es- 
pecially as  the  record  was  to  last  through 
all  ages,  and  to  be  a  rule  of  faith  to  all  the 
nations  of  the  earth.  Paul  affirms,  that  he 
and  the  other  apostles  spoke  '  not  in  the  woi'ds 
which  man's  wisdom  teacheth,  but  which 
the  Holy  Ghost  taught,  1  Cor.  ii.  13.  and 
this  general  assertion  may  be  applied  to 
their  writings  as  well  as  to  their  sermons. 
Besides,  every  person  who  hath  reflected 
upon  the  subject,  is  aware  of  the  importance 
of  a  proper  selection  of  words  in  expressing 
our  sentiments ;  and  knows  how  easy  it  is 
for  a  heedless  or  unskilful  person  not  only 
to  injure  the  beauty,  and  weaken  tlie  effica- 
cy of  a  discourse  by  the  impropriety  of  his 


language,  but,  by  substituting  one  word  for 
another,  to  which  it  seems  to  be  equivalent, 
to  alter  the  meaning,  and  perhaps  render 
it  totally  different.  If,  then,  the  sacred 
writers  had  not  been  directed  in  the  chL'icc 
of  words,  how  could  we  have  been  assured 
that  those  which  they  have  cho:.^Cn 
were  the  most  proper  .'  Is  it  not  possible, 
nay,  is  it  not  certain,  that  they  would  have 
sometimesexpressed  themselves  inaccurate- 
ly, as  many  of  them  were  illitei^ate ;  and  by 
consequence  would  ha\'e  obscured  and  mis- 
represented the  truth  ?  In  this  case,  how 
could  our  faith  have  securely  rested  on 
their  testimony  ?  Would  not  the  suspicion  of 
error  in  ^heir  writings  have  rendered  it  ne- 
cessary, before  we  receivetl  them,  to  try 
them  by  the  standard  of  reason  ?  and  would 
not  the  authority  and  the  design  of  •revela- 
tion have  thus  been  overthrown  ?  We  must 
conclude,  therefore,  that  the  words  of  scrip- 
ture are  from  God,  as  well  as  the  matter ; 
or  we  shall  charge  hiin  witii  a  want  of 
wisdom  in  transmitting  his  truths  through  u 
channel  by  which  they  might  have  been, 
and  most  probably  have  been,  polluted. 

"  To  the  inspiration  of  the  words,  the 
difference  in  the  style  of  the  sacred  w liters 
seems  to  be  an  objection  ;  because,  if  the 
the  Holy  Ghost  were  the  author  of  the 
words,  the  style  might  be  expected  to  be 
uniformly  the  same.  But  in  answer  to  this 
objection  it  may  be  observed,  that  the  Di- 
vine Spirit,  whose  operations  are  various 
might  act  differently  on  different  persons, 
according  to  the  natural  turn  of  tlieir  minds. 
He  might  enable  one  man,  for  instance,  to 
write  more  sublimely  than  another,  because 
he  was  naturally  of  a  more  exalted  genius 
than  the  other,  and  the  subject  assigned  to 
him  demanded  more  elevated  language  ;  or 
he  might  produce  a  difference  in  the  style 
of  the  same  man,  by  raising,  at  one  time,  his 
faculties  above  their  ordinary  state;  and  by 
leaving  them,  at  another,  to  act  according  to 
their  native  energy  under  his  inspection  and 
controul.  We  should  not  suppose  that  inspira- 
tion, even  in  its  higher  degrees,  deprived 
tliose  who  were  the  subjects  of  it,  of  the  use 
of  their  faculties.  They  were,  indeed,  the 
organs  of  the  Spirit ;  but  they  were  con- 
scious intelligent  organs.  They  were  de- 
pendent, but  distinct  agents  ;  and  the  opera- 
tion of  their  mental  powers,  though  elevated 
and  directed  by  superior  influence,  was  ana- 
logous to  their  ordinary  mode  of  procedure. 
It  is  easy,  therefore,  to  conceive  that  the 
style  of  tlie  writers  of  the  scriptures  should 
differ,  just  as  it  would  have  difiered  if  they 
had  not  been  inspired.  A  perfect  uniformi- 
ty of  style  could  not  have  taken  place,  un- 
less they  had  all  been  inspired  in  the  same 
degree,  and  by  inspiration  their  faculties 
had  been  completely  suspended ;  so  that  di- 
vine truths  were  conveyed  by  them  in  the 
same  passive  manner  in  which  a  pipe  af- 
fords a  passage  to  water,  or  a  trumpet  to 
the    breath."    See   Dick's  Essay  on    the 


INT 


233 


INT 


Insfiiration  of  the  Scriptures.  Hawker  on 
Plenary  Inafiiration.  jiptiendix  to  3d  vol. 
cf  Doddridge  s  Expositor.  Calamy  and 
jUemieit  on  Insfiiration.  Dr.  Siennett  on 
the  authority  and  Use  of  Scr.pture.  Par- 
ry's Encjuiry  into  the  jYature  and  Extent 
of  the  Insfiiration  of  the  Jjiostles.  Brown's 
N'atural  and  Revealed  Religion,  page  78 
and  article  Christianity  and  Scrip- 
ture, in  this  work. 

INSTINCT,  that  power  which  acts  on 
and  impels  any  creature  to  any  particular 
manner  of  conduct,  not  by  a  view  of  the 
beneficial  consequences  but  merely  from  a 
strong  impulse  supposed  necessary  in  its 
effects,  and  to  be  given  them  to  supply  the 
place  of  reason. 

INSTI  rUTE,  INSTITUTION  ;  an  es- 
tablished custom  or  law  ;  a  precept,  maxim, 
or  principle.  Institutions  may  be  consider- 
ed as  positive,  moral,  and  human.  1.  Those 
are  called  fiositive  institutions  or  precepts  I 
which  are  not  founded  upon  any  reasons 
known  to  those  to  whom  they  are  given,  or  j 
discoverable  by  them,  but  which  are  ob- 
served merely  because  some  superior  has 
commanded  them. — 2.  Moral  are  those , 
the  reasons  of  which  we  see,  and  the  duties 
of  which  arise  out  of  the  nature  of  the  case 
itself,  prior  to  external  command. — 3  Hu- 
man,  are  generally  applied  to  those  inven- 
tions of  men,  or  means  of  honouring  God, 
which  are  not  appointed  by  him,  and  which 
are  numerous  in  the  church  of  Rome,  and 
too  many  of  them  in  Protestant  churches. 
Butler's  Analogy,  page  214.  Doddridge's 
Lectures,  lecture  158.  Robinson's  Claude, 
217,  vol.  i.  and  258,  vol.  ii.  Burrough's  two 
Dissertations  on  p.ositxve  Institutions.  Bfi. 
Hoadley's  Plain  Account,  page  3. 

INTEGRITY,  purity  of  mind,  free  from 
any  undue    bias    or    piinciple,    Prov.  xi   3. 
Many  hold   tliat  a  certain   artful  sagacity, 
founded  upon  knowledge  of  the  world,  is  the 
best  conductor  of  every  one  who  would  be  a 
successful  adventurer  in    life,    and    that  a 
strict  attention  to  integrity  would  lead  them 
into  danger   and  distress ;  but,  in  answer  to 
this,  it  is  justly  obser\'cd,  1.  That  the  guid-  j 
ance  of  integrity  is  the  safest  under  which  i 
we  can  be  placed  ;  that  the  road  in  which  it  | 
leads  us  is,    upon  the  whole,  tlie  freest  from  I 
dangers,  Prov.  iii  21,&c. — 2.  It  is  unquestion- 
ably the   most  honourable ;  for  integrity  is 
the  foundation  of  all  that  is  high  in  charac- 
ter among   mankind,  Prov.    iv.  8. — 3.  It  is  I 
the  most  conducive  to  felicity,  Phil.  iv.  6,  7.  ' 
Prov.  iii.  17. — 4.  Such  a  character  can  look 
forward  to  eternity  without  dismay,  Rom.ii.7. 
INTEMPERANCE,   excess  in  eating  or 
drinking.    This  is  the  general   idea  of  it ; 
but  we  may  observe,  that  whatever  indul- 
gence   undermines   the   health,   impairs  the 
senses,  inflames  the  passions,  clouds  and  sul- 
lies the  reason,  perverts  the  judgment,  en- 
slaves the  will,  or  in  any  way  disorders  or 
debilitates  the  faculties,  may  be  ranked  un- 
der this  vice.     See  article  Temperance 

INTERCESSION  OF  CHRIST   is   his 
interposing  for  sinners  by  virtue  of  the  satis- 


faction  he  made  to  divine  justice.     1.  As  to 
the  fadt  itself,    it  is    evident,   from    many 
places  of  scripture,  that  Christ  pleads  with 
God    in    favour    of  his   people,    Rom.  viii. 
34.   Heb.    vii.    25.     1  John  ii.   1. — 2.    As  to 
the  manner   of  it  ;  the  appearance   of  the 
high  priest  arnong  the  Jews,  in  the  presence 
of   God,  on  the  clay  of  atonenitnt,  when  he 
offered  before  him  the  blood  of  the  sin-offer- 
ing,   is  at  large  referred  to  by  St.  Paul,  as 
illustrating  the  intercession  of  Chnst,  Heb. 
ix.  11,  14,  22,  26.  Heb.  x.  19,  21.  Christ  ap- 
pears before   God  with  his  own  bocy  ;  but 
whether  he  intercedes  vocally  or  not,  can- 
not be  known:  though  it  is   most  probable, 
I  think,  that   he  dots   net :    however,   it  is 
certain  that   he  does  not  intercede  in  like 
manner  as  when  on  earth,   with  prostration 
of  body,  cries  and  tears,  which  would  be 
quite  inconsistent  with   his  state  of   exalta- 
tion and  glory  ;  nor  as  supplicating  an  angry 
judge,  for  peace  is  made  by  the  blood  of  the 
cross  ;  nor  as  litigating  a  point  in  a  court  of 
judicature  ;   but  his  intercession  is  carried 
on   bv  shewing  himself  as  having  done,  as 
their' surety,  all  that  law  and  justice  cculd 
require,  by  representing  his  blcod,  and  sa- 
crifice as  the  ground  of  his  people's  accep- 
tance with  the  Father,  Rev.  v.  6.  John  xvii. 
24. — 3.   T/ie  end  of  Christ's  intercession  is 
not  to    remind  the    Divine   Being   of  any 
thing  which  he  would  otherwise  forget,  nor 
to  persuade  him  to  any  thing  which  he  is 
not  disposed  to  do  ;   but  it  may  serve  to  il- 
lustrate  the    holiness  and   majesty   of    the 
Father,  and  the   wisdom  aid  grace  of  the 
Son  ;  not  to  say  that  it  may  have  other  un- 
known uses  with  respect  to  the  inhabitants 
of  the   invisible  world.    He  is  represented, 
also,  as  offering  up  the  prayers  and  praises 
of  his  people,  which  bea  me  acceptable  to 
God  through  him,  Rev.  viii.  3,  4.  Heb.  xiii. 
15.  1  Pit.  ii.  5.  He  there  pleads  for  the  con- 
version of   his  unconverted   ones ;    and  for 
the  consolation,  preser\'ation,  and   gloriMca-; 
tion  of  his  people,  John  xvii.  1  John  ii.  1,  2  — 
4.  Of  the  firoperiics  of  Christ's  intercession 
we  mav  observe,  1.  That  it  is  authoritative. 
He  intercedes  not  without  riglu,   John  xvii. 
24.  Ps.  ii.  8. — 2.  Wise  :  he  understands  the 
natui'e  of  his  Avork,   and   the  wants    of  his 
people,   John  ii.  25. — 3.   Righteous:  for  it  is 
founded  upon  justice  and  truth,  1  John  iii.  5. 
Heb.  vii.  26 — 4.  Compassionate,  Heb.  ii.  17. 
V.  8.  Is.  Ixiii.  9. — 5.  He  is  the  sole  advocate, 
1    Tim.   ii.    5. — 6.   It    is   perpetual,    Heb. 
vii.    25. — 7.   Efficacious,  1  John  ii.  1,   2. — 8. 
Tiie    use    we    should    make    of    Christ's 
intercession  is  this:  1.  We  may  learn  the 
wonderful  love  of  God  to  man,  Rom     v.  10. 
— 2.     I'he    durabilitv    and    safety   of    the 
church,  Luke  xxii.  31,  32.  Is.  xvii.  34.— -3. 
\  The  ground  we  have  for  c-mfort,  Heb.  ix. 
24.  Rom.  viii,  34 — 4.  It  should  excite  us  to. 
offer  up  prayers  to  God,  as  they  are  accept- 
I  able  through  him.   Rev.  viii.  3,  4.  See  Char^ 
[nock's   IVorks,  vol.   ii    page  1109.  Plavei's 
j  JVorks,  vol.  i.  page  72.  Doddridge's  Eec- 
"  lures,  vol.  ii.  page  294,  8vo.  GiU's  Body  qf 
iJirinitij,   vol.   ii.   page    126,  8vo.  editiofi. 


INT 


234 


INT 


Browii's  Mztural  and  Revealed  Religion, 
])age  348.  Berry  Street  Lectures.  No.  18. 
Ridglei/s  Body  of  Divinity,  question  55. 

INTERDICT,  an  ecclesiastical  censiire, 
by  which  the  church  of  Rcme  forbids  the 
performance  of  divine  service  in  a  kingdom, 
province,  town,  6vc.  Thi..  censure  has  been 
frequently  executed  in  France,  Italy,  and 
Germany;  and  in  the  year  1170.  pope 
Alexander  III.  put  all  England  under  an 
interdict,  f.-^rbidding  the  cleri^y  to  perform 
any  part  of  divine  service,  except  baptizing 
infants,  taking  confessions,  and  giving  ab- 
sohition  to  dying  penitents;  but  this  censure 
being  liable  to  ill  consequences,  of  promo- 
ting libertinism  a^id  a  neglect  of  religion,  the 
succeeding  popes  have  very  seldom  made 
use  of  it.  'I'here  was  also  an  interdict  of 
l)ersons,  who  were  deprived  of  the  benefit 
of  attending  on  divine  service.  Particular 
j)ersons  were  also  anciently  interdicted  of  fire 
and  water,  wiiich  signilics  a  banishment  for 
some  particular  offence:  by  this  censure  no 
person  was  permitted  to  receive  them  oral- 
low  them  fire  or  water;  and,  being  thus 
wholly  deprived  of  the  two  necessary  ele-  i 
li.cnts  of  life,  they  were  doubtless,  under  a 
kind  of  civil  death. 

INTEREST  IN  CHRIST,  a  term  often 
made  ui>e  of  in  the  religious  world ;  and 
implies  our  having  a  right  to  claim  him  as 
our  mediator,  surety,  advocate,  and  Saviour, 
and  with  him  all  those  spiritual  blessings 
■which  are  purchased  and  applied  by  him 
to  those  whom  he  has  redeemed  The  term, 
"  having  a  right  to  claim  hi?n,''  perhaps, 
is  preferable  to  that  often  used,  "  being  en- 
abled to  claim  hijn,"  as  many  have  an  inter- 
est in  Christ  who  are  destitute  of  that  as- 
surance which  gives  them  a  comfortable 
sense  thereof  Ridgley's  Div.  228,  Sd.  edit. 
J-'ikc's  Cases  of  Co7iscience,  \}.  130. 

INTERIM,  the  name  of  a  formulary,  or 
confession  of  faith,  obtruded  upon  the  Pro- 
testants, after  the  death  of  Luther,  by  the 
emperor  Charles  V.  when  he  had  defeated 
their  forces.  It  was  so  called,  because  it 
was  only  to  take  place  in  the  interim,  till  a 
general  council  should  decide  all  the  points 
in  question  between  the  Protestants  and  Ca- 
tholics. The  occasion  of  it  was  this:  The 
emperor  had  made  choice  of  three  divines, 
viz  Julius  Phlug,  bishop  of  Naumberg;  Mi- 
chael Helding,  titular  bishop  of  Sidon  ;  and 
John  Agricola,  preacher  to  the  elector  of 
Brandenburgh  ;  who  drew  up  a  project,  con- 
sisting of  26  articles,  concerning  the  points 
of  religion  in  dispute  between  the  Catho- 
lics and  Protestants.  The  controverted  points 
were,  the  state  of  Adam  before  and  after 
his  fall ;  the  redemption  of  mankind  by  Jesus 
Christ;  the  justification  of  sinners;  charity 
and  good  works ;  the  confidence  we  ought 
to  have  in  God  ;  that  our  sins  are  remitted; 
the  church  and  its  true  marks,  its  powers, 
its  authority,  and  ministers ;  the  pojie  and 
bishops ;  the  sacraments ;  the  mass ;  the 
commemoration  of  saints ;  their  interces- 
sion; and  prayers  for  the  dead. 


The  emperor  sent  this  project  to  the  pope 
for  his  approbation,  which  he  refused : 
whereupon  Charles  V.  published  the  impe- 
rial constitution,  called  the  Interim,  where- 
in 1  e  declared,  that  "  it  was  his  will,  that 
all  his  Catholic  dominions  should,  for  the 
future,  inviolably  observe  the  customs,  sta- 
tutes, and  ordinances  of  the  universal  church; 
and  that  those  who  had  separated  them- 
selves from  it,  should  either  reunite  tliem- 
selves  to  it,  or  at  least,  conform  to  this  con- 
stitution ;  and  that  all  should  quietly  expect 
the  decisions  of  the  general  council."  This 
ordinance  was  published  in  tlie  diet  of  Augs- 
burgh,  Mny  15,  1548;  but  this  device  nei- 
ther pleased  the  pope  nor  the  Protestants ; 
the  Lutheran  preachers  openly  declaretl 
they  would  not  receive  it,  alleging,  that  it 
re-established  popery  :  some  chose  rather  to 
quit  their  chairs  and  livings  than  to  subscribe 
it ;  nor  would  the  duke  of  Saxony  receive  it. 
Calvin,  and  several  others  wrote  against  it. 
On  the  other  side,  the  emperor  was  so  se- 
vere against  those  who  refused  to  accept  it, 
that  he  disfranchised  the  cities  of  Magde- 
burg and  Constance  for  their  opposition. 
I  INTERMEDIATE  STATE,  a  term 
I  made  use  of  to  denote  the  state  of  the  soul 
between  death  and  the  resurrection.  From 
I  the  scriptures  speaking  frequently  of  the 
dead  as  sleeping  in  their  graves,  many  have 
I  supposed  that  the  soul  sleeps  till  the  resur- 
I  rection,  i.  e.  is  in  a  state  of  entire  insensibili- 
ty. But  against  this  opinion,  and  that  the 
soul,  after  death,  enters  immediately  into  a 
state  of  reward  or  punishment,  the  follow- 
ing passages  seem  to  be  conclusive.  Matt, 
xvii.  3.  Luke  xxiii.  42.  2  Cor.  v.  6.  Phil, 
i.  21.  Luke  xvi.  22,  23.  Rev.  vi.  9.  See 
articles  Resurrection,  Soul  and  Fu- 
ture State.  Bishop  I.aiv^s  jifipendix 
to  fiiti  Theory  of  Religion.  Search's  Bight 
of  j\ature  pursued.  Rennet's  Olam  Hane- 
&hamoth,  or  Vieiv  of  the  Intermediate  State. 
Archibald  CavipbcWs  Vieio  of  the  Middle 
State.  ArchdeacoJi  Blackbume's  Histori- 
cal Vieiv  of  the  Controversy  concerning  an 
Inteiynediate  State,  arid  the  separate  Exis- 
tence of  the  Soul  between  Death  and  the 
genei'al  Resurrection ;  in  which  last  the 
reader  will  find  a  large  account  of  the  wri- 
tings on  this  subject,  from  the  beginning 
of  the  Reformation  to  almost  the  present 
time.  See  also,  Doddridge's  Lectures,  lect. 
219. 

INTERPRETING  OF  TONGUES,  a 
gift  bestowed  on  the  apostles  and  primitive 
Christians,  so  that  in  a  mixt  assembly,  con- 
sisting of  persons  of  different  nations,  if  one 
spoke  in  a  language  understood  l)y  one  part, 
another  could  retreat  and  translate  wliat  he 
said  into  different  languages  understood  by  . 
others.  1  Cor.  xii.  10.  1  Cor.  xiv.  5,  6 
13. 

INTOLERANCE  is  a  word  chiefly  used 
in  reference  to  those  pers<?ns,  churches,  oi- 
societies,  who  do  not  allow  men  to  think  for 
I  themselves,  but  impose  on  tl.em  articles, 
creeds,  ceremonies,  6cc.  of   their  own  dc- 


IN  V 


23; 


JO  A 


vising.  See  Toleration.  Nothing  i.s move 
abhorrent  from  the  genius  of  the  Christian 
reHgion  tlian  an  intolerant  spirit,  or  an  into- 
lerant cimrcli.  "  It  has  inspired  its  v^otaries 
with  a  savage  ferocity ;  lias  plunged  the 
fatal  dagger  into  innocent  blood  ;  depopula- 
ted towns  and  kingdoms;  overthrown  states 
and  empires,  and  brought  down  the  righte- 
ous vengeance  of  heaven  upon  a  guilty  world. 
The  pretence  of  superior  knowledge,  sanc- 
tity, and  authority  for  its  support,  is  the  dis- 
grace of  reason,  the  grief  of  wisdom,  and  the 
paroxysm  of  folly.  'I'o  fetter  the  conscience, 
is  injustice  ;  to  ensnare  it,  is  an  act  of  sa- 
crilege ;  but  to  torture  it,  by  an  attempt  to 
force  its  feelings,  is  horrible  intolerance  ;  it 
is  the  most  abandoned  violation  of  all  the 
maxims  of  religion  and  morality.  Jesus  Christ 
formed  a  kingdom  purely  spiritual :  the 
apostles  exercised  only  a  spiritual  authority 
under  the  direction  of  Jesus  Christ ;  partic- 
ular chuixlies  were  united  only  by  faitli  and 
love  ;  in  all  civil  affairs  they  submitted  to 
civil  magistracy ;  and  in  religious  concerns 
they  were  governed  by  the  reasoning,  ad- 
vice, and  exhortations  of  their  own  officers: 
their  censures  were  only  honest  reproofs: 
and  tlieir  excommunications  were  only  decla- 
rations that  such  offenders,  being  incorrigi- 
ble, were  no  longer  accounted  members  of 
their  communities."  Let  it  ever  be  remem- 
bered, therefore,  that  no  man  or  men  have 
any  authority  whatever  from  Christ  over 
the  consciences  of  others,  or  to  persecute 
the  persons  of  any  whose  rehgious  princi- 
ples agree  not  with  their  own  bee  Lowel's 
Sermons,  ser  6.  Iiobi?ison'.s  Claude,  vol.  ii. 
p,  227,  299.  Saurin's  Sermons,  3d  vol.  p. 
30-  preface.  Locke  on  Government  and 
Toleration. 

INTREPIDITY,  a  disposition  of  mind 
unaffected  with  fear  at  the  approach  of  dan- 
ger. Resolution  either  banishes  fear  or  sur- 
mounts it,  and  is  firm  on  all  occasions.  Cour- 
age is  impatient  to  attack,  undertakes 
boldly,  and  is  not  lessened  by  difficulty. 
Valour  acts  with  vigour,  gives  no  way  to 
resistance,  but  pursues  an  enterprize  in  spite 
of  opposition.  Bravery  knows  no  fear  ;  it 
runs  nobly  into  danger,  and  prefers  honour 
to  life  itself.  Intrijiidity  encounters  the 
greatest  points  with  the  utmost  coolness,  and 
dares  even  pi-esent  death.  See  Courage, 
Fortitude. 

INVESnrURE,  in  ecclesiastical  policy, 
is  the  act  of  conferring  any  benefice  on 
anotl^.er.  It  was  customary  for  princes  to 
make  investiture  of  ecclesiastical  benefices, 
by  delivering  to  the  person  they  had  chosen 
a  pastoi'al  staff,  and  a  ring.  The  account 
of  this  ceremony  may  be  seen  at  large  in 
Moslieim^s  Ecclesiastical  History,  cent,  xi 
part  ii.  chap.  2. 

INVISIBLES,  a  name  of  distinction  given 
to  the  disciples  of  Osiander.  Flacius,  llly- 
ricus,  Swenkfield,  &c.  because  they  denied 
the  perpc.ual  visibihtv  of  the  church. 

INVOCATION,  a  calling  upon  God  in 
prayer.    It  is  generally  consideretl  as  the 


first  part  of  that  necessary  duty,  and  in- 
cludes, 1.  A  making  mention  of  one  or  more 
of  the  names  or  titles  of  God,  indicative  of 
the  object  to  whom  we  pray. — 2.  A  de- 
claration of  our  desire  and  design  to  wor- 
sliip  him.  And,  3.  A  desire  of  his  assistance 
and  acceptance,  under  a  sense  of  our  own 
unworthiness.  In  the  church  of  Rome,  iii- 
vocation  also  signifies  adoration  of,  and  pray- 
ers to  the  saints.  The  couiicilof  "I'rent  ex- 
pressly teaches,  that  the  saints  who  reign 
with  Jesus  Christ  offer  up  their  prayers  to 
God  for  men,  aiid  condemn  those  who 
maintain  the  contrary  doctrine.  I'he  Pi'o- 
testants  censure  and  reject  this  ojMnion,  'as 
contrary  to  scripture  :  deny  the  truth  of  the 
fact ;  and  think  it  highly  unreasonable  to 
suppose  that  a  limited,  finite  Being,  should 
be  in  a  manner  omnipresent,  and,  at  one  and 
tlie  same  tiuie,  hear  and  attend  to  the  pray- 
ers that  are  offered  up  to  him  in  England, 
Cjiina,  and  Peru ;  and  from  hence  infer, 
that,  if  the  saints  cannot  hear  their  request, 
it  is  inconsisteiit  with  coiimon  sense  to  ad- 
dress any  kind  of  prayer  to  them. 

JOACHIMI'l  ES,  'the  disciples  of  Joa- 
chim, abbot  of  Flora,  in  Calabria.  Joachim 
was  a  Cistertian  monk,  and  a  great  preten- 
der to  inspiration.  He  relates  of  himself, 
that,  being  very  young,  he  went  to  Jerusa- 
lem in  the  dress  of  a  hermit  to  visit  the  holy 
places;  and  that,  while  he  was  in  prayer 
to  G  id  in  the  church  of  that  city,  God  com- 
municated to  him,  by  infusion,  the  know- 
ledge of  divine  mysteries,  and  of  the  holy 
scriptures.  He  wrote  against  Lombard  the 
master  of  the  sentences,  who  had  maintain- 
ed that  there  was  but  one  essence  in  God, 
though  there  were  three  persons ;  and  he 
pretended,  that,  since  there  were  three  per- 
sons, there  must  be  three  essences.  This 
dispute  was  in  the  year  1195.  Joachim's 
writings  were  condemned  iby  the  fourth  La- 
teran  council. 

His  followers,  the  Joachimites,  were  par- 
ticularly fond  of  certain  ternaries.  The  Fa- 
ther, they  said,  operated  from  the  beginning 
until  the  coming  of  the  Son ;  the  Son  from 
that  time  to  their's,  viz  the  year  1260;  and 
the  Holy  Spirit  then  ttxik  it  up,  and  was  to 
operate  in  his  turn.  They  likewise  divided 
every  thing  relating  to  men,  doctrine,  and 
manner  of  living,  into  three  classes,  accord- 
ing to  the  three  persons  of  tiie  Trinity.  The 
Jirst  ternary  was  that  of  men ;  of  whom, 
the  first  class  v;as  that  of  married  meii, 
which  had  lasted  during  the  whole  period 
of  the  Father;  the  second  was  that  of  clerks, 
which  lasted  during  the  time  of  the  Son  ; 
and  the  last  was  that  of  Monks,  wherehi 
was  to  be  an  uncommon  effusion  of  grace  by 
the  Holy  Spirit.  The  second  ternary  was 
that  of  doctrine,  viz.  the  Old  Testament,  the 
New,  and  the  eveilasting  Gospel :  the  first 
they  ascribed  to  the  Fatiier,  the  second  to 
the  Son,  and  third  to  the  H^ly  Spirit.  A 
third  ternary  consisted  in  the  manner  of 
living,  viz.  under  the  Father,  men  lived  ac- 
cording to  the  liesh ;  undex'  the  Son,  they 


ISB 


236 


III 


lived  according  to  the  flesh  and  the  spirit ; 
and  undei*  the  Holy  Ghost,  they  were  to  live 
afccording  to  the  synrit  only. 

JOHN,  ST.     Chriatians  of.    See  Chris- 
tians. 

JOY,  a  dflight  of  the  mind  arising  from 
the  consideration  of  a  present  or  assurtd  aj)- 
proaching  possession  of  a  future  good.  Wiien 
it  is  moderate,  it  \^  aWcfX  giadneas  ;  when 
raised  on  a  sudden  to  the  highest  degree,  it 
is  then  exultation  ov  tra?2f-!jtort ;  when  we 
limit  our  desires  by  our  possessions,  it  is 
contentJnent ;  wlien  our  desires  are  raised 
high,  and  yet  accorophshed,  this  is  called 
satixfaclmi ;  when  our  joy  is  derived  tVon\ 
some  comical  occasion  or  amusement,  it  is 
■mirth  ;  if  it  arise  from  considerable  ojjposi- 
tinn  that  is  vanquished  in  the  pursuit  of  the 
good  we  desire,  it  is  then  called  triiiDi/i/i ; 
when  joy  lias  so  long  possessed  the  mind 
that  it  is  settled  into  a  temper,  we  call  it 
cheerfulness  ;  when  we  rejoice  upon  the  ac- 
count of  any  good  which  others  obtain,,  it 
may  be  cahed  syvijxathy  or  congratulaiion. 
This  is  natural  joy  ;  but  there  is,~2.  A 
moral  joy,  which  is  a  self-approbation,  or 
that  which  arises  from  the  performance  of 
any  good  actions;  this  is  called  peace,  or 
serenity  of  conscience :  if  the  action  be  hon- 
ourable, and  the  joy  rise  high  it  may  be  cal- 
led glory. — 3.  There  is  also  a  ajiiritual  joy, 
which  the  scripture  calls  a  "  fruit  of  the 
Spirit,"  Gal.  v.  22.  "  tlie  joy  of  faith,"  Phil, 
i.  25.  and  "  the  rejoicing  of  hope,"  Heb,  iii. 
6.  The  objects  of  it  are,  1.  God  himself, 
Ps.  xhii.  4.  Is.  kd.  10—2.  Christ,  Phil.  iii. 
3.  1  Pet.  i.  8. — 3.  The  promises,  Ps.  cxix. 
162. — 4.  The  administration  of  the  Gospel, 
and  Gospel  ordinances,  Ps  ixxxix.  15 — 5. 
The  prosperity  of  the  interest  of  Clnist, 
Acts  XV.  3.  Rev.  xi.  15,  IT. — 6.  The  hap- 
piness of  a  future  state,  Rom.  v.  2.  Matt.  xxv. 
The  nature  and  firofiertics  of  this  joy  :  1.  It 
is  or  should  be  constant,  Phil.  iv.  4.-2  It 
is  unknown  to  the  men  of  the  world,  1  Cor. 
ii.  14. — 3.  It  is  unspeakable,  1  Pet.  i.  8. —  4. 
It  is  permanent,  John  xvi.  22.  Watts  on 
Passions,  sect.  11.  Gill's  Body  of  Divinity, 
p.  111.  od  vol.  8vo.  edition;  Grove's  IMoral 
Philosophy,  vol.  i.  p.  356. 

JOY  OF  GOD  relates.  1.  To  the  delight 
and  complacency  lie  has  in  himself,  his  own- 
nature  and  perfections  — 2.  He  rejoices  in 
his  own  works,  Ps.  civ  31. — 3.  In  his  Son 
Christ  Jesus,  Matt.  iii.  17.— 4.  In  the  work 
of  redemption,  John  iii.  15 — 5.  In  the  sub- 
jects of  his  grace,  Ps.  cxlvii.  11.  Zcph.  iii. 
17.  Ps.  cxlix.  4. 

IRRESISTIBLE  GRACE.  See  Grace 

ISBRANIKI,  a  denomination  which  aj) 
peared  in  Russia  about  the  year  1666,  and 
assumed  this  name,  which  signifies  the  mul- 
titude of  the  elect.  But  they  were  called 
by  their  adversaries  Rolskolsnika,  or  the  se- 
ditious faction.  They  professed  a  rigorous  zeal 
for  the  letter  of  the  holy  scri])tures.  They 
maintained  that  there  is  no  subordination 
«f  rank  among  the  faithfvil,  and  that  a  Chris- 
tian may  kill  himself  for  the  love  of  Clirist. 


ISRAELITES,  the  descendants  of  Israel, 
who  were  at  first  called  Hebrews,  by  reason 
of  Abraham,  who  came  from  the  other  side 
of  the  Euphrates;  and  afterwards  Israelites, 
fropa  Israel,  the  father  of  the  twelve  patri- 
archs ;  and  lastly,  Jews,  particularly  after 
their  return  from  the  captivity  of  Babylon, 
because  the  tribe  of  Judah  was  then  much 
stronger  and  more  numerous  than  the  other 
tribes,  and  foreigners  had  scarce  any  know- 
ledge of  this  tribe.  For  the  histoiy  of  this 
peoi)le,  see  article  Jews. 

rilNERAN  r  PREACHERS,  those  who 
are  not  settled  over  any  particular  congre- 
gation, but  go  from  place  to  place  for  the 
purpose  of  preaching  to,  and  instructing  the 
Ignorant.  A  great  deal  has  been  said  against 
persons  of  this  description  ;  and  it  must  be 
acknowledged,  that  there  would  not  be  so 
much  necessity  for  them,  were  every  min- 
ister of  his  parish  to  do  his  duty.  But  the 
sad  declension  of  morals  in  many  places; 
the  awful  ignorance  that  prevails  as  to  God 
and  real  religion  ;  the  little  or  no  exertion 
of  those  who  are  the  guides  of  the  people  ; 
"  villages  made  up  of  a  train  of  idle,  pi-o- 
fligate,  and  miserable  poor,  and  where  the 
barbarous  rhymes  in  their  cluirch-yards  in- 
form us  that  they  are  all  either  gone  or  go- 
ing to  heaven  :"  these  things,  with  a  variety 
of  others,  form  a  sufficient  reason  for  every 
able  and  benevolent  person  to  step  forward, 
and  to  do  all  that  he  can  to  enhghten  the 
minds,  lessen  the  miseries,  and  promote 
the  welfare  of  his  fellow-creatures.  A  cler- 
gyman of  the  church  of  iMigland,  of  re- 
s[;ectable  talents,  very  judiciously  observes, 
that  "  Notwitlistanding  the  prejudices  of 
mankind,  and  the  indiscretions  of  some  in- 
dividuals, an  itinerant  teacher  is  one  of  the 
most  horiourable  and  useful  characters  that 
can  be  found  upon  tlie  earth  ;  and  there 
needs  no  other  proof  than  the  experience 
of  the  church  in  all  ages,  that,  when  this 
work  is  done  properly  and  with  i)erseve- 
rance,  it  forms  the  grand  method  of  spread- 
ing wide,  and  rendering  efficacious  religious 
knowledge,  for  great  reformations  and  re- 
vivals of  religion  have  uniformly  been  thus 
effected  ;  and  it  is  especially  sanctioned  by 
the  exan^ple  of  Christ  and  his  apostles,  and 
recommended  as  the  divine  method  cf 
spreading  the  Gospel  through  the  nations  of 
the  earth  ;  itinerant  preaching  having  al- 
most always  preceded  ar.d  made  way  for 
the  solid  ministry  of  regular  pastors.  But 
it  is  a  work  which  requires  peculiar  talents 
and  dispositions,  and  a  peculiar  call  in  God'.s 
providence  ;  and  is  not  rashly  a)i(l  hastily 
to  be  ventured  upon  by  every  novice  who 
has  learned  to  speak  about  the  Gospel, 
aiid  has  more  zeal  than  knowledge,  pru- 
dence, humility,  or  experience.  An  un- 
blemished character,  a  disinterested  spirit, 
and  exemplary  deadness  to  the  world,  un- 
affected humility,  deep  acquaintance  with 
the  human  heart,  and  preparation  for  en- 
during the  cross  not  only  with  boldness,  but 
with  meekness,  patience,  and  sweetness  of 


JUD 


237 


JUD 


temper,   are    indispensably  necessaiy  for 
such  a  service." 

JUBILEE,  a  public  festivity. — Among 
the  Jev's  it  was  held  eveiy  49th  or  50th  year. 
It  was  proclaimed  with  the  sound  of  ram's 
horns :  no  servile  work  was  done  on  it ; 
the  land  lay  untitled :  what  grew  of  itself 
belonged  to  the  poor  and  needy ;  whatever 
debts  the  Hebrews  owed  to  one  another 
were  wholly  remitted :  hired  as  well  as 
bond  servants  Of  the  Hebrew  race  obtained 
their  liberty  ;  inheritances  reverted  to  their 
original  proprietors.  See  25th  chap.  Levi- 
ticus. Jubilee  in  a  more  modem  sense,  de- 
notes a  grand  church  solemnity  or  ceremo- 
ny celebrated  at  Rome,  wherein  the  pope 
grants  a  plenary  indulgence  to  all  sinners ; 
at  least  to  as  many  as  visit  the  churches  of 
St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul,  at  Rome.  The  ju- 
bilee was  first  established  by  Boniface  VIL 
in  loOO,  which  was  only  to  return  every 
hundred  years:  but  the  lirst  celebration 
brought  in  such  score  of  wealth,  that  Cle~  ( 
ment  VL  in  1343,  reduced  it  to  the  period 
of  fifty  years.  Urban  VL  in  1389,  appoint- 
ed it  to  be  held  every  thirty-five  years, 
that  being  the  age  of  our  Saviour  ;  and  Paul 
IL  and  Sixtus  IV.  in  1475,  brought  it  down 
to  every  twenty-five,  that  every  person 
might  have  the  benefit  of  it  once  in  his 
life.  Boniface  IX.  granted  the  privilege  of 
holding  jubilees  to  several  princes  and  mo- 
nasteries ;  for  instance,  to  monks  of  Can- 
terbury, who  had  a  jubilee  every  fifty  years, 
when  jjeople  Recked  from  all  parts  to  visit 
the  tomb  of  Thomas-a-Becket.  Afterwards 
jubilees  became  more  frequent :  there  is 
generally  one  at  the  inauguration  of  a  new 
pope ;  and  the  pope  grants  them  as  often  as 
the  church  or  himself  have  occasion  for 
them.  To  be  entitled  to  the  privileges  of 
the  jubilee,  the  bull  enjoins  fasting,  alms, 
and  prayers.  It  gives  the  priests  a-  full 
power  to  absolve  in  all  cases,  even  those 
otherwise  reserved  to  the  pope  ;  to  make 
commutations  of  vows,  5cc.  in  which  it  dif- 
fers from  a  plenary  indulgence.  During 
tiie  time  of  jubilee,  all  other  indulgences 
are  suspended.  One  of  our  kings,  viz.  Ed- 
ward 111.  caused  his  birth-day  to  be  observ- 
ed in  the  manner  of  a  jubilee,  when  he  be- 
came fifty  years  of  age,  in  1362,  but  never 
before  nor  after.  This  he  did  l)y  releasing 
prisoners,  pardoning  all  offences  except 
treason,  making  good  laws,  and  granting 
many  privileges  to  the  people.  In  1640, 
the  Jesuits  celebrated  a  solemn  jul)ilee  at 
Rome,  that  being  the  centenai-v,  or  hun- 
dredth year  from  their  institution  ;  and  the 
same  ceremony  was  obser\  ed  in  all  their 
houses  throusjhout  the  world. 

JUDAISING  CHRISTIANS:  the  first 
rise  of  this  denomination  is  placed  under 
the  reign  of  Adrian.  For  when  this  empe- 
ror, had  at  length  razed  Jerusalem,  entirely 
destroyed  its  very  foundation,  and  enacted 
laws  of  the  severest  kind  against  the  whole 
body  of  the  Jewish  people,  the  gre.atest 
part  of  the  Christians  who  lived  in  Pales- 


tine, to  prevent  their  being  confounded  with 
the  Jews,  abandoned  entirely  the  Mosaic 
rites,  and  chose  a  bishop,  viz.  Mark,  a  fo- 
reigner by  nation,  and  an  alien  from  the 
commonwealth  of  Israel.  Those  who  were 
strongly  attached  to  the  Mosaic  rites  sepa- 
rated from  their  brethren,  and  founded  at 
Pera,  a  country  of  Palestine,  and  in  the 
neighbouring  parts,  particular  assemblies,  in 
which  the  law  of  Moses  maintained  its  pri- 
mitive dignity,  authority,  and  lustre.  The 
body  of  Judaising  Christians,  which  set  Mo- 
ses and  Christ  upon  an  equal  footing  iij 
point  of  authority,  were  afterwards  divided 
into  two  sects,  extremely  different  both  in 
their  rites  and  opinions  and  distinguished 
by  the  names  of  Nazarcnes,  and  Ebionites, 
which  see. 

JUDAISM,  the  religious  doctrines  and 
rites  of  the  Jews,  the  descendants  of  Abra- 
ham. Judaism  was  but  a  temporary  dis- 
pensation and  was  to  give  way,  at  least  the 
ceremonial  part  of  it,  at  the  coming  of  the 
Messiah.  The  principal  sects  among  the 
Jews  were  the  Pharisees,  who  placed  reli- 
gion in  external  ceremony  ;  the  Sadducees, 
who  were  remarkable  for  their  incredulity; 
and  the  Essenes,  who  were  distinguished 
for  their  austere  sanctity.  At  present,  the 
Jews  have  two  sects ;  the  Caraites,  who 
admit  no  rule  of  religion  but  the  law  of  Mo- 
ses ;  and  the  Rabbinists,  who  add  to  the 
law  the  traditions  of  the  Talmud.  See 
those  articles,  and  books  recommended  un- 
der articles  Jews,  in  this  work. 

JUDGING  RASH,  the  act  of  carelessly, 
precipitately,  wantonly,  or  maliciously  cen- 
suring others.  This  is  an  evil  which  abounds 
too  much  among  almost  all  classes  of  men. 
"  Not  contented  with  being  in  the  right  our- 
selves, we  must  find  all  others  in  the 
wrong.  We  claim  an  exclusive  posser^sion 
of  goodness  and  wisdom ;  and  from  approv- 
ing warmly  of  those  who  join  us,  we  pro- 
ceed to  condemn  with  much  acrimony,  not 
only  the  principles,  but  the  characters  of 
those  from  whom  we  dift'er.  We  rashly 
extend  to  every  individual  the  severe  opi- 
nion which  we  have  unwarrantably  conceiv- 
ed of  a  whole  body.  This  man  is  of  a  par- 
ty whose  principles  we  reckon  slavish  :  and 
therefore  his  whole  sentiments  are  corrupt- 
ed. That  man  belongs  to  a  religious  sect, 
which  we  are  accustomed  to  deem  b'goted, 
aiid  therefore  he  is  incapable  of  any  gene- 
rous and  liberal  thought.'  Another  is  con- 
nected with  a  sect  which  we  have  been 
taught  to  account  relaxed,  and  therefore  he 
can  have  no  sanctity.  We  should  do  well 
to  consider.  1.  That  this  practice  of  rash 
judging  is  absolutely  forbidden  in  the  sacred 
scriptures.  Matt.  vii.  1. — 2.  We  thereby 
authorize  others  to  requite  us  in  the  same 
kind. — 3.  It  often  evidences  our  pride,  envy, 
and  bigotry. — 4.  It  argues  a  want  of  chari- 
ty, the  disiinguishing  feature  of  the  Chris- 
tian religion — 5.  They  who  are  most  for- 
ward in  censuring  others  are  often  most 
defective   themselves.     Harrow's    Works, 


JUD 


238 


J  UD 


vol.  i.  ser.  20.    Blair's  Ser.  ser.  10.  vol.  ii. 
Saurin's  Sermo7is,  ser.  4    vol.  v. 

JUDGMENT  is  that  act  of  the  mind 
whereby  one  thing  is  affirmed  or  denied  of 
another ;  or  that  power  of  the  soul  whicli 
passes  sentence  on  things  proposed  to  its  ex- 
amination, and  determines  what  is  right  or 
wrong ;  and  thus  it  approves  or  disapproves 
of  an  action,  or  an  object  considered  as 
true  or  false,  fit  or  unfit,  good  or  evil.  Dr. 
Watts  gives  us  the  following  directions  to 
assist  us  in  judging  right.  1.  We  should 
examine  all  our  old  opinions  afresh,  and  in- 
quire what  was  the  ground  of  them,  and 
whether  our  assent  were  built  on  just  evi- 
dence ;  and  then  we  should  cast  cfl'  all 
those  judgments  which  were  formed  here- 
tofore without  due  examination.— 3.  All  our 
ideas  of  objects,  concerning  which  we  pass 
judgment,  should  be  clear,  distinct,  com- 
plete^ comprehensive,  extensive,  and  order- 
ly.— 3.  When  we  have  obtained  as  clear 
ideas  as  we  can,  both  of  the  subject  and 
and  predicate  of  a  proposition,  then  we  must 
compare  those  ideas  of  the  subject  and  pre- 
dicate together  with  the  utmost  attention, 
and  observe  how  far  they  agree,  and  where- 
in they  ditfer. — 4.  We  must  search  for  evi- 
dence  of  truth  with  diligence  and  honesty, 
and  be  heartily  ready  to  receive  evidence, 
whether  for  the  agreement  or  disagreement 
of  ideas. — 5  We  must  suspend  our  judg- 
ment, and  neither  affirm  or  deny  until  this 
evidence  appear— 6.  We  must  judge  of 
every  proposition  by  those  proper  and  pe- 
culiar means  or  mediums  whereby  the  evi- 
dence of  it  is  to  be  obtained,  whether  it  be 
sense,  consciousness,  intelligence,  reason,  or 
testimony.— 7.  It  is  verv  useful  to  have 
some  general  principles  of  truth  settled  in 
the  mind,  whose  evidence  is  great  and  ob- 
vious, that  they  may  be  always  ready  at 
hand  to  assist  us  in  judging  of  the  great  va- 
riety of  things  which  occur. — 8.  Let  the 
degrees  of  our  assent  to  everv  proposition 
bear  an  exact  proportion  to  the'different  de- 
grees of  evidence— 9.  We  should  keep  our 
minds  always  open  to  receive  truth,  and  ne- 
ver .set  hmits  to  our  own  improvements. 
Walts'  Logic,  ch.  4.  p.  231.  Locke  o?i  the 
Understanding,  p.  222,  256.  vol.  i.  p.  271. 
278.  vol.  ii.  Duncan's  L^ogic,  p.  14.'>. 
Reid  on  the  Intellcctvai  Po'ivers,  p.  497, 
&c  '  1  ' 

JUDGMENT  LAST,  the  sentence  that 
will  be  passed  on   our  actions  at    the    last 

1,  The  proofs  of  a  general  judgment  are 
these  :  1.  Tlie  justice  of  God  requires  it ; 
ff)r  it  is  <;vident  that  this  attribute  is  not 
clearly  displayed  in  the  dispensation  of 
tilings  in  the  present  state.  2  Tlicss.  i.  6, 
7.  Luke  xiv.  26. — 2.  The  acrusatinns  of 
natural  consrience  ate  testimonies  in  favour 
of  this  belief,  Rom.  ii.  \5.  Dan.  v.  5,  6. 
Acts  xxiv.  25.  —3.  It  mav  l)e  concluded 
from  the  relation  men  stand  in  to  find,  as 
creatures  to  a  Creator.  He  has  a  right  to 
give  them  a  law,  and  to  make  them  account- 


able for  the  breach  of  it,  Rom.  xiv.  12 4. 

The  resurrection  of  Christ  is  a  certain  proof 

of  it.    See  Acts  xvii.  31.    Rom.  xiv.  9. 5, 

The  Scripture,  in  a  variety  of  places,  sets 
it  beyond  all  doubt,  Jude  xiv.  15.  2  Cor. 
V.  10.  Matt.  XXV  Rom.  xiv.  10,  11.  2 
Thess.  i.  7.  10.     1  Thess  iv.  16,  17. 

II.  As  to  the  Judge  :  the  Bible  declares 
that  God  will  judge  the  world  by  Jesus 
Christ,  Acts  xvii  31.  The  triune  (iod 
will  be  the  Judge,  as  to  original  authority, 
power,  and  right  of  judgment  ;  but  accord- 
ing to  the  economy  settled  between  the 
three  Divine  persons,  the  work  is  assigned 
to  the  Son,  Romans  xiv.  9,  10.  who  will  ap- 
pear in  his  human  nature,  John  v.  27. 
Acts  xvii.  31.  with  great  power  and  glory. 
1  Thess.  iv.  16,  17.  visible  to  every  eye. 
Rev.  i.  7.  penetrating  every  heart,  1  Cor. 
iv.  5.  Rom.  ii,  16.  with  full  authority  over 
all.  Matt,  xxviii.  18.  and  acting  with  strict 
justice,  2  Tim.  iv.  8.  As  for  the  concern 
of  others  in  the  judgment:  angels  will  be 
no  otherwise  concerned  than  as  attendants, 
gathering  the  elect,  raising  the  dead,  &c. 
but  not  as  advising  or  judging.  Saints  are 
said  to  judge  the  world ;  not  as  co-judges 
with  Christ,  but  as  approvers  of  his  sentence, 
and  as  their  holy  lives  and  conversations  will 
rise  up  in  judgment  against  their  wicked 
neighbours. 

III,  As  to  the  persons  that  nvill  be  judg- 
ed ;  these  will  be  men  and.  devils.  The 
righteous,  probably  will  be  tried  first,  as 
represented  in  Matt.  xxv.  They  will  be 
raised  first,  though  perhaps  not  a  thousand 
years  before  the  rest,  as  Dr.  Gill  supposes  ; 
since  the  resurrection  of  all  the  bodies  of 
the  saints  is  spoken  of  as  in  a  moment,  in 
the  twinkling  of  an  eye,  at  the  last  trump 
in  order  to  their  meeting  the  Lord  in  the 
air,  and  being  Avith  him  not  on  earth,  but 
for  ever  in  heaven,  1  Cor.  xv.  52.  1  Thess. 
iv.  16,  17. 

Here  we  may  take  notice  of  a  difficult 
question  which  is  proposed  by  some,  name- 
ly, Whether  the  sins  of  God's  people  shall 
be   published  in  the  great  day,    though  it 
is  certain  they  shall  not  be  alleged   against 
them  to  their  condemnation  ?  "  This,"  says 
Dr.  Ridgley,  "  is  one  of  the  secret  things 
which   belong  to  God,  which  he  has    not 
so   fully  or   clearly    revealed    to  us   in   his 
word  ;  and  therefore  we  can  say  little  more  : 
than  what  is  matter  of  conjecture  about  it. 
Some   have  thought  that  the    sins  of   the 
godly,  though  forgiven,  shall  be  made  mani-; 
test,' that  so  the  glory  of  that  grace  which! 
has  pardoned  them  may  appear  more  illus- 
trious, and  their  obligation  to  God  for  this 
farther    enhanced.       They  also  think,  that 
the  justice  of  the  proceedings  of  that  day 
rcfjuires  it,   since  it  is  presumed  and  known 
by  tlie  wliole  world  that  they  were  prone  to  . 
sin,   as  well   as  others ;  and  l)efore  conver- ' 
sion,  as  great  sinners  as   any,    and   after  it 
their    sins     liad     a    peculiar    aggravation. 
Therefore,  why  should  not  tney  be  made 
public,  as  a  glory  due  to  the  justice  and 


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239 


JUD 


holiness  of  God,  whose  nature  is  opposite  to 
all  sin  ?  And  this  they  farther  suppose  to 
be  necessary,  that  so  the  impartiality  of 
Divine  Justice  may  appear.  Moreover, 
since  God,  by  recording  the  sins  of  his 
saints  in  scripture,  has  perpetuated  the 
knowledge  thereof;  and  if  it  is  to  their 
honour  that  the  sins  there  mentioned  were 
repented  of,  as  well  as  forgiven,  why  may  it 
not  be  supposed  that  the  sit;s  of  believers 
shall  be  made  known  in  the  great  day  ? 
And,  besides,  this  seems  agreeable  to  those 
expressions  of  every  v/ord,  and  every 
action,  as  being  to  be  brought  into  judg- 
ment, whether  it  be  good,  or  whether  it  be 
bad. 

"  But  it  is  supposed  by  others,  that 
though  the  making  known  of  sin  that  is 
subdued  and  forgiven,  tends  to  the  advance- 
ment of  divine  grace,  yet  it  is  sufficient  to 
answer  this  end,  as  far  as  God  designs  it 
shall  be  answered,  that  the  sins  which  have 
been  sutxlued  and  forgiven,  should  be 
known  to  themselves,  and  thus  forgiveness 
afford  matter  of  praise  to  God.  Again  ;  the 
expi'essions  of  scripture,  whereby  forgive- 
ness of  sin  is  set  forth,  are  such  as  seem  to 
argue  that  those  sins  which  were  forgiven 
shall  not  be  made  manifest :  thus  they  are 
said  to  be  blotted  out,  Isa.  xliii.  25.  co-verecl, 
Ps.  xxxii,  1.  subdued  and  cast  into  the 
defiths  o/ Mesea,  Micah  vii.  19.  and  rewem- 
bercd  no  more,  &c.  Jer.  xxxi.  34.  Besides, 
Christ's  being  a  judge,  doth  not  divest  him 
of  the  character  of  an  advocate,  whose  part 
is  rather  to  conceal  the  crimes  of  those 
whose  cause  he  pleads,  than  to  divulge 
them  :  and  to  this  we  may  add,  that  tiie 
law,  which  requires  duty,  and  forbids  the 
contrary  sins,  is  not  the  rule  by  which  thev 
who  are  in  Christ  are  to  be  proceeded 
against,  for  then  they  could  not  stand  in 
judgment  ;  but  they  are  dealt  with  accord- 
ing to  the  tenor  of  the  Gospel,  which  for- 
gives and  covers  all  sin.  And,  farther,  it 
is  argued  that  the  public  declaring  of  all 
their  sins  before  the  whole  world,  notwith- 
standing their  interest  in  forgiving  gi'ace, 
would  fill  them  with  such  shame  as  is  hard- 
ly consistent  with  a  state  of  perfect  bless- 
edness. And,  lastly,  the  principal  argu- 
ment insisted  on  is,  that  our  Saviour,"  in 
Mat.  XXV.  in  which  he  gives  a  parti- 
cular account  of  the  proceedings  of  that 
day,  makes  no  mention  of  the  sins,  but 
only  commends  the    graces   of  his  saints." 

As  to  the  wicked,  they  shall  be  judt^ed, 
and  all  their  thoughts,  words,  and  deeds. 
be  brought  into  judgment,  Ecc.  xii.  14.  The 
fallen  angels,  also,  are  said  to  be  reserved 
unto  the  judgment  of  the  great  day,  Jude  6. 
They  shall  receive  their  final  .sentence,  ar.d 
be  shut  up  in  the  prison  of  hell.  Rev.  xx.  10, 
Matt.  viii.  29. 

IV.  As  to  the  rule  of  Judgment :  we  are 
informed  tiie  books  wil"  be  opened.  Rev. 
XX.  12. — 1.  The  book  of  divine  omnisc'ence, 
Mai.  iii.  5.  or  remembrance,  Mai.  iii.  l(j  — 
2.  The  baok  of  conscience,  Rom.  i.  1.5. — 3. 


The  book  of  Providence,  Rom.  ii.  4,  5. — 4. 
The  book  of  the  Scriptures,  law,  and  Gos- 
pel, John  xii.  48.  Rom.  ii.  16.  ii.  12. — 5. 
riie  book  of  life,  Luke  x.  20.  Rev.  iii.  5. 
XX.  12,  15. 

V.  jis  to  the  Ihne  of  Judgment  ;  the 
soul  will  be  either  happy  or  miserable  im- 
mediately after  death,  but  the  general  judg- 
ment will  not  be  till  after  the  resurrection, 
Heb.  ix.  27.  There  is  a  day  appointed, 
Acts  xvii.  31.  but  it  is  unknown  to  men. 

VI.  As  to  the  place  :  this  also  is  uncer- 
tain. Some  suppose  it  will  be  in  the  air, 
because"  the  Judge  will  come  in  the  clouds 
of  heaven,  and  the  living  saints  will  then  be 
changed,  and  the  dead  saints  raised,  and 
both  be  caught  up  to  meet  the  Lord  in  the 
air,  1  Thes.  iv.  16,  17.  Otliers  think  it 
will  be  on  the  earth,  on  the  new  earth,  on 
which  they  will  descend  from  the  air  with 
Christ.  The  place  nvhere,  however,  is  of 
no  consequence,  when  compared  with  the 
state  in  which  we  shall  appear.  And  as 
the  scriptures  represent  it  as  certain,  Ecc. 
xi.  9,  unrveriil,  2  Cor.  v.  12.  righteous, 
Rom.  ii.  5.  decisive,  1  Cor.  xv.  52.  and 
eternal  as  to  its  consequences,  Heb.  vi.  2, 
let  us  be  concerned  for  the  welfare  of  our 
immortal  interests,  flee  to  the  refuge  set 
before  us,  improve  our  precious  time,  de- 
pend on  the  merits  of  the  Redeemer,  and 
adhere  to  the  dictates  of  the  Divine  word, 
that  we  may  be  found  of  him  in  peace. 
Bate's  Works,  p.  449.  Bisho/i  Hopkins 
and  Stoddard  on  the  Last  Judgment.  Gill's 
tiody  of  Divinity,  467,  vol.  i.  8vo.  Boston's 
Fourfold  State.  Hervey's  Works.;  new 
edition,  p.  72,  75,  vol,i.  155,  vol.  iv.  82, 
233.  vol.  iii. 

JUDGMENTS  OF  GOD,  are  the  pun- 
ishments inflicted  by  him  for  particular 
crimes.  'I'lie  scriptures  give  us  many 
awful  instances,  of  the  display  of  Divine 
Justice,  in  the  punishment  of  nations,  fami- 
Ues,  and  individuals,  for  their  iniquities. 
See  Gen.  vii.  xix.  25.  Exod.  xv.  Judges 
i.  6,  7.  Acts  xii.  23.  Esther  v.  14.  with 
chap.  vii.  10.  2  Kings  xi.  Lev.  x.  1,  2. 
Acts  V.  1 — 19.  Is.  xxx.  1 — 5.  1  Sam.  xv. 
9.  1  Kings  xii.  25,  33.  It  becomes  us,  how- 
ever, to  be  exceedingly  cautious  how  wc 
interpret  the  severe  and  afflictive  dispen- 
sations of  Providence.  Dr.  Jortin  justly 
observes,  that  there  -s  usually  much  rash- 
ness and  presumption  in  pronouncing  that 
the  calamities  of  sinners  are  particular 
judgments  of  God  :  yet,  saith  he,  if  from 
sacred  and  profane,  from  ancierit  and  mo- 
dern historians,  a  collection  were  made  of 
all  the  cruel  persecuting  tyrants  who  de- 
lighted in  tormenting  their  fellow  crea- 
tures, and  Avho  died  not  the  common  death 
of  ail  men,  nor  were  visited  after  the  visi- 
tation of  all  men,  but  whose  plagiies  were 
horrible  and  strange,  even  a-sceptic  would 
be  moved  at  the  e\  idence,  and  would  be  ap" 
to  suspect  that  it  was  •3^£!«>'  t's  that  tiie 
hand  of  God  was  in  it.  As  Dr.  Jortin  was 
no  enthusiast,  and  one  who  would  not  ever- 


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240 


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strain  tlie  point,  we  shall  here  principally 
follow  him  in  his  enumeration  of  some  of  the 
most  remarkable  instances. 

Herod  the  Great  was  the  first  persecutor 
of  Cliristianity.  He  attempted  to  destroy 
Jesus  Christ  himself,  Avhile  he  was  yet  but  a 
child,  and  for  that  wicked  purpose  slew  all 
the  male  children  that  were  in  and  about 
Bethlehem.  What  was  the  consequence? 
Josephus  hath  told  us :  he  had  long  and 
grievous  suflerings,  a  burning  fever,  a  vora- 
cious appetite,  a  difficulty  of  breathing, 
swellings  in  his  limbs,  loathsome  ulcers 
within  and  without,  breeding  vermin,  vio- 
lent torments  and  convulsions,  so  that  he 
endeavoured  to  kill  himself,  but  was  re- 
strained by  his  friends.  The  Jews  thought 
these  evils  to  be  divine  judgments  upon  him 
for  his  wickedness.  And  vvhat  is  still  more 
remarkable  iiv  his  case  is,  he  left  a  nume- 
rous family  of  children,  and  grand-children, 
though  he  had  put  some  to  death,  and  yet 
in  about  the  space  of  one  hundred  years 
the  whole  family  was  extinct. 

Herod  Antipa's,  who  beheaded  John  the 
Baptist,  and  treated  Christ  contemptuously 
when  he  was  brought  before  him,  was  de- 
feated by  Aretas  an  Arabian  king,  and  after- 
wards had  his  dominions  taken  from  him, 
and  was  sent  into  banishment  along  with  his 
infamous  wife  Herodias,  by  the  emperor 
Caius. 

Herod  Agrippa  killed  James  the  brother 
of  John,  and  put  Peter  in  prison.  The 
angel  of  the  Lord  soon  after  smote  him, 
and  he  was  eaten  of  worms,  and  gave  up  the 
ghost. 

Judas,  that  betrayed  cur  Lord,  died,  by 
his  own  hands,  the  most  ignominious  of  all 
deaths. 

Pontius  Pilate,,  who  condemned  our  bless- 
ed Saviour  to  death,  was,  not  long  after- 
wards deposed  from  his  office,  banished  from 
his  country,  and  died  by  his  own  hands  :  tlie 
Divine  vengeance  overtaking  him  soon  after 
his  crime. 

The  high  priest  Caiaphas,  was  deposed 
by  Viteliius,  three  years  after  the  death  of 
Christ.  Thus  this  wicked  man,  who  con- 
demned Christ  for  fear  of  disobliging  the 
Romans,  was  ignominiously  turned  out  of  his 
office  by  tlie  Roman  governor  whom  he  had 
sought  to  oblige. 

Ananias,  the  high-priest,  persecuted  St. 
Paul,  and  insolently  ordered  the  bye-stand- 
ers  to  smite  him  on  the  mouth.  Upon  which 
the  apostle  said,  God.  sliall  smite  thee,  thou 
'luhited  wall.  Whether  he  spake  this  pro- 
phetically or  not,  may  be  difficult  to  say  ; 
but  certain  it  is,  that  some  time  after  he 
was  slain,  together  with  his  brother,  by  his 
own  son. 

Ananus,  the  high-priest,  slew  St.  James 
the  Less  ;  for  which  and  other  outrages  he 
was  deposed  by  king  Agrippa  the  younger, 
and  probably  perished  in  the  last  destruction 
of  Jerusalem. 

Nero,  in  the  year  i,ixtv-four,  turned  his 


rage  upon  the  Christians,  and  put  to  deatii 
Peter  and  Paul,  with  many  others.  Four 
years  after,  in  his  great  distress,  he  attempt- 
ed to  kill  himself ;  but  being  as  mean-spi- 
rited and  dastardly  as  he  was  wicked  and 
cruel,  he  had  not  the  resolution  to  do  that 
piece  of  justice  to  the  world,  and  was  forced 
to  beg  assistance. 

Domitian  persecuted  the  Christians  also. 
i  It  is  said  he  threw  St.  John  into  a  caldron 
of  boihng  oil,  and  afterwards  banished  him 
into  the  isle  of  Patmos.  In  the  following 
year  this  monster  of  wickedness  was  mur- 
dered by  his  own  people. 

The  Jewish  nation  persecuted,  reject- 
ed, and  ci'ucified  the  Lord  of  glory.  VVith- 
in  a  few  years  after,  their  nation  was  de- 
stroyed, and  ihe  Lord  made  their  plagues 
wonderful. 

Flaccus  was  governor  of  Egypt  near  the 
time  of  our  Saviour's  death,  and  a  violent 
persecutor  of  the  Jews.  The  wrath  of  God, 
however,  ere  long  overtook  him,  and  he  died, 
by  the  hands  of  violence. 

Catullus  was  govei-nor  of  Lybia  about 
the  year  seventy-three.  He  was  also  a 
cruel  persecutor  of  the  Jews,  and  he  died 
miserably.  For  though  he  was  only  turned 
out  of  his  office  by  the  Romans,  yet  he 
fell  into  a  complicated  and  incurable  die- 
ease,  being  sorely  tormented  both  in  body 
and  mind.  He  was  dreadfully  terrified, 
and  continually  ciying  out  that  he  was 
haunted  by  the  ghosts  of  those  whom  he 
had  murdered  ;  and,  not  being  able  to  con- 
tain himself,  he  leaped  out  of  his  bed,  as  if 
he  were  tortured  with  fire  and  put  to  the 
rack.  His  distemper  increased  till  his 
entrails  were  all  corrupted,  and  came  out 
of  his  body ;  and  thus  he  perished,  as  sig- 
nal an  example  as  ever  was  known  of  the 
divine  justice  lendering  to  the  wicked  accord- 
ing to  their  deeds. 

Caius,  the  Roman  emperor,  was  a  great 
l)ersecutor  of  the  Jews  and  Christians, 
and  a  blasphemer  of  the  God  of  heaven. 
Soon  after  his  atrocities,  however,  he  was 
murdered  by  one  of  his  own  people. 

Sevcrus,  emperor  of  Rome,  was  a  violent 
and  cruel  persecutor  of  the  followers  of 
Christ.  He,  also,  and  all  his  family,  perish- 
ed miserably,  about  the  year  two  hundred 
after  our  Saviour. 

About  the  same  time,  Saturnius,  gover- 
ner  of  Afric,  persecuted  the  Christians,  and 
put  several  of  them  to  death.  Soon  after,  he 
went  blind. 

Heliogabulus,  the  emperor,  brought  a  new 
god  to  Rome,  and  would  needs  compel  all 
his  subjects  to  worship  him.  This  was  suru 
to  have  ended  in  a  persecution  of  the 
Christians.  But,  soon  after,  this  vile  mon- 
ster was  slain  by  his  own  soldiers,  about  the 
year  two  hundred  and  twenty-two. 

Claudius  Herminiatms  was  a  cruel  per- 
secutor of  tlie  Christian.s,  in  the  second 
ceuturv,  and  be  m'us  eaten  of  worms  w'nie 
he  lived. 


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241 


JUD 


Decius  persecuted  the  church  about  the 
year  two  hundred  and  fifty:  he  was  scon 
after  killed  m  battle. 

Gullus  succetdtd,  and  continued  the  per- 
secutiuii.  He,  too,  was  killed  the  year  fol- 
lowihg. 

Valerian,  the  emperor,  had  many  good 
qualiti:  s ;  but  yet  he  was  an  implacable  ene- 
my to  the  Loid  Jesus  Christ  and  his  gospel. 
&)me  time  after  he  came  to  the  throne  he 
was  taktri  prisoner  by  Sapor,  king  of  Per- 
sia, and  used  liki  a  slave  and  a  dog  :  for 
the  Persian  moharch,  fr<im  time  to  time, 
obliged  this  unhappy  t-mptri»r  to  bow  him- 
self down,  and  fffer  him  his  back,  on  which 
to  set  his  font,  in  order  to  mount  his  chariot 
or  his  hwse.  He  died  in  this  miserable  state 
of  captivity. 

iEiiiilian,  govenior  of  Egypt,  about  two 
hundred  and  sixty-three,  was  a  vii-ulent 
persecutor  of  the  church  cf  Christ.  He 
was  soon  after  strangled  by  order  of  the  em- 
peror. 

Aurelian,  the  emperor,  just  intending  to 
begin  a  persecution  against  the  followers  of 
Christ,  was  killed  in  the  year  two  hundred 
and  sevent}'-f<  ur. 

Maximinus  was  a  persecutor  of  the  church 
He  reigned  only  three  years,  and  then  fell 
under  the  har;ds  of  violence. 

About  the  year  three  hundred  was  the 
greatest  possible  contest Ixtween  Christ  and 
the  Roman  emperors,  which  should  have  the 
dominion.  These  illustrious  wretches  seem- 
ed determined  to  blot  out  the  Christian  race 
and  name  from  under  heaven.  The  perse- 
cution was  far  mere  fierce  and  brutal  than 
it  had  ever  been.  It  was  time,  theref.Te, 
for  the  L-rd  Jesus  Christ,  the  great  Head 
of  the  church,  to  arise  and  plead  hi.=;  i^wn 
cause :  and  so,  indeed,  he  did.  The  exam- 
ples we  have  mentioned  are  dre;idful :  these 
that  follow  are  not  less  astonishing,  and  they 
are  all  delivered  upon  the  best  authorities. 

Dioclesian  persecuted  the  church  in  three 
hundred  and  three.  After  this  nothing  ever 
prospered  with  him  He  underwent  many 
troubles;  nis  senses  becime  impaired;  and 
he  quitted  the  empire. 

Severus,  another  persecuting  emperor, 
was  overthrown  and  put  to  death  in  the  year 
three  hundred  and  seven. 

Abcut  the  same  time,  Erbanus,  governor 
of  Palestine,  who  had  signalized  himself  by 
tormenting  and  destroying  the  disciples  of 
Jesus,  met  with  his  due  reward  ;  for  almost 
immediately  after  the  cruelties  committed, 
the  Divine  vengeance  overtook  him.  He 
was  unexpectedly  degraded  and  deprived 
of  all  his  honours  ;  and  dejected,  dispirited, 
and  mean'y  begging  for  mercy,  was  put  to 
dea*h  by  the  same  hand  that  raised  him. 
'  Firmilianus,  another  persecuting  gover- 
nor, met  with  the  same  fate. 

Mazimianus   Herculius,    another  of  the 
wretched  persecuting  emperors,   was  com- 
pelled to  hang  himself  in  the  year  three 
hundred  and  ten. 
Maximianus  Gelerius,  of  all  the  tvrants  of 

Hh 


his  time  the  most  cruel,  was  seized  M'ith  a 
gi-ievous  and  horrible  disease,  and  torment- 
ed with  wornis  and  ulcers  to  such  a  degree, 
that  they  who  v/cve  ordered  to  attend"  him 
Could  not  bear  the  stench.  Worms  pro- 
ceeded from  his  body  in  a  most  fearful  man- 
ner ;  arid  several  <f  his  physicians  were  put 
to  death  becauie  they  could  net  endure  the 
smell,  and  othtrs  because  they  could  not 
cure  him.  This  happened  in  the  year  of 
our  Lord  three  hundred  and  eleven. 

Maxentius,  am  ther  of  the  inhuman  mon- 
sters, was  overthrown  in  battle  by  Coiistan- 
tine ;  and  in  his  flight  he  fell  into  the  Tiber 
and  was  drowned  in  the  year  three  hundred 
and  twelve. 

Maximinus  put  out  the  eyes  cf  many  thou- 
sands ot  Christians.  Socn  after  the  com- 
mission of  his  cruelties,  a  disease  arose 
among  his  own  people,  which  greatly  af- 
fected their  eyes,  and  toc  k  away  their  sight. 
He  himself  died  miserably,  and  upon  the 
]  rack,  his  eyes  starting  out  of  his  head  through 
the  violence  of  his  distemper,  in  the  year 
three  hundred  and  thirteen.  All  his  family 
I  Hkewise  were  destroyed,  his  wife  and  chil- 
dren put  to  death,  together  with  most  of  his 
friends  and  dependants,  who  had  been  the 
instruments  (f  his  c"uelty. 

A  Roman  officer,  to  oblige  this  iVIaximi- 
;  r.us,   greatly  oppressed  the  church   at  Da- 
mascus :  not  long  afier  he  destroyed  him- 
self. 

Licinius,  the  last  of  these  persecuting 
emperors  before  Constar.tina,  was  conquer- 
ed and  put  to  death  in  the  year  three 
hundred  and  twenty-three.  He  was  equal- 
ly an  enemy  to  religion,  liberty,  and  learn- 
ii'g. 

Cyril,  the  Deacon,  was  murdered  by  some 
Png;ins,  at  HeUopClis,  for  his  eppositien  te 
their  images.  They  ripped  cpen  his  bel- 
ly, and  ate  his  hver :  the  Divine  vengeance, 
however,  pursued  all  those  who  had  been 
guilty  of  this  crime;  their  teeth  came  out, 
their  tongues  rotted,  and  they  lost  their 
sight. 

Valens  was  made  emperor  in  the  j'ear 
364;  and  though  a  Christian  himself,  he  is 
said  to  have  caused  fourscore  Presbyter*, 
who  differed  irom  him  in  opinion,  to  be  put 
to  sea,  and  burnt  alive  in  the  ship.  After- 
wards, in  a  battle  with  the  Goths,  he  was 
defeated  and  wounded,  and  fled  to  a  cot- 
tage, where  he  was  burnt  alive,  as  most 
historians  relate  :  all  agree  that  he  perishei 
The  last  Pagan  prince,  who  was  a  for- 
midable enemy  to  Christianity,  was  Radi- 
gaisus,  a  king  ('i  die  Goths.  He  invaded 
the  Roman  empire  with  an  army  of  400,000 
men,  about  the  year  405.  and  vowed  to  sa- 
crifice all  the  Romans  to  his  gods.  The  Ro- 
mans, however,  fought  him,  and  obtained  a 
complete  victorv,  taking  him  and  his  sons 
prisc^ners,  whom  they  put  to  death. 

Hunneric,  the  Vandal,  though  a  Christian, 
was  a  most  cruel  persecutor  of  those  who 
differed  from  him  in  opinion,  about  the  year 
of  our  Lord  484.    Pie  spared  not  even  these 


JUD 


242 


JUS 


of  his  own  persuasion,  neither  his  friends 
nor  his  kindred.  He  reigned,  however,  not 
quite  eight  years,  and  died  with  all  the 
marks  ot  Divine  indignation  upon  him. 

Julian,  tiie  apostate,  greatly  oppressed  the 
Christians :  and  he  perished  soon  after,  in 
his  rash  expedition  against  the  Persians. 

Several  of  those  who  were  employed  or 
permitted  by  Julian  to  persecute  the  Chris- 
tians, are  said  to  have  perisiied  miserably 
and  remarkably.  I  will  here  relate  the  fate 
of  a  few  of  those  unhappy  wretches  in  the 
words  of  Tillemont,  Avho  "faithfully  collected 
the  acciiunt  from  the  ancients  We  have  ob- 
served, says  that  learned  man,  that  count 
Julian,  with  Felix,  supcrintendant  of  the 
finances,  and  Elpidius,  treasurer  to  the  em- 
peror, apostates  all  three,  had  received 
orders  to  go  and  seize  the  eff  cts  of  the 
clmrch  at  Antiuch,  and  carry  them  to  the 
treasury.  They  di".  it  on  the  day  of  the 
martynlom  of  SL  'I'heodoi-et,  and  drew  up 
an  accnunt  of  what  they  had  seized.  But 
exeunt  Julian  was  not  content  with  taking 
away  the  sacred  vessels  of  the  church, 
and  pr.ifaning  them  by  his  impure  hands: 
carrying  to  greater  lengths  the  outrage  he 
was  doing  to  Jesus  Ciirist,  he  overturned 
and  flung  them  down  on  tiie  ground,  and  sat 
upon  them  in  a  most  criminal  manner;  ad- 
ding to  this  all  the  banters  and  blasphemies 
that  he  Cf)uld  devise  against  Christ,  and 
against  the  Christians,  who,  he  said,  were 
abaii'Jcned  of  (iod. 

Felix,  the  superintendant,  signalized  him- 
self a  Is;;  Ijy  -.nother  impiety:  fir  as  he  was 
viewing  the  rich  and  magnificent  vessels 
which  ihe  empt-rors  Co?;stantine  and  C'  n- 
stantius  had  ;<ivKn  ti)  the  church,  "  Behold," 
said  Vie.  "  with  what  plate  the  son  of  Mary 
is  served !  it  is  s:iiv'l,  too,  that  count  Julian 
and  he  made  it  the  subject  of  banter,  tliat 
God  should  Itt  them  thus  profane  liis  tem- 
ple, with'ait  interposing  by  visible  miracles. 
Rut  these  impieties  remained  not  long  un- 
punished, and  Julian  had  no  socner  profaned 
the  sacred  utensils,  than  he  f':;lt  the  effects 
of  Divine  vengeance.  He  fell  into  a  griev- 
ous and  unknown  disease;  and  hi.s  inward 
parts  being  corrupte  d,  he  cast  out  his  livtr 
and  his  t  xcremesits,  not  from  the  ordinaiy 
passages,  Ixit  from  his  miserable  mouth, 
which  had  uttered  so  many  blasphemies. 
His  secret  parts,  and  all  the  fit-sh  round 
abont  them, coirupted  also,  and  bred  worms; 
and  to  sliew  that  it  was  a  Divine  punish- 
ment, all  the  art  of  ])hysicians  could  give 
him  no  relief.  In  this  condition  he  continu- 
ed forty  days,  without  speech  or  sense,  prey- 
ed nn  hv  W(.Tms.  At  length  lie  came  to 
himself  again.  The  impi.stluimcs,  however,  i 
all  over  his  Ijody,  and  the  worms  Avhich 
gnawed  iiim  continually,  reduced  him  to 
the  utmost  extremity.  He  threw  them  up,  j 
without  ceasing,  the  last  three  days  of  his 
life,  with  a  stench  which  he  himself  could 
not  hi-i\v. 
The  disease  with  which  God  visited  Fe- 


lix was  not  so  long.  He  burst  suddenly  in 
the  middle  of  his  body,  and  died  of  an  effu- 
sion of  blood  in  the  course  of  one  day. 

Elpidius  was  stripped  of  his  effects  in  366, 
and  simt  up  in  prison,  where,  after  having 
continued  for  some  time,  he  died  without 
reputation  and  honour,  cursed  of  all  the 
world,  and  surnamed  the  apostate. 

To  these  instances  many  more  might  be 
added  nearer  our  own  times,  did  our  room 
permit.  These,  however,  are  sufficient  to 
shew  us  what  a  fearful  thing  it  is  to  fall 
into  the  hands  of  the  living  God,  and  how 
fruidess  and  awful  it  is  to  opps-'se  his  designs, 
and  to  attempt  to  stop  the  progress  of  his 
gospel.  "  Why  do  the  heathen  rage,  and  the 
people  imagine  a  vain  thing?  He  that  sitteth 
in  the  heavens  shall  laugh  ;  the  Lord  shall 
ha\  e  them  in  derision.  Thou  shalt  break  them 
with  a  rod  of  iron  ;  them  shalt  dash  them  to 
piices  as  a  potter's  vessel.  Be  wise  now, 
therefore,  O  ye  kings:  be  instructed,  ye 
judges  of  the  earth,  serve  the  Lord  with 
fear,  and  rejoice  with  trembling."  Ps.  ii. 
Jortin's  Remarks  on  Ecclesiastical  History, 
vol.  iii.  page  246,  &c .  Si7)if}son's  Key  to 
the  Prophecies,  29.  J^envtoji  on  the  Prophe- 
cies, dissertation  24.  BryanVs  Observations 
on  the  Platan  ea  of  Egypt.  Tillemont  His- 
toire  drs  Emp. 

JUDICIUM  DEI,  or  Judgment  of  God, 
Avas  a  term  anciently  applied  to  all  extra-, 
ordinary  trials  of  secret  crimes;  as  those 
by  arms  and  single  combat;  and  the  ordeals, 
or  those  by  fire,  or  red  hot  plough-shares, 
by  plunging  the  arm  in  boiling  water,  or 
the  whole  body  in  cold  water,  in  hopes  that 
God  wouid  work  a  miracle,  rather  than  suf- 
fer truth  and  innocence  to  perish  These  cus- 
toms were  a  long  time  kept  up  even  among 
Christians,  and  they  are  still  in  use  in  some 
nations.  Trials  of  this  sort  were  usually 
lield  in  churches,  in  the  presence  of  the 
bishop,  priest,  and  secular  jnd£,es,  after 
three  days  fasting,  confession,  communion, 
and  many  adjurations  and  ceremonies,  de- 
scribed at  large  by  Du  Cange. 

JUMPERS,  ptrsons  so  called  from  the 
practice  of  jumping  during  the  time  allotted 
for  religious  wcrship.  This  singular  practice 
began,  it  is  said,  in  the  w(  stern  part  of 
Wales,  about  the  year  1760.  It  was  soon 
after  defended  i^y  Air.  William  Williams 
(tlic  Welsh  poet,  as  he  is  sometimes  called) 
a  pamphlet  which  was  patronised  by  the 
abeters  of  jumping  in  religious  assemblies. 
Several  of  the  more  zealous  itinerant  preach- 
ers encouraged  t)ic  people  to  cry  out  gogoni- 
cnit  (the  Welsh  word  for  glory,)  amen,  &.c. 
&c.  to  put  themselves  in  vioknt  agitations  ; 
and,  finally,  to  jump  until  they  were  quite 
exhausted,  so  as  often  to  be  obliged  to  fall 
down  on  the  floor  or  the  field,  where  this 
kind  of  worship  was  held. 

JUSTK  E,  consists  in  an  exact  and  scru- 
pulous regard  to  the  rights  of  others,  with  a 
j  deliberate  purpose  to  preserve  them  on  all 
<  ccasicns  sacred  and  inviolate.    It  is  often 


! 


JUS 


243 


JUS 


divided  into  commutative  and  distributative 
justice.  The  former  consists  in  an  equal 
exchange  of  benefits ;  the  latter  in  an  equal 
distribution  of  rewards  and  punishments. 
Dr.  Watts  gives  the  following  rules  respect- 
ing justice: — "  1  It  is  just  that  we  honour, 
reverence,  and  respect  those  who  are  supe- 
riors in  any  kind,  Eph.  vi.  1,  3.  1  Pet.  ii. 
17.  1  Tim.  V.  17 — 2.  That  we  shew  par- 
ticular kindness  to  near  relations,  Prov. 
xvii.  17. — 3.  That  we  love  those  who  love 
us,  and  shew  gratitude  to  those  who  have 
done  us  good.  Gal.  iv.  15. — 4.  That  we  pay 
the  full  due  to  those  whom  we  bargain  or 
deal  with,  Rom.  xiii.  Deut.  xxiv.  14. — 5. 
Tliat  we  help  our  fellow-creatures  in  cases 
of  great  necessity,  Ex.  xxiii.  4 — 6.  Repara- 
tion to  those  whom  we  have  wilfully  injur- 
ed." Watt's  Sermons,  sermons  i24,  25.  vol. 
ii.  Herry  Street  Lectures,  lecture  4.  Lrrove's 
Moral  Fhilosofiliy,  page  33i\  vol.  ii.  IVol- 
laston's  eligion  of  Xature,  page  137,  141. 
Jay  a  Strmons,  vol.  ii  page  131. 

JUSTICE  OF  GOD  is  that  perfectir.n 
"whereby  he  is  infinitely  righteous  and  just 
both  in  himself  and  in  all  his  proceedings 
"with  his  creatures.  M  Ryiand  defines  it 
thus :  "  The  ardent  inclination  of  his  will 
to  prescribe  equal  laws  as  the  supreme 
governor,  and  to  dispense  equal  rewards 
and  punishments  as  the  supreme  judge." 
Rev.  xvi.  5.  Psal.  cxlv.  7.  Psal  xcvii.  1. — 
2  It  is  distinguished  into  remwierativc  and 
/mn/nx>e  justice  Remunerative  justice  is  a 
distribution  of  rewai'ds,  the  rule  cf  which  is 
not  the  merit  of  the  creature,  but  his  own 
gracious  promise,  James  i.  12.  2  Tim.  iv.  8. 
JPunitwe  or  vindictive  justice,  is  the  inflic- 
tion of  punishmtnc  f -r  any  sin  committed 
by  men,  2  Thess.  i.  6.  I'liat  God  v.  ii  iMt 
let  sin  go  unpunished  is  evident,  1.  Fiom 
the  word  of  God,  Ex.  xxxiv.  6,  7.  Num. 
xiv  18.  Neh  i.  3. —  :  From  the  nature  of 
God,  Isa.  i.  13,  14.  Psal.  v  5,  6.  Heb.  xii 
29. — 3.  From  sin  being  punished  m  Christ, 
the  surety  of  his  people,  1  Pet  iii.  18. — 4. 
From  all  the  various  natural  evils  which 
men  bear  in  the  present  state.  The  use  we 
should  make  of  this  doctrine  is  this  :  1.  We 
should  learn  the  dreadful  nature  of  sin,  and 
the  inevitable  ruin  of  impenitent  sinners, 
Psalm  ix.  17. — 2  We  should  higlily  appre- 
ciate the  Lord  Jesus  Christ  in  whom  jus- 
tice is  satisfied,  1  Pet.  iii.  18. — 3.  We  should 
imitate  the  justice  of  God,  by  cherishing  an 
ardent  regard  to  the  rights  of  Grd,  and  to 
the  rights  of  mankind  — 4  Wc  should  ab- 
hor all  sin,  as  it  strikes  dir  ctly  at  the  jus- 
tice of  God  — 5.  We  should  derive  comfort 
from  the  consi'ieration  that  the  judge  of  all 
tke  earth  will  do  right,  as  it  regards  our- 
selves, the  church,  and  the  world  at  large, 
Psal.  xcvii.  1,  2.  Rijland's  Contemfi.  vol.  li. 
page  439.  IVitsius'i  Economic  lib.  xi.  chap. 
viii.  §  11.  Dr.  Oivcn  on  the  Justice  of  God. 
Gill's  /iodrj  of  Divinity,  page  155,  vol.  i  8vo. 
Elisha  Cole  on  the  RighteousrtcssofGod. 

JUSTIFICATION,  a  forensic  term,  and 


signifies  the  declaring  or  the  pronouncing  a 
person  righteous  according  to  law.  It  stands 
opposed  to  condemnation ;  and  this  is  the 
idea  of  the  word  whenever  it  is  used  in  an 
evangelical  sense,  Rom.  v.  18.  Deut.  xxv.  1. 
Prov.  xvii.  15.  Matt  xii.  37  It  does  not 
signify  to  make  men  holy,  but  the  hokliog 
and  declaring  them  so.  It  is  defined  by  the 
assembly  thus:  *'  An  act  of  God's  free 
yracc,  in  which  he  pardoneth  all  our  sins, 
and  accepteth  us  as  righteous  in  his  sight 
only,  for  the  righteousness  of  Christ  imputed 
to  us,  and  received  by  faith  alone.'' 

The  doctrine  of  justification,  says  Mr. 
Booth,  makes  a  very  distinguished  fij^ure  in 
that  religion  which  is  from  above,  and  is  a 
capital  article  of  that  faith  which  was  once 
delivered  to  the  saints.  Far  from  being  a 
merely  speculative  point,  it  spreads  its  in- 
fluence through  the  whole  body  of  divinity, 
runs  through  all  Christian  experience,  and 
operates  in  every  partif  practical  godliness. 
Such  is  its  grand  importance,  th  a  a  mistake 
about  it  has  a  malignant  eff'Ct,  and  is 
attended  with  a  long  train  of  dani;xTous  C'  r- 
sequences.  Nor  can  this  apptar  strange, 
when  it  is  considered,  that  the  doctrine  of 
justification  is  no  other  than  the  ivaii  of  a 
sinner's  accefitance  ivith  God.  Being  of 
such  peculiar  moment,  it  is  inseparably 
connected  with  many  other  evangelical 
truths,  the  harmony  and  beauty  of  which 
we  cannot  Ijeliold  while  tliis  is  misunderstood. 
It  is,  if  any  thing  may  be  so  called,  an  essen- 
tial article,  and  certainly  requires  bur  most 
serious  consideration. 

Justification,  in  a  theological  sense,  is 
either  Itgal  or  evangelical.  If  any  person 
could  be  found  that  had  never  broken  the 
Divine  law,  he  might  be  justified  by  it  in  a 
manner  strictly  lesal.  But  in  this  way  none 
of  the  human  race  can  be  justified,  or  stand 
acquitted  before  God  For  all  have  sin- 
ned ;  there  is  none  righteous  ;  no,  not  one, 
R</m  iii.  As  sinners,  they  are  under  the 
senter,ce  of  death  by  his  righteous  law,  and 
excluded  from  all  hope  and  mercy.  That 
justification,  therefore,  about  which  the 
scriptures  principally  treat,  and  wliicU 
reaches  the  case  of  a  sinner,  is  not  by  a 
personal,  but  an  imputed  righteousness;  a 
righteousness  without  the  law,  Rom.  iii  21. 
provided  by  grace,  and  revealed  in  the  Gos- 
pel ;  for  which  reason,  that  obedience  by 
which  a  sinner  is  justified,  and  his  justifica- 
tion itself,  are  called  evangelical.  In  this 
affair  there  is  the  most  wonderful  display  of 
Divine  justice  and  boundless  Rrace,  Of  /)?'. 
vine  justice,  if  we  regs'.rd  the  meritorious 
cause  aii'l  gr()und  on  which  the  Justifier 
proceeds  in  ahKolving  the  condemned  sin- 
ner, and  in  pronouncing  him  righteous.  Of 
boundless  grace,  if  we  consider  tiie  state 
and  cliaracier  of  those  per.sons  to  whom 
the  blessing  is  granted.  Justification  may 
be  farther  distinguished  as  beinu;  either  at 
the  bar  of  God,  and  in  the  court  of  c(M1- 
science  ;  or  in  the  sight  of  the  v/orld,  anri 


JUS 


244 


JUS 


before  our  fellow-creatures.  The  former  is 
by  mere  grace  through  faith  :  and  tlie  latter 
is  by  worlis. 

To  justify  is  evidently  a  Divine  preroga- 
tive. It  is  God  that  justjjieth,  Rom.  viii. 
o3  That  sovereign  B  ing,  against  whom 
■we  have  so  greatiy  oftVncltxI,  whose  law  we 
have  broken  by  ten  t'nousand  acts  of  rebellion 
against  him,  has,  in  the  way  of  his  own  ap- 
pohitinent,  the  sole  right  of  acquittin.q  the 
guilty,  and  of  pronouncing  them  righteous. 
He  appoints  the  way,  provides  the  means, 
and  imputes  the  righteousness;  and  all  in 
perfect  ai^reemt  nt  with  the  demands  of  his 
off.  nded  law,  and  the  rights  of  his  violated 
justice.     But  althfugh  this  act  is  in  some 

J>laces  of  the  infallible  word  more  particu- 
arly  apprf^priated  personally  to  the  Father, 
yet  it  is  manifest  that  all  the  Thrte  Persons 
are  concerned  in  this  grand  affair,  and  each 
performs  a  distinct  part  in  this  particular, 
as  also  in  tlie  whole  economy  of  salvation. 
The  eternal   Father  is  represented   as  ap- 

gointing  the  way,  and  as  giving  his  own 
on  to  perform  the  conditions  of  our  accept- 
ance before  him,  Rom.  viii.  32.  Tiie  di- 
vine Son  has  engaged  to  sustain  the  curse, 
and  make  the  atonement ;  to  fulfil  the 
terms,  and  provide  the  righteousness  by 
which  we  are  justified,  Tit  ii.  14.  And 
the  Holy  Spirit  as  revealing  to  sinners  the 
perfection,  suitableness,  and  freeness  of  the 
Saviour's  work,  enabling  them  to  receive  it 
as  exhibited  in  the  gospel  of  sovereign 
grace  ;  and  testifying  to  their  consciences 
co'iplttc  justification  by  it  in  the  court  of 
heaven,  John  xvi.  8,  14. 

As  to  the  objects  nf  justifiration,  the  scrip- 
ture says,  thf-y  are  sinners  and  uvgodln 
Foi'  thus  runs  the  Divine  declaration  :  To 
him  that  ivorketh  is  the  reward  of  justifica 
tion,  and  of  eternal  fife  as  connected  with 
it ;  Jiot  reckoned  of  grace,  but  of  d''bt.  But 
to  him  ihat  nvorkcth  not,  but  belie-oeth  on 
liim  that  justijieth — whom  ^  the  righte'uis  ' 
the  holy*  the  eminently  pious  ?  Nay,  veriiy, 
but  the  zmgodly  ;  his  faith,  or  that  in  w!nch 
lie  believes,  is  coimtrd  unto  him  for  righ- 
teousness Rom.  iv.  4,  5  Gal.  ii.  \7.  Hi-re 
then,  we  learn,  that  the  subjects  of  justifica- 
tion, considered  in  themselves,  nv  not  onlv 
destitute  of  a  perfect  righteousness,  but 
have  performed  no  good  works  at  all.  They 
are  denominated  and  co  isidered  as  the  un- 
godly, when  the  blessing  is  bestowed  upon 
them.  Not  that  we  are  to  understand  that 
such  remain  ungodly.  "  All,"  says  Dr 
Owen,  "  that  are  justified,  were  before  un- 
godly; but  all  that  are  justified,  are  at  the 
same  instant,  made  godly."  That  ihe  mere 
sinner,  however,  is  thesubject  'f  justifica- 
tion, apptars  from  hence.  The  Spirit  of 
God,  speakir.g  in  the  Scripture,  repeatedly 
declares  that,  we  are  justified  by  crace. 
But  grace  stands  in  direct  opposiiifm  to 
works.  VVho'-'ver,  therefore,  is  justified  bv 
grace,  is  considered  as  absolutely  unworthy 
in  that  very  instant  when  the  blessing  is 
vouchsafed  to  him,  Rom,  iii.  24.    The  per- 


son, therefore,  that  is  justified,  is  accepted 
without  any  cause  in  himself.  Hence  it 
appears,  that,  if  we  regard  the  persons  who 
are  justified,  and  their  state  prior  to  the  en- 
joyment of  the  immensely  glurious  privilege. 
Divine  grace  appears,  and  reigns  in  ah  us 
glory. 

As  to  the  way  and  manner  in  which  sin- 
ners are  justified,  it  may  be  observed  that 
the  Divine  Being  can  acquit  none  without  a 
complete  righteousness.  Justification,  as 
before  observed,  is  evidently  a  forensic 
term,  and  the  thing  intended  bv  it  a  judi- 
cial act.  So  that,  were  a  person  to  be 
justified  without  a  righteousness,  the  judge- 
ment would  not  be  according  to  truth  ;  it 
would  be  a  false  and  unrighteous  sentence. 
That  righteousness  by  which  we  are  jus- 
tified must  be  equal  to  the  demands  of 
that  law  according  to  which  the  Sovereign 
Judge  proceeds  in  our  justification.  Many 
persons  talk  of  cc,nditio?is  of  justification, 
(see  article  Condition;)  but  the  ( nly 
condition  is  that  of  fitrftxt  righteousness  : 
this  the  law  requires,  nor  does  the  Gospel 
substitute  another.  But  where  shall  we 
find,  or  how  shall  we  obtain  a  justifying 
righteousness?  Shall  we  flee  to  the  law  for 
relief  .''  Shall  we  apply  with  diligence  and 
zeal  to  the  performance  of  duty,  in  order  to 
attain  the  desired  end  '  the  apostle  posi- 
tively affirms  that  there  is  no  acc-^ptance 
with  God  by  the  works  of  the  law  ;  and 
the  reasons  are  evident.  Our  righteousness 
is  imperfect,  and  consequentl.\  cannot  jus- 
tify. If  justification  were  by  the  works  of 
men,  it  could  not  be  by  grace  :  it  would 
not  be  a  righteousness  without  works.— 
There  would  be  no  need  of  the  I'ighteous- 
ULSs  of  Christ ;  and  lastly,  if  justification 
wci  ->  by  the  law,  then  boasting  would  be 
encouragf  d  ;  whereas  God's  design,  in  the 
whole  '■cheme  of  salvation,  is  to  exclude  it, 
Rom.  iii.  27.  Eph.  ii.  8,  9.  Nor  is  faith 
itself  our  rightecjusness,  or  that  for  the 
sake  of  which  we  are  justified  :  for  though 
believers  are  said  to  be  justified  by  faith, 
yet  not  fur  faith  :  faith  can  only  be  consi- 
dercxl  as  the  instrument,  and  not  the  cause. 
Thiit  faith  is  nut  our  righteousness,  is  evi- 
dent fi-ou  the  following  considerations  :  No 
man's  faith  is  perfect:  and,  if  it  were,  it 
would  not  be  equal  to  the  de  .  ands  of  the 
Divine  law.  It  could  not,  thcref  )re,  with- 
out an  error  in  judgivient,  be  accounted  a 
compl'tp  righteousness.  But  the  judgment 
of  Qod,  as  before  proved,  is  according  to 
truth,  and  according  to  the  rights  of  his 
law.  That  obedience  bv  which  a  sinner  is 
justified  is  called  thv  righteousness  of  faith, 
righteousness  by  fuiih,  and  is  represented 
as  revealed  to  faith  ;  consequently  it  cannot 
be  faith  itself  Faith,  in  the  business  of 
justification,  stands  o])p(  sed  to  all  Avrrks ; 
to  him  that  worketh  not,  but  btlieveth. 
Now,  if  it  were  our  justifying  ritrhteousness, 
to  consider  it  in  such  a  light  would  be  high- 
ly improper.  For  in  such  a  connection  it 
falls  under  the  consideration  of  a  niork  ;  a 


JUS 


245 


JUS 


condition  on  the  performance  of  wliich  our 
acceptance  with  God  is  manifestly  suspend- 
ed. If  faith  itself  be  that  on  account  of 
wiiich  wo  are  accepted,  then  some  believers 
are  just ifid  by  a  nmre,  and  some  l)y  a  less, 
perfect  riguteuusness,  in  exact  proportion  to 
the  strength  or  weakness  of  their  faith. 
That  which  is  the  end  of  tlie  law  is  our 
righteousness,  whicii  certainly  is  not  faith, 
but  the  oliedience  of  our  exalted  substitute, 
Rom.  X.  4.  Were  faith  itself  our  justifying 
righteousness,  we  might  depend  upon  it  be- 
fore God,  and  rejvjice  in  it.  So  that  ac- 
cording to  this  hypothesis,  not  Christ,  but 
faidi  is  the  capital  thing ;  the  object  to 
■wiiich  we  must  look,  which  is  absurd. 
When  the  apostle  says,  "  faith  was  im- 
puted to  him  for  rigliteousness,"  his  main 
design  was  to  prove  that  the  eternal  Sove- 
reign justifies  freely,  without  any  cause  in 
tlie  creature. 

Nor  is  man's  obedience  to  the  gospel  as 
to  a  new  and  milder  law  the  matter  of  his 
justification  before  God.  It  was  a  notion 
that  s  )ine  years  ago  ubtained,  that  a  relax- 
ation of  the  law,  and  the  sev<  rities  of  it. 
has  been  obtained  by  Christ  ;  and  a  new 
law,  a  remedial  law,  a  law  of  milder  terms, 
has  been  introduced  by  him,  which  is  the 
gospel  ;  the  terras  of  which  are  faith,  re- 
pentance, and  obedience  ;  and  tin  ugh  these 
are  i.-iiperfrrt  \  f-t.  being  sincere,  they  art 
acce[  t  d  f  by  Go !  in  the  room  of  a  per- 
fect rii^hteoubiiebs.  But  ever}'  part  of  this 
scheme  is  wrong,  for  the  law  is  not  relaxed, 
nor  any  of  its  severities  abated  ;  there  is  nc- 
alteration  made  in  it,  either  with  respect 
to  its  precepts  or  pena'ty:  besides,  the 
sclieme  is  absurd,  for  it  supposes  that  the 
law  which  a  man  is  now  under  requires 
only  an  imfierfect  obedience :  but  an  im- 
perfect righteousness  cannot  answer  its 
dema  s;  for- every  law  requires  perfect 
obedience  to  its  own  precepts  and  prohibi- 
tions. 

Nor  is  a  profession  of  religion,  nor  sin- 
cerity, nor  good  v;orks,  at  all  the  ground  of 
our  acceptance  with  God  ;  for  all  our  righ- 
teousness is  imperfect,  and  must  therefore 
be  entirely  excluded.  Ihj  grace  saith  the 
apostle,  ye  are  saved;  nor  of  nvorks,  lest 
any  man  should  boast,  E])h  ii.  8,  9  Be- 
sides, the  w.irks  of  sanctification  and  justifi- 
cation are  two  distinct  tilings  :  the  one  is  <) 
work  of  t^race  within  men  :  the  other  an  act 
of  grace  for  or  towards  men  :  the  one  is  im- 
perfect, the  other  complete  ;  the  one  car- 
ried nn  gradually,   the  other   done  at  once. 

See  S.^XCTIFICATITN. 

If,  then,  we  cannot  possibly  be  justifie'"! 
by  any  of  our  own  performances,  nnr  bv 
faith  itself,  nor  even  by  the  graces  of  the 
Holy  Spirit,  where  then  shall  we  find  f* 
righteousness  by  which  we  can  be  justified? 
The  Scripture  furnishes  us  with  an  an- 
swer— "  By  Jesus  Christ  all  that  believe 
are  justified  from  all  things,  from  which 
they  C(  uld  not  be  justified  by  the  law  of 
Moses,"  Acts  xiii.  38,  39,     "  He  was  de- 


livered for  our  offences,  and  raised  again 
for  our  justification,"  Kom.  iv.  25.  "  Be- 
ing justified  oy  his  blood  we  shall  be  saved 
friim  wrath  through  liim,"  Rom.  v.  9.  The 
->potless  obedience,  therefore,  the  b  tter  suf-' 
ferings,  and  the  accursed  de  th  of  cur 
hea\enly  Surety,  constitute  that  very  ri,K,h- 
teousness  by  which  sinners  are  justified  liefi  re 
God.  That  this  righteousness  is  imputed 
to  us,  and  that  we  are  not  justified  by  a 
personal  righteousness,  appears  from  the 
Scripture  with  superior  evidence.  "  By  the 
obedience  of  one  shall  many  be  made  righte- 
ous," Rom.  V.  19.  "  He  hath  made  hira 
to  be  sin  for  us,  who  knew  no  sin,  that  we 
might  be  made  the  righteousness  of  God  ia 
him,"  2  Cor.  v.  21.  "  And  be  found  in 
him,  not  having  mine  own  righteousness 
which  is  of  the  law,  but  that  which  is 
through  the  faith  of  Christ ;  the  righteous-  , 
ness  which  is  of  God  by  faith,"  Phil  iii. 
8.  See  also  Jer  xxiii.  6.  Dan.  ix.  24.  the 
whole  of  the  ii.  chap,  of  Galatians  See 
articles  Reconciliation,  Righteous- 
ness. 

As  to  the  firoperties  of  justification  :  1. 
It  is  an  act  of  God's  free  grace,  without 
any  merit  whatever  in  the  creature,  Rom. 
hi  24  — 2.  It  is  an  act  of  justice  as  well 
IS  grace  :  the  law  being  ptrfectly  fulfilled 
in  Christ,  and  Divine  justice  satisfied,  R(  m. 
iii.  26  Ps.  Ixxxv.  10. — 3.  It  is  an  indivi- 
dual and  instantaneous  act    done   at    once, 

admitting  of  no  degrees,  John  xix.  30 4   It 

is    irreversible,    and   an   unalterable     act, 
Mai.  iii.  6. 

As  to  the  time  of  justification,  divines 
are  not  agreed.  Some  have  distinguished  it 
into  decretive,  virtual,  and  actual.  1.  De- 
cretive, is  God's  etemal  purpose  to  justify 
sinners  in  time  by  Jesus  Christ. —  >.  Virtu- 
al justification  has  a  reference  to  the  satis- 
faction made  by  Christ. — 3  Actual,  is 
when  we  are  enabled  to  believe  in  Christ, 
and  by  faith  are  united  to  him.  Others 
say  it  is  eternal,  because  his  purpose  re- 
specting it  was  from  everlasting;  and  that, 
as  the  Almighty  viewed  his  people  in 
Christ,  they  were  of  consequence,  justified 
in  his  sight.  But  it  appears  to  me,  that 
)  the  principle  on  which  the  advocates  for 
this  doctrine  have  proceeded  is  wrong. 
1  hey  have  confounded  the  design  with  the 
execution  ;  for  if  this  distinction  be  not 
kept  up,  the  utmost  perplexity  will  follow 
the  consideration  of  e^•e^y  subject  which  re- 
ates  to  the  decrees  of  God  :  nor  shall  we 
be  able  to  form  any  clear  ideas  of  his  mo- 
ral government  whatever.  To  say,  as  one 
does,  that  the  eternal  will  of  God  to  justify 
men  is  the  justification  of  them,  is  not  to 
the  purpose  ;  for,  upon  the  same '  ground, 
we  mig'.t  as  well  say  that  the  eternal  will 
of  God  to  convert  and  glorify  his  people  is 
the  real  conversion  and  glorification  of 
them.  That  it  was  eternally  determined 
that  there  should  be  a  people  who  shonid 
believe  in  Christ,  and  that  his  righteouness 
should  be  imputed  to  them,  is  not  to  be  dis- 


KEY 


246 


KNI 


puted  :  but  to  say  that  these  things  were  re- 
ally done  from  eternity  (which  we  must 
say  if  we  believe  eternal  justificatian)  this 
would  be  absurd.  It  is  more  consistent  to 
believe,  that  God  from  eternity  laid  the 
plan  of  justification;  that  this  plan  was  ex- 
ecuted by  the  life  and  death  of  Christ;  and 
that  the  blessing  is  only  manifested,  re- 
ceived»  and  enjoyed,  when  we  are  regene- 
rated ;  so  that  no  man  can  say,  or  has  any 
reason  to  conclude  he  is  justified,  until  he 
believes  in  .Christ,  Rom.  v,  1. 

The  effects  or  blessings  of  justification 
are,  1.  An  entire  freedom  from  all  penal 
evils  in  this  life,  and  that  which  is  to  come, 
1  Cor.  iii.  22. — 2.  Peace  with  God,  Rom. 
V  1 — 3.  Access  to  God  through  Christ, 
Eph.  iii.  12 — 4.  Acceptance  with  (Tod, 
Eph.  V.  27 — 5.  Holy  confidence  and  secu- 
rity under  all  the  difficulties  and  troubles  of 
the  present  state,  2  Tim.  i.  12.— 6  Finally, 
eternal  salvation,  Rom.  viii.  30  Rom. 
V.  18 

Thus  we  have  given  as  comprehensive  a 


view  of  the  doctrine  of  justification  as  the 
nature  of  this  work  will  admit  ;  a  doctrine 
which  is  founded  upon  the  sacred  Scrip- 
tures :  and  which  so  far  from  leading  to  li- 
centiousness, as  some  suppose,  is  of  all  others 
the  most  replete  with  motives  to  love,  de- 
pendence, and  obedience,  Rom.  vi  1,  2.  A 
doctrine  which  the  primitive  Christians  held 
as  constituting  the  very  essence  of  their 
system  ,  which  our  reformers  considered  as 
the  most  important  point ;  which  our  ven- 
erable martyrs  gloried  in,  and  sealed  with 
their  blood ;  and  which,  as  the  church  of 
England  observes,  is  a  "  very  wholesome 
doctrine,  and  full  of  comfort "  See  JJr. 
Owen  on  Justijicatwn.  Kaivlms  on  Jus- 
tification. Mdwards'  Sermons  on  ditto. 
Lime  Street  Lectures^  page  350  Hervey's 
Tlicron,  and  Aspasio  and  Eleven  Letters. 
Ji'it/iers/ioon's  i  onnexion  between  Jus'i/i- 
cation  and  Holiness.  GUI  and  Ridgley^^ 
Ohiinity.  But  especially  Boot/is  Reign  of 
Grace,  to  which  1  am  indebted  for  a  great 
part  of  the  above  article. 


K, 


KEITHIANS,  a  party  which  separa- 
ted from  the  Quakers  in  Pennsylvania 
in  the  year  1691.  Tiiey  were  headed  by 
the  famous  George  Keith,  from  whom  they 
derived  tlieir  name.  Those  who  persisted 
in  their  separation,  after  their  leader  de- 
serted them,  practised  baptism,  and  receiv- 
ed the  Lord's  Supper.  This  party  were 
also  called  Quaker  Baptists,  because  they 
retained  the  language,  dress,  and  manner 
of  the  Quakers. 

KEYS,  fiower  of  the,  a  term  made  use 
r.f,  in  reference  to  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction, 
denoting  the  power  of  excommunicating 
and  absolving.  The  Romanists  say  that  the 
pope  has  the  power  of  the  keys,  and  can 
open  and  shut  paradise  as  he  pleases ; 
grounding  their  opinion  on  that  expression 
of  Jesus  Christ  to  Peter — "  I  will  give  thee 
the  keys  of  the  kingdom  of  heaven,"  Matt. 
xvi.  19.  Bat  every  one  must  see  that  this 
is  an  absolute  perversion  of  Scripture,  for 
the  keys  of  the  kingdom  of  heaven,  most 
probably,  refer  to  the  Gospel  dispensation, 
and  denote  the  power  and  authority  of  eve- 
ry faithful  minister  to  preach  the  flospel, 
administer  the  sacraments,  and  exercise  go- 
vernment, that  men  may  be  admitted  to.  or 
excluded  from  the  church,  as  is  proper.  See 
Absolution. 

In  St.  Gregory  we  read  that  it  was  the 
custom  for  the  poj^es  to  send  a  golden  key 
to  princes,  wherein  they  inclosed  a  little  of 
the  filings  of  St  Peter's  chain,  kept  with 
such  devotion  at  Rome ;  and  that  these 
keys  were  worn  in  the  bosom,  as  being  sup- 


posed to  contain  some  wonderful  virtues!' 
Such  has  been  the  superstition  of  past 
ages !  ! 

KIRK  SESSIONS,  the  name  of  a  petty 
ecclesiastical  judicatory  in  Scotland.  Each 
parish,  according  to  its  extent,  is  divided 
into  several  particular  districts,  every  one 
of  which  has  its  own  elder  and  deacons  to 
oversee  it.  A  consistory  of  the  minister, 
elders,  and  deacons  of  a  parish  form  a  kirk 
session.  These  meet  once  a  week,  the  minis* 
ter  being  their  moderator,  but  without  a  ne- 
gative voice.  It  regulates  matters  relative  to 
public  worship,  elections,  catechising,  visi- 
tations, Sec.  It  judges  in  matters  of  less 
scandal ;  but  greater,  as  adultery,  are  left 
to  the  presbytery,  and  in  all  cases  an  ap- 
peal lies  from  it  to  the  presbytery. — Kirk 
sessions  have  likewise  the  care  of  the 
poor,  and  poor's  funds.  See  Presbyte- 
rians. 

KINDNESS,  civil  behaviour,  favoura- 
ble treatment,  or  a  constant  and  habitual 
practice  of  friendly  offices,  and  benevolent 
actions.    See  Charity,  Gentleness. 

KNIPPEKDOLINGS,  a  denomimuion  in 
the  16th  century  ;  so  called  from  Bertrand 
Knipperdoling,  who  taught  that  the  righ- 
tecrus,  before  the  day  of  judgment,  shall  . 
have  a  monarchy  on  earth,  and  the  wicked 
be  destroyed  ;  that  men  are  not  justified  by 
their  faith  in  Christ  Jesus  ;  that  there  is  no 
original  sin  ;  that  infants  ought  not  to  be 
baptized,  and  that  immersion  is  the  only 
mode  of  baptism  ;  that  every  one  has  au- 
thority to  preach  and  administer  the  eaCra- 


KNO 


247 


KNO 


ments ;  that  men  are  not  obliged  to  pay  re- 
spect to  magistrates ;  that  all  things  ought 
to  be  in  common,  and  that  it  is  lawful  to 
marry  many  wives. 

KNOWLEDGE  is  defined  by  Mr.  Locke 
to  be  the  perception  of  the  connexion    and 
agreement,  or  disagreement  and  repugnan- 
cy of  our  ideas.     It  also  denotes   learning, 
or  the  improvement  of  our  faculties  by  read- 
ing ;  exfierience,  or  the  acquiring  new  ideas 
or   truths,  by  seeing  a  variety  of   objects, 
and  making  observations  upon  them  in  our 
own  minds.    No  man,  says  the   admirable 
Dr.  Watts,  is  obliged  to  learn  and  know 
every  thing ;  this  can  neither  be  sought  nor 
required,  for  it    is   utterly  impossible  ;  yet 
all  persons  are  under  some  obligation  to  im- 
prove their  own  understanding,  otherwise  it 
will  be  a  barren  desert,  or  a  forest  over- 
grown with  weeds  and  brambles.     Univer- 
sal ignorance,  or  infinite  error,   will  over- 
spread the  mind  which  is  utterly  neglected 
and  lies  without  any  cultivation.    The  fol- 
lowing rules,  therefore,  should  be  attended 
to,  for  the  improvement  of  knowledge.     1. 
Deeply  possess  your  mind  with  the  vast  im- 
portance of  a  good  judgment,  and  the  rich 
and  inestimable  advantage  of  right  i-eason- 
ing. — 2.  Consider  the  weakness,  failings,  and 
mistakes  of  human  nature  in    general. — 3. 
Be  not  satisfied  with  a  slight  view  of  things, 
but  take  a  wide  survey  now  and  then  of  the 
vast  and  unlimited  regions  of  learning,  the 
variety  of  questions,  and  difficulties  belong- 
ing to  every  science — 4.  Presume  not  too 
much  upon  a  bright  genius,  a  ready  wit,  and 
good  parts ;  for  this,  without  study,  will  ne- 
ver   make   a    man    of    knowledge. — 5.  Do 
not  imagine  that  large  and  laborious  read- 
ing, and  a  strong  memory,  can  denominate 
you  truly  wise,  without  meditation  and  stu- 
dious  thought. — 6,  Be  net   so  weak   as  to 
imagine  that  a  life  of  learning   is  a  life  of 
laziness. — 7.  Let  the  hope  of  new  discove- 
ries, as  well  as  the  satisfaction  and  pleasure 
of  known  truths,  animate  your  tlaily  indus- 
try.— 8.  Do  not  hover  always  on  the  sur- 
face of  things,  nor  take  up  suddenly  with 
mere  appearances. — 9.  Once  a  day,  espe- 
cially in  the  early  years  of  life    and    study, 
call  yourselves  to  an  account  what  new  ideas 
you  have  gained. — 10   Maintain  a   constant 
watch,  at  all  times  against   a  dogmatical 
spirit. — 11.    Be    humble     and     courageous 
enough  to  retract  any  mistake,  and  confess 
an  error. — 12.  Beware  of  a  fanciful  temper 
of  mind,    aad   a   humorous    conduct. — 13 
Have  a  care  of  trifling  with  things  impor- 
tant   and  momentous,  or  of  sporting  with 
things  awful   and  sacred. — 14.  Ever  m;iin- 
tain  a  virtuous  and  pious  frame  of  spirit  — 
15.  Watch  against   the  pride  of  your  own 
reason,  and  a  vain  conceit  of  your  own  in- 
tellectual powers,  with  the  neglect  of  di- 
vine aid  and  blessing. — 16.  Offer  up,  there- 
fore, your  daily  requests  to  God,  the  Father 
of  Lights  that  he  would  bless  all  your  at- 
tempts and  labours  in  reading,  study,  and 
conversation.     Watts  on  the  Almd,  chap.  i. 


Dr.  John  Edivards'  Uncertainty,  Defi- 
ciency, and  Lorruficion  of  human  KnoW' 
ledge.  Reid's  Intellectual  Powers  of  Man. 
Stemiet's  Sermon  on  Acts  xxvi.  24,  25. 

KNOWLEDGE  OF  GOD  is  often  taken 
for  the  fear  of  God  and  the  wliole  of  reli- 
gion.   There  is  indeed,  a  s/ieculative  know- 
ledge, which  consists  only  in  the  belief  of 
his  existence,  and  the  acknowledgment  of 
his  perfections,  but  has  no  influence  on  the 
heart  and  conduct.  A  sfiiritual  saving  know- 
ledge consists  in  veneration  for  the  Divine  Be- 
ing, Psal.  Ixxxix.  7.  love  to  him  as  an  objfct 
of  beauty  and  goodness,  Zech.  ix.  17.  humble 
confidence  in  his  mercy  and  promise.  Psalm 
ix.  10.  and  sincere  uniform  and  persevering 
obedience  to  his  word,  1  John  ii.  3.  It  may 
'farther  be  considered  as   a  knowledge  of 
God  the  Father:    of  his  love,  faithfulness, 
power,  &c.     Of  the  Son,   as  it  relates  to 
the  dignity  of  his  nature,  1  John  v.  20.  the 
suitability  of  his  offices,  Heb.  ix.  the  perfec- 
tion  of   his    work.    Psalm    Ixviii.    18,    the 
brightness  of  his  example.  Acts  x.  38.  and 
the  prevalency  of  his  intercession,  Heb.  vii. 
25.  Of  the  Holy  Ghost,  as  equal  with  the 
Father  and  the  Son  ;  of  his  agency  as  en- 
lightener   and  Comforter ;    as    also   in  his 
work  of  witnessing,  sanctifying,  and  direct- 
ing his  people,  John  xv.  xvi.  2  Cor.  iii.  17, 
18.  John  iii.  5,  6.  Rom.  viii.  16.  This  know- 
ledge may  be  considered  as  experimental, 
2  Tim.  i,  12,  fiducial.  Job  xiii.  15,  16.  affec- 
tionate, 1  John  iii.  19.  influential,  Ps.  ix.  10. 
Matt.  V.  16.  humiliating,  Isa.  vi.  Job.  xlii.  5, 
6.  satisfying,  Psal.   xxxvi.  7.   Prov.  iii.  17. 
and  superior  to  all  other  knowledge,  Phil, 
iii.  8,    The  advantages  of  religious  know- 
ledge are   every  way  great.    It   forms  the 
basis  of  true  honour  and  felicity.    "  Not  all 
the  lustre  of  a   noble  birth,  not  all  the  in- 
fluence of  wealth,    not    all  the   pomp    of 
titles,  not  all   the  splendour  of  power,  can 
give  dignity  to  the   soul  that  is  destitute  of 
inward  improvement.     By  this  we  are  al- 
lied to  angels,  and  are  capable  of  rising  for 
ever  in  the  scale  of  being     Such  is  its  in- 
herent worth,  that  it  hath  always  been  re- 
presented under  tlie  most  pleasing  images. 
In  particular,    it  hath  been  compared  to 
light,  the  most  valuable  and  reviving  part 
of  nature's  works,  and   to  that   gloiious  lu- 
minary,  which    is    the  most  beautiful   and 
transporting  object  our  eyes  behold.    If  we 
entertain  any  doubts  concerning  the  intrinsic 
value  of   religious   knowledge,  let  us   look 
around  us,  and  we  shall  be  convinced  how 
desirable   it  is  to  be  acquainted  with  God. 
with  spiritual,  with  eternal  things.  Observe 
the  difference  between   a  cultivated  and  a 
barren  country.    While  the  former  is  a  love- 
ly, cheerful,  and  delightful  sight,  the  other 
administers  a  spectacle  of  horror.     There  is 
an    equal    diff<Tence    between   the    rations 
among  whom  the  principles  of  piety  prevail, 
and  the  nations  that  are  overrun  with  idola- 
try, superstition  and  error.    Knowledge,  al- 
so, is  of    great  importance  to  our  personal 
and  private  felicity  ?  it  furai.s;hes  a  pleasure 


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248 


KOR 


that  cannot  be  met  with  in  the  possession  of 
inferior  enjoyments  ;  a  fine  entertainment, 
which  adds  a  relish  to  prosperity,  and  alle- 
viates the  hour  of  distress.  It  throws  a 
lustre  upon  greatness,  and  reflects  an  honour 
upon  poverty.  Knowledge  will  also  instruct 
us  how  to  apply  nur  several  talents  for  the 
benefit  of  mankind.  It  will  make  us  capa- 
ble of  advising  and  regulating  others.  Hence 
we  may  become  the  lights  ot  the  wurld,  and 
diffuse  those  beneficent,  beams  around  us, 
which  shall  shine  on  benighted  travellers, 
and  discover  the  path  of  rectitude  and 
bliss.  This  knowledge,  also,  tends  to  de- 
stroy bigotry  and  enthusiasm.  To  this  we 
are  indebted  for  the  important  change 
which  hath  been  made  since  the  beginning 
of  the  reformation.  To  this  we  are  indebt- 
ed for  the  general  cultivation  and  refine- 
ment of  the  understandings  of  men.  It  is 
owing  to  this,  that  even  arbitrary  govern- 
ments, seem  to  have  lost  something  of  their 
original  ferocity,  and  that  there  is  a  source  cf 
improvement  in  Europe  which  will,  we 
hope,  in  future  times,  shed  the  most  de- 
lightful influences  on  society,  and  unite  its 
members  in  harmony,  peace,  and  love  But 
the  advantages  of  knowledge  are  still  great- 
er, for  it  points  out  to  us  an  eternal  felicity. 
The  several  branches  of  human  science  are 
intended  only  to  bless  and  adorn  our  present 
existence  ;  but  religious  knowledge  bids  us 
provide  for  an  immortal  being :  sets  the 
path  of  salvation  before  us,  and  is  our  inse- 
parable companion  in  the  road  to  glcry. 
As  it  instructs  in  the  way  to  endless  bliss, 
so  it  will  survive  that  mighty  day,  when  all 
worldly  literature  and  accomplishments  shall 
for  ever  cease.  At  that  solemn  period,  in 
which  the  records  and  registers  of  men 
shall  be  destroyed,  the  systems  of  human 
policy  be  dissolved,  and  the  grandest  works 
of  genius  die,  the  wisdom  which  is  spiritual 
and  heavenly  shall  not  only  subsist,  but  be  I 
increased  to  an  extent  that  human  nature  | 
cannot,  in  this  life,  admit.  Our  views  of 
things,  at  present,  are  obscai'e,  imperfect, 
partial,  and  liable  to  error  ;  but  when  we 
arrive  to  the  realms  of  everlasting  light,  the 
clouds  that  shadowed  our  understanding 
will  be  removed ;  we  shall  behold,  with 
amazing  clearness,  the  attributes,  ways,  and 
works  of  God  ;  shall  perceive  more  distinct- 
ly the  design  of  his  dispensations;  shall 
trace  with  rapture  the  wonders  of  nature 
and  grace,  and  become  acquainted  with  a 
thousand  c^lorious  objects,  of  which  the  ima- 
gination can  as  yet  have  no  conception." 

In  order  to  increase  in  the  knowledge  r  f 
God,  there  must  be  dependence  on  Him  fi"om 
whom  all  light  proceeds,  James  i.  6.  atten- 
tion to  his  revealed  will,  John  v.  39.  a 
watchful  s])irit  against  corrupt  affectinns, 
Luke  xxi.  34.  a  humble  frame  of  mind,  Ps. 
.Kxv.  9.  frequent  mcdi'ation,  Ps.  civ.  34.  a 
persevering  design  for  conformity  to  the  Di-  , 
vine  image,  Mos.  vi.  S.  C/iarnock''s  Work&y 
vol.  ii.  p.  381.  Saurin's  Scrtnons,  vol.  i.  ser.  1. 
Cill'^  Body  of  Divmitij,  vol.  iii.  p.  12.  oc-  I 


tavo.  T^llotson's  Serfnona,  ser.  115.  U^atts^ 

J'Vorks,vo\.  i.  ser.45.  Hairs  Sermononthe ./Id- 

vaniagea  of  Knowledge  to  the  Lower  Classes. 

KNOWLEDGE  OF  GOD.    See   Omni- 

SCIKNCE. 

KORAN,  or  Alcoran,  the  scripture  or 
Bible  of  the  Malxmetans,  containing  the 
revelations  and  doctrines  of  their  pretended 
prophet. 

1.  Koran,divtsionsofthe.  The  Koran  is  di- 
vided into  one  hundred  and  fourteen  larger 
ponii  ns  ot  very  unequal  length,  which  w«  call 
c/ia/iters,  but  the  Arabians  Sowar,  in  the 
singular  Sura  ;  a  word  rarely  used  on  any  - 
other  occasion,  and  properly  signifying  a 
row,  or  a  regular  series ;  as  a  c<  urse  of 
l)ricks  in  building,  or  a  rank  of  soldiers  in 
an  army,  and  is  the  same  in  use  and  impurt 
with  the  Sura,  or  Tora,  of  the  Jews;  whs 
also  call  the  fifty  thn  e  steti(.nsot  the  Penta- 
teuch, Sedarim,  a  w<ird  ■  f  the  same  signifi- 
cation. These  chapters  are  not,  in  the 
manuscript  copies,  distinguished  by  their 
numerical  order,  but  by  particular  titles, 
which  are  taken  sometimes  from  a  peculiar 
subject  treated  of,  or  person  mentioned 
therein  ;  usually  from  the  first  word  of  note, 
exactly  in  the  same  manner  as  the  Jews 
have  named  their  Sedarim ;  though  the 
word  from  which  some  chapters  are  deno- 
minated be  very  distant  towards  the  middle, 
or  perhaps  the  end,  of  the  chapter  ;  which 
seems  ridiculous.  But  the  occasion  of  this 
appears  to  have  been,  that  the  verse  or 
passage  wherein  such  word  occurs,  was,  in 
point  of  time,  reveali  d  and  committed  in  writ- 
ing before  the  other  verses  rf  the  same  chap- 
ter which  precede  it  in  order ;  and  the  title 
being  to  the  chapter  before  it  was  comi  le- 
tcd,  or  the  passages  reduced  to  their  present 
order,  the  verse  from  whence  such  title  was 
taken  did  not  always  happen  to  begin  the 
chapter.  Some  chapters  have  two  or  mra'e 
titles,  occasioned  by  the  difference  of  the 
copies.  Some  of  them  being  pretended  to 
have  been  revealed  at  Mecca,  and  others  at 
Medina;  the  noting  this  difference  makes  a 
part  of  the  title.  Every  chapter  is  divided 
into  smaller  portions,  of  very  unequal  length 
also,  which  we  cu.stomarily  call  verses ; 
but  the  Arabic  word  is  Ayat,  the  same  with 
the  Hi  brew  Ototh  ,  and  signifies  signs  or 
wonders;  such  as  the  secrets  of  God,  his 
attributes,  works,  judgments,  and  ordi- 
nances, delivered  in  those  verses;  many  of 
which  have  their  particular  titles,  also,  im- 
posed in  the  same  manner  as  those  of  the 
chapters.  Besides  these  unequal  divisions, 
the  Mahometans  have  also  divided  their 
Koran  into  sixty  equal  portions,  which  tiiey 
call  jinzab.  in  the  singular  Hizb,  each  sub- 
divided into  f  ur  equal  parts  ;  which  is  like- 
wise an  imitation  of  the  Jews,  who  hav«?  an 
ancient  division  of  their  Mishna  into  sixty 
portions,  called  ATassictoth.  But  the^{j^oran 
is  more  usually  dividi  d  into  thirty  settifins 
only,  named  Ajaza,  from  the  singular  Joz^ 
each  of  twice  the  length  of  the  former,  and 
in  like  manner  subdivided  into  four  parts. 


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These-  divisions  are  for  the  use  of  the  read- 
ers of  the  Koran  in  the  royal  temples,  or  in 
the  adjoining  chapels,  where  the  emperors 
and  great  men  are  interred  ;  of  whom 
there  are  thirty  belonging  to  every  chapel, 
and  each  reads  his  section  every  day  ;  so 
that  the  whole  Koran  is  read  over  once  a 
day.  Next  after  the  title,  at  the  name  of 
every  chapter,    except    only    the  ninth,  is 

Sretixed  the  following  solemn  form,  by  the 
lahometans  called  the  Bismallah. — "  In 
the  name  of  the  most  merciful  God  :"  which 
form  they  constantly  place  at  the  beginning 
of  all  their  books  and  writings  in  general,  as 
a  peculiar  mark  and  distinguishing  charac- 
teristic of  their  religion,  it  being  counted  a 
sort  of  impiety  to  omit  it.  The  Jews,  and 
eastern  Christians,  for  the  same  purpose, 
make  use  of  similar  forms.  But  Mahomt  t 
probably  took  this  form  from  the  Persian 
Magi,  who  began  their  books  in  these  words, 
Bcnam  Yczda?n  bakshuishgher  dadar  :  that 
is.  In  the  name  of  the  moat  merdful  just 
God.  There  are.  twenty-nine  chapters  of 
the  Koran,  which  have  this  peculiarity, 
that  they  begin  widi  certain  letters  of  the 
alphabet,  some  with  single  ones,  others  with 
more.  These  letters,  the  Mahometans  be- 
lieve to  be  the  peculiar  marks  of  the  Koran, 
and  to  conceal  several  profound  mysteries ; 
the  certain  understanding  of  which,  the 
more  intelligent  confess,  has  not  been  com- 
municated to  any  mortal,  their  prophet  only 
excepted :  notwithstanding  which,  some 
take  the  liberty  of  guessing  at  their  mean- 
ing by  that  species  of  cabala,  called  by  the 
Jews  jYotarikon. 

2.  Koran,  general  design  of  the — The 
general  design  of  the  Koran  was  to  unite 
the  professors  of  the  three  different  reli- 
gions, then  followed  in  the  popiilous  country 
of  Arabia,  (who,  for  the  most  part,  wander- 
ed without  guides,  the  far  greater  number 
being  idolaters,  and  the  rest  Jews  and 
Christians,  mostly  of  erroneous  opinion,)  in 
'the  knowledge  and  worship  of  one  God,  un- 
der the  sanction  of  certain  laws  and  cere- 
monies, partly  of  ancient,  and  partly  of 
novel  institution,  enforced  by  the  considera- 
tion of  rewards  and  punishments,  both  tem- 
poral and  eternal ;  and  to  bring  them  all  to 
the  obedience  of  Mahiimet,  as  the  prophet 
and  embassador  of  God  ;  wlio  after  the  re- 
peated admonitions,  promises,  and  threats 
of  former  ages,  v.-as  sent  at  last  to  establish 
and  propagate  God's  religifin  on  earth  ;  and 
to  be  acknowledged  chief  pontiff  in  spiritual 
matters,  as  well  as  supreme  prince  in  tem- 
poral. The  great  doctrine,  then,  of  the 
Koran,  is  the  unity  of  God ;  to  restore 
whicli,  Mahomet  pretended  was  the  chief 
end  of  his  mission  ;  it  being  laid  down  by 
him  as  a  fundamental  truth.  That  there 
never  was,  nor  ever  can  be,  more  than  one 
true  orthf  dox  religion  ;  that,  though  t'ue 
particular  laws  or  ceremonies  are  only  tcni- 
porary  and  subject  to  alteration,  accordii.g 
to  the  Divine  direction  ;  yet,  the  suiistance 
of  it  being   eternal  truth,    is   not   liable  to 

li 


change,  but  continues  immutably  the  same  ; 
and  that,  whenever  this  religion  became 
neglected  or  corrupted  in  essentials,  God  had 
the  goo  !ness  to  re-inform  aiid  re-admonish 
mankind  thereof  by  several  prophets,  of 
whom  M(3ses  and  Jesus  were  the  most  dis- 
tinguished, till  the  appearance  of  Mahomet, 
who  is  their  seal,  and  no  other  to  be  expect- 
ed after  him.  The  more  effjctiially  to  en- 
gage people  to  hearken  to  him,  great  part 
of  the  Koran  is  employed  in  relating  ex- 
amples of  dreadful  punishments  formerly 
inflicted  by  God  on  those  who  rejected  and 
abused  his  messengers ;  several  of  which 
stories,  or  some  circumstances  of  them,  are 
taken  from  the  Old  and  New  Testaments, 
but  many  more  from  the  apocryphal  books 
and  traditions  of  the  Jews  and  Christians  of 
those  ages,  set  up  in  the  Koian  as  truths, 
in  opposition  to  the  scriptures,  which  the 
Jews  and  Christians  are  charged  with  hav- 
ing altered :  and,  indeed,  few  or  none  of  the 
relations  of  circumstances  in  the  Koran 
were  iuvented  by  Mahomet,  as  is  generally 
supposed  ;  it  being  easy  to  trace  the  great- 
est part  of  them  much  higher,  as  the  rest 
might  be,  were  more  of  these  books  extant, 
and  were  it  worth  while  to  make  the  en- 
quiry. The  rest  of  the  Alcoran  is  taken  up 
in  prescribing  necessary  laws  and  dire  ctions, 
frequent  admonitions  to  moral  and  Divine 
virtues,  the  worship  and  re\'erence  of  the 
supreme  Being,  and  resignation  to  his  will. 
One  of  their  most  learned  commentators 
distinguishes  the  contents  of  the  Alcoran  in- 
to allegorical  and  literal :  under  the  former 
are  comprehended  all  tlie  obscure,  paraboli- 
cal, and  enigmatical  passages,  with  such 
laws  as  are  repealed  or  abrogated  ;  the  lat- 
ter, such  as  are  clear,  and  in  full  force. 
The  most  excellent  moral  in  the  whole  Al- 
coran, interpreters  say,  is  that  in  the  chap- 
ter Al  arluf,  viz.  "Shew  mercy,  do  good  to 
all,  and  dispute  not  with  the  ignorant ;"  or, 
as  Mr.  Sale  renders  it,  Use  indulgence,  com- 
mand that  whicli  is  just,  and  withch'aw  far 
from  the  ignorant.  Mahomet,  according  to 
the  authors  of  the  Kcschaf,  having  begged 
of  the  angel  Gabriel  a  more  ample  explica- 
tion of  this  passage,  received  it  in  the  fol- 
lowirig  terms  ;  "  Seek  him  who  turns  thee  rut, 
give  to  him  who  takes  from  thee,  pardon 
him  who  injures  thee;  for  God  will  have 
you  plant  in  your  souls  the  roots  of  his  chief 
perfections"  It  is  easy  to  see  that  this 
commentary  is  boirowed  from  the  gospel. 
In  reality,  the  necessity  of  forgiving  enemies, 
though  frequently  inculcated  in  the  Alcoran, 
is  of  a  later  date  among  the  Mahometans 
than  among  the  Christians :  among  tlicse 
later  than  among  the  heathens  ;  and  to  be 
traced  originally  amciig  the  Jews,  (See  Ex- 
odus xxxiii.  4,  5.)  But  it  matters  not  so 
much  who  had  it  first  as  who  observes  it 
best.  Tiie  Caliph  Hassan,  son  of  Ha!i,  be- 
ing at  table,  a  slave  let  fall  a  dish  of  meat 
reeking  hot,  whicli  scalded  him  severely 
rhe  slave  fell  on  his  knees  rehearsing  these 
words  of  tiie  Alcoiau,  "Paradise  is  fi.T  those 


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who  restrain  their  anger."  "  I  am  not  angry 
with  thee,"  answered  the  caliph.  "  And 
for  those  who  forgive  offences  against  them," 
continues  the  slave.  "  I  forgive  thee  thine," 
replies  the  caliph.  "  But,  above  all,  for 
those  who  return  good  for  evil,"  adds  the 
slave.  "  I  set  thee  at  liberty,"  i-ejoined  the 
caliph ;  "  and  1  give  thee  ten  dinars." 
There  are  also  a  great  number  of  occasion- 
al passages  in  the  Alcoran  relating  only  to 
particular  emergencies.  For  this  advantage 
Mahomet  had,  by  his  piece-meal  method  of 
receiving  and  delivering  his  revelations,  that, 
whenever  he  happened  to  be  perplexed  with 
any  thing,  he  had  a  certain  resource  in  some 
new  morsel  of  revelation.  It  was  an  ad- 
mirable contrivance  to  bring  down  the  whole 
Alcoran  only  to  the  lowest  heaven,  not  to 
eai-th ;  since,  had  the  whole  been  publish- 
at  once,  innumerable  objections  would  have 
been  made,  which  it  would  have  been  im- 
possible for  him  to  have  solved;  but  as  he| 
received  it  by  parcels,  as  God  saw  fit  they 
should  be  published  for  the  conversion  and 
instruction  of  the  people,  he  had  a  sure  way 
to  answer  all  emergencies,  and  to  extricate 
himself  with  honour  from  any  difficulty 
•which  might  occur. 

3.  Koran,  history  of  the.  It  is  the  com- 
mon opinion,  that  Mahoiiiet,  assisted  by  one 
Sergius,  a  monk,  composed  this  book;  but 
the  Mussulmens  believe  it  as  an  article  of 
their  taith,  that  the  prophet,  who,  they  say, 
was  an  illiterate  man,  had  no  concern  in  in- 
diting it ;  but  that  it  was  given  him  by  God, 
who,  to  that  end,  made  use  of  the  ministry 
of  the  angel  Gabriel ;  that,  however,  it  was 
communicated  to  him  by  little  and  little,  a 
verse  at  a  time,  and  in  different  places  dur 
ing  the  course  of  twenty-tliree  years. — •'  And 
hei  ce,"  say  they,  "  proceed  that  disnider 
and  confusion  visible  in  tiie  work ;"  which, 
in  truth,  are  so  great,  that  all  their  doctors 
have  never  been  able  to  adjust  them;  for 
Mahomet,  or  rather  his  copyist,  having  put 
all  the  loose  verses  promiscuously  in  a  book 
together,  it  was  impossible  ever  to  retrieve 
the  order  wherein  they  were  delivered 
These  twenty-three  years,  which  the  angel 
employed  in  conveying  the  Alcoran  to  Ma- 
homet, are  of  wonderful  service  to  his  fol- 
lowers ;  inasmuch  as  they  furnish  them  with 
an  answer  to  such  as  tax  them  with  those 
glaring  contradictions  of  which  the  book  is 
full,  and  which  they  piously  father  upon  God 
himself;  alleging  that,  in  the  course  of  so 
long  a  time,  he  repealed  and  altered  seve- 
ral doctrines  and  precepts,  which  the  pro- 
phet had  before  received  of  him.  M.  D'Her- 
belot  thinks  it  probable,  that  when  the  here- 
sies of  the  Nestorians,  Eutychians,  &;c.  had 
been  condemrje;!  by  oecumenical  councils, 
many  bishoiM,  priests,  monks,  &c.  being  dri- 
ven into  the  deserts  of  Arabia  and  Egypt, 
furnished  the  impostor  with  passages,  and 
crude  ill-c>.nceived  doctrines,  out  of  the 
scriptures  ;  and  that  it  ^^as  hence  that  the 
Alcoran  became  so  full  of  the  wild  and  erro- 
neous opinions  of  those  heretics.    The  Jews 


also,  who  were  very  nuroerous  in  Arabia, 
furnished  materials  for  the  Alcoran  ;  nor  is 
it  without  some  reason  that  they  boast, 
twelve  of  their  chief  doctors  to  have  been 
the  authors  of  this  work.  The  Alcoran, 
while  Mahomet  lived,  was  only  kept  in  k.ose 
sheets:  his  successor,  Abubeker,  first  col- 
lected them  into  a  volume,  and  committed 
the  Keeping  of  it  to  Haphsa,  the  widow  of 
Mahoniet,  in  order  to  be  consulted  as  au 
original ;  and  there  being  a  good  deal  of  di- 
versity between  the  several  coj^ies  already 
dispersed  throughout  the  provinces.  Otto- 
man, successor  of  Abubeker,  procured  a  great 
number  of  copies  to  be  taken  from  that  of 
Haphsa,  at  the  same  time  suppressing  all 
the  others  not  conformable  to  the  original.  « 
The  chief  differences  in  the  present  copies  1 
of  this  book  consist  in  the  points,  which  Avere  1 
not  in  use  in  the  time  of  Mahomet  and  his 
immediate  successors  ;  but  were  added  since, 
to  ascertain  the  reading,  after  the  example 
of  the  Massoretes,  who  added  the  like 
points  to  the  Hebrew  texts  of  scripture. 
There  are  several  principal  editions  of  the 
Alcoran ;  two  at  Medina,  one  at  Mecca,  one 
at  Cufa,  one  at  Bassora,  one  in  Syria,  and 
the  common,  or  Vulgate  edition.  The  first 
contains  6000  verses,  the  uthers  surpassing 
this  number  by  200  or  236  verses  ;  but  the 
number  of  words,  and  letters  is  the  same  in  all, 
viz.  77,639  words,  and  323,015  letters.  The 
number  of  commentaries  on  the  Alcoran  is 
so  large,  that  the  bare  titles  would  make  a 
huge  volume.  Ben  Oschoir  has  written  the 
history  of  them,  entitled,  Tarikh  Ben  Os- 
chair.  The  principal  among  them  are, 
Keidhaori.  Thaalebi,  Zamalchschari,  and 
Bacai  The  Mahometans  have  a  positive 
theology  built  on  the  Alcoran  and  tradition, 
as  well  as  the  scholastical  one  built  on  rea- 
son. Tiiey  have  likewise  their  casuists,  and 
a  kind  of  canon  law,  wherein  they  distin- 
guish between  what  is  of  divine  and  what 
of  positive  right.  They  have  their  benefi- 
ciaries too,  chaplains,  almoners,  and  canons, 
who  read  a  chapter  every  day  out  of  the  Al- 
coran in  their  mosques,  and  have  prebends 
annexed  to  their  office.  The  halib  of  the 
mosque  is  what  we  call  the  pdrson  of  the 
parish ;  and  the  scheiks  are  the  preachers, 
who  take  their  texts  out  of  the  Alcoran. 

4.  Koran  Mahomeian  faith  concerinng.  ■ 
It  is  tiie  general  belief  among  the  Mahome- 
tans that  the  Koran  is  of  divine  original ; 
nay,  that  it  is  eternal  and  uncreated ;  re- 
maining, as  some  express  it,  in  the  very  es- 
sence of  God  :  and  the  first  transcript  has 
been  from  everlasting,  by  God's  throne,  writ- 
ten on  a  table  of  vast  bigness,  called  the 
/ireserxicd  table,  in  which  ai"e  also  recorded 
the  Divine  decrees,  past  and  future  ;  that  a 
copy  from  this  table,  in  one  volume  upon 
paper,  was  by  the  ministry  of  the  angel  Ga- 
briel sent  down  to  the  lowest  heaven,  in  the 
month  of  Ramadan,  on  the  night  di  fw.vcr, 
from  whence  Gabriel  revealed  it  to  Maho- 
met in  parcels,  some  at  Mecca,  and  some  at 
Medina,  at  different  times,  during  the  space 


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of  twenty-three  years,  as  the  exigency  of  af- 
I    fairs  required;   giving  him,    however,   the 
consulation  to  shew  him  the  whole  (which 
they  tell  us  was  bound  in  silk,  and  adorned 
with  gold  and  precious  stones  of  paradise) 
once  a-year ;  but  in  the  last  year  of  his  life 
he  had  the  favour  to  see  it  twice.     They  | 
say,  that  only  ten  chapters  were  delivered  I 
entire,  the  rest  being  revealed  piecemeal,  and  1 
written  down  from  time  to  time  by  the  pro- 1 
phet's  amanuensis,  in  such  a  part  of  such 
and  such  chapter,  till  they  were  completed, ' 
according  to  the  directions  of  the  angel 
The  first  parcel  that  was  revealed  is  gene- 
rally agreed  to  have  been  the  five  first  verses 
of  the   ninety-sixth  chapter.     In  fine,  the 
book  of  the  Alcoran  is  held  in  the  highest 
esteem  and  reverence  among  the  Mussul- 
reens.    They  dare  not  so  much  as  touch  the 
Alcoran  without  being  first  washed,  or  le- 
gally purified ;  to  prevent  which  an  inscrip- 
tion is  put  on  the  cover  or  label,  Let  none 
touch  but  they  ivho  are  clean.     It  is  read 
with  great  care  and  respect,  being  never 
held  below  the  girdle.     They  swear  by  it ; 
take  omens  from  it  on   all  weighty  occa- 
sions;   carry  it  with  them  to  war;    write 
sentences  of  it  on  their  banners  ;    adorn  it 
with  gold  and  precious  stones ;  and  know- 
ingly not  suffer  it  to  be  in  the  possession  of 
any  of  a  different  religion.    Some  say  tliat 
it  is  punishable  even  with  death,  in  a  Chris- 
tian, to  touch  it ;  others,  that  the  veneration 
of  the  Mussulmens  leads  them  to  condemn 
the  translating  it  into  any  other  language, 
as  a  profanation  :  but  these"  seem  to  be  ex- 
aggerations.   The  Mahometans  have  taken 
care  to  have  their  scripture  translated  into 
the  Persian,  the  Javan,  the  IMalayan,  and 
other  languages ;  though,  out  of  respect  to  | 
the  original,  these  versions  are  generally,  if  j 
not  always,  interlineated.  '         j 

5.  Koran,  success  of  the,  accounted  for.  \ 
The  author  of  the  "  View  of  Christianity  j 
and  Mahometanism"  observes,  that,  "  by  | 
the  advocates  of  Mahometanism,  the  Koran  ! 
has  always  been  held  forth  as  the  greatest 
of  miracles,  and  equally  stupendous  with  the 
act  of  raising  the  dead.  The  miracles  of ' 
Moses  and  Jesus,  they  say,  were  transient  i 
and  temporary ;    but  that  of  the  Koran  is 


permanent  and  perpetual,  and  therefore  far  r 
surpasses  all  the  miraculous  events  of  pre- 
ceding ages.  We  will  not  detract  from  the  | 
real  merits  of  the  Koran  ;  we  allow  it  to  be 
generally  elegant  and  often  sublime ;  but  at 
the  same  time  we  reject  with  "disdain  its  ar- 
rogant pretence  to  any  thing  supernatural, 
all  the  real  excellence  of  the  work  being 
easily  referrable  to  natural  and  visible 
causes.  In  the  language  of  Arabia,  a  lan- 
guage extremely  loved,  and  diligently  culti- 
vated by  the  people  to  whom  it  was  verna- 
cular, Mahomet  found  advantages  which 
were  never  enjoyed  by  any  former  or  suc- 
ceeding impostor.  It  requires  not  the  eye 
of  a  philosopher  to  discover  in  every  soil 
and  country  a  principle  of  national  pride  : 
and  if  we  look  back  for  many  ages  on  the 


history  of  the  Arabians,  we  shall  easily  per- 
ceive that  pride  among  them  invariably  to 
have  consisted  in  the  knowledge  and  im- 
provement of  their  native  language.     The 
Arabic,  which  has  been  justly  esteemed  the 
most  copious  of  the  eastern  tongues,   which 
had    existed  from   the   remotest   antiquity, 
which  had  been  embellished  by  nuniberless 
poets,  and  refined  by  the  constant  exercise 
of  the  natives,  was  the  most  successful  in- 
strument   which    Mahomet    emploj-ed   in 
planting  his  new  religion  among  them.  Ad- 
mirably adapted  by  its  unrivalled  harmony, 
and  by  its  endless  variety,  Lo  add  painting 
to  expression,   and  to  pursue  the  imagina- 
tion in  its  unbounded  flight,  it  became  in  the 
hands  of  Mahomet  an  irresistible  charm  to 
blind  the  judgment,    and   to  captivate  the 
fancy  of  his  followers.     Of  that  description 
of  men  who  first  composed  the  adherents  of 
Mahomet,  and  to  whom  the  Koran  was  ad- 
dressed, few  probably,  were  able  to  pass  a 
very  accurate  judgment  on  the  propriety  of 
the  sentiments,  or  on  the  Ijeauty  of  the  dic- 
tion :  but  all  could  judge  of  the  militaiy  abil- 
ities of  their  leader ;  and   in  the   midst  of 
their  admiration  it  is  not  difficult  to  conceive 
that  they  would  ascribe  to  his  compositions 
every  imaginary  beauty  of  inspired  language. 
The  shepherd  and  the  soldier,  though  awake 
to  the  charms  of  those  wild,  but  beautiful 
compositions,  in  which  were  celebrated  their 
favourite  occupations  of  love  or  war,   were 
yet  little  able  to  criticise  any  other  works 
than  those  which  were  addressed  to  their 
imagination  or  their   heart.     To  abstract 
reasonings  on  the  attributes  and  the  dispen- 
sations of  the  Deity,  to  the  comparative  ex- 
cellencies of  rival  religions,  to  the  consisten- 
cy of  an)'  one  religious    system   in  all  its 
parts,  and  to  the  force  of  its  \arious  proofs, 
they  were  quite  inattentive.    In  such  a  sit- 
uation, the  appearance  of  a  work  which 
possessed  something  like  wisdom  and  con- 
sistence; which  prescrited  the  rules  and  il- 
lustrated the  duties  of  life ;  and  which  con- 
tained the  principles  of  a  new  and  compari- 
tively  sublime  theology,  independently  of  its 
real  and  permanent  merit,  was  likely  to  ex- 
cite their  astonishment,  and  to  become  the 
standard  of  future  composition.  In  the  first 
periods  of  the  literature  of  every  country, 
something  of  this  kind  nas  happened.     The 
father  of  Grecian  poetn'  very  obviously  in- 
fluenced the  taste  and  imitaion  of  his  country. 
The  modern  nations  of  Europe  all   possess 
some  original  author,  who,  rising  from  the 
darkness  of  former  ages,  has  begun  the  ca- 
reer of  composition,  and  tinctured  with  the 
character  of  his  own  imagination,  the  stream 
which  has  flowed  througii  his  posterity.  But 
the  prophet  of  Arabia  had,  in  tliis  respect, 
advantages  peculiar  to  himself.     His  com- 
positions were  not  to  his  followers  the  works 
of  man,  but  the  genuine  language  of  heaven 
which  had  sent  him.     They  were  not  con- 
fined, therefore,  to  that  admiration  which  is 
so  liberally  bestowed  on  the  earliest  produc- 
tions of  genius,  or  to  that  fond  attachment 


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with  which  men  every  where  regard  the 
original  compositions  of  tlieir  country  ;  but 
with  their  admiration  they  blended  their 
piety.  To  know  and  to  feel  the  beauties 
of  the  Koran,  was  in  some  respect  to  share 
in  the  temper  of  heaven  ;  and  he  who  was 
most  affected  with  admiration  in  the  perusal 
of  its  beauties,  seemed  fitly  the  object  of  that 
mercy  which  had  given  it  to  ignorant  man. 
The  Koran,  therefore,  became  naturally 
and  necessarily  the  standard  of  taste.  With 
a  language  thus  hallowed  in  their  imagi- 
nations, they  were  too  well  satisfied  either 
to  dispute  its  elegance,  or  improve  its  struc- 
ture. In  succeeding  ages,  the  additional 
sanction  of  antiquity  or  prescription,  was 
given  to  these  compositions  which  their  fa- 
ther>^;  had  admired  ;  and  while  the  belief  of 
its  divint;  original  continues,  that  admira- 
tion which  has  thus  become  the  test  and  the 
duty  of  the  faithful,  can  neither  be  altei-ed 
no\'  diminished.  When,  therefore,  we  con- 
sider these  peculiar  advantages  of  the  Ko- 
ran, we  have  no  reason  to  be  surprised  at 
the  admiration  in  which  it  is  held.  But,  if 
descending  to  a  more  minute  investigation 
of  it,  we  consider  its  perpetual  inconsist- 
ence and  absurdity,  we  shall  indeed  have 
cause  for  astonishment  at  that  weakness  of 
humanity,  which  could  ever  have  receiv- 
ed such  compositions  as  the  work  of  the 
Deity.-; 

6.  Koran,  the  style  and  merits  of  the, 
examined.  "  The  first  praise  of  all  the 
pndiictions  of  genius  (continues  this  author) 
is  invention  ;  that  quality  of  the  mind,  which, 
by  the  extent  anci  quickness  of  its  view,  is 
capable  of  the  largest  conceptions,  and  of 
forming  new  combinations  of  objects  the 
mr  St  distant  and  unusual.  Bat  the  Koran 
bears  little  impression  of  this  transcendant 
character.  Its  materials  are  wholly  bor- 
rowed from  the  Jewish  and  Christian  Scrip- 
tures, from  the  Talinuclical  legends  and 
apocryphal  gospels  then  current  in  the  east, 
and  from  the  traditions  and  fables  which 
abounded  in  Arabia.  The  materials  collected 
from  these  several  sources  are  here  heaped 
together  with  perpetual  and  heedless  repe- 
titions, without  any  settled  principle  or  visi- 
ble connection.  When  a  great  part  of  the 
life  of  Mahomet  had  been  spent  in  prepara- 
tory meditation  on  the  system  he  was  about 
to  establish,  its  chapters  were  dealt  out 
slowly  and  separately  during  the  long  period 
of  twenty-three  years.  Yet,  thus  defective 
in  its  structure,  and  no  less  objectionable  in 
its  doctrines,  was  the  work  which  Maho- 
met delivered  to  his  follnwrrs  as  the  oracles 
of  God.  The  most  prominent  feature  of  the 
Kor-an,  that  point  r.f  excellence  in  which 
the  partiahty  of  its  arlmireis  has  ever  de- 
lighted to  view  it,  is  the  sublime  notion  it 
generally  impresses  of  the  nature  and  attri- 
butes of  God.  If  its  author  had  reallv  de- 
rived these  just  conceptions  from  the  inspi- 
ration of  that  Being  whom  they  attempt  to 
describe,  they  would  not  have  been  sur- 
rounded, as  they  now  are  on  every  side, 


with  error  and  absurdity.  But  it  might  be 
easily  proved,  that  whatever  it  justly  defines 
of  the  Divine  attributes,  was  borrowed  from 
our  holy  Scriptures ;  which  even  from  its 
first  promulgation,  but  especially  from  the 
completion  of  the  New  Testament,  has  ex- 
tended the  views,  and  enlightened  the  un- 
derstandings of  mankind ;  and  thus  furnish- 
ed them  with  arms  which  have  too  often 
been  inefft  ctually  turned  against  itself  by  its 
ungenerous  enemies.  In  this  instance,  par- 
ticularly, the  copy  is  far  below  the  great 
original,  both  in  the  propriety  of  its  images 
and  the  force  of  its  descriptions." 

7.  Koran,  the  sublimity  of  the,  contrast- 
ed. "  Our  holy  Scriptures  are  the  only 
compositions  that  can  enable  the  dim  sight 
of  mortality  to  penetrate  into  the  invisible 
world,  and  to  behold  a  glimpse  of  the  Di- 
vine perfections.  Accordingly,  when  they 
would  represent  to  us  the  happiness  of  hea- 
ven, they  describe  it,  not  by  any  thing  mi- 
nute and  particular,  but  by  something  gene- 
ral and  great ;  something  that,  without  de- 
scending to  any  determinate  object,  may  at 
once  by  its  beauty  and  immensity  excite  our 
wishes,  and  elevate  our  affections.  Though 
in  the  prophetical  and  evangelical  writings, 
the  joys  that  shall  attend  us  in  a  divine  state, 
are  often  mentioned  with  ardent  admira- 
tion, they  are  expressed  rather  by  illusion 
than  by  similitude  ;  rather  by  indefinite  and 
figurative  terms,  than  by  any  thing  fixed 
and  determinate  '  Eye  nath  not  seen,  nor 
ear  heard,  neither  have  entered  into  the 
heart  of  man,  the  things  which  God  hath 
prepared  for  them  that  love  him,'  1  Cor. 
ii.  9.  What  a  reverence  and  astonishment 
does  this  passage  excite  in  every  hearer  of 
taste  and  piety  !  What  energy,  and  at  the 
same  time  what  simplicity  in  the  expres- 
sion !  How  subhme,  and  at  the  same  time 
how  obscure,  is  the  imagery!  Different 
was  the  conduct  of  Mahomet  in  his  descrip- 
tions of  Heaven  and  Paradise.  Unassisted 
by  the  necessary  influence  of  virtuous  inten- 
tions and  Divine  inspiration,  he  was  neither 
desirous  nor  indeed  able,  to  exalt  the  minds 
of  men  to  sublime  conceptions,  or  to  rational 
expectations.  By  attempting  to  explain 
what  is  inconceivable,  to  describe  what  is 
ineffable,  and  to  materialize  what  in  itself 
is  spiritual,  he  absurdly  and  impiously  aim- 
ed to  sensualize  the  purity  of  the  Divine 
essence.  Thus  he  fabricated  a  system  of 
incoherence,  a  religion  of  depravity,  totally 
repugnant  to  the  nature  of  that  Being,  who, 
as  he  pretended,  was  its  object ;  but  there- 
fore more  likely  to  accord  with  the  appe- 
tites and  conceptions  of  a  corrupt  and  sen- 
sual age.  That  we  many  not  appear  to  ex- 
alt our  Scriptures  thus  far  above  the  Koran 
by  an  unreasonable  preference,  ^we  shall 
produce  a  part  of  the  second  chapter  of  the 
latter,  which  is  desen'cdly  admired  by  the 
Mahometans,  who  wear  it  engraved  on 
their  ornaments,  and  recite  it  in  their  pray- 
ers. '  God !  there  is  no  God  but  he ;  the 
living,  the  self-subsisting ;  neither  slumber 


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nor  sleep  seizeth  him  :  to  him  belongeth 
whatsoever  is  ii\  heaven,  and  on  earth.  Who 
is  he  that  can  intercede  with  him  but 
tluough  his  good  pleasure?  He  knoweth 
that  wliich  is  past,  and  that  which  is  to 
come.  His  throne  is  extended  over  heaven 
and  earth,  and  the  preservation  of  both  is  to 
him  no  Imrden.  He  is  the  high,  ihe  mighty.' 
Sale's  Koran,  v.  ii.  p  30  lo  this  descrip- 
tion who  can  refuse  the  praise  of  magnifi- 
cence i*  Part  of  that  magnificence,  however, 
is  to  be  refeired  to  that  verse  of  the  Psalm- 
ist whence  it  was  borrowed :  '  He  that 
keepeth  Israel  shall  neither  slumber  nor 
sleep,'  Psal.  cxxi.  4.  But  if  we  compare  it 
with  that  otlier  passage  of  the  inspired 
Psalmist,  (Psal.  ii.  24—27  )  all  its  boasted 
grandeur  is  at  once  obscured,  and  lost  in  the 
blaze  of  a  greater  light !  '  O,  my  God,  take 
me  not  away  in  the  midst  of  my  days ;  thy 
years  are  throughout  all  generations.  Of 
old  hast  thou  laid  the  foundation  of  the 
earth  :  and  the  heavens  are  the  work  of 
thv  hands.    They  shall  perish,  but  thou 


\  shalt  endure ;  yea,  all  of  them  shall  wax 
old  like  a  garment ;  as  a  vesture  shalt  thou 
change  them,  and  they  shall  be  changed. 
Bnt  thou  art  the  same,  and  thy  years  shall 
have  no  end.'  The  Koran,  therefore,  upon 
a  fair  examination,  far  from  supporting  its 
arrogant  claim  to  a  supernatural  work,  sinks 
belnw  the  level  of  many  compositions  con- 
ft^ssedly  of  human  original ;  and,  still  lower 
does  it  fall  in  our  estimation,  when  compa- 
red with  that  pure  and  perfect  pattern 
which  we  justly  admire  in  the  scriptures 
of  truth.  It  is  therefore  abundantly  appa- 
rent, that  no  miracle  was  either  externally 
performed  for  the  support,  or  is  internally- 
involved  in  the  composition  of  the  Mahome- 
tan revelation."  See  Sale's  Koran.  Pri- 
deaux''s  Life  of  Mahomet.  White's  Ser- 
mons at  Hampton  Lectures ;  and  article 
Mahometanism. 

KTlSTOLATRiE,  a  branch  of  the  Mo- 
nophysites,  which  maintained,  that  the  body 
of  Christ  before  his  resurrection,  was  cor- 
ruptible. 


THEOLOGICAL  DICTIONARY. 

VOL.  IL 


L. 


LAM 

LVBADISTS  were  so  called  from  their  |) 
founder,  John  Labadie,  a  native  of  France. 
He  was  originally  in  the  Romish  commu-  | 
nion  ;  but  leaving  that,  he  became  a  mem- 
ber of  the  reformed  church,  and  per- 
formed with  reputation  the  ministerial 
function  in  France,  Switzerland,  and  Hol- 
land. He  at  length  erected  a  new  com- 
munity, which  resided  successively  at  Mid- 
dleburg,  in  Zaland,  Amsterdam,  Hervor- 
den,  and  at  Altona,  where  he  died  about 
1674.  After  his  death,  his  followers  remo- 
ved their  wandering  community  to  Wie- 
wert,  in  the  district  of  North  Holland, 
wiiere  it  soon  fell  into  oblivion.  If  we  are 
to  judge  of  the  Labadists  by  their  own  ac- 
count, they  did  not  differ  from  the  reform- 
ed church  so  much  in  their  tenets  and 
doctrines  as  in  their  manners  and  rules  of 
discipline ;  yet  it  seems  that  Labadie  had 
some  strange  notions.  Among  other  things, 
he  maintamed  that  God  might  and  did, 
on  certain  occasions,  deceive  men  ;  that  the 
faithful  ought  to  have  all  things  in  common  ; 
that  there  is  no  subordination  or  distinction 
of  rank  in  the  true  church  :  that  in  read- 
ing the  Scriptures,  greater  attention  should 
be  paid  to  the  internal  inspiration  of  the 
Holy  Spirit  than  to  the  words  of  the  text; 
that  the  observation  of  Sunday  was  a  mat- 
ter of  indifference;  that  the  contemplative 
life  is  a  state  of  grace  and  union  with 
God,  and  the  very'  height  of  perfection. 

LAITY,  the  people  as  distinguished 
from  the  clergy.    See  Clergy. 

LAMA  GR.\ND,  a  name  given  to  the 
sovereign  pontiff  or  high  priest  of  the  Thi- 
betian  Taitars,  who  resides  at  Patolp,"  a 
vast  palace  on  a  mountain  near  the  banks 
of  Barampooter,  about  seven  miles  from 
Lahassa.    The  foot  of  this  mountain  is  in- 


LAM 

habited  by  twenty  thousand  lamas,  or  priests, 
who  have  their  separate  apartments  round, 
about  the  mountaJn,'  and  according  to  their 
respective  quality,  are  placed  nearer  or  at 
p.  greater  distance  from  the  sovereign  pon- 
tiff. He  is  not  only  worshipped  by  the 
Thibetians,  but  also  is  the  great  object  of 
adoration  for  the  various  tribes  of  heathen 
Tartars  who  roam  through  tlie  vast  tract 
of  continent,  which  stretches  from  the  , 
brinks  of  the  Wolga  to  Correa,  on  the  sea 
of  Japan.  He  is  not  only  the  sovereign 
pontiff",  the  vicegerent  of  the  Deity  on 
earth,  but  the  more  remote  Tartars  are 
said  to  absolutely  regard  him  as  the  Deity 
himself,  and  call  him  God  the  everlasting 
Father  of  heaven.  They  believe  him  to 
be  immortal,  and  endowed  with  all  know- 
ledge and  viitue.  Every  year  they  come 
up  from  different  parts  to  worship  and 
make  rich  offerings  at  his  shrine  :  even  the 
emperor  of  China,  who  is  a  manchon  Tar- 
tai*,  does  not  fail  in  acknowledgments  to 
him  in  his  religious  capacity ;  and  actually 
entertains  at  a  great  expence,  in  the  palace 
of  Pekin,  an  inferior  lama,  deputed  as  his 
nuncio  from  Thibet.  The  grand  lama,  it 
has  been  said,  is  never  to  be  seen  but  in  a 
secret  place  of  his  palace,  amidst  a  great 
number  of  lamps,  sitting  cress-legged  on  a 
cushion,  and  decked  all  over  with  gold  and 
precious  stones,  where  at  a  distance  the 
people  prostrate  themselves  before  him,  it 
not  being  lawful  for  any  so  much  as  to 
kiss  his  feet.  He  returns  not  the  least 
sign  of  respect,  nor  ever  speaks  even  to 
the  greatest  princes ;  but  cnly  lays  his 
hand  upon  their  heads,  and  they  are  fully 
persuaded  they  receive  from  thence  a  full 
forgiveness  of  all  their  sins. 
The  Suiiniasses,  or  Indian  pilgrims,  often 


LAM 


255 


LAN 


visit  Thibet  as  a  holy  place ;  and  the  la- 
ma always  entertains  a  body  of  two  or 
three  hundred  in  his  pay.  Busides  his  re- 
ligious influence  and  authority,  the  grand 
lama  is  possessed  of  unlimited  power 
throughout  his  dominions,  which  are  very 
extensive.  The  inferior  lamas,  who  form 
the  most  numerous  as  well  as  the  most 
powerful  body  in  the  state,  have  the  priest- 
hood entirely  in  their  hands :  and  be- 
sides fill  up  many  monastic  orders  Avhich 
are  held  in  great  veneration  among  them. 
The  whole  country,  like  Italy,  abounds 
with  priests ;  and  they  entirely  subsist  on 
the  great  number  of  rich  presents  which 
are  sent  them  from  the  utmost  extent  of 
Tartary,  from  the  empire  of  the  Great 
Mogul,  and  from  almost  all  parts  of  the 
Indies. 

The  opinion  of  those  who  are  reputed 
the  most  orthodox  among  the  Thibetians 
is,  that,  when  the  grand  laiua  seems  to  die, 
either  of  old  age  or  infirmity,  his  soul,  in 
fact,  only  quits  a  crazy  habitation  to  look 
for  another,  younger  or  better ;  and  is  dis- 
covered again  in  the  body  of  some  child  by 
certain  tokens,  known  only  to  the  lamas 
or  priests,  in  which  oi'der  he  always  ap- 
pears. '     ^ 

Almost  all  nations  of  t^  east,  except  the 
Maiiometans.  believe  jj^^netemjisychonis 
as  the  most  important  ^^rae  of  their  faith  ; 
especially  the  inhabitants  of  Thibet  and 
Ava,  the  Peguans,  Siamese,  the  greatest 
part  of  the  Chinese  and  Japanese,  and  the 
Monguls  and  Kalmucks,  who  changed  the 
religion  of  Schamanism  for  the  worship  of 
the  grand  lama.  According  to  the  docti'ine 
of  this  metempsijchoais,  the  soul  is  always 
in  action,  and  never  at  rest ;  for  no  sooner 
does  she  leave  her  old  habitation,  than  she 
enters  a  new  one.  The  dalai  lama,  being 
a  divine  person,  can  find  no  better  lodging 
than  tlie  body  of  his  successnr ;  or  the  Foe^ 
residing  in  the  dalai  lama,  which  passes  to 
his  successor ;  and  this  being  a  god,  to 
whom  all  things  are  known,  the  dalai  lama 
is  therefore  acquainted  with  every  thing 
which  happened  during  his  residence  in  his 
former  body. 

This  religion  is  said  to  have  Ijeen  of  three 
thousand  years  standing ;  and  neither  time 
nor  the  influence  of  men,  has  had  tlie  power 
-of  shaking  tlie  authority  of  the  grand  lama. 
This  theocracy  extends  as  fully  to  tempo- 
ral, as  to  spiritual  concerns. 

Though,  in  the  grand  sovereignty  of  the 
lamas,  the  temporal  power  has  been  occa- 
sionally separated  frt)m  the  spiritual  by 
slight  revolutions,  they  have  always  been 
united  again  after  a  time  ;  so  that  in  'llii- 
bet  the  whole  constitution  rests  on  the  im- 
perial pontificate  in  a  manner  elsewhere 
unknown.  For  as  the  Thibetians  suppose 
that  the  grand  lama  is  animated  by  the  good 
Shaka,  or  Foe,  who,  at  the  decease  of  one 
lama,  transmigrates  into  the  next,  and  con- 
secrates him  an  image  of  tlie  divinity,  the 
descending    chain  of    lamas   is  continued 


down  from  him  in  fixed  degrees  of  sanctity ; 
so  that  a  more  firmly  established  sacerdo- 
tal government  in  doctrine,  customs  and  in- 
stitutions, than  actually  reigns  over  this 
country,  cannot  be  conceived.  The  supreme 
manager  of  temporal  affairs  is  no  more 
than  the  viceroy  of  the  sovereign  priest, 
who,  conformable  to  the  dictates  of  liis  re- 
ligion, dwells  in  divine  tranquillity  in  a  build- 
ing that  is  both  temple  and  palace.  If 
some  of  his  votaries  in  modern  times  have 
dispensed  with  the  adoration  of  his  person, 
still  certain  real  modifications  o^  the  bhaka 
religioi.  is  the  only  faith  they  follow.  The 
state  of  sanctity  which  that  religion  incul- 
cates, consists  in  monastic  C('ntinerce,  ab- 
sence of  thought,  and  the  perfect  repose  of 
nonentity 

It  has  been  observed  that  the  religion  of 
Thibet  is  the  counterpart  of  the  Roman 
Catholic,  since  the  inhabitants  of  that  coun- 
try use  holy  water  and  a  smging  service  ; 
they  also  offer  alms,  prayers,  and  sacrifices 
for  the  dead.  They  have  a  vast  number 
of  convents  filled  with  monks  and  friars, 
amounting  to  thirty  thousand  ;  who  besides 
the  three  vows  of  poverty,  obed-ence, 
and  chastity,  make  several  others.  They 
liave  their  confessors,  who  are  chosen  by 
their  superiors,  and  have  licences  from 
their  lamas,  without  which  they  cannot 
hear  confessions  or  impose  penances.  They 
make  use  of  beads.  They  wear  the  mitre 
and  cap  like  the  bishops :  and  their  dalai 
is  nearly  the  same  among  them  as  the  sove- 
reign pontiff  is  among  the  Romanists. 

LAMBETH  ARTICLES.  See  Arti- 
cles. 

LAMPETIANS,  a  denomination  in  the 
seventeenth  century,  the  followers  of  Lam- 
petius,  a  Syrian  monk.  He  pretended  tliat 
as  man  is  born  free,  a  Chribtian,  in  order  to 
please  God,  ought  to  do  nothing  by  neces- 
sity; and  that  it  is,  therefoi'e,  unlawful  to 
make  vows,  even  those  of  o!  edience.  To 
this  system  he  added  the  doctrines  of  the 
Ariai'is,  Carpocratians,  and  other  denomi- 
nations. 

LANGUx\GE,  in  general,  denotes  those 
articulate  sounds  by  which  men  express 
their  thoughts.  Much  has  been  said  respect- 
ing the  invention  of  language.  On  the  one 
side  it  is  observed,  that  it  is  altogether  a 
human  invention,  and  that  the  progress  of 
the  mind,  in  the  invention  and  imjjrove- 
ment  of  language,  is,  by  certain  natural 
gradations,  plainly  discernahle  in  the  com- 
position of  words.  But  on  the  other  side 
it  is  alleged,  that  we  are  indebted  to  divine 
revelation  for  the  origin  of  it.  Witliout 
supposing  this,  we  see  not  how  our  first  pa- 
rents coukl  so  early  hold  converse  with  God, 
or  the  man  with  his  wife.  Admitting,  how- 
ever, that  it  is  ef  divine  original,  we  cannot 
suppose  that  a  perfect  system  of  it  was  all 
at  once  given  to  man  It  is  much  more 
natural  to  think  thr.t  God  taught  our  first 
parents  only  such  language  as  suited  their 
present  occasion,  leavmg  them,  as  he  did  li^ 


L  AT 


257 


LAW 


other  things,  to  enlarge  and  improve  it,  as 
their  future  necessities  should  require. 
Without  attempting,  however,  to  decide 
tliis  controversy,  we  may  considei-  language 
as  one  o(  the  greatest  blessings  belouging  to 
mankind.  Destitute  of  tliis,  we  should 
make  but  small  advancements  in  science,  be 
lost  to  all  social  enjuyments,  and  religion 
itself  would  feel  the  want  of  such  a  pow- 
er. Our  wise  Creator,  tiierefore,  has  con- 
ferred upon  us  this  inestimable  privilege  : 
let  us,  tlien,  be  cautious  that  our  tongues 
be  not  the  vehicle  of  vain  and  useless  mat- 
ter, but  used  fir  the  great  end  of  glorifying 
him,  and  doing  good  to  mankind.  What 
was  the  first  language  taught  man,  is  mat- 
ter of  dispute  among  the  learned,  but  most 
think   it  was  the  Hebrew. 

But  as  this  subject,  and  thearticle  in  gene- 
ral, belongs  more  to  philology  than  divini- 
ty, we  refer  the  reader  to  Dr.  .^dain 
Smith's  Disserialion  on  the  Formation  of 
Languages.  Harris*  Hermes.  IVarbur- 
ton's  Divine  Legation  of  Moses  vol.  iii. 
Traitede  la  Fonnatioji  Mtchanique  des  Lan- 
gues,  par  ie  President  de  Brasses.  Blair  s 
Rhetoric,  vol.  i.  Lect.  vi.  Gregory's  Ei>- 
sai/s,  ess.  6.  Lord  Monboddo  on  the  Ori- 
gin ajid  /irogress  of  Languuge. 

L.\rrnJDINARIAN,  a  person  not  con- 
forming to  any  particular  opinion  or  stan- 
dard, but  of  such  moderation  as  to  suppose 
that  people  will  be  admitted  into  heaven,  al- 
though of  different  persuasions.  The  term 
was  more  especially  applied  to  those  paci- 
fic doctors  in  the  seventeenth  century,  who 
offered  themselves  as  mediators  between 
the  more  violent  Episcopalians,  and  the  ri- 
gid Presbyterians  and  Independents,  respect- 
ing the  forms  of  church  government,  public 
worship,  and  certain  religious  tenets,  mere 
especially  those  that  were  debated  between 
the  Arminians  and  Calvinists.  The  chief 
leaders  of  these  Latitudinarians  w-ere  Hales 
and  Chillingworth  ;  but  More,  Cudworth, 
Gale,  Witchcot,  and  Tillotson,  were  also 
among  the  number.  These  men,  although 
firmly  attached  to  the  church  of  England, 
did  not  go  so  far  as  to  look  upon  it  as  of  di- 
vine institution  ;  and  hence  they  maintain- 
ed, that  those  who  followed  other  forms  of 
government  and  worship,  wei'e  not  on  that 
account  to  be  excluded  from  their  commu- 
nion. As  to  the  doctrinal  part  of  religion, 
they  took  the  system  of  Episcopius  for  their 
model,  and  like  him,  reduced  the  fuiida- 
niental  doctrines  of  Christianity  to  a  few 
points :  and  by  this  manner  of  prijceeding 
they  endeavoured  to  shew  the  contending 
parties,  that  they  had  no  reason  to  opp(  se 
each  other  with  such  animosity  and  bittL'r- 
ness,  since  the  subjects  of  their  debates 
were  matters  of  an  indifferent  nature  with 
respect  to  salvation.  They  met,  however, 
with  opposition  for  their  pains,  and  were 
branded  as  Atheists  and  Deists  by  some, 
and  as  Sncinians  by  others ;  but  upon  the 
restoration  of  Charles  II.  they  were  raised 
to  the   first  dignities  of  the  church,   and 

Kk 


were  held  in  considerable  esteem.  See 
Burnet's  History  of  Ms  own  Times,  vol.  i. 
book  xi  page  188.  Mosheim's  Ecclesiasti- 
cal History,  vol.  ii-  page  501,  quaito  edi- 
tion. 

LAUR.\,  in  church  histoiy,  a  name  given 

to  a  collection  of  little  cells  at  some  distance 

;  from  each  other,   in  v/liich   the    hermits  of 

j  ancient  times  lived  together  in  a  wilderness. 

These  hermits  did  not  live   in   community, 

I  but  each  monk  provided  for  himself  in  his 

distinct  cell.     The  most  celebrated   lauras 

mentioned  in   ecclesiastical  histiry  were  in 

Palestine;  as  the  laura  of  St  Euthymus,  St. 

Saba,  the  laura  of  the  towers,  &;c. 

LAW,  a  rule  of  action  :  a  precept  or 
command  coming  from  a  superior  authority, 
which  an  inferior  is  bound  to  rbey  The 
manner  in  which  God  governs  rati  nal 
creatures  is  by  a  law,  as  the  rule  of  their 
obedience  to  him,  and  which  is  what  we 
call  God's  moral  government  of  the  world. 
He  gave  a  law  to  angtls,  which  some  of 
them  kept,  and  have  been  confirmed  in  a 
state  of  obedience  to  it,  but  which  others 
broke,  and  thereby  plunged  themselves  into 
destruction  and  misery.  He  gave,  also,  a 
law  to  Adam,  and  which  was  in  the  form 
(■f  a  covenant,  and'  in  which  Adi^m  stood  as 
a  covenant  head  to  all  his  posterity,  Roin.  v. 
Gen.  ii.  But  ilMH|st  parents  soon  violated 
that  law,  and  f^'rcom  a  state  of  innoct  nee 
to  a  stale  of  sin  and  misery,  Hos  vi.  7.  Gen. 
iii     See  Fall. 

Positive  lavjs  are  precepts  which  are 
not  founded  upon  a!\y  reasons  known  to  those 
to  whom  they  are  given.  Thus  in  a  state 
of  innocence,  Grd  gave  the  law  of  the  sab- 
bath ;  of  abstinence  from  the  fruit  of  the 
tree  of  knowledge,  Sec 

Lavj  of  Nature  is  the  will  of  God  rela- 
ting to  human  actions,  grounded  in  the 
moral  differences  of  things,  and,  because 
discoverable  by  natural  light,  obligatr.ry 
upon  all  mankind,  Rom.  i.  20  ii.  14,  15. 
This  law  is  coeval  with  the  human  race, 
binding  all  over  the  gl  be,  and  at  all  times; 
yet,  through  the  corruption  of  reason,  it  is 
iiisuflRcient  to  lead  us  to  happiness,  and 
utterly  unable  to  acquaint  us  how  sin  is  to 
be  forgiven,  without  the  assistance  of  reve- 
lation. 

Ceremonial  law  is  that  which  prescribed 
the  rites  of  worship  used  under  the  Old 
Testament.  These  rites  were  typical  of 
Christ,  and  were  obligatory  only  till  Christ 
had  finished  his  work,  and  began  to  erect 
his  gospel  church,  Heb.  vii.  9,  11.  Heb. 
X.  1.  Eph.  ii,  16.  Col.  ii.  14.  Gal.  v. 
2,  3. 

Judicial  laiv  was  that  wliich  directed  the 
policy  of  the  Jewish  nation,  as  under  the 
peculiar  dominion  of  God  as  their  supreme 
magistrate,  and  never,  except  in  things 
relative  to  moral  equity,  was  binding  on  any 
but  the  Hebrew  nation. 

Moral  law  is  that  declaration  of  God's 
will  which  directs  and  binds  all  men,  of 
every  age  and  place,  in  their  whole  duty  to 


LAW 


258 


LEA 


him.  It  was  most  solemnly  proclaimed  by 
God  himstll  at  Sinai,  to  confirm  the  origin- 
al ■  law  of  nature,  and  correct  men's  mis- 
takes concerning  the  demands  of  it.  It  is 
denominated  perfect ^  Psal.  xix-  7 .  furfietual.. 
Matt.  V.  17,  18.  holy,  Rom.  vii.  12.  good, 
Rom.  vii.  12.  s/iiritual,  Rom.  \'n.  14.  exceed- 
ing broad,  Psal.  cxix.  96.  Some  deny  that 
it  is  a  rule  of  conduct  to  believers  under  the 
gospel  disi)ensation ;  but  it  is  easy  to  see 
the  futility  of  such  an  idea  :  for  as  a  tran- 
script of  the  mind  of  God,  it  must  be  the 
criterion  of  moral  good  and  evil.  It  is  also 
given  for  that  very  purpose,  that  we  may 
see  our  duty,  and  abstain  from  every  thing 
derogatory  to  the  divine  glory.  It  affords 
us  grand  ideas  of  the  holiness  and  purity  of 
God  :  without  attention  to  it,  we  can  have 
no  knowledge  of  sin.  Christ  himself  came 
not  to  destroy,  but  to  fulfil  it ;  and  though 
we  cannot  do  as  he  did,  yet  we  are  com- 
manded to  folliiw  his  example.  Love  to 
God  is  the  end  of  the  moral  law,  as  well 
as  the  end  of  the  gospel.  By  the  law,  also, 
we  are  led  to  see  the  nature  of  holiness, 
and  our  own  depravity,  and  learn  to  be 
humbled  under  a  sense  of  our  imperfec- 
tion. We  are  not  under  it,  however,  as  a 
covenant  of  works,  Gal.  iii.  13.  or  as  a 
source  of  terror,  Rom.  viii.  1.  although  we 
must  abide  by  it.  tog§rf|ler  with  the  whole 
preceptive  word  of  God,  as  the  rule  of  our 
conduct,  Rom.  iii.  31.  vii. 

J^aws  directive,  are  laws  without  any 
punishment  annexed  to  them. 

JLaivs  penal,  such  as  have  some  penalty 
to  enforce  them.  All  the  laws  of  God  are 
and  cannot  but  be  penal,,  because  every 
breach  of  his  law  is  sin,  and  meritorious  of 
punishmint 

Lanv  of  tionoiir,  is  a  system  of  rules  con- 
structed by  peQi)le  of  fashion,  and  calculated 
to  facilitate  their  intercourse  with  one  ano- 
ther, and  for  no  other  purpose.'  Conse- 
quently nothing  is  adverted  to  by  the  law 
of  honour,  but  what  tends  to  incommode 
this  intercourse.  Hei  ce  this  law  only  pre- 
scril^s  and  regulates  the  duties  betwixt 
equals,  omitting  such  as  relate  to  the  Su- 
preme Being,  as  well  as  those  which  we 
owe  to  our  inferiors  In  fact,  this  lav/  of 
honour,  in  most  instances,  is  favi-urable  to 
the  licentious  indulgence  of  the  natural  pas- 
sions. Thus  it  allows  of  fornication,  adul- 
tery, drunkenness,  prodigality,  duelling,  and 
of  revenge  in  the  extreme,  and  lays  no 
stress  upon  the  virtues  opposite  to  these. 

Larjfs  remedial,  a  fancied  law  which 
some  believe  in,  who  hold  that  God,  in  mer- 
cy to  mankind,  has  abolished  that  rigorous 
constitution  or  law  that  they  were  under 
originally,  and  instead  of  it  has  introduced 
a  more  mild  constitution,  and  put  us  under 
a  new  law,  wliich  requires  no  more  than 
imperfect  sincere  obedience,  in  compliance 
with  dbrpoor,  infirm,  impotent  circumstan- 
ces since  the  fall.  I  call  this  a  fancied  law, 
because  it  exists  no  where  except  in  the 


imaginations  of  those  who  hold  it.  See 
Neonomians,  and  Justification. 

Laws  of  nations,  are  those  rules  which 
by  a  tacit  consent  are  agreed  upcm  among^ 
all  communities,  at  least  among  those  who 
are  reckoned  the  polite  and  humanized 
part  of  mankind.  Gill's  Body  of  Divinity, 
vol.  i.  pagi  4  J  ctavo.  425,  vol.  iii.  ditto. 
Paley's  Morac  Philosophy,  vol.  i.  page  2. 
Cumberland's  Law  of  Kature.  Grove's 
Moral  Philosophy,  vol.  ii  page  117.  Booth's 
Death  of  Legal  Hope.  Inglish  and  Bur- 
der'n  Pieces  on  the  Moral  Laiv.  Watts' 
Works,  vol  i.  sermon  49,  8vo.  edition,  and 
vol.  ii.  page  443,  &c.     Scott's  Essay's. 

LAY-BROTHERS,  among  the  Roman- 
ists,  illiterate  persons,  who  devote  them- 
selves at  some  convent  to  the  service  of  the 
religious.  They  wear  a  different  habit 
from  that  of  the  religious,  but  never  enter 
into  the  choir,  nor  are  present  at  the 
chapters;  nor  do  they  make  any  other 
vow  than  that  of  constancy  and  obedi- 
ence. 

LAYMAN,  one  who  follows  a  secular 
employment,  and  is  not  in  orders;  opposed 
to  a  cler^man. 

LEARNING,  skill  in  any  science,  or 
that  improvement  of  the  mind  which  we 
gain  by  study,  instruction,  observation,  &c. 
An  attentive  examination  of  ecclesiastical 
history  will  lead  us  to  see  how  greatly 
learnmg  is  indebted  to  Christianity,  and 
that  Christianity,  in  its  turn,  has  been 
much  served  by' learning.  "  All  the  use- 
ful learning,"  says  Dr  Jortin,  "  which  is 
now  to  be  found  in  the  world  is,  in  a  great 
measure,  <nving  to  the  gospel.  The  Chris- 
tians, who  had  a  great  veneration  for  the 
Old  Testament,  have  contributed  more  than 
die  Jews  themselves  to  secure  and  explain 
those  bf)oks.  The  Christians  in  ancient 
times  collected  and  preserved  the  Greek 
versions  of  the  Sci'iptures,  particularly  the 
Septuagint,  and  translated  the  originals  into 
Latin.  To  Christians  were  due  the  old 
Hexapla ;  and  in  later  times  Christians 
have  published  the  Polyglots  and  the  Sama- 
ritan Pentateuch.  It  was  the  study  of  the 
holy  scriptures  which  excited  Christians 
from  early  times  to  study  chronology,  sa- 
cred and  secular :  and  here  much  know- 
ledge of  history,  and  some  skill  in  astrono- 
my, were  needful.  Tiie  New  Testament 
being  written  in  Greek,  caused  Christians 
to  apply  themselves  also  to  the  study  of 
that  language.  As  the  Christians  were  op- 
posed by  the  Pagans  and  the  Jews,  they 
were  excited  to  the  study  of  Pagan  and 
Jewish  literature,  in  order  to  expose  the  ab- 
surdities of  the  Jewish  traditions,  the  weak- 
ness of  Paganism,  !ind  the  imperfections  and 
insufficiency  of  i)hilosophy.  Tlie  first  fa- 
thers, till  the  thiid  century,  were  generally 
Greek  writers.  In  the  third  century  the 
Latin  language  Avas  much  upon  the  decline, 
but  the  Christians  preserved  it  from  sinking 
into  absolute  barbarism.    Monkery,  indeed 


LEA 


259 


LEC 


produced  many  sad  efft-cts  ;  but  Providence 
here  also  brought  good  out  of  evil  ;  for 
the  monks  were  employed  in  the  transcri- 
bing of  books,  and  many  valuable  authors 
would  have  perished  if  it  had  not  been  for 
the  monasteries.  In  the  ninth  century,  the 
Saracens  were  very  studious,  and  contribu- 
ted much  to  the  restoration  of  letters.  But, 
wrtatcver  was  good  in  the  Mahometan  re 
ligion,  it  is  in  no  small  measure  indebted  to 
Christianity  for  it,  since  Mahometanism  is 
made  up  for  the  most  part  of  Judaism  and 
Christianity.  If  Christianity  had  been  sup- 
pressed at  its  first  appearance,  it  is  ex- 
tremely probable  that  the  Latin  and  Greek 
tongues  would  have  been  lost  in  the  revolu- 
tions of  empire,  and  the  irruptions  of  bar- 
barians in  the  east  and  in  the  west ;  for  the 
old  inhabitants  would  have  had  no  conscien- 
tious and  religious  motives  to  keep  up  their 
language ,  and  then,  together  with  the 
Latin  and  Greek  tongues,  the  knowledge  of 
antiquites  and  the  ancient  writers  would 
have  been  destroyed.  To  whom,  then, 
are  we  indebted  for  the  knowledge  of  anti- 
quity, for  every  thing  that  is  called  philoso- 
phy, or  the  liierce  humaniores  ; — to  Chris- 
tians To  whom  for  grammars  and  dic- 
tionaries of  the  learned  languages? — to  Chris- 
tians. To  whom  for  chroTiology,  and  the 
continuation  of  history  through  many  cen- 
turies ^ — to  Christians.  To  whom  for  ra- 
tional systems  of  morality,  and  improve- 
ments in  natural  philosophy,  and  for  the  ap- 
plications of  these  discoveries  to  religious 
purposes' — to  Christians.  To  whom  for 
metaphysical  researches,  carried  as  far  as 
the  subject  will  permit  ? — to  Christians. 
To  whom  for  the  moral  rules  to  be  observed 
by  nations  in  war  and  peace  ? — to  Ciiris- 
tians.  To  whom  for  jurisprudence,  and  for 
political  knowledge,  and  for  settling  the 
rights  of  subjects  both  civil  and  religious, 
upon  a  proper  foundation  ? — to  Christians- 
To  whom  for  the  reformation  i' — to  Chris- 
tians." 

"  As  religion  hatli  been  the  chief  preserv- 
er of  erudition,  so  erudition  hath  not  been 
ungrateful  to  her  patroness,  but  hath  con- 
tributed largely  to  the  support  of  religion. 
The  useful  expositions  of  the  scriptures, 
the  sober  and  sensible  defences  of  revela- 
tion, the  faithful  representations  of  pure 
and  undefiled  Christianity,  these  have  been 
the  works  of  learned,  judicious,  and  indus- 
trious men."  Nothing,  however,  is  more 
common  than  to  hear  the  ignorant  decry 
all  human  learning  as  entirely  useless  in 
religion ;  and  what  is  still  more  remarkable, 
even  some,  who  call  themselves  preachers, 
entertain  the  same  sentiments.  But  to 
such  we  can  only  say  what  a  judicious 
preacher  observed  upon  a  public  occasion, 
that  if  all  men  had  been  as  unlearned  as 
themselves,  theij  never  would  have  had  a 
text  on  which  to  have  displayed  their  igno- 
rance Dr.  Jortin's  Sermons,  vol.  vii.  charge 
1.    Mrs.  H.  Moor's    Hints    to   a    Young 


Princess,  vol.  i.  page  64.  Cook's  Miis. 
Sermon  on  Matt  hew  vi.  3.  Dj:  Stennett's 
Sermon  on  jicts  xxvi   24,  25. 

LECTURES  RELIGIOUS,  are  dis- 
courses or  sermons  delivered  by  ministers 
on  any  subject  in  theology.  Besides  lectures 
on  the  sabbath  day,  many  think  proper  to 
preach  on  week  days  ;  sometimes  at  five  in 
the  morning,  before  people  go  to  work,  and 
at  seven  in  the  evening,  after  they  had  done, 
in  London  there  is  preaching  almost  every 
forenoon  and  evening,  in  the  week,  at  some 
place  or  other.  It  may  be  objected,  how- 
ever, against  week-day  preaching,  that  it 
has  a  tendency  to  take  people  from  their 
business,  and  that  the  number  of  places  open 
on  a  sabbath  day  supersedes  the  necessity 
of  it.  But  in  answer  to  this,  may  it  not  be 
observed,  1.  That  people  stand  in  need,  at 
all  times,  of  religious  instruction,  exhorta- 
tion, and  comfort  ? — 2.  That  there  is  a  pro- 
bability of  converting  sinners  then  as  well 
as  at  other  times? — 3.  That  ministers  are 
commanded  to  be  instant  in  season  and  out 
of  season  .' — And,  4.  It  gives  ministers  an 
opportunity  of  hearing  one  another,  which 
is  of  great  utility.  After  all,  it  must  be  re- 
marked, that  he  who  can  hear  the  truth  on 
a  sabbath  day,  does  not  act  consistently  to 
neglect  his  family  or  business  to  be  always 
present  at  week-day  lectures  ;  nor  is  he  al- 
together wise,  who  has  an  opportunity  of 
receiving  instruction,  yet  altogether  neglects 
it. 

LECTURES  HAMPTON,  a  course  of 
eight  sermons,  preached  annually  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Oxford,  set  on  foot  by  Uie  Reverend 
John  Bampton,  canon  of  Salisbury. — Accord- 
ing to  the  directions  in  his  vvill,  they  are  to 
be  preached  upon  either  of  the  following 
sul)jects:  to  confirm  and  establish  the 
Christian  faith,  and  to  confute  all  heretics 
and  schismatics:  upon  the  divine  authority 
of  the  holy  scrij)tnres  ;  upon  the  authority 
of  the  writings  of  the  primitive  fathers,  as 
to  the  faith  and  practice  of  theju'imidve 
church  ;  upon  the  divinity  nf  onr  Lord  and 
Saviour  Jesus  Christ ;  upon  the  divinity  of  the 
I'ioly  Ghost ;  upon  the  articles  of  the  Christian 
faith,  as  comprehended  in  theapostlesandNi- 
cene  creeds  For  the  support  of  this  lecture, 
he  bequ-rathed  his  lands  and  estates  to  the 
chancellor,  masters,  and  scholars  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Oxford  for  ever,  upon  trust  that 
the  vice-chancellor,  for  the  time  being,  take 
and  receive  all  the  rents  and  profits  thereof; 
and,  after  all  taxes,  reparations,  and  neces- 
sary deductions  made,  to  pay  all  the  re- 
mainder to  the  endowment  of  these  divinity 
lecture  sermons.  He  also  directs  in  his 
will,  that  no  person  shall  be  qualified  to 
preach  these  lectures,  unless  he  have  taken 
the  degree  of  master  of  arts,  at  least  in  one 
of  the  two  Universities  of  Oxford  or  Cam- 
bridge, and  that  the  same  persc^  shall 
never  preach  the  same  sermon  twice.  A 
number  of  excellent  sermons  preached  at 
this  lecture  are  now  before  the  public.    A 


LEG 


260 


LEG 


more  enlarged  account  of  this  lecture  may 
be  seen 'in  the  Christian  Obseiver  for  May, 
1809. 

LECTURES  BOYLES.     See   Boyle's 
TjK  c  tur  e  s. 

LECTURE  MERCHANTS,  a  lecture 
set  up  in  the  year  1672,  by  the  Presbyte- 
rians and  Independents,  to  shew  their 
agreement  among  themselves,  as  well  as  to 
support  tlie  doctrines  of  the  reformation 
against  the  prevailing  errors  of  popery,  So- 
cinianism,  and  Infidelity.  The  principal 
ministers  for  learning  and  popularity  were 
chosen  as  lectures  ;  such  as  Dr.  Bates,  Dr. 
Manton,  Dr.  Owen,  Mr  Baxter,  Mr.  Col- 
lins, Jenkins,  Mead,  and  afterwards  Mr. 
Alsop,  Howe,  Cole,  and  others.  It  was  en- 
couraged and  supported  by  some  of  the 
principal  merchants  and  tradesmen  of  the 
city.  Some  misunderstanding  taking  place, 
the  Presbyteriavis  removed  to  Salter's-hall, 
and  the  Independents  remained  at  Pinner's- 
hal!,  and  each  party  filled  up  their  numbers 
out  of  their  respective  denominations.  This 
lecture  is  kept  up  to  the  present  day,  and 
is,  we  believe,  now  held  at  Broadstreet 
meeting,  every  Tuesday  morning. 

LECTURES  MORNIN(;,  certain  casuis- 
tical   lectures,    which    were    preached    by 
some  of  the  most  able  divines  in  London. 
The  occasion  of  these  lectures  seems  to  be 
this:    During    the  troublesome     times    of 
Charles  I  most  of  tlie  citizens  having  some 
near  relation  or  friend  m  the  army  of  the 
earl  of  Essex,  so  many  bills  were  sent  up  to 
the  pulpit  every  Lord's  Day  for  their  pre- 
servation,   that   the   minister    had    neither 
time  to  read  them,  nor  to  recommend  their 
cases  to  God  in  pravcr  ;   it  was,  therefore, 
agreed   by  some  London  divines  to  separate 
an  hour  for  this  purpose  every  morning,  one 
half  to  l)e  spent  in  prayer,  and  the  other  in 
a  suitable  ex.iortation  to  the  people.     When 
the  heat  of   the  war  was  over,  it  became  a 
casuistical  lecture,  and    was  carried  on  till 
the  restoration  of  Charles  II.     These  ser- 
mons were  afterwards  published  i)i  several 
volumes  quarto,  under  the  tit'e  of  the  Morn- 
ing Exercises.    The  aut'.^ors  were  the  most 
eminent  preachers  of  the  day :  Mr.  (after- 
wards   archbishop)    Tillotson    was    one   of 
them.     It  appears  that  these  lectures  were 
held    every    morning    for   one    month    on- 
ly ;  and   from   the  preface  to  the   volume, 
dated    1689,  the  time  was  afterwards  con- 
tracted to  a  fortnight.     Most  of  these  were 
delivered  at  Cripplegate    church,  some  at 
St.  Gile's,  and  a   volume   against  popery  in 
Southwark.     Mr.   Ncal  observes,  tliat  this 
lecture  was  afterwards  revived  in  a  difier- 
cot  form,  and  continued  in  his  day.      It  was 
kept  up  long  afterwards  at  several  places  in 
the    summer,  a  week  at  each  place  ;  but 
latterly,  the  time   was  exchanged   for  the 
eveni*f. 

LECTURES  MOVER'S.    See  Mover's 

liECTU  RES 

LECTURE  WARBURTONIAN,  a  lec- 
ture founded  by  bishop  Warburton,  to  prove 


the  truth  of  revealed  religion  in  general, 
'and  the  Christian  in  particular,  from  the 
completion  of  the  prophecies  in  the  Old  and 
New  1  estament,  which  relate  to  the  Chris- 
tian church,  especially  to  the  apostacy  of 
papal  Rome.  To  this  founrlation  we  owe 
the  admirable  discourses  of  Hurd,  Halifax, 
Baa;nt,  and  many  others. 

LECTURERS  in  the  church  of  England, 
aie  an  order  of  preachers  distinct  froui  the 
rector,  vicar,  and  curate.  1  hey  are  chosen 
by  the  vestry,  or  chief  inhabitants  of  the 
parish,  supported  by  voluntary  subscriptions 
:md  legacies,  and  are  usually  the  afternoon 
preachers,  and  sometimes  officiate  on  some 
stated  day  in  the  week.  Where  there  are 
lectures  founded  by  the  donations  of  pious 
persons,  tlie  lecturers  are  appointed  by  the 
founders,  without  any  interposition  or  con- 
sent of  rectors  of  churches,  Sec  though  with 
tiie  leave  and  approbation  of  the  bishop  ; 
such  as  that  of  Laily  Moyer's  at  St.  Paul's. 
But  the  lecturer  is  not  entiled  to  the  pulpit 
without  the  consent  of  the  rector  or  vicar, 
who  is  possessed  of  the  freehold  of  the 
church. 

LEGAL  OR  MOSAIC  DISPENSA- 
TION.    See  Dispensation. 

LEGALIST,  strictly  speaking,  is  one 
who  acts  according  to,  or  consistent  with  the 
law  ;  but  in  general,  the  term  is  made  use  of 
to  denote  one  who  expects  salvation  by  his 
own  works.  We  may  farther  consider  a 
Legalist  as  one  who  has  no  proper  convic- 
tion of  the  evil  of  sin ;  who  although  he 
pretends  to  abide  by  the  law,  yet  has  not  a 
just  idea  of  its  spirituality  and  demands. 
He  is  ignorant  of  the  grand  scheme  of  salva- 
tion by  free  grace ;  proud  of  his  own  fan- 
cied righteousness,  he  submits  not  to  the 
righteousness  of  God ;  he  derogates  from 
the  honour  of  Christ,  by  mixing  his  own 
works  with  his:  and,  in  fact,  denies  the  ne- 
'  ressity  of  the  work  of  the  Spirit,  by  suppos- 
ing that  he  has  ability  in  himself  to  perform 
all  those  duties  which  God  has  required. 
Such  is  the  character  of  the  Legalist ;  a 
cliaracter  diametrically  opposite  to  that  of 
the  true  Christian,  whose  sentiment  corres- 
ponds with  that  of  the  apostle,  who  justly 
observes,  "  By  grace  are  ye  saved  through 
faith,  and  that  not  of  yourselves  ;  it  is  the 
gift  of  God.  Not  of  works,  lest  any  man 
should  boast."     Eph.  ii.  8,  9. 

LEGATE,  a  cardinal,  or  bishop,  whom 
the  pope  sends  as  his  ambassador  to  sove- 
reign princes. 

LEGEND,  originally  a  book  in  the  Ro- 
mish church,  containing  the  lessons  that 
were  to  be  read  in  divine  service  :  from 
hence  the  word  was  applied  to  the  histories 
[of  the  lives  of  saints,  because  chapters  were 
[read  out  of  them  at  matins.  But  as  the 
goldtm  legend,  compiled  by  James  de  Va- 
rase,  about  the  year  1290,  contained  in  it 
several  ridiculous  and  romantic  stories,  the 
word  is  now  used  by  Protestants,  to  signify 
any  incredible  or  inauthentic  narrative. 
Hence,  as  Dr.  Jortin  observes,  we  have  false 


li:n 


261 


LPS 


legends  concerning  the  miracles  of  Christ, 
of  his  apostles,  and  of  ancient  Christians: 
and  the  writers  of  these  fables  had,  in  all  pro- 
bability, as  good  natural  abilities  as  the  disci- 
pies  ot  Christ,  and  some  of  them  wanted  neith- 
er learning  nor  craft;  and  yet  they  betray  them- 
selves by  faults  against  chronology,  against 
history,  against  manners  and  customs, 
against  morality,  and  against  probabihty.  A 
liar  of  this  kind  can  never  pass  undiscover- 
ed ;  but  an  honest  relater  of  truth  and  mat- 
ter of  fact  is  safe :  he  wants  no  artitice,  and 
fears  no  examination. 

LEGION  THEBEAN,  a  name  given,  in 
the  time  of  Dioclesian,  to  a  whole  legion  of 
Christians,  consisting  of  more  than  six  thou- 
sand men,  who  are  said  to  liave  suffered  mar- 
tyrdom by  the  order  of  Maximian.  Though 
this  story  hath  never  wanted  patrons,  yet  it  is 
disbelieved  by  many.  Dr.  Jortin,  in  his 
usual  facetious  way,  says,  that  it  stands 
upon  the  authority  of  one  Eucherius,  bishop 
of  Lyons,  and  a  writer  of  the  fifth  century, 
■who  had  it  from  Theodoi'us.  another  bishop, 
who  had  the  honour  and  felicity  to  find  the 
leliques  of  these  maityrs  by  revelation, 
and  perhaps,  bv  the  smell  of  the  bones  I 

LEGION  I'HUNDERING,  a  name  giv- 
en to    those  Christians  who  served  in  the 
Roman   army   of   Marcus  Antonius,  in  the 
second  century.  The  occasion  of  it  was  this : 
— When  that  emperor  was  at  war  with  the 
Marcomanni,  his   army    was    enclosed    by 
the  enemy,  and  reduced  to  the  most  deplo- 
rable condition,    by  the  thirst  under  which 
they  languished  in  a  parched  desert.    Just 
at  this  time  they  were  remarkably  relieved 
by  a   sudden  and  unexpected  rain.     This 
event  was  attributed  to  the  Christians,  who 
were  supposed  to  have  effected  this  by  their 
prayers ;   and  the  name  of  the  thundering 
legion  was  given  to  them,  on  account  of  the 
thunder  and  lightning   that  destroyed  the 
enemy,  while  the  shower  revived  the  faint- 
ing Romans.    Whether  this  was  really  mi- 
raculous or  not,  has  been  disputed   among 
learned  men.    They  who  wish  to  see  what 
has  been    said   on  both  sides,    may  consult 
IVitssius  Dissertat.  de  JLegune  Fulminatrice 
which  is  subjoined  to  his  xEgijfitiaca,  in  de- 
fence of  this  miracle  ;    as  also,  what  is  al- 
leged against  it  by  Dan  Lauroque,  in  a  dis- 
course upon  that  subject,  subjoined  to  the 
Aduersaria   Sacra  of  Matt.   Lauroque,  his 
father.     The  controversy  between  Sir  Peter 
King   and  Mr.  Moyle,   upon  this  subject,  is 
also  worthy  of  attention. 

LENT,  a  solemn  time  of  fasting  in  the 
Christian  church,  observed  as  a  time  of  hu- 
miliation before  Easter.  The  Romish  church, 
and  some  of  the  Protestant  communion 
maintain,  that  it  was  always  a  fast  of  forty 
days,  and,  as  such,  of  apostolical  institution. 
Others  think,  that  it  was  of  ecclesiastical 
institution,  and  that  it  was  variously  observ- 
ed in  diffrent  churches,  and  grew,  by  de- 
gi-ees,  from  a  fast  of  forty  hours,  to  a  fast 
of  forty  days.  This  is  the  sentiment  of 
Morton,   bishop  Taylor,  Du  Moulin,  DaiUe, 


land  others.    Anciently  the  manner  of  ob- 
serving Lent,  among  those  who  were  pious- 
ly disposed,    was   to  abstain  from    food  till 
evening  ;  their  only  refreshment  was  a  sup- 
per,  and  it  was  indifferent  whether  it  w&s 
j  flesh  or  any  other  food,  provided  it  was  used 
with   sobriety   and  moderation.     Lent  was 
thought  the  proper  time  for  exercising  more 
abundantly  every  species   of  charity  ;  thus, 
what  they  spared  of  their  own   boidies,  by 
abridging  them  of  a  meal,  was  usually  given 
to  the  poor  ;    they   employed   their  vacant 
hours  in    visiting  the   sick    and  those  that 
were   in  prison :    in  entertaining    strangers, 
and  reconciling    differences.    The    Imperial 
laws    forbad    all,     prosecution    of    men    in 
criminal  actions,     that  might   bring    them 
to     corporeal      punishment      and      tenure 
during  the  whole  season.    This  was  a  time 
of  more    than  ordinary  strictness  and  devo- 
tion, and  therefore,  in    many  of  the  great 
churches,  they  had  religious  assemblies  for 
prayer  and  preaching  every  day.    All  pub- 
lic games  and  stage  plays  were    prohibited 
at  this  season,  and    also  the  celebration  of 
all    festivals,    birth-days,     and    marriages. 
The   Christians  of  the  Greek   church  ob- 
serve   four  Lents  ;    the  first  commences  on 
the   fifteenth  of   November  ;  the  second  is 
the  same  Avith  our  Lent ;  the  third  begins 
the  week  after  Whitsuntide,  and  continues 
till  the  festival  of  St.  Peter,  and  St.  Paul ; 
and   the  fourth  commences  on  the  first  of 
August,  and  lasts  no  longer  than  till  the  fif- 
teenth.    These    Lents  are    observed    with 
[great  strictness  and  austerity,  but  on  Satur- 
days and  Sundriys,  tliey  indulge  themselves 
in   drinking  wine   and  using  oil,  which   are 
prohibited  on  other  days. 

LESSONS,  among  ecclesiastical  writers, 
are  portions  of  the  holy  scriptures  read  in 
churches  at  the  time  of^  divine  service.  In 
the  ancient  church,  reading  the  scripture 
wasone  part  of  the  service  of  the  catechumen, 
at  which  all  persons  were  allowed  to  be  pre- 
sent, in  order  to  obtain  instructic.n  The 
church  of  England,  in  the  choice  of  lessons  pro- 
ceeds as  follows  : — for  all  the  first  lessons  on 
ordinary  days,  she  directs  to  begin  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  year  with  Genesis,  and  so  con- 
tinue till  the  books  of  the  Old  Testament  are 
read  over,  only  omitting  Chronicles,  which 
are  for  the  most  part  the  same  witli  the 
ijooks  of  Samuel  and  Kings  ;  and  other  par- 
ticular chapters  in  other  books,  either  be- 
cause they  contain  the  names  cf  persons, 
places,  or  other  matters,  less  profitable  to  j 
ordinary  readers  The  course  of  the  first 
lessons  for  Sundays  is  regulated  after  a  dif- 
ferent manner  ;  from  Advent  to  Septuagesi- 
ma  Sunday,  some  particular  chapters  of 
Isaiah  are  appointed  to  be  read,  because 
that  book  contains  the  clearest  prophecies 
concerning  Christ.  Upon  Septuagesima 
Sunday,  Genesis  is  begun ;  becjjpse  that 
book,  which  treats  of  the  fall  of  man,  and 
the  severe  judgment  of  God  inflict' d  on  the 
world  for  sin,  best  suits  with  a  time  of  re- 
pentance and  mortification.    After  Genesis 


LIB 


262 


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follow  chapters  out  of  the  books  of  the  Old 
Testament,  as  they  lie  in  order ;  only  on 
festival  Sundays,  such  as  Easter,  Whitsun- 
day, 8cc.  the  particular  history  relating  to 
that  day  is  appointed  to  be  read;  and  on 
the  saints'  days,  the  church  appoints  lessons 
out  of  the  moral  books,  such  as  Proverbs, 
Ecclesiastes,  &c  as  ci  'ntaining  excellent  in- 
structions for  the  conduct  of  life.  As  to  the 
second  lessons,  the  church  observes  the  same 
course,  both  on  Sundays  and  week-days; 
reading  the  Gospel  and  Acts  of  the  Apos- 
tles in  the  morning,  and  the  Epistles  in  the 
evening  in  the  order  they  stand  in  the  New 
Testament,  excepting  on  saints'  days  and 
holy  days,  when  such  lessons  are  appointed, 
as  either  explain  the  mystery,  relate  the 
history,  or  applv  tlie  example  to  us. 

LEUC(JPE  r'RIANS,  the  name  of  a  fan- 
atical sect,  whicli  s|)rang  up  in  the  Greek 
and  eastern  churches,  towards  the  close  of 
the  twelfth  century,  they  professed  to  be- 
litve  in  a  double  trinity,  rejected  wedlock, 
abstained  from  flesh,  treated  with  the  ut- 
most contempt,  the  sacraments  of  baptism 
and  the  Lord's  supper,  and  all  the  various 
branches  of  external  worship;  placed  tl  e 
essence  of  religion  in  intei'nal  prayer  alone  ; 
and  maintained,  as  it  is  said,  that  an  evil 
being  or  genius  dwelt  in  the  breast  of  every 
mortal,  and  could  be  expeded  from  thence 
by  no  other  method  than  by  perpetual  sup- 
plication to  the  Supreme  Being.  The  foun- 
der of  this  sect  is  said  to  have  bten  a 
person  called  Ltucofirtrus,  and  his  chief  dis- 
ciple Tychicus,  who  corrupted,  by  fana 
tical  interpretations,  several  books  of  scrip- 
ture, and  particularly  St.  Matthew's  Gos- 
pel. 

LEVITY,  lightness  of  spirit,  in  opposition 
to  gravity.  N' thii.g  can  be  more  proper 
than  for  a  Christian  to  wear  an  air  of  cheer- 
fulness, and  to  watch  against  a  morose  and 
gloomy  disposition.  But  though  it  be  his 
privilege  to  rejoice,  yet  he  must  be  cautious 
of  that  volatility  of  spirit  which  characterize 
the  unthinking,  and  mark  the  vain  profes- 
sor. To  be  cheerful  without  levity,  and 
grave  without  austerity,  form  both  a  happy 
and  dignifying  character. 

LIBATION,  t'  e  act  of  pouring  wine  on 
the  grriund  in  divine  Avorship  Sometimes 
other  liquids  have  been  used,  as  oil,  milk, 
water,  honey,  but  mostly  wine. — Amongst 
the  Greeks  .nd  Romans  it  was  an  essential 
part  of  solemn  sacritices.  Libations  were 
also  in  use  among  the  Hebrews,  who  pour- 
ed a  hin  of  wine  on  the  victim  after  it  was 
killed,  and  the  several  pieces  of  tlie  sacrifice 
were  laid  on  the  altar,  ready  to  be  consumed 
in  the  flames. 

LIBERALITY,  bounty  ;  a  generous  dis- 
position of  mind,  exerting  itself  in  giving 
largely.  It  is  thus  distinguished  from  gene- 
rosity ^gd  bounty. — Liberality  implies  acts 
of  mere  giviriR  or  spending  ;  gencronitij,  acts 
of  greatness;  bounry,  acts  of  kindness.  Li- 
berality is  a  natural  disposition ;  generosity, 
proceeds  from  elevation  of  sentiment ;  boun- 


ty, from  religious  motives.  Liberality,  de- 
notes freedom  f)f  spirit ;  generosity,  great- 
ness of  soul ;  bounty,  openness  of  heart. 

LIBERALITY  oj  sentiment,  a  generous 
disposition  a  man  feels  towards  another, 
who  is  of  a  different  opinion  from  himself; 
or,  as  one  defines  it,  "  that  generous  expan* 
sion  of  mind,  which  enables  it  to  look  be- 
yond all  petty  distinctions  of  party  and  sys- 
tem, and,  in  the  estimate  of  men  and  things, 
to  rise  superior  to  narrow  prejudices."  As 
liberality  of  sentiment,  is  often  a  cover  for 
error  and  scepticism  on  the  one  hand,  and 
as  it  is  too  little  attended  to  by  the  ignorant 
and  bigotted  on  the  other,  we  shall  here  lay 
before  our  readers  a  view  of  it  by  a  nt&s- 
terly  writer.  "  A  man  of  liberal  sentiments 
must  be  distinguished  from  him  who  hath 
720  religious  sentimejits  at  all  He  is  one 
who  hath  seriously  and  effectually  investi- 
gated, both  in  his  Bible  and  on  his  knees, 
in  public  assemblies  and  in  private  coversa- 
tions,  the  important  articles  of  religion.  He 
hath  laid  down  principles,  he  hath  inferred 
consequences ;  in  a  word,  he  hath  adopted 
sentiments  of  his  own. 

"  He  must  be  distinguished  also  from  that 
tame  undiscerning  domestic  among  good  peo- 
ple, who,  though  he  has  sentiments  of  his 
own,  yet  has  not  judgment  to  estimate  the 
worth  and  value  of  one  sentiment  beyond 
another. 

"  Now  a  generous  believer  of  the  Chris- 
tian religion,  is  one  who  will  never  allow 
himself  to  xxy  to  propagate  his  sentiments  by 
the  commission  of  sin.  No  collusion,  no  bit- 
terness, no  wrath,  no  undue  influence  of  any 
kind,  will  he  apply  to  make  his  sentiments 
receivable  ;  and  no  living  thing  will  be  less 
happy  for  his  being  a  Christian.  He  will 
exercise  his  liberality  by  allowing  those  who 
differ  from  him,  as  much  virtue  and  integ- 
rity as  he  possibly  can. 

"  There  are,  among  a  multitude  of  argu- 
ments to  enforce  such  a  disposition,  the  fol- 
lowing worthy  cur  attention : 

"  First,  We  should  exercise  liberality  in 
union  with  sentiment,  because  of  the  differ- 
ent capacities,  advantages,  and  tasks  of 
mankind.  Religion  employs  the  cafiacities 
of  mankind,  just  as  the  air  employs  their 
lungs,  and  their  organs  of  speech.  The  fan- 
cy of  one  is  lively,  of  another  dull.  The 
judgment  of  one  is  elastic  ;  of  another  feeble, 
a  damaged  spring.  The  memory  of  one  is  re- 
tentive ;  that  of  another  is  treacherous  as 
the  wind.  The  passions  of  this  man  are 
lofty,  vigorous,  rapid ;  those  of  that  man, 
crawl,  and  hum,  and  buz,  and,  when  on  wing, 
sail  only  round  the  circumference  of  a  tulij). 
Is  it  conceivable,  that  capability  so  different 
in  every  thing  else,  should  be  all  alike  in 
religion  ?  The  advantages  of  mankind  differ. 
How  should  he  who  hath  no  parents,  no 
books,  no  tutor,  no  companions,  equal  him 
whom  Providence  hath  gratified  with  them 
all ;  who,  when  he  looks  over  the  treasures 
of  his  own  knowledge,  can  say,  this  I  had  of 
a  Greek,  that  1  learned  of  a'  Roman;  this 


LIB 


263 


LIB 


information  I  acquired  of  my  tutor,  that  was 
a  present  of  my  father :  a  friend  gave  me 
this  branch  of  knowledge,  an  acquaintance 
bequeathed  me  that?  The  tasks  of  man- 
kind differ;  so  I  call  the  employments  and 
exercises  of  life.  In  my  opinion,  circum- 
stances make  great  men;  and  if  we  have 
not  Cxsars  in  the  state,  and  Pauls  in  the 
church,  it  is  because  neither  church  nor 
state  are  in  the  circumstances  in  which  they 
were  in  the  days  of  those  great  men.  Push 
a  dull  man  into  a  river,  and  endanger  his 
life,  and  suddenly  he  will  discover  invention, 
and  make  effrts  beyond  himself.  Thewurld 
is  a  fine  school  of  instruction.  Poverty,  sick- 
ness, pain,  loss  of  children,  treachery  of 
friends,  malice  of  enemies,  and  a  thousand 
other  thi::gs,  drive  the  man  of  sentiment  to 
his  Bible,  and,  so  to  speak,  bring  him  home 
to  a  repast  with  his  benefactor,  God.  Is 
it  conceivable  that  he,  whose  young  and 
tender  heart,  is  yet  unpractised  in  trials  of 
this  kind,  can  have  ascertained  and  tast- 
ed so  many  religious  truths  as  the  sufferer 
has  ? 

"  We  should  believe  the  Christian  reli- 
gion with  liberality,  in  the  second  place, 
because  every  part  of  the  Christian  religion 
inculcates  generosity.  Christianity  gives  us 
a  character  of  God,  but,  my  God  !  what  a 
character  does  it  give:  God  is  love. 
Christianity  teaches  the  doctrine  of  Provi- 
dence ;  hut  what  a  providence  !  Upon  whom 
doth  not  its  light  arise  I  Is  there  an  ani- 
malcule so  little,  or  a  wretch  so  forlorn,  as 
to  be  forsaken  and  forgotten  of  his  God  ? 
Christianity  teaches  the  doctrine  of  redemp- 
tion ;  but  the  redemption  of  whom  '—of  all 
tongues,  kindrtd,  nations,  and  people  :  of 
the  infant  of  a  span,  and  the  sinner  of  a  hun- 
dred years  old  :  a  redemption  generous  in  | 
its  principle,  generous  in  its  price,  generous  j 
in  its  effects ;  fixed  sentiments  of  Divine  I 
munificence,  and  revealed  with  a  liberality 
f  T  which  we  have  no  name.  In  a  word,  | 
the  illiberal  Christian  always  acts  contrary 
to  the  spirit  of  his  religion  ;  the  Uberal  man 
alone  thoroughly  understands  it. 

"Thirdly,  We  should  be  liberal,  because 
no  other  spirit  is  exemplijied  in  the  infalli- 
ble guides  whom  we  profess  to  follow.  I 
set  one  Paul  against^.a  whole  army  of  unin- 
spired men  :  '  Some  preach  Christ  of  good- 
will, and  some  of  envy  and  strife.  What 
then  ?  Christ  is  preached ;  and  I  therein  do 
rejoice,  yea,  and  will  rejoice.  One  eateth 
all  things,  another  eateth  herbs ;  but  Avhy 
dost  THOU  judge  thy  brother  ?  We  siiall  ail 
stand  before  the  judgment  seat  of  Christ.' 
We  often  enquire,  what  was  the  doctrine  of 
Christ,  and  what  was  the  practice  of  Christ: 
suppose  we  were  to  institute  a  third  ques- 
tion. Of  what  TEMPER  was  Christ  ^ 

"  Once  more :  We  should  be  liberal  as 
well  as  orthodox,  because  truth,  especially 
the  truths  of  Christianity,  do  not  ivant  any 
support  from  our  illiberality.  Let  the  little 
bee  guard  its  little  honey  with  its  little  sting; 
perhaps  its  little  life  may  depend  a  little 


while,  on  that  little  nourishment.  Let  the 
fierce  bull  shake  his  head,  and  nod  his  horn, 
and  threaten  his  enemy,  who  seeks  to  eat 
his  flebh,  and  wear  his  coat,  and  live  bv  his 
death  :  poor  fellow  I  his  life  is  in  danger ;  I 
forgive  his  bellowing  and  his  rage,  but  the 
Christian  religion, — is  that  in  danger  ?  and 
what  human  efforts  can  render  that  true 
which  is  false,  that  odious,  which  is  lovely  i* 
Christianity  is  in  no  danger,  and  therefore 
it  gives  its  pr  fessors  life  and  breath,  and 
all  things,  except  a  power  of  injuring 
others 

"  In  fine,  liberality  in  the  profession  of  re- 
ligion is  a  nuise  and  innocent  policy.  The 
bigot  lives  at  home  ;  a  reptile  he  crawled 
into  existence,  and  there  in  his  hole  he  lurks 
a  reptile  still.  A  generous  Christian  goes 
out  of  his  own  party,  associates  with  others, 
and  gains  improvement  by  all.  It  is  a  Per- 
sian proverb,  J  liberal  hand  is  better  than 
a  strong  arm.  The  dignity  of  Christianity 
is  better  supported  by  acts  of  liberality,  than 
by  accuracy  i^f  reasoning;  but  when  both 
go  together,  when  a  man  of  sentiment  can 
clearly  state,  and  ably  defend  his  religious 
principles,  and  when  his  heart  is  as  gene- 
r(  us  as  his  principles  are  inflexible,  he  pos- 
sesses strength  and  beauty  in  an  eminent  de- 
gree.    See  Theoi  Alisc.  vol.  i.  p.  39. 

LIBERTINE,  one  who  acts  without  re- 
straint, and  pays  no  regard  to  the  precepts 
of  religion. 

LIBERTINES,  according  to  some,  were 
such  Jews  as  were  free  citizens  of  Rome : 
they  had  a   separate  synagogue  at  Jerusa- 
lem, and  sundry-  of  them  concurred  in  the 
persecution    of  Stephen,    Acts  vi.   9.     Dr. 
Guyse  supposes,  that  those  who  had  obtained 
thi^  privilege   by  gift,   were   called  liberti 
(free  men,)  and  these  who  had  obtained  it 
by  purchase,  liberiini  (made  free,)   in  dis- 
tinction from  original  native  free-men.     Dr. 
Doddridge   thinks,  that   they  were    called 
Libertines,  as  having  been  the  children  of 
freed  men,  that  is,  of  emancipated  captives 
j  or  slaves.    See  Doddridge  and  Guyse  o?i 
I  Acts  vi.  9. 

LIBERTINES,  a  religious  sect  which 
arose  in  the  year  1525,  whose  principal  te- 
nets were,  that  the  Deity  was  the  sole  ope- 
rating cause  in  the  mind  of  man,  and  the 
immediate  author  of  all  human  actions ; 
that,  consequentlv,  the  distinctions  of  good 
and  evil,  which  had  been  e'stablished  with 
regard  to  those  actions,  were  false  and 
groundless,  and  that  men  cculd  not,  proper- 
ly speaking,  commit  sin  ;  that  religion  con- 
sisted in  the  union  of  the  spirit,  or  rational 
soul,  with  the  Supreme  Being;  that  all 
those  who  had  attained  this  happy  union, 
by  sublime  contemplation  and  elevation  of 
mind,  were  then  allowed  to  indulge,  without 
exception  (>r  restraint,  their  appetites  or  pas- 
sions ;  that  all  their  actions  and  pursuits 
were  then  perfectly  innocent ;  and  that,  af- 
ter the  death  ( f  the  body,  they  were  to  be 
united  to  the  Deity.  They  likewise  said, 
that  Jesus. Christ  "was  nothing  but  a  mere  ye 


LIB 


264. 


LIT 


fjr  srai  guoi,  composed  of  the  Spirit  of  God 
and  the  opinion  of  miin.  These  maxims  oc- 
casioned their  being  called  Libertines,  and 
the  word  has  been  used  in  an  ill  sense  ever 
since.  This  sect  spread  principally  in  Hol- 
land and  Brabunt.  Their  leaders  were  one 
Quintin,  a  l^icard,  Pockesius,  Ruffus,  and 
anotliei-,  called  Chopin,  v/ho  joined  with 
Quintin,  and  became  his  disciple.  They 
obtained  footing  in  France  through  the 
favour  and  protection  of  Margaret,  queen 
of  Navarre,  and  sister  to  Francis  II.  and 
found  patrons  in  several  of  the  reformed 
churches. 

Libertines  of  Geneva,  were  a  cabal  of 
rakes  i-ather  than  of  fanatics  ;  for  they  made 
110  pretence  to  any  religious  system,  but 
pleaded  only  for  the  liberty  of  leading  volup- 
tuous and  immoral  lives.  This  cabal  was 
composed  of  a  certain  number  of  licentious 
citizens,  who  could  not  bear  the  severe  dis- 
ciphne  of  Calvin.  There  were  also  among 
them  several  %vho  were  not  only  notorious 
for  their  dissolute  and  scandalous  manner  of 
living,  but  also  for  their  atheistical  impiety 
and  contempt  of  all  religion  To  this  odious 
class  belonged  one  Gruet,  who  denied  the  di- 
vinity of  the  Christian  religion,  the  immortal- 
ity of  the  soul,  the  difference  between  moral 
good  and  evil;  and  rejected,  with  disdain, 
the  doctrines  that  are  held  most  sacred 
among  Christians :  for  which  impieties  he 
•was  at  last  brought  before  the  civil  tribunal 
in  the  vear  1550,  and  condemned  to  death. 

LIBERTY  denotes  a  state  nf  freedom,  in 
contradistinction  to  slavery  or  restraint. — 1. 
Jiatural  liberty,  or  liberty  of  choice,  is  that 
in  which  our  volitions  are  not  determined  by 
any  foreign  cause  or  consideration  whatever 
offered  to  it,  but  by  its  own  pleasure. — 2. 
External  liberty,  or  liberty  of  action,  is  op- 
posed to  a  constraint  laid  on  the  executive 
powers ;  and  consists  in  a  power  of  render- 
ing our  volitions  efiectual. — 3.  Philosophical 
liberty  consists  in  a  prevailing  disposition  to 
act  according  to  the  dictates  of  reason,  i,  e. 
in  such  a  manner  as  shall,  all  things  consi- 
dered, most  effectually  promote  our  happi- 
ness.— 4.  Moral  liberty  is  said  to  be  that  in 
which  there  is  no  interposition  of  the  will  of 
a  Superior  Being,  to  prohibit  or  determine 
our  actions,  in  any  particular  under  consi- 
deration. See  Necessity,  Will. — 5.  Li- 
berty of  conscience,  is  freedom  from  re- 
straint in  our  choice  of,  and  judgment  about, 
matters  of  religion. — 6.  Spiritual  liberty  con- 
sists in  freedom  from  the  curse  of  the  moral 
law  ;  from  the  servitude  of  the  ritual ;  frtim 
the  love,  power,  and  guilt  of  sin ;  from  the 
dominion  of  Satan  ;  from  the  corruptions  of 
the  world  ;  from  the  fear  of  death,  and  the 
wrath  to  come,  Rom,  vi.  14.  Rom.  viii.  1. 
Gal.  iii.  15.  John  viii.  36.  Rom  viii.  21 
Gal.  V.  1.  Thes.  i.  10.  See  articles  Mate- 
rialists, Predestination,  and  Dod- 
dridge's Lee.  p.  50,  vol.  i.  8vo.  Watts' 
Phil.  Essays,  sec.  v.  p.  288.  Jo?i.  Edivards 
on  the  Will.  Locke  on  U?id.  Grove's  Mor. 
Phil.  sec.  18,  19.    J.  Palmer  on  Liberty 


of  Man.  Martin's  Queries  and  Rem.  07i 
Human  Liberty.  L/iarnoc/c's  Works,  p. 
175,  &c.  vol.  ii.  Sauriyi's  Serm.  vol.  iii. 
ser.  4. 

LIE.    See  Lying. 

LIFE,  a  state  of  active  existence — 1. 
Human  life  is  the  continuance,  or  duration 
of  our  present  state,  and  which  the  scrip  ^ 
turc  s  represent  as  short  and  vain.  Job  xiv. 
1,  2.  Jam.  iv.  14 — 2.  Sfiiritual  life  consists 
in  our  being  in  the  favour  of  God,  influenced 
by  a  principle  of  gi'ace,  and  living  depen- 
dent on  him  It  is  considered  as  of  divine 
origin,  Col.  iii.  4.  hidden,  Col,  iii.  3  peace- 
ful, Rom.  viii.  6.  secure,  John  x.  28. — 3. 
Eternal  life  is  that  never  ending  state  of 
existence  which  the  saints  shall  enjoy  in 
heaven,  and  is  glorious.  Col.  iii.  4.  holy.  Rev. 
xxi.  27.  and  blissful,  1  Pet,  i.  4.  2  Cor.  iv. 
\7   See  Heaven. 

LIGHT  OF  NATURE.    See  Nature 

LIGHT  DIVINE.  See  Knowledge, 
Religion. 

LITANY,  a  general  supplication  used  in 
public  worship  to  appease  the  wrath  of  the 
Deity,  and  to  request  those  blessings  a  i)er- 
son  wants.  The  word  comes  from  the  Gieek 
Xilocvcicc,  "  supplication,"  of  xQctviu,  "  I  be- 
seech." At  first,  the  use  of  litanies  was  not 
fixed  to  any  stated  time,  but  were  only  em- 
ployed as  exigencies  required  They  were 
observed,  in  imitation  of  the  Ninevites,  with 
ardent  supplications  and  fastings,  to  avert 
the  threatened  judgments  of  fire,  earthquake, 
inundations,  or  hostile  invasions.  About  the 
year  400,  litanies  began  to  be  used  in  pro- 
cessions, the  people  walking  barefoot,  and 
repeating  them  with  great  devotion  ;  and  it 
is  pretended  that,  by  this  means,  several 
countries  were  delivered  from  great  calami- 
ties. The  days  on  which  they  were  used 
were  called  Rogation  days ;  these  were  ap- 
pointed by  the  canons  of  different  councils, 
till  it  was  decreed  by  the  council  of  Toledo, 
that  they  should  be  used  every  month 
throughout  the  year;  and  thus,  by  degrees, 
they  came  to  be  used  weekly  on  Wednes- 
days and  Fridays,  the  ancient  stationary' 
days  for  fasting.  To  these  days  the  rubric  of 
the  church  of  England  has  added  Sundays, 
as  being  the  greatest  day  for  assembling  at 
divine  service.  Befor5  the  last  review  of 
the  common  prayer,  the  litany  was  a  dis- 
tinct service  Isy  itself,  and  used  sometime* 
after  the  morning  prayer  was  over ;  at  pre- 
sent, it  is  made  one  office  with  the  morning 
sei'vice,  being  ordered  to  be  read  after  the 
third  collect  for  grace,  instead  of  the  inter- 
cessional  prayers  in  tlie  daily  service. 

LITURGY  denotes  all  the  ceremonies  in 
general  belonging  to  divine  service.  The 
word  comes  from  the  Greek  Xnlapyicc, 
"  sei'vice,  public  ministry,"  formed  of  A£<7e?; 
"public,"  -a.r\6.  ipfov  "work."  In  a  more 
restrained  signification,  liturgy  is  used  among 
the  Romanists  to  signify  the  mass,  and 
among  us,  the  common  prayer.  All  who 
have   written  on  liturgies  agree,  that,  io 


LIT 


265 


LOL 


primitive  days,  divine  service  was  exceed- 1 
ingly  simple,'  clogged  with  a  very  few  cere- 
monies, and  consisted  of  but  a  small  number 
of  prayers ;  but,  by  degrees,  they  increased 
the  number  of  ceremonies,  and  added  new 
prayers,  to  make  the  office  look  more  aAvful 
and"  venerable  to  the  people.  At  length, 
things  were  carried  to  sucii  a  pitch,  that  a 
regulation  became  necessary ;  and  it  was 
found  necessary  to  put  the  service  and  the 
manner  of  performing  it  into  writing,  and 
this  was  what  they  called  a  liturgy.  Litur- 
gies have  been  different  at  different  times, 
and  in  different  countries.  We  have  the  li- 
turgy of  St-  Chr}'sostom.  of  St  Peter,  the 
Armenian  liturgy,  Gallican  liturgy,  8cc  &c 
'*  The  properties  required  in  a  j)ublic  litur- 
gy," says  Paky,  "  are  these :  it  must  be 
compendious;  express  just  conceptions  of 
the  Divine  attributes ;  recite  such  wants  as 
a  congregation  are  likely  to  feel,  and  no 
other  :  and  contain  as  few  controverted  pro- 
positions as  possible."  The  liturgy  of  tlie 
clmrch  of  England  was  composed  in  the  year 
1547,  and  established  in  the  second  year  of 
king  Edward  Vl.  In  the  fifth  year  of  this 
king  it  was  reviewed,  because  some  things 
were  contained  in  that  liturgy,  which  shew- 
ed a  compliance  with  the  superstition  of 
those  times,  and  some  exceptions  were  taken 
against  it  by  some  learaed  men  at  home, 
and  by  Calvin  abroad.  Some  alterations 
were  made  in  it,  which  consisted  in  adding 
the  general  confession  and  absolution,  and 
the  communion  to  begin  with  the  ten  com- 
mandments. The  use  of  oil  in  confirmation 
and  extreme  unction  was  !eft  out,  and  also 
prayers  for  souls  departed,  and  what  re- 
lated to  a  belief  of  Christ's  real  presence 
in  the  eucharist.  This  liturgy,  so  reform- 
ed, was  established  by  the  acts  of  the  5th 
and  6th  Edward  VI.  cap.  I.  However,  it 
was  abolished  by  queen  Mary,  who  enacted 
that  the  service  should  stand  as  it  was  most 
commonly  used  in  the  last  year  of  the  reign 
of  king  Henry  VIII — That  of  Edward  VI. 
was  i-e-established,  with  some  alteraiirms, 
by  Elizabeth.  Some  farther  alterations  were 
introduced,  in  consequence  of  the  revieAv  of 
the  common  prayer  book,  by  order  of  king 
James,  in  the  first  year  of  his  reign,  par- 
ticularly in  the  office  of  private  baptism,  in 
several  rubrics,  and  other  passages,  with 
the  addition  of  five  or  six  new  prayers  and 
thanksgivings,  and  all  that  part  of  the  cate- 
chism which  contains  the  doctrine  of  the 
sacraments.  The  book  of  common  prayer, 
so  altered,  remained  in  force  from  the  first 
year  of  king  James  to  the  fourteenth  of 
Charles  II.  The  last  review  of  the  litur- 
gy was  in  the  year  1661.  Many  supplica- 
tions have  been  since  made  for  a  review, 
but  without  success.  Bingham's  Orig.  EccL 
b.  13.  Proughton's  Diet.  Bennet,  Robin- 
son, and  Clarkaon,  on  Liturg.  Passim.  A 
I^etter  to  a  Dissenting  Minister  on  the 
JExfiediency  of  Forms,  and  "rekeWs  An- 
swer. Roger's  Lectures  on  the  Liturgy  of 
the  Church  of  England.     Biddul/ih's  Es- 


says on  the  Liturgy  ;  Orion's  Letters,  vol. 
i.  p.  16,  24. 

LIVERPOOL  LITURGY.  A  liturgy  so 
called  from  its  first  publication  at  Liverpool. 
It  was  composed  by  some  of  the  Prt^sbv  te- 
rians,  who,  growing  weary  of  extempore 
prayer,  thought  a  form  more  desirable.  It 
made  its  appearance  in  1752  Mr.  Orion 
says  of  it  "  It  is  scarcely  a  Christian  litur- 
gy In  the  collect  the  name  of  Christ  is 
hardly  mentioned  ;  and  the  spirit  is  quite 
banished  from  it."  It  was  little  better  than 
a  deistieal  composition.  Orton's  Letters, 
vol.  i.  p.  80,  81.  Bogue  and  Bennett's  Hist. 
of  Diss.  vol.  iii.  p.  342. 

LOLLARDS,  a  religious  sect,  differing 
in  many  points  from  the  church  of  Rome, 
which  arose  in  Germany  about  the  begin- 
ning of  the  fourteenth  century  ;  so  called, 
as  many  writers  have  imagined,  from  Wal- 
ter Lollard,  who  began  to  dogmatize  in  1315, 
and  was  burnt  at  Cologne ;  though  others 
think  that  Lollard  was  no  surname,  but 
merely  a  term  of  reproach  applied  to  all 
heretics  who  concealed  the  poison  of  error 
under  the  appearance  of  piety. 

The  monk  of  Canterbury  derives  the  ori- 
gin of  the  word  k'Uard  among  us,  from  loli- 
um,  "  a  tare,"  as  if  the  Lollards  were  the 
tares  sown  in  Christ's  vineyard.  Abelly 
says,  that  the  word  signifies  "  praising 
God,"  from  tlie  German  loben,  "  to  praise," 
and  herr,  "  lord ;"  because  the  Lollards 
employed  themselves  in  travelling  about 
from  place  to  place,  singing  psalms  and 
hymns.  Others,  much  to  the  same  puipose, 
derive  lollhard,  iullliard,  or  lollert,  lullert, 
as  it  was  written  by  the  ancient  Gei-mans, 
from  the  old  German  word  lullen,  lollen,  or 
latlen,  and  the  termination /rarrf,  with  which 
many  of  the  high  Dutch  words  end.  Lol- 
len  signifies  "  to  sing  with  a  low  voice," 
and  therefore  lollard  is  a  singer,  or  one  who 
frequently  sings ;  and  in  the  vulgar  tongue 
of  the  Germans,  it  denotes  a  person  who  is 
continually  praising  God  with  a  song,  or 
singing  hymns  to  his  honour. 

The  Alexians  or  Cellites,  were  called 
Lollards,  because  they  were  public  singers, 
who  made  it  their  business  to  inter  the  bo- 
dies of  those  wlio  died  of  the  plague,  and 
sang  a  dirge  over  them,  in  a  mournful  and 
indistinct  tone,  as  they  carried  them  to  the 
grave.  The  name  was  afterwards  assumed 
by  persons  that  dishonoured  it ;  for  we  find 
among  those  Lollards  who  made  extraordi- 
nary pretences  to  religion,  and  spent  the 
greatest  part  of  their  time  in  meditation, 
pr-ayei\  and  such  acts  of  piety,  there  were 
many  abominable  hypocrites,  who  entertain- 
ed the  most  ridiculous  opinions,  and  conceal- 
ed the  most  enormous  vices  under  the  spe- 
cious mark  of  this  extraordinary  profession. 
Many  injurious  aspersions  were  therefore 
propagated  against  those  who  assumed  this 
name  by  the  priests  and  monks;  so  that, 
bv  degrees,  any  person  who  cc^vered  here- 
sies or  crimes  under  the  appearance  of  pie- 
tv,  was  called  a  Lollard,    Thus,  the  name 


LOR 


266 


L.OR 


was  not  used  to  denote  any  one  particular 
sect,  but  was  formeiiy  common  to  ail  per- 
sons or  sects,  who  were  supposed  to  be  guil- 
ty of  impiety  toAvards  God,  or  the  cluuch, 
under  an  external  profession  of  great  ]jiety. 
However,  many  societies,  consisting  bnth  of 
men  and  women,  under  the  name  of  LoJ-;! 
lards,  were  formed  in  most  parts  of  Ger- i 
many  and   F'anders,   and  were   supported  ji 

Eartly  by  their  manual  labours,   and  partly  i! 
y  the  charitable  donations  of  pious  persons,  j 
The  magistrates  and  inhal/itauts  of  the  towns,  'j 
T^vhere  these  blvthren    and   sisters   resided,  I ] 
gave  them  particular  marks  of  favour  and ' 
protection,  on  account  of  their  great  useful- 
ness to  the   sick,  and  needy.     They  were  j 
thus  supported  against  tlieir  malignant  ri- 
vals, and  obtained  many  papal  constitutions,  i 
by  wliich  their  institute  was  confirmed,  their  j 
persons  exempted   from   the  cognizance  of  j 
the  inquisitor,  and  subjected  entirely  to  the  | 
jurisdiction   of   the   bishops ;    but   as   these  i 
measures  were  insufficient  to    secure  them  [ 
from  molestation,  Cnai-les  duke  of  Burgun- 
dy, in  the  year  1472,  obtained  a  solemn  Ijull 
friuT)    pope   Sextus   IV    ordering   that   the! 
Cellites,    or    Lollards,    should    be    ranked 
among  the  religious  orders,    and  delivered 
fiTim  the  jurisdiction  of  the  bishops.     And 
pope  Julius  II.   granted  tliem   still   greater 
privileges,   in  the  year  1506.     Mosheim  in- 
forms us,  tliat   many  societies  of  this  kind 
are  still  subsisting  at  Cologne,   and  in  the 
cities  of  Flanders,  though  they  have  evident- 
ly departed  from  their  ancient  rules. 

Lollard  and  his  followers  rejected  the  sa- 
crifice of  tlie   mass,   extreme   unction,   and 
penances  for  sin  ;  arguing  that  Christ's  suf- 
ferings were  sufficient.     He  is  likewise  said 
to  have  set  aside  baptism,   as  a  thing  of  no 
'  effect;  and  repentance  as  not  absolutely  ne- | 
cessary,  8cc.     In  England,  the  followers  of; 
Wickliffe  were  called,  by  way  of  reproach  i 
Lollards,  from  tlie  supposition,  that  there  , 
was  s'  me  affinity  between  some  of  their  te-  1 
tiets ;  thougli  others  are  of  opinion,  that  the 
English  Lollards  came  from  Germany.  Sec 

WiCKLIFFITE'.S. 

LONG  SUFFERING  OF  GOD  See  Pa- 
TIENCE  OK  God. 

LORD,  a  term  properly  denoting  one 
who  has  dominion.  Applied  to  (iod,  the 
supreme  governor  and  disposer  of  all  things. 
See  God. 

LORD'S  DAY.    See  Sarsatii. 

LORD  3  NAME  TAKEN  IN  VAIN, 
Consists,  first,  in  using  it  Uglnhj  or  ru.-ildy, 
in  exclamations,  adjurations,  and  ap5)eais, 
in  common  conversation — 2.  Hufjocriiically, 
in  our  prayers,  thanksgivings.  Sec — 3.  Su 
pcrntitioushu  as  wlien  the  Israelites  carried 
the  ark  to  the  field  of  battle,  to  render 
them  successful  against  tlie  Philistines,  1 
Sam.  iv.  3,  A. — 4.  Wa7itonlij,  in  swearing 
by  him,  cr  creatures  in  his  stead,  Matthew 
V.  34,  Sr. — 5.  Jlngrily,  or  spoi'tfully  cursing, 
and  devoting  ourselves  or  others  to  mischef 
and  damnation. — 6.  Pirjuriiig  our.srlves,  at- 
testing that  which  is  false,  Malachi,   iii.  5. 


— 7.  Blasjihemously  reviling  God,  or  caus- 
nig  others  to  do   so,  Rom.  ii.  24.     Perhaps, 
tliere  is  no  sin   more   common,    as    to   the 
practice,  and  less  thought  ol  as  to  the  guilt 
v.i  It,  than  this.     Nor    is  it    thus    common 
with  the  vulgar  only,  but   with   those   who 
call  themselves  wise,  humane,   and   moral. 
They  tremble  at  tlie  idea  of  murder,  theft, 
adultery,  &c.   while   they  forget,    that   the 
same  law  which  prohibits  the  commission 
of  these  crimes,  does  with  equal  force,  for- 
bid that  of  profaning  his   name.     No   man, 
therefore,   whatever  his  sense,  abilities,  or 
jjrofession  may  be,   can  be  lield  guiltless,  or 
be  exonerated   from    the  charge  of  being  a 
ivicked  man,  while  he  lives  in   the  habitual 
violation  of  this   part  of  God's  sacred    law. 
A  very  celebrated  female  writer  justly  ob- 
serves, that  "  It  is  utterly   inexcusable  ; 
it  has  none  of  the  palliatives  of  lemptation 
which  other  vices  plead,   and    in   that   re- 
.sptct  stands  distinguished   from    all    others 
both  in  its  nature  aiid  degree  of  guilt.   Like 
many  other   sins,   however,  it   is   at  once, 
cause  and  effect ;  it  proceeds  from  want  of 
love  and   reverence   to  the  best  of  Beings, 
and  causes  the  want  of  that   love   both    in 
themselves  and    others.      This   species    of 
profaneness  is  not  only  swearing,  but  per- 
haps, in    some   respects,    swearing   of  the 
worst  sort ;  as  it  is  a    direct    breach  of  an 
express  command,  and  offends  against  the 
very  letter  of  that  law,  which  says,   in   so 
many  words,    "  Thou  slialt   not    take    the 
name  of  the  Lord  thy  God  in  vain."     It  of- 
fends against  politeness  and  good  breeding  ; 
for  those  who  commit  it,  little  think  of  the 
pain  they  are  iniiicting  on  the  sober  mind, 
which  is  deeply  wounded  when  it  hears  the 
holy  name  it  loves  dishonoured  :  and  it  is  as 
contrary  to  good  breeding  to  give  pain,  as  it 
is  to  true  piety  to  be  profane.     It  is  astonish- 
ing, that  the  refined  and  elegant  should  not 
reprobate  this  practice  for  its  coarseness  and 
vul;^arity,  as   much   as  the  pious  abhor  it 
for  its  sinfulness. 

"  I   would   endeavour  to  give  some  faint 
idea  of  the  grossness  of  this  offence   by  an 
ii  analogy,  (oh  !  how  inadequate  !)  with  which 
j  the  feeling  heart,  even  though  not  seasoned 
i{  witi!  religion,  may  yet  be  touched.  To  such 
I  would    earm  stly    say — Suppose  you    had 
some  beloved  friend, — to  put   the   case  still 
'  more  strongly,   a  departed  friend, — a  reve- 
I  red  p .nent,  jierhaps. — whose   image    never 
I  occurs   without   awakening   in  j'^our    bosom 
I  sentiments  of  tender  love   and   lively  grati- 
i  tude :  how  would  you  feel  if  you  heard  this 
1  honoured  name  bandied,  about   with  unfeel- 
I  ing  familiarity  and   indecent  levity  ;  or,   at 
!  best,  thrust  into  every  pause  of  speech  as  a 
I  vulgar  cx])letive.^ — Does  not  your  affection- 
i  ate  heart  recoil  at  the  thought .''    And   yet 
the  hallowed  namo  C)f  your   truest  Benefac- 
tor, your  heavenly  Father,  your  best  Friend, 
to  whom  you  are  indebted  for  all  you  en- 
joy ;  who  gives  you   those  very  friends  in 
whom  you  so  much  delight,  those  very  ta- 
lents with  wliich  you  dishonour  him,  those 
very  organs  of  speech  with  which  you  bias- 


LOR 


267 


LOR 


pheme  him,  is  treated  with  an  irreverence, 
a  contempt,  a  wantonness,  with  which  you 
cannot  bear  the  very  thought  or  nienticin 
of  treating  a  human  friend.  His  name  is 
impiously,  is  unfeelingly,  is  ungratefuily  sin- 
gled out  as  the  oliject  of  dtcicU-d  ii-reve- 
rence,  of  sysieniatir.  contempt,  of  thougtit- 
less  levity.  His  sacred  name  is  used  indis 
criminately  to  express  anger,  joy,  grief,  sur- 
prise, impatience  ;  and,  what  is  uhnost  stili 
more  unpardonable  thttn  all,  it  is  wantonly 
used  as  a  mere  unmeaning  cxpKtive,  which, 
bting  excited  by  no  temptation,  can  have 
nothing  to  extenuate  it;  which,  causing  no 
emotion,  can  have  niithi;,g  to  ncommcnd  it, 
unless  it  be  the  pleasure  of  tin-  sin."  /i/r.i-. 
Moore  on  Rduca'iQn,  \'n]  ii.  p  87.  GilCs 
Jiodij  of  Div.  vol.  iii.  ))age  4J7.  Bro"ii<n^s 
System  of  I^elig.  p.  5'i6. 

LORDS  PHAYEK,    is  that  which   our 
Lord  gave  to  his  disciples   tn   the   M'^unt. 
According  to  what  is  said  in  the  sixth  chap- 
ter of  Matthew,  it  was  given   as  a  directo- 
ry ;  but,  from  Luke  xi.  1.  some   ar::'ue  that 
it  was  given  as  a   furni-     Some  have  urged 
that  the  secoufl   and  fourth  petition  of  that 
prayer  could  be  intended  only  f^r  temporary 
use;  but  it  is  answered,   that  such  a  sen^e 
may  be  put   upon   those    petitions   as    shall 
suit  all  Christians  in  all  ages  ;  for  it  is  al- 
ways our  duty   to  pray  that   Christ's  king- 
dom may  be  advanced' in  the  world,  and  to 
profess  our  daily  dei)endence  on  God's  pro- 
vidential care.  Nevertheless,  there  is  no  rea- 
son to  believe  that  Christ  meant   that  his 
people  should  always  use  this  as  a  set  form  ; 
for  if  that  had  been  the  case,  it  would  not 
have  been  varied  as  it  is  by  the  two  evange- 
lists. Matt.  vi.  Luke  xi.   It  is  true,  indted, 
that  they  both  agree  in  the  main,  as  to  the 
sense,  yet  not  in  the  express  words;  and  the 
doxology  which  Matthew  gives  at  large,  is 
wholly  left  out  in  Luke.     And,  besides,  we 
do  not  fiiid  that  the   disciples  ever  used   it 
as  a  form.     It   is,  iiowever,  a  most  excel- 
lent summary  of  prayer,  for  its  brevity,  or- 
der, and  maiter  ;  and  it  is  very  lawful  and 
laudable  to  make  use  of  any  single  petition, 
or  the   whole  of  it,  provided  a  frrmal  and 
superstitious  use   of   it   be  avoided — That 
great  zeal,  as  one  observes,  which    is  to  be 
found  in   some    Christians    either     for    or 
against   it,  is  to  be    lamentc  d   as  a  v/cak- 
ness ;  and   it  will  become  us  to  do   all   that 
we  can   to    promote    on    each    side  more 
moderate   sentiments  concerning  the  use  of 
it.     See  Doddridge's  Lectures,  lecture  194. 
Barrow's     Works,   vol.  i.  page  48.     Ji'di- 
bisho/i  Ltighton's  Exfilmmfion  of  it.    IVrst 
on  the  Lord's  Prayer.     Gill's  Body  of  Di- 
vinity, vol.  iii.  page  362,  8vo.     Fordycc  on 
Adification  by  Public  Instructio?i,  page  11, 
12.    Mendavi's   Rxfiosition  of  the   Lord's 
Prayer. 

LORD'S  SUPPER  is  an  ordinance  which 
our  Saviour  instituted  as  a  commemoration 
of  his  death  and  sufferings.  1.  It  is  called 
a  sacrament,  that  is,  a  sign,  and  an  oath. 
An  outward  and  visible  sign  of  an  inward 


and  spiritual  grace  ;  an  oath,  by  which  we 
bind  our  souls   with  a  bond  unto  the   Lord- 
Some,  however,  reject  this  term   as  not  be- 
ing   scriptural  ;    as    likewise    the    idea    of 
swearing  or  Vf)wing  to  the  Lord.    See  Vow. 
— 2.  it   is  called    the   Lord's    Sup/ter,  be- 
cau.se  it  was  hrst  instituted   in  the   evening, 
and  at   the  clcse  of  the    Passover   supper; 
and  because  we  therein   feed   upon   Christ, 
the  bread  of  life,  Rom.  iii.   20      1  Cor.   xi. 
— 3.  It  is  called  the   communion,  as  herein 
we  have  conununion  with  Christ,  and   with 
his  people,  1  Cor.    xii.     13-  x.  17. — 4,  It   is 
called  the  eticluirist,  a  thanksgiving,  because 
Christ   in  the  institution  of  it,  gave  thanks, 
]  Cor.  xi.  24.  and  because   we,  in  the  par- 
ticipation of  it,   must  give  thanks   likewise. 
— 5.  It  is  called  a  feat.t,  and  by  some  a  feast 
up'n  a  sacrifice,  (though  not  a  sacrifice  it- 
self,) in  allusion  to  the   custom  of  the  Jews* 
feasting  upon  their  sacrifices,  1  Cor.  x.  IS. 
As  to  the  nature   of  this    ordmance,   we 
may  observe,  that,   in   partici]}ating  of  the 
bread  and  wine,  we  do  not  consider  it  as  ex- 
piatorv,  but,  1.  As  a  covimemoratiiig   ordi- 
nance'.    We  are  here  to  remember  the  per- 
sfin,   love,  and  death   of  Christ,  1  Cor.    xi. 
24. — 2.  A  coifssing  ordinance.    We  here- 
by profess  our  esteem  for   Christ,  and    de- 
pendence  upon  him — 3.  A  communicating 
ordinance  ;  blessings  of  grace  are  here  com- 
municated to  us  —4.  A   covenanting    ordi- 
nance.    God,  in  and  by  this  ordinance,  as  it 
were,  declares  that  he  is  ours,  and    we   by- 
it  declare   to   be  Ifis. — 5.  A  standing  ordi- 
nance, for  it  is  to  be  observed  to  the  end   of 
lime,  1  Cor.  xi.  26.    It   seems  to    be   quite 
an  inrlifferent  thing,   what  bread  is  used  it) 
this  ordinance,  or  what  coloured  wine,  for 
Christ  tooiv  that  vvhich  was  readiest.     The 
eating  of  the   bread,    and   drinking   of  the 
v.'ine  being  always  connected  iri  Christ's  ex- 
ample, they  ought  never  to  be  separated; 
wherever  <ine  is  given,  the  other  should  not 
be  withheld.     This  bread  and  wine  are  not 
changed    into  the  real    body  and    blood  of 
Christ,  but  are  only  emblems  thereof.    See 
Tr  ansucstantiation. 

The  subjects  of  this  ordinance  should  be 
such  as  make  a  credible  profession  of  the 
Ciospel :  the  ignerant,  and  t'lose  whose  live.s 
arc  immoral,  have  no  right  to  it  -,  nor  should 
it  ever  be  admiuisterfd  as  a  test  of  civil  obe- 
dience, for  this  is  perverting  the  design  ofit. 
None  but  true  believers  can  approach  it  \7ith 
profit ;  yet  we  cannot  exclude  any  who  make 
a  credible  profession,  t\)r  God  only  is  the 
judge  of  the  heart,  while  we  can  only  act 
according  to  outward  appearances. 

Much  has  been  said  respecting  the  time  of 
administering  it.  Some  plead  for  the  morn- 
ing, others  the  afternoon,  and  some  for  the 
evening  :  which  latter,  indeed,  was  the  time 
of  the  first  celebration  of  it,  and  is  most 
suitable  to  a  supper.  How  often  it  is  to  be 
observed,  cannot  be  precisely  ascertained 
from  Scripture  Some  have  been  for  keep- 
ing it  every  day  in  the  week  ;  others  four 
times  a  week :  some  every   Lord's   day. 


LOR 


263 


LOV 


which  many  think  is  nearest  the  apostolic 
practice,  Acts  xx.  7. — Others  have  kept 
it  three  times  a  year,  and  some  once  a 
year  ;  but  the  most  common  is  once  a  month 
It  evidently  appears,  however,  Iwth  from 
Scripture,  1  Cor,  xi.  26,  and  from  the  na- 
ture of  the  ordinance,  that  it  ought  to  be 
frequent, 

Jis  to  posture :  Dr.  Doddridge  ju«tly  ob- 
serves, that  it  is  greatly  to  be  lamented, 
that  Christians  have  perverted  an  ordi- 
nance, intended  as  a  pledge  and  means  of 
their  mutual  union,  into  an  occasion  of  dis- 
cord and  contention,  by  laying  such  a  dis- 
proportionate stress  on  the  manner  m  which 
it  is  to  be  administered,  and  the  fiosture  in 
which  it  is  to  be  rtceived  As  to  the  lat- 
ter, a  table  posture  seems  most  eligible,  as 
having  been  used  by  Christ  and  his  apos- 
tles, and  being  peculiarly  suitable  to  the  no- 
tion of  a  sacred  feast ;  and  kneeling,  -which 
was  never  introduced  into  the  church  till 
transubstantiation  was  received,  mav  prove 
an  occasion  of  superstition.  Nevertheifss, 
provided  it  be  not  absolutely  imposed  as  a 
term  of  communion,  it  will  be  the  part  of 
Christian  candour  to  acquiesce  in  the  use 
of  it  in  others  by  whom  it  is  preferred.  It 
appears  that  standing  was  at  least  frequent- 
ly used  in  the  Christian  church,  viz.  ai- 
rways on  the  Lord's  day,  and  between  Eas- 
ter and  Wliitsuntide.  The  manner  in  which 
this  ordinance  is  administered,  both  in  the 
church  of  England,  and  among  Protestant 
Dissenters,  is  so  well  known,  that  we  need 
say  nothing  of  it  here. 

VV'e  will  only  subjoin  a  few  directions  in 
xf\\a.\.  frajne  of  mind  we  should  attend  upon 
this  ordinance.  It  should  be  with  s^^rrow 
for  our  past  sins  and  easiness  and  calmness 
of  aflFection,  free  from  the  disorders  and 
ruffles  of  passion  ;  with  an  iioly  av,e  and 
reverence  of  the  Divine  Majesty,  yet  with 
ri  gracious  confidence  and  earnest  de.sires 
toward  'God  ;  with  raised  expectations  : 
prayer,  joy,  and  thanksgi\ing,  and  love  to 
all  men.  When  coming  from  it,  we  should 
admire  the  condescensions  of  Divine  grace  ; 
watch  against  the  snares  of  Satan,  and  the 
allurements  of  the  world ;  rejoice  in  the 
finished  work  of  Christ,  depend  upon  the 
gracious  influence  of  the  Spirit,  that  we 
may  keep  up  a  sense  of  the  Divine  favour, 
and  be  longing  for  heaven,  where  we  hopt 
at  last  to  join  the  general  assembly  of  the 
first  born. 

The  advantages  a''>':'77g  from  the  fiarHd- 
jiation  of  the  Lord's  Sn/i/itr  are  nionerous. 
1.  It  is  a  mean  of  strengthening  our  faith 
in  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ — 2.  It  affords  great 
consolation  and  joy.— 3.  It  increases  love. — 
4.  It  has  a  tendency  to  enlighten  our  minds 
in  the  mystery  of  godliness — 5.  It  gives  us 
an  utter  aversion  to  all  kinds  of  sin,  and  oc- 
casions a  heart)'  grief  for  it. — 6.  It  has  a 
tendency  to  excite  and  strenghten  all  holy 
desires  in  us — 7  It  renews  our  obliga- 
tions to  our  Lord  and  Master.— 8.  It  binds 


the  souls  of  Christians  one  to  another.  See 
Case's  Strino7is,  ser.  7.  and  HeJiry,  Earle, 
Uoolittle,  Grove,  and  Robertson  on  the 
Lord's  Supper  Dr.  Omen's,  Charnock's, 
Dr.  Ciidvjorth's,  Air.  IVillet^s,  Dr.  Worth- 
mgto?i\s.  Dr.  Jl'atts',  i^hhop  IVarbur tori's, 
isho/i  L'kavcr's,  and  Dr.  Bell's  Pieces  on 
the  Subject.  A  variety  of  ether  treatises, 
explanatory  of  the  nature  and  design  of  the 
Lord's  Supper,  may  be  seen  in  almost  any 
catalogue. 

LO 1'  is  a  mutual  agreement  to  de- 
termine an  uncertain  event,  no  other  ways 
determinable,  by  an  appeal  to  the  providence 
of  G'  d,  on  casting  or  throwing  sometliing. 
This  is  a  decisortj  lot,  Prov.  xvi.  33.  Prov. 
xviii.  18.  The  matter,  therefore,  to  be  de- 
termined, in  order  to  avoid  guilt,  should  be 
important,  and  no  other  possible  way  left  to 
determine  it ;  and  the  manner  of  making  the 
appeal  solemn  and  grave,  if  we  would  escape 
the  gtiilt  of  taking  the  name  of  God  in  vain. 
Wantonly,  without  necessity,  and  in  a  ludi- 
crous manner,  to  make  this  appeal,  must  be 
theref(.re  highly  blamable.  And  if  thus 
tlie  decisory  lot,  when  wantonly  and  unneces- 
sarily employed,  be  criminal,  equally,  if  net 
more  so,  must  the  divinatory  lot  be,  which 
j  is  employed  for  discovering  the  will  of  God ; 
this  being  no  mean  of  God's  appointment, 
I  must  be  superstitious,  and  the  height  of 
presumption. 

LOVE  consists  in  ap]5robation  of,  and  in- 
clination  towards  an  object  that  appears  to 
1  us  as  good.     It  has  been  distinguished  into, 
j  1.  Love  of  esteem,  which  ansts  from  the 
mere  consideration  of  some  excellency  in  an 
I  object,    and    belongs    either   to   persons   or 
'  things. — 2.    Lox>e  of  benevolence,  which  is 
lan  inclination  to  seek  the  happiness  or  wel- 
Ifare  of  any  thing. — 3.  Love  of  complacence, 
I  which  arises  from  the  consideration  of  any 
I  object  agreeable  to  us,  and  calculated  to  af- 
ford us  pleasure. 

LOVE  TO  GOD  is  a  divine  principle 
implanted  in  the  mind  by  the  Holy  Spirit, 
whereby  we  reverence,  esteem,  desire,  and 
delight  in  Him  as  the  chief  good.  It  in- 
cludes a  kn(!wledge  of  his  natural  excel- 
lencies, Psal.  viii.  1.  and  a  consideration  of 
his  goodness  to  us,  1  John  iv.  19  Nor  can 
these  two  ideas,  I  think,  be  well  separated ; 
for,  however  some  may  argue  that  genuine 
love  to  God  should  arise  cnly  from  a  sense 
of  his  amiableness,  yet,  I  think  it  will  be 
difficult  to  conceive  how  it  can  exist,  ab- 
{  stracted  from  the  idea  of  his  relative  good- 
ness. The  passage  last  referred  to,  is  to  the 
point,  and  the  representations  given  us  of  the 
praises  of  the  saints  in  hea^'en  accord  with  the 
same  sentiment :  "  Thou  art  worth)'  for  thou 
hast  redeemed  us  by  thy  blond,"  Rev.  v  9.  See 
Self-Love.  "  Love  to  Go<l  is  a  subject," 
says  bishop  Porteus,  "  which  concerns  us 
to  enquire  carefully  into  the  true  nature  of. 
And  it  concerns  us  the  more,  because  it  has 
been  unhappily  brought  into  disrepute  by  the 
extravagant  conceits  of  a  few  devout  en- 
thusiasts  concerning   it.     Of  these,    sonae 


LOV 


269 


LOV 


have  treated  the  love  of  God  in  so  refined 
a  way,  and  carried  it  to  such  heights  of  se- 
raphic ecbtacy  and  rapture,  that  common 
minds  must  tor  ever  despair  of  either  fol- 
'  lowing  or  understanding  them  :  whilst  otli- 
ers  have  described  it  in  such  warm  and  in- 
;  delicate  terms  as  are  much  better  suited  to 
i  the  grossness  of  earthly  passion  than  the 
I  purity  of  spiritual  affection. 
I  "But  the  accidental  excesses  of  this  holy 
I  sentiment  can  be  no  just  argument  against 
I  its  general  excellence  and  utility. 
I  "VVe  know  that  even  friendship  itself 
has  sometimes  been  abused  to  the  most  un- 
worthy purposes,  and  led  men  to  the  com- 
mission of  the  most  atrocious  crimes.  Shall 
we,  therefore,  utterly  discai'd  that  generous 
passion,  and  consider  it  as  nothing  more 
than  the  unnatural  fervour  of  a  romantic 
imagination  ?  Every  heart  revolts  against 
so  wild  a  thought?  and  why,  then,  must  we 
suffer  the  love  of  God  to  be  banished  out  of 
the  world,  because  it  has  been  sometimes 
improperly  represented  or  indiscreetly  ex- 
ercised f  It  is  not  either  from  the  visionary 
mystic,  the  sensual  fanatic,  or  the  frantic 
zealot,  but  from  the  plain  word  of  God, 
that  we  are  to  take  our  ideas  of  this  divine 
sentiment.  There  we  find  it  described  in 
all  its  native  purity  and  simplicity.  The 
marks  by  which  it  is  there  distinguished 
contain  nothing  enthusiastic  or  extrava- 
gant." It  may  be  considered,  1.  As  sincere, 
Matt,  xxii  36,  38  — 2.  Constant,  Rom.  viii. — 
3.  Universal  of  all  his  attributes,  command- 
ments, ordinances,  &c. — 4  Progressive,  1 
Thess.  v.  12.  2  Thess.  i.  3.  Eph.  iii.  19.— 5. 
Superlative,  Lam.  iii.  24. — 6  Eternal,  Ro- 
mans viii.  This  love  manifests  itself,  1.  In 
a  desire  to  be  like  God — 2.  In  making  his 
glory  the  supreme  end  of  our  actions,  1  Cor. 
xi.  31. — 3.  In  delighting  in  communion  with 
him,  1  John  i.  3. — 4.  In  grief  under  the  hi- 
dings of  his  face.  Job  xxiii.  2. — 5.  In  relin- 
quishing all  that  stands  in  opposition  to  his 
will,  Phil.  iii.  8 — 6.  In  regard  to  his  bouse, 
worship,  and  ordinances,  Ps.  Ixxxiv. — 7.  In 
love  for  his  truth  and  people,  Ps.  cxix. 
John  xiii.  35 — 8.  By  confidence  in  his  pro- 
mises, Ps.  Ixxi.  1. — And,  lastly,  by  obedi- 
ence to  his  word,  John  xiv.  15.  1  John  ii.  3. 
Gill's  Body  of  Divinity,  page  94,  vol.  iii. 
octavo.  Watts*  Discourses  on  Love  to  God. 
Scott's  Sermons,  sermon  14.  Bellamy  on 
Religion,  page  2,  and  Signs  of  Counterfeit 
hove,  page  82.  Bishoji  Forteus"  Sermons, 
vol.  i  sermon  1. 

LOVE,  BROTHERLY,  is  affection  to 
our  neighbours,  and  especially  to  the  saints, 
prompting  us  to  every  act  of  kindness  to- 
ward them.  It  does  not,  indeed,  consist 
merely  in  pity  to,  and  relief  of  others,  1 
Cor.  xiii.  in  love  to  our  benefactors  only, 
and  those  who  are  related  to  us.  Matt.  v. 
46,  47.  It  must  flow  from  love  to  God,  and 
extend  to  all  mankind  ;  yea,  we  are  requir- 
ed by  tne  highest  authority  to  love  even  our 
enemies,  Matt.  v.  44.  not  so  as  to  counte- 
nance them  in  their  evil  actions,  but  to  for- 


give the  injuries  they  have  done  to  us. 
Love  to  good  men,  also,  must  be  particular- 
ly cultivated,  for  it  is  the  command  of 
Christ,  Jiihn  xiii.  34.  tliey  lielong  to  the  same 
Father  and  family.  Gal.  vi.  10.  we  hereby 
[give  proof  of  our  discipleship,  John  xiii.  35, 
The  example  of  Christ  sliould  allure  us  to 
jit,  1  John  iii.  16.  It  is  creative  of  a  variety 
I  of  pleasing  sensations,  and  prevents  a  thou- 
sand evils :  it  is  the  greatest  of  all  graces, 
1  Cor.  xiii.  13.  It  answers  the  end  uf  the 
law,  1  Tim.  i.  5.  resembles  the  inhabitants 
of  a  becter  world,  and  without  it  every  other 
attainment  is  i>f  no  avail,  1  Cor.  xiii.  This 
love  should  shew  itself  by  praying  for  our 
brethren,  Eph.  vi.  18.  bearing  one  another's 
burdens,  by  assisting  and  relieving  each 
other,  Gal.  vi.  2.  By  forbearing  with  one 
another,  Col.  iii.  13.  By  reproving  and  ad- 
monishing in  the  spirit  of  meekness,  Prov. 
xxvii.  5,  6.  By  estabhshing  each  other  in 
the  truth  ;  by  conversation,  exhortation,  and 
stirring  up  one  another  to  the  several  duties 
of  religion  both  public  and  private,  Jude 
20,  21.    Heb.  x.  24,  25.    See  Charity. 

LOVE  OF  GOD,  is  either  his  natural  de- 
light in  that  which  is  good.  Is.  Ixi.  8.  or 
that  especial  affection  he  bears  to  his  people, 
1  John  iv.  19.  Not  that  he  possesses  the 
passion  of  love  as  we  do ;  but  it  implies  his 
absolute  purpose  and  will  to  deliver,  bless, 
and  save  his  people.  The  love  of  God  to 
his  people  appears  in  his  all-wise  designs 
and  plans  for  their  happiness,  Eph.  iii.  10.— 
2.  In  the  choice  of  them,  and  determination 
to  sanctify  and  glorify  them,  2  Thes.  ii.  13. 
— 3.  In  the  gift  of  his  Son  to  die  for  them, 
and  redeem  them  from  sin,  death,  and  hell, 
Rom.  V.  9.  John  iii.  16. — 4.  In  the  revelation 
of  his  will,  and  the  declaration  of  his  pro- 
mises to  them,  2  Pet.  i.  4. — 5.  In  the  awful 
punishment  of  their  enemies,  Ex.  xix.  4 — 6. 
In  his  actual  conduct  towards  them ;  in 
supporting  them  in  life,  blessing  them  in 
dtath,  and  bringing  them  to  glory,  Rom. 
viii.  30,  &c.  Rom.  vi.  23.  The  properties  of 
this  love  may  be  considered  as,  1.  Everlast- 
ing, Jer.  XXX.  3.  Eph.  i.  4. — 2.  Immutable, 
Mai.  iii.  6.  Zeph.  iii.  17. — 3.  Free ;  neither 
the  sufferings  of  Christ  nor  the  merits  of 
men  are  the  cause,  but  his  own  good  plea- 
sure, John  iii.  16. — 4.  Great  and  unspeaka- 
ble, Eph.  ii.  4,  6.  Eph.  iii.  19  Psal.  xxxvi.  7. 

LOVE,  Family  of,  A  sect  that  arose  in 
Holland,  in  the  sixteenth  century,  founded 
by  Henry  Nicholas,  a  Westphalian.  He 
maintained  that  he  had  a  commission  from 
heaven  to  teach  men  that  the  essence  of  re- 
ligion consisted  in  the  feelings  of  Divine 
love :  that  all  other  theological  tenets, 
whether  they  related  to  objects  of  faith  or 
modes  of  worship,  were  of  no  sort  of  mo- 
ment; and,  consequently,  that  it  was  a  mat- 
ter of  the  most  perfect  indifference  what 
opinions  Christians  entertained  concerning 
the  Divine  nature,  provided,  their  hearts 
burned  with  the  pure  and  sacred  flame  of 
pietv  and  love. 

LOVE  OF  THE  WORLD.  See  Worlp. 


LUK 


2ro 


LUT 


LOVE  FEASTS.  See  Agap^. 
LOW  CHURCHMEN,  those  who  disap- 
proved of  the  schism  made  in  the  church 
by  the  non-jurors,  and  wlio  distinguished 
themselves  by  their  moderation  towards 
Dissenters,  and  were  less  ardent  in  extend- 
ing the  limits  of  ecclesiastical  authority, 
See  High  Churchmen. 

LUCIANISTS,  or  Luganists,  a  sect  so 
called  from  Lucianus,  or  Lucanus,  a  heretic 
of  the  second  century,  being  a  disciple  of 
Marcion,  whose  errors  he  followed,  adding 
some  new  ones  to  them.  Epiphanes  says  he 
abandoned  Marcion,  teaching  that  people 
ought  not  to  marry,  for  fear  of  enriching  the 
Creator ;  and  yet  other  authors  mention, 
that  he  held  this  error  in  common  with 
Marcion  and  other  Gnostics.  He  denied 
the  immortality  of  the  soul,  asserting  it  to 
be  material. 

There  was  another  sect  of  Lucianists, 
%vho  appeared  some  time  after  the  Arians. 
They  taught,  that  the  Father  had  been  a 
Father  always,  and  that  he  had  the  name 
even  before  he  begot  the  Son,  as  having  in 
him  the  power  and  faculty  of  generation  ; 
and  in  this  manner  they  accounted  for  the 
eternity  of  the  Son. 

LUCIFERIANS,  a  sect  who  adhered  to 
the  schism  of  Lucifer,  bishop  of  Cagliari, 
in  the  fourth  century,  who  was  banished  by 
the  emperor  Constantius,  for  having  defend- 
ed the  Nicene  doctrine  concerning  the  three 
persons  in  the  Godliead.  It  is  said,  also, 
that  they  believed  the  soul  to  be  corporeal, 
and  to  be  transmitted  from  the  father  to 
the  children.  The  Luciferians  were  nume- 
rous in  Gaul,  Spain,  Egypt,  &;c.  The  oc- 
casion of  the  schism  was,  that  Lucifer 
would  not  allow  any  acts  he  had  done  to 
be  abolished.  There  were  but  two  Lucife- 
rian  bishops,  but  a  great  number  of  priests 
and  deacons.  The  Luciferians  bore  a  great 
aversion  to  the  Avians. 

LUKEVVARMNESS,  applied  to  the  af- 
fections, indifference,  or  want  of  ardour.    In 
respect  to  religion,  hardly  any  thing  can  be 
more  culpable  than  this  spirit. — If  there  be 
a  God,  possessed  of  unspeakable  rectitude  in 
his  own  nature,  and  unbounded  goodness  to- 
wards his  creatures,  what  can  be  more  in- 
consistent and  unbecoming  than  to  be  frigid 
and  indifferent  in    our    devotions    to  him? 
Atheism,  in  some  respects,  cannot  be  worse 
than  lukewarmness.      The   Atheist   disbe- 
lieves tlie  existence  of  a  God,  and  there- 
fore cannot  worship  him  at  all ;  the  luke- 
warm owns  the  existence,  sovereignty,  and 
goodness  of  the  Supreme  Being,  but  denies 
him  that  fervour  of  affection,  that  devoted- 
ness  of     heart,    and    activity    of     service, 
which  the  excellency   of    his    nature   de- 
mands,   and   the  authority  of  his  word  re- 
quires.   Such  a  character,  therefore,  is  re- 
presented  as  absolutely  loathsome  to  God, 
and  obnoxious  to  his  wrath.  Rev.  iii.  15,  16. 
The  general  signs  of  a  lukewarm  dfiirit 
are  such  as  these :  Neglect  of  private  pray- 
er;  a  prefereuce  gf  worldly  to  religious 


company  ;  a  lax  attendance  on  public  ordi- 
nances ;  omission  or  careless  perusal  of 
God's  word  ;  a  zeal  for  some  appe  ndages  of 
religion,  while  languid  about  religion  itself  > 
a  backwardness  to  promote  the  cause  of 
God  in  the  world,  aid  a  rashness  of  spirit 
in  censuring  those  who  are  desirous  to  be 
useful 

If  we  inquire  the  cause.%  of  such  a  spirit, 
we  shall  find  them  to  be — worldly  jjrosperi- 
ty  ;  the  influence  of  carnal  relatives  and  ac- 
quaintances;  indulgence  of  secret  sirs;  thei 
fear  of  man;  and  sitting  under  an  unfaith- 
ful ministry. 

The  i7iconsiste7icij  of  it  ajificars  if  wc 
consider,  that  it  is  highly  unreas"naD!e  ; 
dishonourable  to  God ;  incompatible  with 
the  genius  of  the  Gospel  ;  a  barrier  to  im- 
provement ;  a  death  blow  to  usefulness  ;  a 
direct  opposition  to  tlie  commands  of  scrip- 
ture ;  and  tends  to  the  greatest  misery. 

To  overcome  such  a  state  of  mind,  we 
should  consider  how  offt-nsive  it  is  to  God  ; 
how  incongruous  with  the  very  idea  and  na- 
ture of  true  religion;  how  injurious  to  peace 
and  felicity  of  mind  ;  how  ungrateful  to  Jesus 
Christ,  whose  whole  life  was  labuur  f<>r  us 
and  our  salvation;  how  grievciis  to  the  Holy 
Spirit ;  how  dreadful  an  example  to  those  who 
have  no  religion  ;  how  unlike  the  saints  of 
old,  and  even  to  our  enemies  in  the  worst 
of  causes  ;  how  dangerous  to  our  immortal; 
souls,  since  it  is  indicative  of  our  want  of 
love  to  God,  and  exposes  us  to  just  condem- 
nation, Amos  vi.  1. 

LUTHERANS,  those  Christians  who 
follow  the  opinion  of  Martin  Luther,  the  ce- 
lebrated reformer  of  the  church,  in  the  six-  , 
teenth  century.  In  order  that  we  may  trace  ' 
the  rise  and  progress  of  Lutheranism,  we  ; 
must  here  refer  to  the  life  of  Luther  himself,  j 
Luther  was  a  native  of  Eisleben,  in  Saxo- 
ny, and  born  in  1483.  Though  his  pareiit'^^- 
were  poor,  he  received  a  learned  educatioi:, 
during  the  progress  of  which  he  gave  mam 
indications  of  uncommon  vigour  and  aciite- 
ness  of  genius.  As  his  mind  was  naturally 
susceptible  of  serious  impressions,  and  tinc- 
tured with  somewhat  of  that  religious  me- 
lancholy which  delights  in  tlie  solitude 
and  devotion  of  monastical  life,  he  retired 
into  a  convent  of  Augustinian  friars;  where 
he  acquired  great  reputation  not  only  for 
piety,  but  for  love  of  knowledge,  and  un- 
wearied application  to  study.  The  cause 
of  this  retirement  is  said  to  have  been,  tliat 
he  was  once  struck  by  lightning,  and  his 
companion  killed  by  his  side  by  the  same 
flash.  He  had  been  taught  the  scholastic 
philosophy  which  was  in  vogue  in  those 
days,  and  made  considerable  progress  in  it 
but  happening  to  find  a  copy  of  the  Bible 
which  lay  neglected  in  the  library  of  his 
monastry,"he  applied  himself  to  the  study 
of  it  with  such  tagerness  and  assiduity,  as 
quite  astonished  the  monks  ;  and  increased 
his  reputation  for  sanctity  so  much,  that  he 
was  chosen  professor,  first  of  philosophy, 
ana  afterwards  of  theology,  in  Wittemburg, 


LUT 


27i 


LUT 


<«   tiie   Elbe,    where  Frederic,  elector  of  [| 
Saxony,  had  founded  an  university. 

While  Luther  continued  to  enjoy  the 
highest  reputation  for  sanctity  and  learning, 
Tctzel,  a  Dominican  friar,  came  to  Wittem- 
bcrg  in  order  to  publish  indulgences.  Lu- 
ther beheld  his  success  with  great  concern  ; 
and  having  first  inveighed  against  indul- 
gences from  the  pulpit,  he  afterwards  pub- 
lished ninety-five  theses,  containing  his 
sentiments  on  that  subject.  These  he  pro- 
posed not  as  points  fully  established,  but  as 
sulyects  of  inquiry  and  disputation.  He  ap- 
pointed a  day  on  which  the  learned  were 
invited  to  impugn  them,  either  in  person, 
or  by  writing  ;  and  to  the  whole  he  subjoin- 
ed solemn  protestations  of  his  high  respect 
for  the  apostolic  see,  and  of  his  implicit 
submission  to  its  authority.  No  opponent 
appeared  at  the  time  prefixed  :  the  theses 
spread  over  Germany  with  astonishing  ra- 
pidity, and  were  read  with  the  greatest 
eagei'ness. 

Though  Luther  niet  with   no  opposition 
for    some    little    time    after   he    began    ti 

Eublish  his  new  doctrines,  it  was  not  long 
efore    many   zealous   champions  arose    to 
defend    (hose     opinions     with    which   the 
wealth    and    power    of    the    clergy    were 
so    strictly  connected.      Their  cause,  how- 
ever, was  by  no  means  promoted  by  these 
endeavours :    the  people    began  to    call  in 
question  even    the   authority  of  the    canon 
law,  and  of  the  pope  himself.     The  court 
of  Rome   at  first  despised  these  new  doc- 
trines and  disputes ;    but  at  last  the  atten- 
tion of  the  pope  being  raised  by  the  great 
success  of  the  reformer,  and  the  complaints 
of  his  adversaries,  Luther  was  summoned, 
in  the  month   of  July,    1518,    to  appear  at 
Rome,  within  sixty  days,  before  the  auditor 
of  the  chamber.    One  of  Luther's  adver- 
saries,   named   Prierius,  who  had    written 
against  him,  was  appointed  to  examine  his 
doctrines,  and  to  decide   concerning  them. 
The  pope   wrote,    at    the   same   time,    to 
the  elector  of  Saxony,  beseeching  him  not 
to  protect  a  man  whose  heretical  and  pro- 
fane tenets  were  so  shocking  to  pious  ears; 
and  enjoined  the  provincial  of  the  Augus- 
tinians    to    check,    by    his   authority,    the 
rashness    of    an     arrogant    monk,    which 
brought   disgrace    upon    their   order,     and 
gave  ()fFence  and  disturbance  to  the  whole 
church. 
From  these  letters,  and  the  appoiiitment 
•    of  his  open  enemy  Prierius,  to  be  his  judge, 
Luther  easily  saw  what  sentence  he  might 
expect  at  Rome  ;  and  therefore  discovered 
the  utmost  solicitude  to  have  his  cause  tried 
in  Germany     and  before  a  less  suspected 
tribunal     He  wrote  a  submissive  letter  to 
the  pope,   in  which  he  promised  an  unre- 
served obedience  to  his  will,  for  as  yet,  he 
entertained  no  doubt  of  the  divine   origi- 
nal of  the  pope's  authority  ;  and  by  the  in- 
tercession of  the  other  professors,  Cajetan, 
the  pope's  legate  in  Germany,  was  appoint 
ed  to  hear  and  determine  the  cause.    Lu- 


ther appeared  before  him  without  hesitation; 
but  Cajetan  thought  it  below  his  dignity  to 
dispute  the  point  with  a  person  so  much  his 
inferior  in  rank  ;  and  therefore  required 
him,  by  virtue  of  the  apostolic  powers  with 
which  he  was  clothed,  to  retract  the  errors 
which  he  had  uttered  with  regard  to  indul- 
gences and  the  nature  of  faith,  and  to  ab- 
-tain  for  the  future  from  the  publication  of 
new  and  dangerous  opinions :  and  at  the 
last,  forbad  him  to  appear  in  his  presence, 
unless  he  promised  to  comply  with  what  had 
been  required  of  him. 

This  haughty  and  violent  manner  of  pro- 
cee  iing,  together  with  some  other  circum- 
stances, gave  Luther's  friends  such  strong 
reasons  to  suspect  that  even  the  imperial 
safe-conduct  would  not  be  able  to  protect 
him  from  the   legate's   power  and  resent- 
ment, that  they  prevailed  on  him  secretly 
to  withdraw  from  Augsburgh,  where  he  had 
attended  the  legate,  and   to  return   to  his 
own    country.     But  before   his   departure, 
according   to  a  form  of  which  there  had 
been  some  examples,  he  prepared  a  solemn 
appeal  from  the  legate,  ill-informed  at  that 
time  concerning    his   cause,    to    the    pope, 
when  he  sliould  I'eceive  more   full  intima- 
tion Avith  respect  to  it.     Cajetan,  enraged 
at    Luther's    abrupt    retreat,    and    at  the 
publication   of    his    appeal,    wrote    to    the 
elector   of   Saxony,    complaining   of    both ; 
and  requiring  him,    as   he    regarded    the 
peace  of  the  church,  or  the   authority   of 
its    head ;    either    to    send    that    seditious 
monk  a    prisoner  to    Rome,   or  to  banish 
him  out  of  his  territories.      Frederic    had 
hitherto,  from   political  motives,  protected 
Luther,  as    thinking  he  might  be  of  use 
in   checking    the  enormous  power   of    the 
see  of  Rome ;    and    though    all    German}' 
resounded  with   his   fame,  the   elector  had 
never  yet  admitted  him  into  his  presence. 
But  upon    this  demand   made  by  the  cai*- 
dinal,    it    became     necessary  to    throw  of 
somewhat  of  his  former  leserve.    He  had 
been    at    a   great   txpence    and    bestowed 
much  attention    on    founding  a    new    uni- 
versity, an   object  of    considerable  import- 
ance to  every    German  prince;  and  fore- 
seeing how  fatal  a    blow    the   removal    of 
Luther  would  be  to  its  reputation,  he   not 
only  declined  complying  with  either  of  the 
pope's  requests,  but  openly  discovered  great 
cencern  for  Luther's  safety. 

The  situation  of  our  reformer,  in  the 
mean  time,  became  daily  more  and  more 
alarming.  He  knew  very  well  what  were 
the  motives  which  induced  the  elector  to 
afford  him  protection,  and  that  he  could 
by  no  means  depend  on  a  continuance  of 
his  friendship.  If  he  should  be  obliged  to 
quit  Saxony,  he  had  no  other  asylum,  and 
must  stand  exposed  to  whatever  punishment 
the  rage  or  bigotry  of  his  enemies  could 
inflict ;  and  so  ready  were  his  adversa- 
ries to  condemn  him,  that  he  had  been  de- 
clared a  heretic  at  Rome  before  the  expira- 
tion of  the  sixty  days  allowed  him  in  the 


LUT 


272 


LUT 


citation  for  making  his  appearance.  Not- 
■withstanding  all  this,  however,  he  discover- 
ed no  symptoms  of  timidity  or  remissness  ; 
but  continued  to  vindicate  his  own  conduct 
and  opinions,  and  to  inveigh  against  those 
of  his  adversaries  with  more  vehemence 
than  ever.  Being  convinced,  therefore, 
that  the  pope  would  soon  proceed  to  the 
most  violent  measures  against  him,  he  ap- 
pealed to  a  general  council,  which  he  af- 
firmed to  be  the  representative  of  the  Catho- 
lic church,  and  superior  in  power  to  the 
pope,  who  being  a  fallible  man,  might  err, 
as  St.  Peter,  the  most  perfect  of  his  pre- 
decessors, had  done. 

The  court  of  Rome  was  equally  assidu- 
ous, in  the  mean  time,  to  crush  the  author 
of  these  new  doctrines,  which  gave  them 
so  much  uneasiness.  A  bull  was  issued  by 
the  pope,  of  a  date  prior  to  Luther's  ap- 
peal, in  which  he  magnified  the  virtues  of 
indulgences,  and  subjected  to  the  heaviest 
ecclesiastical  censures  all  who  presumed 
to  teach  a  contrary  doctrine.  Such  a  clear 
decision  of  the  sovereign  pontiff  against 
him  might  have  been  very  fatal  to  Luther's 
cause,  had  not  the  death  of  the  emperor 
Maximilian,  winch  happened  on  Janu- 
ary 17,  1519,  contributed  to  give  matters  a 
different  turn.  Both  the  principles  and  in- 
terest of  Maximilian  had  prompted- him  to 
support  the  authority  of  the  see  of  Rome  : 
but,  in  consequence  of  his  death,  the  vicari- 
ate of  that  part  of  Germany  which  is 
governed  by  the  Saxon  laws,  devolved  to 
the  elector  of  Saxony :  and,  under  the 
shelter  of  his  friendly  administration,  Lu- 
ther himself  enjoyed  tranquillity  ;  and  his 
opinions  took  such  root  in  different  places, 
that  they  could  never  afterwards  be  eradi- 
cated. At  the  same  time,  as  the  election 
of  an  emperor  was  a  point  more  interesting 
to  the  pope  (Leo  X.)  than  a  theological 
controversy  which  he  did  not  understand, 
and  of  which  he  could  not  foresee  the  cir- 
cumstances, he  was  so  extremely  solicitous 
not  to  irritate  a  prince  of  such  considerable 
influence  in  the  electoral  college  as  Frede- 
ric, that  he  discovered  a  great  unwilling- 
ness to  pronounce  the  sentence  of  excom- 
munication against  Luther,  which  his  adver- 
saries continually  demanded  with  the  most 
clamorous  importunity. 

From  the  reason  just  now  given,  and 
Leo's  natural  aversion  to  severe  measures, 
a  suspension  of  proceeding  against  Luther 
took  place  for  eighteen  months,  though 
perpetual  negociations  were  carried  on  du- 
ring this  interval,  in  order  to  bring  the 
matter  to  an  amicable  issue.  The  manner 
in  which  these  were  conducted  having  given 
our  reformer  many  opportunities  of  observ- 
ing the  corruption  of  the  court  of  Rome, 
its  obstinancy  in  adhering  to  established 
errors,  and  its  indifference  about  truth,  how- 
ever clearly  proposed  or  strongly  proved,  he 
began,  in  1520,  to  utter  some  doubts  with 
regard  to  the  divine  original  of  the  papal 
authority,  which  he  publicly  disputed  with 


Eccius,  one  of  his  most  learned  and  for- 
midable antagonists.  The  dispute  was  in- 
decisive, both  parties  claiming  the  victory  ; 
but  it  must  have  been  very  mnrtifyuig  to 
the  partisans  of  the  Romish  church  to  hear 
such  an  essential  point  of  their  doctrine 
publicly  attacked 

The  papal  authority  being  once  suspect- 
ed, Luther  proceeded  to  push  on  his  enqui- 
ries and  attacks  from  one  doctrine  to  ano- 
ther, till  at  last  he  began  to  shake  the  firm- 
est foundations  on  which  the  wealth  and 
Eawer  of  the  church  were  established, 
eo  then  began  to  perceive  that  there  were 
no  hopes  of  reclaiming  such  an  incorrigible 
heretic,  and  therefore  prepared  to  pronounce 
the  sentence  of  excommunication  against 
him.  The  college  of  cardinals  was  often 
assembled  in  order  to  prepare  the  sentence 
with  due  deliberation  :  and  the  ablest  canon- 
ists were  consulted  how  it  might  be  expres- 
sed with  unexceptionable  formality.  At 
last  it  was  issued  on  the  15th  of  June, 
1520.  Forty-one  propositions,  extracted  out 
of  Luther's  works,  were  therein  condemned 
as  heretical,  scandalous,  and  ofiensive  to 
pious  ears;  all  persons  were  forbidden  to 
read  his  writings,  upon  pain  of  excommu- 
nication :  such  as  had  any  of  them  in  their 
custody  were  commanded  to  commit  them 
to  the  flames  ;  he  himself,  if  he  did  not 
within  sixty  days  publicly  recant  his  errors, 
and  burn  his  books,  was  pronounced  an 
obstinate  heretic,  excommunicated,  and  de- 
livered to  Satan  for  the  destruction  of  the 
flesh ;  and  all  secular  princes  were  re- 
quired under  pain  of  incurring  the  same 
censure,  to  seize  his  person,  that  he  might 
be  punished  as  his  crimes  deserved. 

Luther  was  not  in  the  least  disconcerted 
by  this  sentence,  which  he  had  for  some 
time  expected.  He  renewed  hj[^  appeal 
to  this  general  council;  declared  'the  pope 
to  be  that  antichrist  or  man  of  sin  whose 
appearance  is  foretold  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment i  declaimed  against  his  tyranny  with 
greater  vehemence  than  ever :  and  at  last 
by  way  of  retaliation,  having  assembled  all 
the  professors  and  students  in  the  university 
of  Wittemberg,  with  great  pomp,  and  in 
the  presence  of  a  vast  multitude  of  spec- 
tators, he  cast  the  volumes  of  the  canon 
law,  together  with  the  bull  of  excommuni- 
cation, into  the  flames.  The  manner  in 
which  this  action  was  justified,  gave  still 
more  offence  than  the  action  itself  Having 
collected  from  the  canon  law  some  of  the 
most  extravagant  propositions  with  regard 
to  the  plenitude  and  omnipotence  of  the 
pope's  power,  as  well  as  the  subordiriation  of 
all  secular  jurisdiction  to  his  authority,  he 
published  these  with  a  commentary  pointing 
out  the  impiety  of  such  tenets,  and  their 
evident  tendency  to  subvert  all  civil  govern- 
ment 

On  the  accession  of  Charles  V.  to  the 
empire.  Luther  found  himself  in  a  very 
dangerous  situation.  Charles,  in  order  to 
secure  the  pope's  friendship,  had  deter- 


LL  T 


273 


LUT 


mined  to  treat  him  with  great  severity. 
His  eagerne&s  to  gain  this  point  rendciecl 
Viiiii  not  averse  to  gratify  tlie  papal  legates 
ill  (iermany,  who  insisted,  tiiat,  without  any 
delay,  or  formal  deliberation,  the  diet  then 
sitting  <tt  Worms  ought  to  corrdemn  a  man 
whom  the  ])(;pe  had  already  excommunica- 
ted as  an  incorrigi!)le  heretic,  bucli  an  ab- 
rupt manner  oi  proceeding,  h(jwever,  being 
deemed  unprecedented  and  unj.it  by  the 
members  of  the  diet,  they  made  a  point  of 
Luther's  appearing  inpersun,  aiid  declaring 
■whetlier  he  adhered  or  not  to  those  opinions 
whicii  had  drawn  upon  him  the  censures  of 
the  church.  Not  only  the  emper.  r,  but  all 
the  jjriuces  ihrovg'.  wliose  terriioiies  U  had 
to  pass,  granted  him  a  safe  conduct,  and 
Charles  wrote  to  him  at  the  same  time, 
requiring  his  immediate  attendance  on  the 
diet,  and  renewing  his  promises  of  pri/tec- 
tion  from  any  injury  of  violence.  Lutiier 
did  not  hesitate  one  moment  about  yieh'ing 
oljedience;  aiid  set  out  for  Worms,  attend- 
ed by  the  herald  who  had  bmught  the  em- 
peror's letter  and  safe-conducl.  Wliile  on 
his  journey,  many  of  his  friends,  whom  tiie 
fate  of  Huss  under  similar  circumstances, 
and  nntwitlistanding  the  same  security  of  an 
impt-rial  .safe-conduct,  filled  with  solicitude, 
ad\  ised  and  intreated  him  not  to  rush  wan- 
tonly in  the  midst  of  danger.  But  Luther, 
superior  to  such  terrors,  silenced  theni  with 
this  reply:  "  I  am  lawfully  called,"  said 
he,  "  to  appear  in  that  city  ;  and  tiiither  I 
will  go,  in  the  name  of  the  Lord,  though  as 
many  devils  as  there  are  tiles  on  the  houses 
were  there  combined  against  me.'' 

The  receptidn  which  he  met  with  at 
Worms  was  such  as  might  have  been  reck- 
oned a  full  reward  of  all  his  labours,  if  van- 
ity and  the  love  of  applause  had  been  the 
princip'.ts  by  which  he  was  influenced. 
Greater  crowds  assembled  to  behold  him 
than  had  appeared  at  the  emperor's  public 
entry  ;  his  apartments  were  daily  filled  with 
princes  and  personages  of  the  highest  rank; 
and  he  was  treated  with  an  homage  more 
sincere,  as  well  as  more  fluttering,  than  an)- 
which  preeminence  in  birth  or  condition  can 
command.  At  his  appearance  before  the 
diet  he  behaved  with  great  decency  and 
with  equal  firmness.  He  readily  acknow- 
ledged an  excess  of  acrimony  and  vehemece 
in  his  controversial  writings :  but  refused 
to  retract  his  opinions,  unless  he  were  con- 
vinced of  their  falsehood,  or  to  consent  to 
their  b-ing  tned  by  any  other  rule  than  the 
word  of  tiod.  When  neither  threats  nor 
intreaties  could  prevail  on  him  to  depart 
from  tt'is  resolution,  some  of  the  ecclesias- 
tics proposed  to  imitate  the  example  of  the 
council  if  Constance  ;  and,  by  punishing  the 
author  of  this  pestilent  heresy,  who  Vv-as 
now  in  their  power,  to  deliver'  the  church 
at  once  from  such  an  evil.  But  the  mem- 
bei-s  of  the  diet  refusing  to  expose  the  Ger- 
man integrity  to  fresh  reproach  by  a  second 
violation  of  public  faith,  and  Charles  being 
no  less  unwilling  to  bring  a  stain  upon  the 

Mm 


begitming  of  his  administration  by  such  an 
ignominious  action,  Luther  was  permitted 
to  depart,  in  safety.  A  few  days  after  he 
left  the  city,  a  severe  edict  was  published  in 
the  emperor's  name,  and  by  authority  of 
the  diet,  depriving  him,  as  an  obstin-te  and 
excommunicated  criminal,  of  all  the  privi- 
leges which  he  enjoyed  as  a  subject  of  the 
empire  ;  forbidding  any  pnnce  to  harbour 
or  protect  him  ;  and  requiring  all  to  seize 
his  peison  as  soon  as  the'  term  specified  in 
his  protection  should  be  expired. 

But  tliis  rigorous  decree  had  no  considera- 
ble effect;  the  •  xecutifn  of  it  being  prevent- 
ed partly  by  the  multiplicity  of  occupations 
which  the  commotions  in  Spain,  together 
with  the  wars  in  Italy  and  the  Low  Ci  un- 
tries,  created  to  the  emperor ;  and  partly 
by  a  prudtnt  prt caution  employed  by  the 
elect()r  of  Saxony,  Lucher's  faithful  patron. 
As  Luther,  on  his  return  from  W(  ruis,  was 
passing  near  Alteristrain,  in  Thuringia,  a 
number  of  horsemen,  in  masks,  rushed  sud- 
denly out  of  a  wood,  where  the  elector  had 
appointed  them  to  lie  in  wait  for  him,  and 
surrounding  his  conipany,  carried  him,  after 
dismissing  all  his  attendants,  to  Wiriburg, 
a  strong  castle,  not  far  distant.  There  the . 
elector  ordered  him  to  be  supplied  with  every 
thing  necessary  or  agreeable  ;  but  the  plac« 
of  his  retreat  was  carefully  concealed,  until 
the  fury  of  the  preserit  storm  sgainst  him 
began  to  abate,  upcn  a  change  in  the  political 
system  of  Europe.  In  this  srlitnde,  where 
he  remained  nine  ni'  nths,  and  which  he 
frequer,tly  called  his  PaiiTios,  after  the  name 
of  that  island  to  which  the  apostle  John  was 
banished,  he  exi-rted  his  usual  vigour  and 
industry  in  defence  of  his  doctrines,  or  in 
confutation  of  his  adversaries ;  publishing 
several  treatises,  which  revived  the  sjjirit 
of  his  followers,  astonished  to  a  great  degree, 
and  disheartened  at  the  sudden  disappear- 
ance of  their  leader. 

I.,uther,  weary  at  length  cf  his  retirement, 
appeared  publicly  again  at  Wittemherg, 
upon  the  6lh  of  March,  1522.  He  appear- 
ed indeed,  with(.ut  the  elector's  leave;  but 
immediately  wrote  him  a  letter  to  prevent 
him  taking  it  ill.  The  edict  of  Charles  ^'. 
severe  as  it  was,  had  given  little  or  no  check 
to  Luther's  doctrine ;  for  the  emperor  was 
no  sooner  gone  into  Flanders,  than  his  edict 
was  neglected  and  despised,  and  the  roc- 
trine  seemed  to  spread  even  faster  than  be- 
fore. Carlostadius,  in  Luther's  absence,  had 
pu.shed  things  on  faster  than  his  leader,  and 
had  attempted  to  abolish  the  use  of  mass,  to 
remove  imat^es  out  of  the  c'nurclies,  to  set 
aside  auricular  confession,  invocation  of 
saints,  the  abstaining  from  meats;  had  al- 
lowed the  monks  to  leave  the  monasteries, 
to  neglect  their  vows,  and  to  marrv ;  i;i 
short,  had  quite  changed  the  doctrine  and 
discipline  of  the  church  at  Wittenb'rg; 
all  which,  though  not  against  Luther's  sen- 
timents, was  yet  blamed  by  him',  as  being 
rashly  and  unseasonably  done-.  Lutheranism 
v.'as  still  cgnfiv.ed  to  Germanv ;  it  v,-as  not 


!LUT 


274 


LTJT 


>o  go  to  France :   and  Henry  VIII.  oF  En- 
gland made  the  most  rij:!;orous  acts  to  hin- 
der it  from   invading  liis  realm.     Na)',  he 
did  sometliing  more  :  to  shew   his   zeal  for 
religion  and  the  huly  see,   and  perhaps  hi& 
skill    in   theological   learning,    he   wrote   a 
tn  atise  Of  the  Sex<e7i  Sac7'a?nents,    against 
Liuhtr's  book  Of  ihe  Cajitivity  of  Babylon, 
■wliich  he  prestnted   to  Leo  X.   in  October, 
15'2i.     The  pope  received  it  very  favoura- 
bly, and  was  so  well  pleased  with  the  king 
of  Englai.d,  that  he  complimented  him  with 
the  title  of  Dcfndtr  of  the  Faith.     Lvithcr, 
however,   paid    no   regard  to  his  kingship, 
but    answered    him    with    great   sharpness, 
treating  both  his  pcrsr^n  and  performance  in 
.the  most  contemptuous  manner.  Henry  com- 
])lained  of  Luther's  rude  usage  of  him  to  tlie 
princes  of  Saxony  :  and  Fisher  bishop  of  Ro- 
chester, replitd  to  his  answer   in  behalf  of 
Heniy's    treatise ;     but  neither    tiie   king's 
complaint,  nor  the  bishop's  reply,  were  at- 
tended with  any  visible  cff-cts. 
.    Luther,    tiiough    lie   had    put    a  stop  to 
the    violent    proceedings     of   Carlostadlus, 
now    made  open  war   with   the   pope    and 
bishops  ;    and,    that    he    micUt  make    the 
people  despise  their  authority  as  much  as 
possible,    he   wrote    one    book    against    the 
pope's  bull,   and   another  against  the  order 
falsely  called  the  Ordtr  of  Bishops.    The 
same  year,  1522,   he  wrote  a  letter,   dated 
July  the  29th,  to  the  assembly  of  the  states 
of  Bohemia ;   in   wh.ich   he    assured   them 
that  he  v;as  labouring  to  establish  their  doc- 
trine in  Germany,  and  exhorted  them  not  to 
return  to  the  communion  of  the   church  of 
Home ;  and  he   published   also  this  year  a 
translation  of  the   New  Testament   in   the 
German  tongue,  which  was  afterwards  cor- 
rected by  himself  and   Melancthon.     This 
trjjnslation  having  been  printed  several  times, 
and  being  in  every  body's  hands   Ferdinand, 
archduke  of  Austria,  the  emperor's  brother, 
made   a    very  severe  edict,   to  hinder  the 
farther  publication  of  it ;  and  forbad  all  the 
subjects  of  his  Imiierial  Majesty  to  have  any 
■copies  of  it,  or  of  Luther's  other  books.  Some 
other  princes   fallowed   his   example ;    and 
Luther  was  so  angry  at  it,  that  he  wrote  a 
treatise  Of  Ihe  Secular  Po-ii'cr,  in  wliich  he 
accuses  them  of  t\ranny  and  imiJety.    The 
diet  of  the  empire  was  held  at  Nuremberg, 
at  ihe  end  of  tlie  year,  t"   wliich   Hadrian 
VI.  sent  hisbnef,  dated  Ncvember  tlie  25th; 
for  Leo  X   died  upon  the  2d  of  D'.  comber, 
1521,   and  Hadrian  had  been   elected  pope 
upon  the  Sdi   of  January  fil lowing.     In  his 
brief,  among  other  things,  he  observes  to  jhe 
diet   how  he   h:id   heard,   with   grief,   that 
Martin  Luther,   after  the  sentence  of  Leo 
X.  which  was  ordered  to  be  executed  i)y  the 
edict    of  Worms,   continued    to  teach   the 
same  errors,  and  daily  to  publish  bonks  full 
of  heresies;  that  it  appeared  strange  to  him 
that  s  1  lar^e  and  so  religious  a  nation  could 
be  seduced   by  a    wretclu  d  a])ostate   friar ; 
'that  nothing  however,  could  he  more  perni- 
cious to  Christendom ;  and  that  therefore, 


he  exhorts  them  to  use  their  utmost  endea- 
vours to  make  Luther,  and  the  authors  of 
those  tumults,  return  to  their  dirty  ;  or  if 
they  refuse,  and  continue  obstinate  to  pro- 
ceed against  them  according  to  the  laws 
of  the  empii'-,  and  the  severity  of  the  last 
edict. 

The  resolution  of  this  diet  was  published 
in  the  form  of  an  edict,   ujwn   the  6th   of 
March,  1523  ;  but  it  had  no  effect  in  check- 
ing the  Lutherans,  who  still  went  on  in  the 
same  triumphant  manner.     This  year  Lu- 
ther wr(;te  a  great  many  pieces  ;  among  the 
rest,  one  upon  the  dignity  and  office  of  the 
supreme  magistrate  ;  which  Frederick,  elec- 
tor of  Saxony,   is  said  to  have  been  highly 
pleased    with.     He  sent,   about   the    same 
time,  a  writing  in  the  German  language  to 
tlie   V\'aldenses,   or  Pickards,   in   Bohemia 
and    Moravia,    who    had    applied    to    hini 
"  about  worshipping  the  body  of  Christ  in 
the    Eucharist."    He   wrote,   also,  another 
book,  which  he  dedicated  to  the  senate  and 
people  of  Prague,  "  about  the  institution  of 
ministers  of  the  church."    He  drew  up  a 
form  of  saying  mass.   He  wrote  a  piece,  en- 
titled, .^^n  Example  of  Popish  Doctrine  and 
I  Dinmnty  ;  which  Dupin  calls  a  &a!n'e  against 
!  nuns,  and  those  who  Jftofss  a  monastic  life. 
He  wrote  also  against  the  vows  of  virginity, 
in  his  preface  to  his  commentary  on  Cor.  i. 
8,  and  his  exhortations  here  were,  it  seems 
followed   with  effect:  for,  soon  after,  nine 
nuns,  among  whom  was  Catherine  de  Bore 
eloped   from   the  nunneiy  at   Nimptschen, 
and  were  brought,  by  the  assistance  of  Leo- 
nard Coppen,  a  burgess  of  Torgau,   to  Wit- 
temberg.    Whatever  offence  this  ]3roceeding 
mitht  give  to  the  Papists,  it  was  highly  ex- 
tolled by  Luther  ;  who,  in  a  book  written  in 
the  German  language,  compares  the  de  iver- 
ance    of     tliese   nuns  from   the   slavery   of 
ujonastic  life  to  that  of  the  souls  which  Jesus 
Christ  has  delivered  by  his  death.     This 
year  Luther  had  occasion  to  canonize  two 
1  of  his  followers,  who,  as  Melchior  Adam  re- 
lates, were  burnt  at  Brussels,   in  the  begin- 
I  ning  of  July,  and  were  the  first  who  suffered 
'martyrdom  for  his  doctrine.    He  wrote  also 
a  consolatciry  letter  to  tlnee  noble  ladies  at 
Mi^^nia,  who  were  banished  fiom  the  duke 
of  Saxony's  court  at  Friburg,  for  reading  his 
books. 

In  the  !)eginning  of  the  vear  1524,  Cle- 
ment VII.  sent  a  legate  into  Genrany  to 
the  diet  which  was  to  be  held  at  Nurem- 
Im  rg  Hadrian  VI.  died  in  October  1523, 
aiifi  was  succeeded  by  Clement  upon  the 
19th  of  November.  A  little  before  his  death, 
he  canonized  Benno,  who  was  bishop  of 
Meissen,  in  the  time  of  Gregory  VII.  and 
one  of  the  most  zealous  defenders  of  the 
holy  see.  Luther,  imagining  that  this  was 
done  directly  to  oppose  him,  drew  up  a  piece 
witli  this  title,  Jf^ainst  the  new  idol  and  old 
devil  set  yfi  at  AMssen,  in  which  he  treats 
the  memory  of  gregory  with  great  freedom, 
J  and  does  not  spare  even  Hadrian.  Clenient 
VII. 's  legate  represented  to  the  diet  of  Nu- 


LUT 


270 


LUT 


TBmbetg  the  necessity  of' enforcing  the  exe- 
cution of  the  edict  of  Worms,  which  had 
been  strangely  negkicted  by  the  princes  of 
the  empire  ;  but,  notwithstanding  the  le- 
gate's solicitations,  which  were  very  press- 
ing, the  decrees  of  that  diet  were  thought 
so  ineffectual,  that  tiny  were  condemned 
at  Rome,  and  rejected  by  the  emperor. 

In  October  1524,  Luther  flung  off  the 
monastic  habit:  which,  thouglv  not  preme-| 
ditated  and  designed,  was  yet  a  very  pro- 
per preparative  to  a  step  he  took  the  year 
after ;  we  mean  his  marriage  with  Cathe- 
rine de  Bore.  j 
His  marriage,  however,  did  not  retard 
his  activity  and  diligence  in  the  work  oi'- 
reformation. — He  revised  tlie  Augsburg  con-' 
fession  of  faith,  and  apology  ftT  the  Pro-i 
testants,  when  the  ProtestJint  religion  was; 
first  established  on  a  firm  ba.sis. — See  Pro-I 
TESTANTS  and  Reforbiation.  I 
After  this,  Luther  had  little  else  to  do' 
than  to  sit  down  and  contemplate  the 
mighty  work  he  had  finished;  for  that  aj 
single  monk  should  be  able  to  give  thej 
church  so  rude  a  shock,  that  there  need<'di 
but  such  another  entirely  to  overthrow  it,l 
may  veiy  well  seem  a  mighty  work — He  I 
did,  indeed,  little  else;  for  the  remainder  j 
of  his  life  was  spent  in  exhorting  princes, 
states,  and  universities,  to  confirm  the  re- 
formation which  had  been  brought  about 
through  him  ;  and  publishing  from  time  to 
time  such  writings  as  might  encourage,  di- 
rect, and  aid  them  'in  doing  it. — 1  he  em- 
peror threatened  temporal  punishment  with 
armies,  and  the  pope  eternal  with  bulls  and 
anathemas  ;  but  Luther  cared  for  none  of 
their  threats. 

In  the  year  1533,  Liither  wrote  a  con- 
solatory epistle  to  the  citizens  of  Oschatz, 
who  had  suffered  some  hardships  for  adhe- 
ring to  the  Augsburg  confession  of  faith  :  in 
■which,  among  other  things,  he  says,  "  The 
devil  is  the  host,  and  the  world  is  his  inn  ; 
so  that  where  ever  you  come,  you  will  be 
sure  to  find  this  ugly  host."  He  had  also 
about  this  time  a  terrible  controversy  with 
George  duke  of  Saxo.iy,  who  had  such  an 
aversion  to  Luther's  doctrine,  that  he  ob- 
liged his  subjects  to  take  an  oath  that  they 
•would  never  embrace  it.  However,  sixty 
or  seventy  citizens  of  Leipsic  were  found  to 
have  deviated  a  little  from  the  Catholic 
way  in  some  point  or  other,  and  thev  were 
known  previously  to  have  cinisultcd  Luther 
aljout  it  :  upr»n  which  George  complained  to 
the  elector  John,  that  Luther  had  not  only 
abused  his  person,  but  also  preached  up 
rebellion  among  his  subjects.  The  elector 
ordered  Luther  to  be  acquainted  with  this  ; 
and  to  be  told,  at  the  same  time,  that  if  lie 
did  not  acquit  himself  of  this  charge,  he 
could  not  p  ssibly  escape  punishment.  But 
Luther  easily  refuted  the  accusation,  by 
proving,  that  he  had  been  so  far  from  stir- 
ring up  his  subjects  aga-nst  him  on  the 
score  of  religion,  that,  on  the  contrarv,  he 
bad  exhorted  them  rather  to  uiulergo  the 


greatest  hardships,  and  even  suffer  them- 
selves to  be  banished. 

In  the  year  1534,  the  bible  translated  by 
him    into   German,    was   first   printed,    as 
the  old  privilege,    dated  Bibliopolis,  under 
the  elector's  hand  shews  ;  and  it  was  iiub- 
lished  the  same    year.     He  also  published 
this   year  a  book  against  masses,    and  the 
consecration  of  priests,   in  which  he  relates 
a   conference    he   had  with  the  devil  upon 
those  points  ;  for  it  is  remarkable  in   Lu- 
ther's whole  history,  that  he  never  had  any 
conflicts  of  any  kind  within,   but  the  devil 
was    alwaj's  his    antagonist.     In  February 
1537,  an  assembly   was    held    at  bmalkald 
about  matters  of  religion,  to  which   Luti;er 
and    Melancthc^n    wtre    called.      At    this 
meeting  Lutiier  was  seized  with  so  griev- 
ous an   illness,  that  there  were  no  hopes  of 
his  recovery.    He    was   afflicted    with   the 
stone,    and'  had   a    stoppage   of   urine   for 
eleven  days     In    this   terrible  condition  he 
would  \ieeds  undertake  to  travel,    notwith 
standing  all  that  his  friends  could  say  or  do 
to   prevent    him  :   his  resolution,  however, 
was  attended   with   a  good  effect ;  for  the 
night  after    his   departure   he   began  to  be 
beuer.      As  he  was  carried  along  he  made 
his  will,  in  which  he  bequeathed  his  detes- 
tation of  popery  to  his   friends  and  bretli- 
ren  ;  agreeably   to   what   he   used   to   say ; 
Pestis  eram  vivits,  moriens    ero  mors  tiia, 
fmpa  ;  that  is,  "  1  was  the  plague  of  popery 
in  my  life,  and  shall  continue  to  be  so  in  my 
death  " 

This  year  the  pope  and  the  court  of 
Rome,  finding  it  impossible  to  deal  with  the 
Protestants  by  force,  began  to  have  recourse 
to  stratagem.  They  affected,  therefore,, 
to  think,  that  though  Luther  had,  indeed, 
carried  things  on  with  a  high  hand,  and 
to  a  violent  extreme,  yet  what  he  had 
pleaded  in  defence  of  these  measures  was 
not  entirely  without  foundation.  They 
talked  with  a  seeming  shew  of  moderati'm: 
and  Pius  III.  who  succeeded  Clement  VII, 
proposed  a  reformation  first  among  them- 
selves, and  even  went  so  far  as  to  fix  a. 
place  for  a  C('Uncil  to  meet  at  for  that  pur- 
pose. Rut  Luther  treatixl  this  faixe  as  ic 
d  served  to  be  tre.ited ;  unmasked  ancl 
deti  cted  it  immediately  :  and,  to  lidicule 
it  the  more  strongly,  caused  a  j)icture  to 
be  drawn,  in  which  was  represented  the 
P'lpe  seated  on  high  upon  a  throne,  sf)me 
cardinals  about  him  with  foxes'  tails  on, 
and  seeming  to  evacuate  upwards  and 
downwards  (sufsnm  drorswn  rrjntrf^urc 
as  Melcliior  Adam  expresses  it.)  This 
was  fixed  over  against  the  title  i)age,  to 
let  the  reader  see  at  once  the  scope  and 
design  of  the  book  :  which  was  to  ex[.;ose 
that  cunning  and  artifice  with  which  tliese 
subtle  politicians  affected  to  cleanse  and 
l>ni"ify  themselves  from  their  errors  and 
.superstitions.  Luther  published,  about  the 
s;ime  time,  a  confutation  of  the  pretended 
grant  of  Constan'tine,  to  Sylvester,  bishop 
of  Rome ;  and  also   some   letters  of  IA\\\ 


I/UT 


276 


LYI 


Huss,  written  from  his  prison  at  Constance 
to  the  Bohemians.  In  this  manner  was  Lu- 
ther employed  till  his  death,  which  happen- 
ed in  the  year  1546. 

A  tii()us;ind  lies  were  invented  by  tlie 
Papists  about  Luther's  death.  Some  said 
that  he  died  suddenly  ;  others,  that  he 
killed  himself;  others  that  the  devil  stran- 
gled him  ;  others,  that  i  is  corpse  stunk  so 
abominably,  that  they  were  forced  to  leave 
it  in  the  way,  as  it  was  earned  to  be  in- 
terred. Nay,  lies  were  invented  about  his 
death,  even  while  he  was  yet  ali\e.  Lu- 
ther, however,  to  give  the  most  effectual 
refutation  of  this  acc.xmt  of  his  death,  put 
forth  an  advertisement  of  his  beir.g  alive  ; 
and,  to  be  even  with  the  Papists  for  the 
maUce  they  had  shewn  in  this  lie,  wrote  a 
book,  at  the  same  time  to  prove,  that  "  the 
pap  cy  w  s  f  lunded  by  the  devil." 

Lutheranism  has  undergone  some  altera- 
tions since  the  time  of  its  tViuider  Lu- 
ther rejected  the  epistle  (if  St  James  as 
inconsistent  with  the  doctrine  of  St.  Paul 
in  relation  to  justificatioi- ;  he  also  set 
aside  the  Ap' cilypse :  both  of  which  are 
now  received  as  canonical  in  the  Lutheran 
church. 

Luther  reduced  the  number  of  sacra- 
ments to  two,  viz.  iMpiism  and  the  eucha- 
rist ;  but  he  believed  the  impanation  or 
consubstantiati'.n  :  that  is,  that  the  matter 
of  tlie  bread  and  wine  remain  with  the 
body  and  blood  of  Christ  :  and  it  is  in 
this  article  that  the  main  difference  between 
the  Lutheran  and  the  English  churches 
consists. 

Luther  maintained  the  mass  to  be  no 
sacrifice  ;  exiroded  tlie  adoration  of  the 
h'^st,  anricularcnnfession,  meritorious  worlcs, 
indnl<<euce>,  purgatory,  the  worship  of 
imagrs,  &c.  v  iiich  !iad  been  introduced  in 
the  corrupt  times  of  the  Romish  church. 
He  also  opposed  tiie  doctrine  ot  free  will, 
maintained  predestination,  and  asserted  our 
justification  to  be  so'eiy  by  t!ie  imputation 
of  the  merits  and  satisfaction  if  Clirist.  He 
also  opposed  the  fastings  of  the  Romish 
church,  monastical  vows,  tlie  ceUbate  of  the 
clergy.  &c. 

The  Lutherans,  however,  of  all  Protes- 
tants, are  said  to  diffir  leai>t  from  the  Ro- 
rnish  church;  as  they  affirm  that  the  body 
ani!  blood  ""f  Christ  are  niati-rially  present 
in  t'e  s  icran;ent  if  the  Lord's  supper, 
thoug'i  in  an  incmnpreheiisible  manner; 
and  likev.'is^  represent  s'-me  religious  rites 
and  institutions,  as  the  iw-e  (f  images  in 
clnirches,  thf^  distingii'shiog  vestments  oi' 
the  clergy,  tlie  private  coiifession  (!f  sins, 
the  use  of  wafers  in  the  administration  ot 
the  Lord's  Supper,  the  form  of  fXi  rrism  in 
the  celebration  of  baptism,  aiid  vtner  cere- 
monies (f  the  like  nature,  as  loierable, 
and  s'line  of  them  as  useful.  The  Lniher 
ans  maintain,  with  r.  gard  to  the  divine  de- 
crees, that  they  respect  the  salvation  or 
misery  of  men,  in  consequence  of  a  pre- 
vious knowledge   of  their' sentiments  and 


characters,  and  not  as  free  and uncontinual, 
and  as  founded  on  the  mere  will  of  Grd. 
Towards  the  close  of  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury, the  Lutherans  began  to  entertain  a 
greater  liberality  of  sentiment  than  they  had 
before  adopted  ;  though  in  many  places  they 
persevered  longer  in  severe  and  despotic 
principles  than  other  Protestant  churches. 
Their  i)ublic  teachers  now  enjoy  an  unbound- 
ed liberty  of  dissenting  from  the  decisions 
of  those  symbols  or  creeds  which  were 
once  deemed  almost  infallible  rules  of 
faith  and  practice,  and  of  declaring  their 
dissent  in  the  manner  they  judge  the 
most  expedient.  Mosheim  attributes  this 
change  in  their  sentiments  to  the  maxim 
which  they  generally  adopted,  that  Chris- 
tians were  accountable  to  God  alone  for 
their  religious  opinions  ;  and  that  no  indivi- 
dual could  be  justly  punished  by  the 
magistrate  for  his  erroneous  opinions,  while 
he  conducted  himself  like  a  virtuous  and 
obedient  subject,  and  made  no  attempts  to 
disturb  the  peace  and  order  of  civil  socie- 
ty In  Sweden  tlie  Lutheran  church  is 
episcopal :  in  Norway  the  same.  In  Den- 
mark, under  the  name  of  siificrintendant ^ 
all  episcopal  authority  is  retained:  whilst 
through  Germany  the  superior  powtr  is 
vested  in  a  consistory,  over  which  there  is 
a  president,  with  a  distincion  of  rank  and 
privileges,  and  a  subordination  of  inferior 
clergy  to  their  superiors,  dififerent  fiom  the 
parity  of  Presbyterianism.  Mosheuti's  Eccles. 
Hint.  Lift  of  Luther.  Ha~veis'  Ch.  Hist 
vol.  ii.  p.  454.  Enc.  B>it.  Robertsoji's 
Hist,  of  Charles  V.  vol.  ii.  p.  42.  Lucher 
on  the  Gatarians. 

LUXURY,  a  disposition  of  mind  addict- 
ed to  pleasure,  riot,  and  superfluities. 
Luxury  imp'.ies  a  giving  one's  self  up  to 
pleasure ;  voluptuousness,  an  indulgence 
in  the  same  to  excess.  Luxuiy  may  be 
farther  consinered  as  consisting  in,  1.  Vain 
and  useless  expences. — 2.  In  a  parade  be- 
yond what  people  can  afford — 3.  In  effect- 
I  ing  to  be  abme  our  own  rank. — 4.  In  living 
in  a  spleiidour  that  does  not  agree  with 
the  public  good  In  order  to  avoid  it,  we 
should  consider  that  it  is  ridiculous,  trouble- 
some, sinful,  and  ruinous.  Fobinson's 
Claude,  vol.  i.  p.  382.  Ferguson  on  Socie- 
ty, part  vi.  sec   2. 

LYING,  speaking  falsehoods  wilfully, 
with  an  intent  to  deceive.  Thus,  by  Grove, 
"  A  lie  is  an  affirmation  or  denial  by  words, 
or  any  other  signs  to  which  a  certain  deter- 
minate meaning  is  affixed,  of  something 
contrary  to  our  real  thoughts  and  inten- 
tions." Thus  by  Paley,  '*  A  lie  is  a  breach 
of  promise :  for  whoever  seriously  addresses 
his  discourse  to  another,  tacitly  promise.-^  to 
speak  the  truth,  because  he  kno\v«S  that 
the  truth  is  expected  "  There  are  various 
kinds  of  lies.  1.  The  pernicious  lie,  ut- 
tered for  the  hurt  or  disadvantage  of  our 
nfighbiur — 2  y\\t  o^ffkious  lie,  uttered  for 
our  own  or  <'ur  neighbour's  advantage. — 3, 
The  ludicrous  and  jocose   lie,  uttered  by 


IVlAC 


2rf 


MAG 


way  of  jest,  and  only  for  mirth's  sake  in 
common  c  .nvcrse. — 4.  Pious  frauds,  as  they 
aie  improperly  ca!k-cl,  pretended  inspira- 
ti()!is,  forged  books,  counterfeit  miracles, 
are  species  of  Ues. — 5.  Lies  of  the  conduct, 
for  a  lie  may  be  t'.ld  in  ge&tures  as  well  as 
in  words  ;  as  when  a  tradesman  shuts  up 
his  windows  to  induce  his  creditors  to  be- 
lieve that  he  is  abroad. — 6.  Lies  of  omission, 
as  whei>  an  author  wilfully  omits  what 
ought  to  be  related:  and  nay  we  not  add, 
— 7.  That  all  equix'ocation  and  tnental  re- 
servation come  under  the  guilt  of  lying. 
The  evil  and  injustice  of  lying  appear,  1. 
From  its  being  a  breach  of  the  natural  and 
universal  right  of  mankind  to  truth  in  the 
intercourse  of  speecli. — 2.  From  its  being  a 
violation  of  God's  sacred  law,  Phil.  iv.  8. 
Lev.  xix.  11.  Col.  iii  9. — 3.  The  i'aculty 
of  speech  was  bestowed   as  an    instrument 


]  of  knowledge,  not  of  deceit;  to  communi- 
cate our  thoughts,  not  to  hide  them. — 4. 
It  is  esteemed  a  reproach  of  so  henious 
and  hateful  a  natui'e  for  a  man  to  be  call- 
ed a  liar,  that  sometimes  the  life  and 
blood  of  the  slanderer  have  paid  for  it — 5. 
It  has  a  tendency  to  dissolve  all  society, 
and  to  indispose  the  miad  to  religious  im- 
pressions.— 6.  Tlie  punishment  of  it  is  con- 
siderable :  the  loss  of  credit,  the  hatred  of 
those  wiiom  we  have  deceived,  and  an  eter- 
nal separation  from  (iod  in  the  world  to 
come,  Rev.  xxi.  8.  liev.  xxii.  15.  Psalm 
ci  7-  See  EquivocATiON. —  Grove's  AIo- 
rul  Phil.  vol.  i.  ch.  11.  Paleifs  Moral 
Phil,  vol.i.  ch.  15.  Doddridge's  Led.  lecL. 
68  Watts'  Serm.  vol.  i.  ser.  22.  Evan's 
Serm.  vol.  ii.  ser.  13.  South's  Ser7n.  vol. 
i.  ser.  12.  Dr.  Lamoni''s  Serm.  vol.  i.  ser. 
11,  12. 


M. 


MACARIANS,  the  followers  of  Macari-  ||  others,  that  he  only  delineated  them  to  ex 


us,  an  Egyptian  Monk,  who  was  distin- 
guished towards  the  close  of  tiie  fourth  cen- 
tury for  his  sanctity  and  virtue.  In  his 
writings  there  are  some  superstitious  tent-ts, 
and  also  certain  opinions  that  seem  tainted 
with  Origenism.  The  name  has  been  also 
applied  to  tliose  who  adopted  the  '■entiments 
of  Macarius,  a  native  of  Ireland,  who 
about  the  close  of  the  ninth  century,  pro- 
pagated in  France  the  tenet  afterwards 
maintained  by  Averhoes,  that  one  individual 
intelligence  or  soul,  performed  the  spiri- 
tual and  rational  functions,  in  all  tlie  human 
race. 

MACEDONIANS,  the  followers  of  Ma- 
cedonius,  bishop  of  Constantinople,  who, 
through  the  influence  of  the  Eunomians, 
was  deposed  by  the  council  of  Constantino- 
ple in  360,  and  sent  into  exile.  He  consi- 
dered the  Holy  Ghost  as  a  divine  energy 
diffused  throughout  the  universe,  and  not 
as  a  pei-son  distinct  from  the  Father  and 
the  Son.  The  sect  of  the  Macedonians 
■was  crushed  before  it  had  arrived  at  its 
full  maturity,  by  the  council  assembled  by 
Theodo&ius  in  381,  at  Constantinople.  See 
Se.t^iiarians. 

MACHIAVELIANISM.  the  doctrine  or 
principles  of  Machiavel,  as  laid  dov,-n  in 
his  treatise  entitled  The  Prhice,  and  which 
consists  ill  doing  any  thing  to  compass  a  de- 
sign.   Without  any  regard   to  the    p^ace  or 


cite  abhorrence. 
I  MACiDALEN,  religious  of  St.  a  deno- 
imination  given  to  divers  communities  of 
'  nuns,  consisting  generally  of  penitent  cour- 
(tezaiis;  sometimes  also  called  Gagdala- 
netts.  They  were  established  at  Mentz  in 
1542,  at  Paris  n  1492;  at  Naples  in  1324; 
at  Rouen  and  Bordeaux  in  1618  In  each  of 
these  monasteries  there  were  three  kinds 
of  persons  and  congregations  :  tlie  first  con- 
sisted of  those  who  were  admitted  to  make 
vows,  and  those  bear  the  name  of  St  Alag- 
dalen  ;  the  congregation  of  St.  Martho^vas 
the  second,  and  was  composed  of  those 
whom  it  was  not  thought  proper  to  admit  to 
vows  finally  ;  the  congregation  of  St  La- 
zarus was  composed  of  such  as  were  detain- 
ed by  force.  The  religious  of  St.  Magda- 
len at  Rome  v^'ere  established  by  pope  Leo 
X.  Clement  VIII.  settled  a  revenue  on 
them  ;  and  farther  appointed,  that  the  ef- 
fects of  all  public  prostitutes  dying  intee- 
taie  should  fall  to  them  :  and  that  the  tes- 
taments of  the  rest  should  be  invalid,  un- 
less they  bequeathed  a  portion  of  their  ef- 
fects, which  was  to  be  at  least  a  fifth  part 
of  them. 

M.\GI,  or  Magians,  an  ancient  reli- 
gious sect  of  Per^iia  and  other  eastern 
countries,  who,  abominating  the  adoration 
of  images,  worshipped  God  only  by  fire,  in 
which  they  were   directly   opposite    to    the 


welfare  of  subjects,  the  dictates  of  hones- |!  Sabians.  See  Sabians'  The  Magi  be- 
ty  and  honour,  or  the  precepts  of  religion.  ;  lieved  that  there  were  two  principles,  one 
This  work  has  been  translated  into  manv  !  the  cause  of  all  g  od,  and  the  otlier  the 
languages,  and  wrote  against  by  manv  au- 'I  cause  of  all  evil;  in  which  opinion  tliey 
thors,  tiiough  the  world  is  not  agreed  as  to  ]  were  followed  by  the  sect  of  the  Mani- 
the  motives  of  the  writer;  some  thinking!  chees.  See  Manichees.  They  called  the 
-'ie  meant  to  recommend  tyrannical  ma>:jms;  I  K^od  principle  Jazden,   and  Orawza',  and 


MAG 


278 


MAG 


the  e\il  principle  jihraman  or  Sherman. 
The  former  was  by  the  Greeks  called  Oro- 
inandes,  and  the  latter  ^mnanius,  the  rea- 
son ot  tlieir  worshipping  /ire  was,  because 
they  looked  upon  it  as  the  truest  synibol  of 
Oro7nasdes,  or  the  good  God ;  as  darkness 
■was  of  ^rimardus,  or  the  evil  god.  In 
all  their  temples  tliey  had  fire  continually 
burning  upon  the  altars,  and  in  their  own 
private  liouses. 

The  religion  of  the  Magi  fell  into  dis- 
grace on  the  death  of  those  ringleaders  of 
that  sect  who  had  usurped  the  sovereignty 
after  tlie  death  of  Cambyses;  and  the 
slaughter  that  was  made  of  the  chief  men 
among  them  sunk  it  so  low,  that  Sabianism 
every  where  prevailed  against  it ;  Darius 
and  most  of  his  followers  on  that  occasion 
going  over  to  it.  But  the  affection  which 
the  people  had  for  the  religon  of  their  fore- 
fathers not  being  easily  to  be  rooted  out, 
the  famous  impostor  Zoroaster,  some  ages 
after,  undertook  to  revive  and  reform  it. 

The  chief  reformation  this  pretended 
prophet  made  in  the  Magian  religion  was 
in  the  first  principle  of  it ;  for  lie  introdu- 
ced a  god  superior  both  to  Oromasdes  and 
Arimanius.  Dr.  Prideaux  is  of  opinion,  that 
Zoroaster  took  the  hint  of  this  alteration  in 
their  theology  from  the  prophet  Isaiah,  who 
brings  in  God,  saying  to  Cyrus,  King  of 
Persia,  J  am  the  Lord,  and  there  is  nojie 
else  :  I  form  the  light,  and  create  darkness  ; 
I  make  peace,  and  create  evil,  chap.  xlv.  7. 
In  short,  Zoroaster  held  that  there  was 
one  supreme  independent  Being,  and  under 
him  two  principles,  or  angels  :  one  the  an- 
gel of  light,  or  good,  and  the  other  the  an- 
gel of  evil,  or  darkness  :  that  there  is  a 
perpetual  struggle  between  them,  which 
shall  last  to  the  end  of  the  world  ;  that  then 
the  angel  cf  darkness  and  his  disciples  shall 
go  into  a  world  of  their  own,  where  they 
shall  be  punished  in  everlasting  darkness  ; 
and  the  angel  of  light  and  his  disciples 
shall  also  go  into  a  world  of  their  own, 
where  they  shall  be  rewarded  in  everlast- 
ing light. 

Zoroaster  was  the  first  who  built  Jire- 
templcs  ;  the  Magians  before  his  time  per- 
forming their  devotion  on  the  tops  of  hills 
and  in  the  open  air,  by  which  means  they 
were  exposed  to  tlie  inconvenience  of  rain 
and  tempests,  which  often  extinguished 
their  sacred  fires  To  procure  the  greater 
veneration  for  these  sacred  fires,  he  pre- 
tended to  have  rec'.'i\ed  tire  from  heaven, 
which  he  placed  on  the  altar  of  the  first 
fire-temple  he  erected,  which  was  that  of 
Xis,  in  Media,  from  Ayhence  they  say  it  was 
propagated  to  all  the  rest  The  Magian 
priests  kept  their  sacred  fire  with  the  great- 
est diligence,  watching  it  day  and  night, 
and  never  suffc-ring  it  to  be  extinguished. 
They  fed  it  only  with  wood  strip])ed  of  th( 
bark,  ai:d  thty  never  blowed  it  with  their 
breath  or  with  brllows,  for  fear  of  polluting 
it:  to  do  either  of  tliese  wns  death  bv  their 
law.      The  Magian  religion,  as  reformed 


by  Zoroaster,  seems  in  many  things  to  be 
built  upon  the  plan  of  the  Jewish.  The- 
Jews  had  their  sacred  fire  which  came 
down  from  heaven  upon  the  altar  of  burnt 
offerings,  which  they  never  suffered  to  go 
out,  and  with  which  all  their  sacrifices  and 
oblations  were  made.  Zoroaster,  in  like 
manner,  pretended  to  have  brought  his  holy 
fire  from  heaven ;  and  as  the  Jews  had  a 
Shekinah  of  the  Divine  presence  among 
them,  resting  over  the  mercy  seat  in  the 
Holy  of  Holies,  Zoroaster  likewise  told  his 
Magians  to  look  upon  the  sacred  tire  in 
their  temples  as  a  Shekinah,  in  which  God 
especially  dwelt. — From  these  and  some 
other  instances  of  analogy  between  the 
Jewish  and  Magian  religion,  Prideaux  infers 
that  Zoroaster  had  been  first  educated  and 
brought  up  in  the  Jewish  religion. 

The  priests  of  the  Magi  were  the  most 
iskilful  mathematicians  and  philosophers  of 
the  age  in  which  they  lived,  insomuch  that 
a  learned  man  and  a  Magian  became  equi- 
valent terms.  This  proceeded  so  far,  that 
the  vulgar,  looking  on  their  knowledge  to 
be  n»ore  tlian  natural,  imagined  they  were 
inspired  by  some  supernatural  power.  And 
hence,  those  who  practised  wicked  and  di- 
abolical arts,  taking  upon  themselves  the 
name  of  Magians,  drew  on  it  that  ill  signi- 
fication which  the  word  Alagician  now 
bears  among  us. 

The  Magian  priests  were  all  of  one  tribe  ; 
as  among  the  Jews,  none  but  the  son  of  a 
priest  was  capable  of  bearing  that  office 
among  them.  The  royal  family  among  the 
Persians,  as  long  as  this  sect  subsisted,  was 
always  of  the  sacerdotal  tribe.  They  were 
divided  into  three  orders  ;  the  inferior  cler- 
gy, the  superintendant,  or  bishops,  and  the 
archimagus,  or  arch-priest. 

Zoroaster  had  the  address  to  bring  over 
Darius  to  his  new-reformed  religion,  not- 
withstanding the  strongest  opposition  of  the 
Sabians;  and  from  that  time  it  became  the 
national  religion  of  all  that  country,  and  so 
continued  for  many  ages  after,  till  it  was 
supplanted  by  that  of  Mahomet.  Zoroas- 
ter composed  a  book  containing  the  princi- 
ples of  the  Magian  religion.  It  is  called 
ZendavcstOy  and  by  conti'action,  Zend.  See 
Zend. 

MAGIC,  a  science  which  teaches  to  pro- 
duce surprising  and  extraordinary  effects ; 
a  correspondence  with  bad  spirits,  by  means 
of  which  a  person  is  al)le  to  perfoi-m  sur- 
lirising  things.  This  was  strictly  forbidden 
by  the  law  of  God,  on  pain  of  death.  Lev. 
xix.  31. 

MAGISTER  DISCIPLlNiE,  or  Mas- 
ter OF  Discipline,  the  a])pellation  of  a 
certain  ecclesia.stical  ofiicer  in  the  ancient 
Christian  church.  It  was  a  custom  in  soine^ 
places,  particularly  in  Spain,  in  the  time  of 
the  Gothic  kings,  about  the  end  of  the  fifth 
century,  for  parents  to  dedicate  their  cl.il- 
dren  verv  voung  to  the  service  of  the 
church'.  For  this  purpose  they  were  taken 
into  the  bishop's  family,  and  educated  uur 


MAH 


279 


MAH 


iler  him  by  some  grave  and  discreet  per- 
■son  whom  the  bishop  deputed  for  that  i>ur- 
pose,  and  set  over  th'.m,  by  the  name  of 
Fresbijlrr,  or  Magistcr  JJi&ciJdinx,  whcte 
c}iiet"  business  it  was  to  inspect  their  belia- 
viour,  and  instructthem  in  the  rules  and  dis- 
cipline of  the  church. 

MAGNANIMITY,  greatness  of  soul  ••  a 
dispobition  of  mind  exerted  in  contemnini; 
danger  and  difficulties,  in  scorning  tempta- 
tions, and  despising  earthly  pomp  and  splen- 
dour. Cic.  de  Offic.  kc.  i.  ch.  20.  Grove's 
Moral  F/ii/oso/i/iy,  page  268,  yol.  ii.  See  ar- 
ticles CouKAGE,  Fortitude,  in  iliis 
"work;  Steele's  Lhristkm  Hero.  Watts  on 
Selfniurdir. 

MAHOMET ANISM,  the  system  of  re- 
ligion fnmned  and  propagated  bylVIahomet, 
and  siill  adiiered  to  by  his  followei's.  It  is 
professed  by  the  Tui-lis  and  Persians,  by 
several  nations  among  the  Africans,  and  ma- 
ny among  the  East  Indians. 

Mahomet  was  b;'rn  in  the  reign  of  Anu- 
shirwan  the  Just,  emperor  of  Persia,  abcau 
Jthe  end  of  the  sixth  century  of  the  Chris- 
tian era.  He  came  into  the  world  under 
some  disadvantages.  His  father  Abd'allah 
was  a  younger  son  of  Abd'almotalleb  ;  and 
dying  very  young,  and  in  his  father's  life- 
time, left  his  widow  and  infant  son  in  very 
mean  circumstances,  his  whole  subsistence 
consisting  but  of  five  camels  and  one  Ethi- 
opian she  slave.  Abd'almotalleb  was  there- 
.fore  obliged  to  take  care  of  his  grandchild 
Mahomet ;  which  he,  not  only  during  his 
life,  but  at  his  death,  enjoined  his  eldest 
son  Abu  Taleb,  who  was  brother  to  Abd'al- 
lah, by  the  same  mother,  to  provide  for 
him  for  the  future :  which  he  very  affec- 
tionately did,  and  instnicted  him  in  the  bu- 
siness of  a  merchant,  which  he  followed; 
-and  to  that  end  he  took  him  into  Syria, 
when  he  was  but  thirteen.  He  afterwards 
recommended  him  to  Khadijah,  a  noble  and 
rich  wido^y,  for  her  factor  ;  in  whose  ser- 
vice he  behaved  himself  so  well,  that  by 
making  him  her  husband,  she  soon  raised 
him  to  an  equahiy  with  the  richest  in 
Mecca. 

After   he    began  by  this  advantageous 
:  match  to  live  at  his  ease,  it   was,   that   he 
formed  the   scheme  of  establishing  a  new 
religion,  or,  as  he  expressed  it,  of  replant- 
ing the  only  true  and  ancient  one  professed 
.by  Adam,  Noah,  Abraham,   Moses,   Jesus, 
and  all  the  prophets,  by  destroying  the  gross 
idolatry    into    Avhich    the    generality  of  his 
•  counirymen  had    fallen,   and    weedmg   out 
-the  cf)rruptions  and  superstitions  which  the 
.latter   Jews    and  Christians    had,     as    he 
thought,  introduced  into  their  religion,  and 
reducing  it  to  its  original  purity,  which  con 
sisted  chiefly  in  the   worship  of  one   G('d. 
Before  he  made  any  attempt   abroad,  he 
rightly  judged  that  it  was  necessary  for  hin 
to   begin    with   the  conversion   of  his    ow 
household.    Having,  therefore,  retired  witli 
his  family,  as  he  had    done  several  times 
before,  to  a  cave  in  mount  Hara,  and  there 


opened  the  secret  of  his  mission  to  his  wife 
Khadijah;  and  acquainted  her,  that  the 
angel  Gabriel  had  just  befc  re  appeared  to 
him,  and  told  hiu)  tliat  he  was  appointed 
the  apostle  of  God :  he  also  repeated  to 
her  a  passage  which  he  pretcndid  had 
oeen  revealed  to  him  by  the  ministry  of  the  . 
angel,  with  those  othtr  circumstances  of 
this  first  appearance  which  are  related  by 
the  Mahometan  writers.  Khad  jah  receiv- 
ed the  news  with  great  joy,  swearing  by 
Him  in  whose  hands  her  sduI  was,  that  she 
trusted  he  would  be  the  prophet  of  his  na- 
tion ;  and  immediately  communicated  what 
slie  had  heard  to  her  cousin  Warakah  Ebn 
Nawfal,  who,  being  a  Christian,  could 
write  in  tlie  Hebrew  character,  and  was 
tolerably  well  versed  in  the  Scriptures  ;  and 
he  readdy  came  into  her  opinion,  assu- 
ring her  that  the  same  angel  who  had  for- 
merly appeared  unto  Moses  was  now  sent 
to  Pvlahomet.  The  first  overture  the  pro- 
phet made  was  in  the  month  of  Rama- 
dan, in  the  fortieth  year  of  his  age,  which 
is  therefore  us'ually  called  the  year  of  his 
mission.  _     ^ 

Encouraged  by  so  good  a  beginning,  he 
resolved  to  proceed,  and  tiy  for  some  time 
what  he  could  do  by  private  persuasion,  not 
daring  to  hazard  the  whole  affair  by  expo- 
sing it  too  suddenly  to  the  public.  He  soon 
made  proselytes  of  those  under  his  own 
roof,  viz.  his  wife  Khadijah,  his  servant 
Zeid  Ebn  Heretha,  to  whom  he  gave  his 
freedom  on  that  occasion  (which  afterwards 
btcame  a  rule  to  his  followers,)  and  his 
cousin  and  pupil  Ali,  the  son  of  Abu  Taleb, 
though  then  very  young :  but  this  last  ma- 
king no  account  of  the  other  two,  used  to 
style  himself  the  Jit's t  of  believers.  The 
next  person  Mahomet  applied  to  was 
Abd'allah  Ebn  Abi  Kohafa,  surnamed  ylbzi 
Beer,  a  man  of  great  authority  among  the 
Kcreish,  and  one  whose  interest  he  well 
knew  would  be  of  great  service  to  him,  as 
it  soon  appeared;  for  Abu  Beer,  being-  gain- 
ed over,  prevailed  also  on  Othman  Ebn 
Affan,  Abd'alaraham  Ebn  Awf,  Saad  Ebn 
Abbi  Wakkus,  At  Zobeir  al  Awam,  and 
Telha  Ebn  OI)eid'allah,  all  principal  men 
of  Mecca,  to  follow  his  example.  These 
men  wei'e  six  chief  companions,  who  with 
a  few  more,  were  converted  in  the  space  of 
three  years :  at  the  end  of  which,  Maho- 
met having,  as  he  hoped,  a  sufficient  inte- 
rest to  support  him,  made  his  mission  no 
longer  a  secret,  but  gave  out  that  God  had 
commanded  him  to  admonish  his  near  rela- 
tions ;  and  in  order  to  do  it  with  more  con- 
venience and  prospect  of  success,  he  direct- 
ed Ali  to  prepare  an  entertainment,  and 
invited  the  sons  and  descendents  of  Abd'al- 
motaieb,  intending  then  to  open  his  mind  to 
them. — This  was  done,  and  about  forty  of 
them  came  ;  but  Abu  Laheb,  one  of  his  un- 
cles, making  the  company  break  up  before 
Mahomet  had  an  opportunity  of  speaking, 
obliged  him  to  give  them  a  second  invita- 
tion the  next  day :  and  when  they  were 


M  A  H 


280 


MAH 


come,  he  made  them  the* following  speech  : 
•*I  know  no  man  in  all  Arabia  who  can  of- 
fer his  kindred  a  more  exctrlknt  thiiij;  thavi 
I  now  do  to  you  ;  I  oiTlt  yciii  happiness  butin 
in  this  life,  and  in  that  which  is  to  Come  . 
God  Almighty  hath  commanded  rae  to  call 
you  unto  him.  Who,  tht-refoi'e,  among  you 
will  be  assistant  to  me  hfvein,  and  beci.nu- 
my  brother  and  n)y  vicegerent  *"  All  (f 
them  hesitating  and  declining  the  matter, 
All  at  length  rose  up,  and  declared  that  he 
would  be  his  assistant,  and  vehemently 
threatened  those  who  should  oppose  him 
Mahomet  upon  this  embi-.tced  Ali  with 
great  demonstrations  of  aff  ction,  and  de- 
sired all  who  were  present  to  hearken  to 
and  obey  him  as  his  deputy;  at  which  the 
company  l)roke  out  into  a  great  laughter, 
telling  Abu  Taleb  that  he  must  now  pay 
obedieiice  to  his  son. 

This  repulse,  however,  was  so  far  from 
discouraging  Mahomet,  that  he  began  to 
preach  in  public  to  the  people,  who  heard 
him  with  some  patience,  till  he  came  to  up- 
braid them  with  the  idolatry,  obstinacy,  and 
perverseness_ of  themselves  and  their  fathers  ; 
which  so  highly  provoked  them,  that  they 
declared  themselves  his  enemies;  and  would 
soon  have  procured  his  ruiu,  had  he  not 
been  protected  by  Abu  Taleb.  The  chief 
of  the  Koreish  warmly  solicited  this  person 
to  desert  his  nephew,  making  frequent  re- 
monstrances against  the  innovations  he  was 
attempting  ;  which  proving  ineffectual,  they 
at  length  threatened  him  with  an  open  rup- 
ture if  he  did  not  prevail  on  Mahomet  t<j 
desist.  At  this  Abu  Taleb  was  so  far 
moved,  that  he  earnestly  dissuaded  his  ne- 
phew from  pursuing  the  affair  any  further, 
representing  the  great  danger  that  he  and  his 
friends  must  otherwise  run.  But  Mahomet 
was  not  to  be  intimidated  ;  telling  his  uncle 
plainly,  that  if  they  set  the  sun  against  him 
on  his  right  hand,  and  the  moon  on  his  left, 
he  would  not  leave  his  enteJ-Jirise  :  and  Ai  n 
Taleb,  seeing  him  s  ■  firmly  resolved  to  pro- 
ceed used  no  further  arguments,  but  jir*  - 
mised  to  stand  by  him  against  all  his 
enemies 

The  Koreish,  finding  that  they  could  pre- 
vail neither  by  fair  words  nor  menaces,  tried 
what  they  could  do  by  force  and  ill  treat- 
ment ;  using  Mahomet's  followers  so  verj 
injuriously,  that  it  was  not  safe  for  them  te 
continue  at  Mecca  any  longer ;  whereupon 
Mahomet  gave  leave  to  such  of  them  as 
had  no  friends  to  protect  them  to  seek  for  re- 
fuge elsewhere.  And  accordingly  in  the 
fifth  year  of  the  pro])het's  mission,  sixteen 
of  them,  four  of  whom  were  women,  fled 
into  Ethiopia  ;  and  among  them  Othmaii 
Ebn  Affan,  and  his  wife  Rakiah.  Mahomet's 
daughter.  This  was  the  first  flight :  but  af- 
terwards several  others  followed  them,  re- 
tiring, one  after  another,  to  tlie  number  of 
eighty-three  men,  and  eigiiteen  women,  be- 
sides children.  These  refut;ees  were  kindly 
received  by  the  Najashi,  or  king  of  Ethiopia, 
•vho  refused  to  delivev  them  up  to  those 


whom  the  Koreish  sent  to  demand  them, 
and,  as  the  Arab  writers  unanimously  attest^ 
even  professed  the  .Mahometan  re'igicn. 

in  the  sixtlt  year  of  his  mission,  Maho- 
met had  the  pie  .sure  of  seeing  his  party 
strengthened  by  the  conveision  of  his  i;nc!e 
Hamza,  a  man  of  great  vakjur  antL  nierit ; 
and  of  Omar  Ebn  a  Ivattab,  a  person  high- 
ly esteemed,  and  once  a  violent  oppc^er  of^ 
tile  prophet.  As  persecution  generally  ad- 
vances rather  tha'i  obstructs  tlie  .-preadiifg 
of  a  religion,  IsUmism  made  so  great  a  pro- 
gress among  the  Arab  tribes,  that  the  Ko- 
reish, to  suppress  it  eift  ctuiiily,  if  pcs.^ible, 
in  the  seventh  year  of  Maliomtt's  mission, 
made  a  solemn  league  or  covenant  against 
the  Hashemites,  and  the  family  of  Aljd'uimo- 
ta  lei),  engaging  themselves  to  contract  no 
marriages  witli  any  of  them,  and  to  have 
■■\o  communication  with  them  ;  and  to  give 
it  the  greater  sanction,  reduced  it  into  wri- 
ting, and  laid  it  up  in  tin-  Caaba.  Upon 
this  the  tribe  became  divided  into  two  tac- 
tions ;  and  the  family  of  Hashem  all  repair- 
ed to  Abn  Taleb,  as  their  head  ;  except  on- 
ly Abd'al  Uzza,  surnamed  Abu  Lahet\  who, 
out  of  inveterate  hatred  to  his  nephew  and 
his  doctrine,  went  over  to  the  opjtesile  par- 
ty, whose  chief  was  Abu  Socian  Ebn  Harb, 
of  the  family  rf  Ommeya. 

The  families  continued  thus  at  variance 
for  three  years  :  but  in  the  tenth  year  of 
his  mission,  ?Mahomet  to!d  his  nncie  .Abu 
Taleb,  that  God  had  manifestly  shewed  his 
disapprobation  of  the  league  which  the  Ko- 
reish iiad  made  against  them,  by  pending 
a  worm  to  eat  out  every  word  of  thq  instj-u- 
ment  except  the  name  of  Uod.  Of  this  ac- 
cident Mahomet  had  probably  some  pri\ate 
notice;  for  Abu  'Taleb  went  imniediateiy  to 
the  Koreish,  and  acquainted  theai  witli  it; 
differing,  if  it  proved  faisc,  to  deli\"er  his 
nephew  up  to  them  ;  but,  in  case  it  were 
true,  he  insisted  that  they  onght  to  lay  t^side 
their  animosity,  and  annul  the  league  t^iey 
had  made  ai,ainst  the  Hashem.it!  s.  To  this 
they  acquiesced  ;  and.  g(  ing  to  inspect  the 
writing,  to  tluir  great  astonishment  found  it 
to  be  as  Abu  Taleb  had  said:  and  the  league 
was  thereupon  dechned  void. 

In  the  same  year  Abu  Taleb  died  at  the 
age  of  above  fourscore  ;  and  it  is  the  gene- 
ral opinion  that  he  died  an  infidel  ;  though 
otheis  say  that  when  he  Mas  at  the  point  of 
death  he  embraced  iVlahometanism  :  and  pro- 
duce s^  me  pjissngcs  (>ut  of  hi  -.  ])oetical  c<  mpo- 
sition>  to  confirm  th(  ir  ;'.sserti(;n.  Alx  i!t  a 
montli.  or,  as  some  write,  three  days  after 
the  death,  of  this  great  benefactor  anf)  pa- 
tron, Mahomet  had  the  ad('iiional  m<  rtifi- 
cation  to  lose  his  wife  Kh.n  !Jah.  who  had 
s  g(.nerius1y  made  his  fortune  Forwhich^ 
reason  this'  year  is  called  the  tjea7-  of 
mourning. 

On  the  death  of  these  two  persons,  the 
Koreish  beg'U!  to  bi  more  tr(»iil)l(  some  th.an 
ever  to  th'.ir  prophet,  and  espccnl'y  some 
who  ha('  ternur'y  been  his  intiinatt  fviei  (Is; 
insomuch  that  he  found  himself  obliged  to 


M  A  H 


821 


MAH 


seek  for  shelter  else wliere,  and  first  pitched 
upon  Tajei.iibout  sixty  miles  east  fnmi  Mercti, 
tor  the  place  of  his  j-etreat.  Tiiither,  there- 
lore,  he  went,  accomijaiiied  by  his  servant 
Zeid.  and  applied  himself  to  two  of  the  chief 
of  the  tribe  (yf  i'liakif,  who  were  the  inhabi- 
tants of  that  place:  but  they  received  him 
very  coldly.  Huwever,  he  stayed  there  a 
month  ;  and  some  of  the  more  considerate 
and  better  sort  of  men  treated  him  with 
.  litde  respect :  but  the  shaves  and  inferior 
peT>p!e  at  length  rose  against  him;and, }' 
l)ringing  him  to  the  wall  of  the  city,  obliged  i 
him  to  de|)art,  and  returned  to  Mecca,!' 
while  he  put  himself  under  the  protection 
of  A I  Mot;iam  K'.m  Adi 

This  repulse  greatly  discouraged  his  fol- 
lowers.    However,  Mahomet  was  not  want- 
ing   to  himself;    but    boldly   continued    to 
preach  to  the  public  assemblies  at  the  pil- 
grimage, and  gained  several  proselytes  ;  and  ! 
among  them   six  of  the  inhabitants  of  Yi\-\ 
ihreb,  of  the  Jewish  tribe  of  Khazraj  ;  who,  j 
on  their  return  home,    failed   not    to  speak  { 
much  in  recommencUition  (if  their  nev/  reli-i 
gion,  and  exhorted   their  fellow-citizens  to ' 
embrace  ihe  same.  ! 

In  the  twelfth  \ear  of  his  mission  it  was 
that  Mahomet  gave  out  that  he  had  made 
his  night  journey  from  Mecca  to  Jerusalem, 
and  thence  to  heaven,  so  much  spoken  of  by 
all  that  write  of  him.     Dr.  l^rideaux  tliinks 
he  invented  it  either  to  answer  the  exjiccta- 
tions  of  thi'se  who  demanded  some  miracle 
as   a  proof  of  his  raissicjn  ;  or    else  by  pre- 
tending to  have  conversed  with  God,  to  es- 
tablish the  authority  of  whatever  he  should  , 
think  fit  to  leave  behind  by  way  of  oi-al  tra-  | 
dition,  and   make    his   sayings  to  serve  the  j 
same  purpose   as  the  oral  law  of  the  Jews.  \ 
But  it  does  not  appear  that  Mahomet   him-  j 
self  ever  expected  so  great  a  regard  sliould 
be  paid  to  liis  sayings  as  liis  followers  have  ' 
sijice  done  :  and  seeing  he  all  alung  disclaim- 
ed   any   p(>wer  of  periormirig    miracles,    it 
seems  r.ither  to  have  been  a  fetch  of  policy 
to  raise  his  reputation,  by  pn  r-.nding  to  have 
actually  conversed  with  God  in  heaven,   as 
M:>ses  had   heret(if(ire  done  in   the   Mo-int, 
and  to  have  received  several  institutions  im-i 
mediatejy    from    him,   whereas,    liefore   he 
contented    himself   with    persuading    them 
that  he  had  all  by  tlie  ministry  of  Gabriel. 

However,  this  story  seemed  so  absurd 
and  iricredible,  that  several  of  his  follov.'ers 
left  him  upon  it;  and  had  prdiably  ruined 
the  whole  design,  had  not  Abu  Beer  vouch- 
ed for  his  vemcity,  and  declared,  that,  if 
Mahomet  affirmed  it  to  be  true,  he  verily 
believed  the  whole.  Which  happy  incident 
not  only  retrieved  the  pmphtt's  credit,  but 
increased  it  to  such  a  degree,  that  lie  wa.s 
secure  of  being  able  to  make  his  disciples 
swallow  whatever  he  pleased  to  impose  on 
them  for  the  future.  And  tiiis  fiction,  nor 
■withstandiJig  its  extrav^agance,  was  one  of 
the  most  artful  contrivances  Mahomet  ever 
put  in  practice,  and  what  ciiiefiy  contributed 
to  the  raising  of  iiis  reputation  to  that  great 
height  to  which  it  afterwards  arrived. 

In  this  year,  called  by  t!ie  Maliometan^ 


the  acce/ited  year,  twelve  men  of  Yathreb  or 
Medina,  of  whom  ten  were  of  the  tribe  of 
Kliazraj,  and  the  other  two  of  that  of 
Aws,  came  to  Mecca,  and  took  an  oatli  oi 
fidelity  to  Maliou^et  at  Al  Akaba,  a  hill  on 
the  north  of  that  city.  This  oath  was  call- 
ed the  luomaii's  oath  ;  not  that  any  women 
were  prese"hj  at  this  time,  but  because  a 
man  was  not  thereby  obliged  to  take  up  arms 
in  defence  of  Mahomet  or  his  religion  ;  it  be- 
ing the  same  oath  that  was  afterwards  ex- 
acted of  the  women,  the  form  of  which  we 
liave  in  the  Koran,  and  is  to  this  effect,  viz. 
That  they  sliould  renounce  all  idolatry; 
and  that  they  should  not  steal,  nor  commit 
fornication,  nor  kill  their  children  (as 
the  pagan  Arabs  used  to  do  when  they  ap- 
prehended they  should  not  be  able  to  maintain 
them,)  nor  forge  calumnies ;  and  that  they 
should  obey  the  prophet  in  all  things  that 
were  reasonable.  When  they  liad  soiemnly 
engaged  to  ali  this,  Mahomet  sent  one  of  his 
discip'es  named  Masab  Ebn  Gmair  home 
with  them,  to  instruct  t^iem  more  fully  in 
the  grounds  and  ceremonies  of  his  n.ew  re- 
ligion. 

Masab  being  arrived  at  Medina,  b}''  the 
assistance  of  those  who  had  been  formerly 
converted,  gained  several  proselytes,  parti- 
cularly Oscd  E!)n  Hodeira,  a  chief  man  of 
the  city,  and  Saad  Ebn  Moadh,  prince  of  the 
tribe  of  Aws  ;  Mahometanism  spreading  so 
fast,  that  there  was  scarce  a  house  wherein 
there  were  not  some  who  had  embraced 
it. 

The  next  year, -being  the  thirteenth  of 
iVIaliomet's  mission,  Masab  returned  to  Mec- 
ca, accompanied  by  seventy-three  men  and 
two  women  of  Medina,  who  had  professed 
Isiami.sm,  besides  some  others  who  were  as 
yet  unbelievers.  On  tiieir  arrival  they  imme- 
diately sent  to  Mahomet,  and  offertd  him  their 
assistance,  of  which  he  wasnow  in  great  need  ; 
for  liis  adversaries  v.'ere  by  tins  tin.e  grown 
so  poweifid  in  Mecca,  that  he  cmld  not 
stay  there  much  longer  without  imminent 
danger.  VV'herefm-e  he  accepted  their  pro- 
posal, and  met  them  one  ni;^ht,  by  appoint- 
meiit,  at  Al  Akaba  above-mentioned,  attend- 
ed by  his  uncle  Al  .\bbas  .  who,  though  he 
was  not  then  a  believer,  wished  his  nephew 
well,  and  made  a  speech  to  those  of  Medi- 
na, wherein  he  told  th -m,  that,  as  Malumet 
was  obliged  to  quit  his  native  city,  an:!  seek 
an  asvluni  elsewhere,  and  they  had  offered 
him  their  protection,  they  woukl  do  well 
not  to  deceive  him  ;  that  if  they  were  net 
firmly  resolved  to  defend,  and  not  betray 
him,  they  liad  better  declare  their  minds, 
and  let  him  provide  for  his  safety  in  some 
other  mannr-r.  Upon  their  protesting  their 
sinciM-it\',  Maho.iiet  swore  to  be  faithful  to 
tl'.em,  on  condition  that  they  should  protect 
him  against  all  insidts  as  heartily  as  they 
would  t'.^.eir  own  wives  and  families.  They 
then  <isked  liim,  what  recompence  they 
were  to  expect,  if  they  should  happ'  n  to  be  ; 
killed  in  his  quarrel  ?  he  answered.  Paradise. 
Whereupon  they  pledged  their  faith  to  !iim. 
ant?  so  returned'home;  after  Mahomet  had 
chosen  twelve:   out  of  their  number,    who 


M  AH 


282 


MAH 


■were  to  have  the  same  authority  amon^i 
them  as  the  twelve  apostles  of  Christ  had  i 
among  his  disciples. 

Hitherto  Mahomet  had  propagated  his  re-  I 
I'eligion  by  fair  means  ;  so  that  the  whole 
success  of  his  enterprise,  before  his  flight 
to  Medina,  must  be  attributed  to  persua- 
sion only,  and  not  to  compulsion.  For  be- 
fore this  second  oath  of  fealty  or  inaugura- 
tion  at  Al  Akaba,  he  had  no  permission  to 
use  any  force  at  all  ;  and  in  several  places 
of  the  Koran,  which  he  pretended  M-ere  re- 
vealed during  his  stay  at  Mecca,  he  declares 
his  bushiess  was  only  to  preach  and  admo- 
nish ;  that  he  had  no  authority  to  compel 
any  person  to  embrace  his  religion  ;  and 
that,  whether  people  believe  or  not,  was 
none  of  his  concern,  but  belonged  solely  unto 
God-  And  he  was  so  far  from  allowing 
his  followers  to  use  f^irce,  that  he  exhorted 
them  to  bear  patiently  those  injuries  wliich 
were  offered  them  on  account  (ftlieir  faith  ; 
and,  when  pei'secuted  himself,  chose  rather 
to  quit  the  place  of  his  birth,  and  retire 
to  Medina,  than  to  make  any  resistance. 
But  this  great  passiveness  and  modera- 
tion seems  entirely  owing  to  his  want  of 
power,  and  the  great  superiority  of  his  op- 
posers,  for  the  hrst  twelve  years  of  his 
mission  ;  for  no  sooner  was  he  enabled,  by 
the  assistance  of  those  of  Medina,  to  make 
head  against  his  enemies,  than  he  gave  out 
tliat  God  had  allowed'him  and  his  followers 
to  defend  themselves  against  the  infidels  : 
and  at  length,  as  his  forces  increased,  he 
pretended  to  have  the  Divine  leave  even  to 
attack  them,  and  destroy  idrlatry,  and 
set  up  the  true  faith  by  the  sword  ;  find- 
ing, by  experience,  that  his  designs  would 
otherwise  proceed  very  slowly,"  if  they 
were  not  utterly  overthrown ;  and  know- 
ing, on  the  ntlier  hard,  tliat  innovaters,  when 
they  depend  solely  on  tiitir  own  strength, 
and  can  compel,  seldom  run  any  risk  :  from 
whence,  says  Machiciv.,-1,  it  follows,  that  all 
the  armed  prophets  have  succeeded,  and 
the  unarmed  ones  have  failed.  Moses, 
Syrus,  Theseus,  and  Romulus,  would  not 
have  been  al)ie  to  establish  the  observance 
of  their  institutions  h'r  aiiy  length  of  time, 
had  they  not  been  armed.  The  fir^t  pas- 
sage of  the  Koran  vviiich  gave  Mahomet 
the  permission  of  defendii.t^  himself  hv  arr:is, 
is  s;nd  to  have  iieen  that  in  the  twentv- 
second  chapt  r ;  after  wlilch,  a  great  num- 
ber to  the  same  purpose  were  revealed. 

Mahomet,  having  provider!  for  the  secu- 
rity of  ins  companions,  as  well  as  Ins  own, 
by  the  league  ( fit  nsive  and  di  fensive  which 
he  had  now  coi)c!ud<-d  with  those  of  Modi- 
.lia,  directed  them  to  repair  thitlier,  which 
they  accordhigly  did;  but  himself  with 
Abu  Beer  and  Ali,  staid  behind,  having 
not  yet  received  the  Divine  permission, 
as  he  prett-nded,  to  leave  Mecca.  The 
KcTeish,  fearing  the  CMnscqneiict-  of  this 
new  alliance,  began  to  think  it  absolutelv 
necessary  to  p'cvent  Mahomet's  tscai.'-.-  to 
Medina ;  and  having  held  a  council  there- 


on, after  several  milder  expedients  had 
been  rejected,  they  came  to  a  resolution 
that  he  shruld  be  killed ;  and  agreed  that 
a  man  should  be  chosen  out  of  every  tribe 
for  the  execution  of  this  design  ;  and  that 
each  man  should  have  a  blow  at  him  with 
his  sword,  that  the  guilt  of  his  blood  might 
fall  equally  on  all  the  tribes,  to  whose  uni- 
ted power  the  Hashemitcs  were  much  infe- 
rior, and  therefore  durst  not  attempt  to  re- 
venue their  kinsman's  death. 

This   conspiracy    was     scarce    formed, 
vv'hen,  bv  some    nieans    or   otiier,  it  came 
to  Mahomet's    knowledge  ;    and    he    gave 
out    that    it  was    revealed    to    him  by  the 
angel  Gabrie',  who  had  now  ordered    him 
to  retire  tr  Medina.     Whereupon,  to  amuse 
his  enemies,   he  directed  Ali  to  lie  down  in 
his  place,  and  wrap  himself  up  in  his  green 
cloak,  which  he  did  ;  and  Mahomet  escap- 
ed miracidfusly,  as   they  pretend,  to  Abu 
Beer's  house,  unperceived   by  the  conspira- 
tors,   who  had   already   assembled   at  the 
i  proi)het's  door.     'I'hey,  in  the  mtan  time, 
looking  through  the  crevice,  and>eeii'g  Ali, 
i  vv'hom   tliev  took  to  be   Mahomet  himself, 
I  asleep,  continued  watching  there  till   morn- 
line,  when  Aii  arose,  and  they  found  them- 
selves dtceived. 

From  Abu  Beer's  house  Mahomet  and  he 
went  to  a  cave  in  mount  Thur,  to  the 
south  east  of  Mecca,  accompanied  only  by 
Amor  Ebn  Foheirah,  Abu  Beer's  strrvant,  and 
Abd'allah  Ehn  Oreitah,  an  idolater  whom 
they  had  hired  for  a  guide.  In  this  cave 
thev  lay  hid  three  days,  to  avoid  the  search 
of  their  enemies  ;  which  they  very  narrow- 
iv  escaped,  and  not  without  the  assistance 
of  more  miiacles  than  one;  ff)r  some  say 
that  the  Koreish  were  struck  with  blindness, 
so  that  they  could  net  find  the  cave  ; 
others,  that,' after  Mahomet  and  his  com- 
panions were  get  in,  two  pigeons  laid  their 
eggs  at  the  entrance,  and  a  spider  coa  ered 
tlie  mouth  of  the  cave  with  her  web,  which 
made  them  look  no  farther.  Abu  Beer 
seeing  the  prophet  in  such  imminent  danger, 
bec-rime  verv  soi-rowful  ;  wliereu])f;n  Maho- 
met comforted  Iiim  with  thest-  words,  re- 
corded in  the  Koran  ;  Be  not  grieved,  for 
(lod  is  Kvi'h  us.  Their  eiiemies  being  re- 
tired, they  left  the  cave,  and  set  out  for 
i  M<dina  bv  a  bvc-road  ;  and  having  fortu- 
|n'itp!v.  or,  as  the  Mahon^etans  tell  us,  mira- 
cidoiislv,  escaped  some  who  were  sent 
I  to  pursue  them,  airived  safely  at  that 
!  cHy  ;  whither  Ali  followed  them  in  three 
davs,  after  he  had  settled  some  affairs  at 
Mfcca. 

Mahomet,  being  securely  settled  at  Me- 
dina, and  able  not  only  to  defend  liimself 
against  the  insults  of  his  entmies,  but  to 
attack  them,  began  to  stud  out  small  par- 
ties to  make  rt  prisals  on  the  Koreish  ;  the 
first  party  consisting  of  no  more  than  nine 
men,  who  intercepted  and  plundered  a 
i!  caravan  bilrnging  to  that  tribe,  and  iu  the 
act i or,  took  two  prisoners.  But  what  esta- 
blished his  affairs  very  much,  and  was  the 


M  A  II 


283 


M  AH 


foundation  on  which  he  built  all  his  suc- 
ceeding grcatntss,  was  the  gaiiuTig  of  the 
battle  ot  Bedr,  which  was  fought  in  the  se- 
cond year  "i  the  Hegira,  and  is  so  famous 
in  tlie  Mahometan  history.  Sime  leckon 
no  less  than  twenty-seven  exjjeditions, 
wherein  Mahomet  was  personally  present, 
in  nine  of  which  he  gave  battle,  besides 
several  other  expeditions  in  which  he  was 
not  present.  His  forces  he  maintained 
partly  by  the  contributions  of  his  followers 
for  this  purposf,  which  he  called  by  the 
name  of  zacaC  or  ahns,  and  the  paying  of 
which  he  very  artfully  made  one  main  arti- 
cle of  his  religion  ;  and  partly  l)y  ordering 
a  fifth  part  of  the  plunder  to  be  brought 
into  the  public  treasury  for  that  purpose,  in 
which  matter  he  likewise  pretended  to  act 
by  thf  Divine  direction. 

In  a  few  '^ars  by  the  success  of  his 
arms,  notwitlistanding  he  sometimes  came 
off  with  the  worst,  he  cniisiderably  raised 
his  credit  and  power.  In  the  .<;ixth  year  of 
the  Hegira  he  set  out  with  1400  men  to 
visit  tlie  temple  of  Mecca,  not  with  any 
intent  of  committing  hostilities,  but  in  a 
peacf^able  manner-  However  when  he  came 
to  Al  Hodeibiya,  which  is  situated  partly 
within  and  without  the  sacred  territory, 
the  Kireish  sent  to  let  him  know  that  they 
would  not  permit  him  to  etiter  Mecca,  un- 
less he  forced  his  way :  whereupon  he 
called  his  troops  about  him,  and  they  all 
took  a  solemn  oath  of  fealty  or  homage  to 
him,  and  he  resolved  to  attack  the  city  ; 
but  those  of  Mecca  sending  Arwn  Ehn 
Masun,  prince  of  the  tribe  of  Thakif,  as 
their  ambassador  to  desire  peace,  a  truce 
was  concluded  between  them  for  ten  years, 
by  which  any  person  vvas  allowed  to  enter 
into  league  either  with  Mahomet,  or  with 
Kfrveish,  as  he  thought  tit. 

In  the  seventh  year  of  the  Hegiva,  Ma- 
homet began  to  think  of  propagating  ids 
religion  beyond  the  bounds  of  Arabia,  and 
sent  messengers  to  the  neiglibouring  prin- 
ces, with  letters  to  invite  them  to  Mahom- 
etanism.  Nor  was  thisprrject  whhout  some 
success:  Khosru  P.irviz,  then  king  of  Per- 
sia, received  his  letter  with  i!;i"tat  disdain, 
and  tore  it  in  a  passion,  sending  away  the 
messenger  very  abruptly  ;  which,  when  Ma- 
homet heard,  he  said,  God  shall  tear  his 
kingdom.  And  soon  after  a  messenger 
came  to  Mahomet  from  B'ldhan,  king  of 
Yaman,  who  was  a  dependant  on  the  Per- 
sians, to  acquaint  him  that  he  had  received 
orders  to  send  him  to  Khosru.  Mahomet 
put  off  his  answer  till  the  next  morning, 
and  then  told  tlie  messenger  it  had  been 
revealed  to  him  that  night  that  Khosru  was 
slain  by  his  son  Shiruyeh  :  adding,  that  he 
was  well  assured  his  new  religion  and  em- 
pire should  rise  to  as  great  a  height  as  that 
of  Khosru  ;  and  therefore  bid  him  advise 
his  master  to  embrace  Mahometau'sm,  The 
messenger  being  returned,  Badhan  in  a  few 
days  received  a  letter  from  Shiruyeh,  in- 
forming  him    of   his   father's  death,    and 


ordering  him  to  give  the  prophet  no  fur- 
ther disturliance.  Whereupon  Bashan,  and 
the  Persians  with  him,  turned  Mahomet- 
ans. 

The  emperor  He  radius,  as  the  Arabian 
historians  assure  us,  received  Mahomtt's 
letter  with  great  respect,  laying  it  on  his 
pillow,  and  dismissed  the  bearer  honourably. 
And  some  pretend  that  he  would  have  pro- 
fessed this  new  faith,  had  he  not  been  afraid 
of  losing  his  crown. 

Mahomet  wrote  to  the  same  effect  to  the 
king  of  Ethiopia,  though  he  had  been  con- 
verted before,  according  to  the  Arab  wri- 
ters ;  and  to  Mnkawkas,  governor  of  Egypt, 
who  gave  the  messenger  a  very  favourable 
reception,  and  sent  several  valuable  presents 
to  Mahomet,  and  among  the  rest  two  girls, 
one  of  which,  named  Mary,  became  a  great 
favourite  with  him  He  also  sent  letters  of 
the  like  purport  to  several  Arab  princes; 
\  particularly  one  to  Al  Hareth  Ebn  Abi  Sha- 
{  mer,  king  of  Ghassen,  who  returning  for 
answer  that  he  would  go  to  Mahomet  him- 
self, the  prophet  said,  May  his  kingdom 
fierixh  ;  another  to  Hawdha  Ebn  Ali,  king 
of  Yamama,  who  was  a  Christian,  and, 
having  some  time  before  professed  Islamism, 
had  lately  returned  to  his  former  faith  : 
tliis  prince  sent  back  a  very  rough  answer, 
upon  which  Mahomet  cursing  him,  he  died 
soon  after  ;  and  a  third  to  Ai  Mnndar  Ebn 
Sawa,  king  of  Bahrein,  who  enabraced  Ma- 
hometanism,andallthe  Arabsof  that  country 
followed  his  example. 

The  eighth  year  of  the  Hegira  was  a  very 
fortunate  year  to  Mahomet.  In  the  begin- 
ning of  it  Khaled  Ebn  al  Walid  and  Amra 
Ebn  al  As,  both  excellent  soldiers,  the  firat 
of  whom  afterwards  conquered  Syria  and 
other  countries,  and  the  latter  Egypt,  be- 
cameproselytes  to  Mahometanism.  And  soon 
after  the  prophet  sent  3000  men  against 
the  (Grecian  forces,  to  revenge  the  death  of 
one  of  his  ambassadors,  who,  being  sent  to 
the  governor  of  Bosra  on  the  same  errand 
as  those  who  went  to  the  above-mentioned 
princes,  was  slain  by  an  Arab  of  the  tiiiieof 
Ghass.in,  at  Muta,  a  town  in  the  territory 
of  Balka,  in  S\ria,  about  three  days  journey 
eastward  from  Jerusalem,  near  which  town 
they  encountered.  'llie  (xrecians  being 
vastly  superior  in  number  (for  including  the 
auxiliary  Arabs,  th(  y  had  an  army  of  100,000 
men,)  the  Mahometans  were  repulsed  ia 
the  first  attack,  'and  lost  successively  three 
of  their  generals,  viz.  Zeid  Ebn  Haretha, 
Mahomet's  freedman  ;  Jaasar,  the  son  of 
Ahu  Taleb  ;  and  Ahdaliah  Ebn  Rawalia: 
bnt  Khalid  Ehn  al  Walid,  succeeding  to  the 
command,  overthrow  the  Greeks  with  great 
slaughter,  and  brought  away  abundance 
of  rich  spoil ;  on  occasion  of  which  action 
Mahomet  gave  him  the  titie  of  Seif 
min  soyuf  Allah,  "  one  of  the  swords  of 
God  "  " 

In  this  vear  also  Mahomet  took  the  city 
of  Mecca,  the  inhabitants  whereof  had 
broken  the  truce  concluded  on    two  years 


MAH 


284 


MAH 


before  ;  for  the  tribe  of  Beer,  who  were 
contederates  with  the  Koreish,  attacking 
those  of  Kozaah,  who  were  allies  of  Maho- 
met, killed  several  of  them,  being  supported 
in  the  action  by  a  party  of  the  Koreish 
thtniiselvts.  '1  he  consequence  of  this  vio- 
lation was  soon  apprehended,  and  Abu  So- 
sian  himself  niarte  a  journey  to  Medina  on 
purpose  to  heal  the  breach  and  renew  the 
truce,  but  in  vain  ;  for  Mahomet  glad  of 
this  opportunity  refused  to  see  him :  where- 
upon he  applied  to  Abu  Beer  and  AH  ; 
but  they  giving  him  no  answer,  he  was 
obliged  to  return  to  Mecca  as  he  came. 

Mahomet  immediately  gave  orders  for 
preparations  to  be  made  that  he  inight 
surprise  the  Meccans  while  they  were  un- 
provided to  receive  him  :  in  a  little  time  he 
began  his  march  tliither  ;  and  by  the  tin)e 
he" came  near  the  city,  his  forces  were  in- 
creased to  ten  thousand  men.  Those  of 
Mecca  not  being  in  a  condition  to  defend 
themselves  against  so  formidable  an  army, 
surrendered  at  discretion,  and  Abu  Sosian 
saved  his  life  by  turning  Mahometan.  About 
twenty-eight  of  the  idolaters  were  killed  by 
a  party  under  the  command  of  Khaled  ;  but 
this  happened  contrary  to  Mahomet's  or- 
der's, who,  when  he  entered  the  town,  par- 
doned all  the  Koreish  on  their  submission, 
except  only  six  men  and  four  women,  who 
were  more  obnoxious  than  ordinary,  (some 
of  them  having  apostatized,)  and  were  so- 
lemnly ])roscribed  by  the  prophet  himself ; 
but  of  these  no  more  than  one  man  ar.d 
one  woman  were  put  to  death,  the  rest 
obtaining  pardon  on  their  emiiracing  Maho- 
meianism,  and  one  of  the  women  making  her 
escape. 

The  remainder  of  this  yerir  Mahomet 
employed  in  destroying  the  idols  in  and 
round  Mecca,  sending  several  of  the  gene- 
rals on  expeditions  for  that  purj)!  se  and 
to  invite  the  Arabs  to  Islamism  ;  wherein 
it  is  no  wonder  if  they  now  met  with  suc- 
cess. 

The  next  year,  being  the  ninth  of  the  He- 
gira,  the  Mahometans  call  the  year  of  em- 
buRS'es  ,  for  the  Aral^s  had  been  hitherto 
expecting  the  issue  of  the  war  between  Ma- 
homet and  the  Koreish  :  but,  so  soon  as 
that  tribe,  the  principal  of  the  whole  na- 
tion, and  the  genuine  doscendants  of  Ish- 
mael,  whose  prerogatives  none  offered  to 
dispute,  had  sul^mittcd,  they  were  satisfied 
that  it  was  not  in  their  power  to  oppose  M.!- 
homet ;  and  therefore  began  to  come  in  to 
him  in  great  numbers,  and  to  send  emiias- 
sies  to  make  their  submissions  to  him,  !)oth 
to  Mecca,  while  he  staid  there,  and  also  to 
Medina,  whither  he  returned  this  year. 
Among  the  rest,  five  kings  of  the  tribe  of 
Hamyar  professed  Mahometan'ism,  and  sent 
ambassadors  to  notify  the  same. 

In  the  tenth  year  Ali  was  sent  into  Ya 
man  to  propagate  tlie  Mahonn.  tan  faith 
there ;  and,  as  it  is  said,  converted  the 
wh  le  tribe  of  Hamdaii  in  one  day.  Their 
example    was  quickly  followed  by  all  the 


inhabitants  of  that  province,  except  only 
those  of  Najran,  who,  being  Christians, 
chose  rather  to  pay  tribute. 

Thus  was  Mahometan  ism  established, 
and  idolatry  rooted  out,  even  iti  Mahomet's 
life-time,  (for  he  died  the  next  year,) 
throughout  all  Arabia,  except  only  Yama- 
ma,  where  Moseilama,  who  set  up  also  as 
a  prophet  as  Mahomet's  competitor,  had  a 
great  party,  and  was  not  reduced  till  the 
kalifat  of  Abu  Beer  ;  and  the  Arabs  being 
then  united  in  one  faith,  and  under  one 
prince,  found  themselves  in  a  condition  of 
making  those  conquests  wi.ich  extended  the 
Mahometan  faith  over  so  great  a  part  of  the 
woiid. 

1.  ATahomefans,  tenets  of  the.  The  Ma- 
hometans divide  their  reUgion  into  two  ge- 
neral parts,  faith  and  piactice  ;  of  which 
the  fir.st  is  divided  into  six  d-«iinct  branches: 
Belief  in  God,  in  his  angels,  in  his  Scrip- 
tures, in  his  prophets,  in  the  resurrection 
and  final  judgment,  and  in  God's  absolute 
decrees.  The  points  relating  to  practice, 
are,  prayer,  with  washings,  &:c.  alms,  fast- 
ing, pilgrimage  to  Mecca,  and  circumci- 
sion. 

Of  the  Mahometan  faith.  1.  That  both 
Mahomet,  and  those  among  his  followers 
who  arc  reckoned  orthodox,  had  and  con- 
tinue to  have  just  and  true  notions  of  God 
and  his  attributes,  appears  so  plain  from  the 
Koran  itself,  and  all  the  Mahometan  divines, 
that  it  would  be  loss  of  time  to  refute  those 
who  suppose  the  God  of  Mahomet  to  be 
different  from  the  true  God,  and  only  a 
fictitious  deity   or  idol  of  his  own  creation. 

2.  The  existence  of  angels  and  their 
purity,  are  absolutely  required  to  be  believ- 
ed in  the  Koran  ;  and  he  is  reckoned  an 
infidel  who  denies  there  arc  such  beings,  or 
hates  any  of  them,  or  asserts  any  distinc- 
tion of  sexes  amor.g  them.  Thty  believe 
them  to  liave  pure  and  sn!)tile  bodies,  crea- 
ted of  five  ;  that  they  nciih.er  eat  nor  diink, 
r.or  proi)agatc  their  species  :  that  they  have 
various  forms  and  offices,  some  adoring 
God  in  different  postures,  others  sir.ging 
praises  to  him,  or  interceding  for  mankind. 
'i"liev  hold  that  some  of  tiien)  are  employ- 
ed in  writing  down  the  actions  fif  men; 
oth.ers  in  carrying  the  throne  of  God,  and 
oth.er  services. 

.'i  As  to  the  Scriptures,  the  Mahometans 
are  t:;Ui^ht  by  the  Koran,  that  Gcd  in  divers 
figes  of  the  world,  gave  rcvclatioiis  of  his 
will  in  writing  to  several  prophets,  the 
wliole  and  every  one  of  which  it  is  ab- 
solutely necessary  for  a  good  Mo.slem  to  be- 
lieve. The  number  of  these  sacred  books 
were,  according  to  them,  one  hundred  and 
four;  of  which  ten  were  given  to  Adam, 
fifty  to  Scth,  tl'iirty  to  Esdiis  or  Enoch,  ten 
to  Abraham ;  and  the  other  four,  being  the 
Pentateuch,  the  Psalms,  the  (iospel,  and 
the  Koran,  were  successively  delivered  to 
Moses.  David,  Jesus,  and  Mahomet  ;  which 
last  being  the  seal  of  the  i)rophets,  those 
revelations  are  now  closed,  and  no  more 


MA  II 


28J 


MAH 


are  to  be  expected.  All  tlicse  divine  books, 
!xcej)t  tiie  four  last,  tlicy  agrte  to  be  now 
mtirtlv  lojit,  and  iheir  contents  unknown  ; 
thdugli  tlic  Sabiaiis  have  several  books 
M'liich  they  attribute  to  some  of  the  ant-  di- 
iuvian  prophets.  And  of  those  four,  the 
Pentateucli,  Psalms,  and  Gospel,  they  say, 
liavc  undergone  so  many  alterations  and 
oorniptions,  tiiat,  thougii  there  may  possi- 
i)ly  be  some  pait  of  tlie  true  word  of  God 
therein,  yet  no  credit  is  to  be  given  to  the 
jjresent  copies  in  the  hands  of  the  Jews 
and  Christians. 

4.  The  nuuiter  of  the  prophets  which 
have  been  from  time  to  time  sent  by  God 
into  the  world,  amounts  to  no  less  than 
224,000,  according  to  one  Mahometan  tradi- 
tion ;  or  to  124,000,  according  to  another; 
aniong  whom  313  were  apostles,  sent  with 
.'-pecia!  commi.ssions  to  reclaim  mankind  from 
infidelity  and  superstition  ;  and  six  of  them 
brought  new  laws  or  dispensations,  which 
successively  abrogated  the  preceding  :  these 
were  Adam,  Noah,  Abraham,  Moses,  Jesus, 
and  Mahomet.  All  the  prophets  in  gene- 
ral, the  Mahometans  believe  to  have  been 
free  fiom  great  sins  and  errors  of  conse- 
quence, and  professors  of  one  and  the  same 
religion,  that  is,  Islam,  notwitiistanding  the 
different  law.s  and  institutions  which  they 
observed.  They  allow  of  degrees  among 
them,  and  hold  some  of  them  to  be  more 
excellent  and  honouraijlc  than  othei's.  The 
first  place  they  give  to  tlie  rcvealers  and 
establishers  of  new  dispensations,  and  the 
next  to  the  apostles. 

In  this  great  number  of  prophets  they 
not  only  reckon  divers  patriarchs  and  per- 
sons named  in  Scripture,  but  not  recorded 
to  ha\'e  been  prophets  (wherein  the  Jewish 
and  Christian  writers  have  sometimes  led 
the  way,)  as  Adam,  Seth,  Lot,  Ishmael, 
Nun,  Joshua,  &c.  and  introduce  some  of 
them  under  different  names,  as  Enoch,  He- 
ber,  and  Jcthro,  who  are  called  in  the  Ko- 
ran, Edris,  Hud,  and  Shoaib  :  but  several 
others  v.'hose  very  names  do  not  appear  in 
Sci'ipture  (though  they  endeavour  to  find 
some  persons  there  to  fix  them  on,)  as  Sa- 
leh,  Khedr,  Dhu'lkefl,  6cc. 

5.  The  belief  of  a  general  resurrection 
and  a  future  judgment. 

The  time  of  the  resurrection  the  Maho- 
metans allow  to  be  a  perfect  secret  to  all 
but  God  alone  :  the  angel  Gabriel  himself 
acknowledging  his  ignorance  in  this  ])nint, 
when  Maliomet  asked  him  about  it.  How- 
ever, they  say,  the  approach  of  that  day 
may  be  known  from  certain  signs  which  are 
to  precede  it. 

After  examination  is  ^ast,  (the  account 
of  which  is  too  long  and  tedious  for  this 
place,)  and  every  one's  works  weighed  in  a 
just  balance,  they  say,  that  mutual  retalia- 
tion will  follow,  according  to  which  every 
creature  will  take  vengeance  one  of  ano- 
ther, or  have  satisfaction  made  them  for 
the  injuries  which  they  have  suffered.  And, 
since  there  will  then  be  no  other  way  of  re- 


turning like  for  like,  the  manner  of  giving 
this  satisfaction  will  be  by  taking  away  a 
jjroportional  part  of  the  good  works  of  him 
who  offered  the  injury,  and  adding  it  to 
those  of  him  who  suffered  it.  Which  be- 
ing done,  if  tl.e  angels  (by  whose  ministry 
this  is  to  be  performed)  say.  Lord,  'tve  have 
giz'cn  to  every  one  his  due,  and  there  re~ 
niaincth  of  this  /terson's  good  Kvorks  so 
much  as  r(/uaUeih(he  weight  oj  an  ant,  God 
will,  of  his  mercy,  cause  it  to  be  doubled 
unto  him,  that  he  may  be  admitted  into 
paradise ;  but  if,  on  the  contrary,  his  good 
works  be  exhausted,  and  there  remain  evil 
works  only,  and  there  be  any  who  have  not 
yet  received  satisfaction  from  him,  God 
will  order  that  an  equal  Aveight  of  their  sins 
be  added  unto  I)is,  that  he  may  be  punished 
for  them  in  their  stead,  and  lie  will  be  sent 
to  hell  laden  with  both.  This  will  be  the 
method  of  God's  dealing  with  mankind.  As 
to  brutes,  after  they  shall  have  likewise  ta- 
ken vengeance  of  one  another,  he  will  com- 
mand them  to  be  changed  into  dust :  wicked 
men  being  reserved  to  more  grievous  pun- 
ishment, so  that  they  shall  cry  out,  on  hear- 
iBg  this  sentence  passed  on  the  brutes, 
JVoutd  to  God  that  we  were  dust  also  .' 
As  to  the  genii,  many  Mahometans  are  of 
opinion  that  such  of  them  as  are  true  be- 
lievers, will  undergo  the  same  fate  as  the 
irrational  animals,  and  have  no  other  re- 
ward than  the  favour  of  being  converted  in- 
to du.st :  and  for  this  they  quote  the  autho- 
rity of  their  prophet. 

The  trials  being  over,  and  the  assembly 
dissolved,  the  Mahometans  hold,  that  those 
who  are  to  be  admitted  into  paradise  will 
take  the  right  hand  way,  and  those  who 
are  destined  into  hell  fire  will  take  the  left ; 
but  both  of  them  must  first  pass  the  bridge 
called  in  Arabic,  ^l  Sirat,  which,  they  say, 
is  laid  over  the  midst  of  hell,  and  describe 
to  be  finer  than  a  hair,  and  sharper  than 
the  edge  of  a  sword  ;  so  that  it  seems  very 
difficult  to  conceive  how  any  one  shall  be 
able  to  stand  upon  it ;  for  which  reason 
most  of  the  sect  of  tlie  Motazalites  reject  it 
as  a  fable ;  though  the  orthodox  think  it  a 
sufficient  proof  of  the  truth  of  this  aiticle, 
that  it  was  seriously  attiimed  by  him  who 
never  asserted  a  falsehood,  meaning  their  pro- 
phet ;  who,  to  add  to  the  difficulty  of  the 
passage,  has  likewise  declared,  that  this 
bridge  is  beset  on  each  side  with  briars  and 
hooked  thorns,  which  will,  however,  be  no 
impediment  to  the  good  :  for  they  shall  pass 
with  wonderful  ease  and  swiftness,  like  light- 
ning, or  the  wind,  Mahomet  and  his  Moslems 
leading  the  way  ;  whereas  the  wicked,  what 
with  the  slipperiness  and  extreme  narrowness 
of  the  path,  the  entangling  of  the  thorns,  and 
the  extinction  of  the  light  which  directed  the 
former  to  paradise,  will  soon  miss  their  foot- 
ing, and  fill  down  headlong  into  hell,  which 
is  gaping  beneath  them. 

As  tothe  punishment  of  the  wicked,  the 
Mahometans  are  taught,  that  hell  is  divided 
into  seven  stoi'ies  or  apartments,  one  below 


M  AH 


286 


M  AH 


another,  designed   for  the  reception  of  as 
many  distinct  classes  of  tiie  damned. 

The  first,  which  tliey  call  Jehenan,  they 
say,  will  be  the  receptacle  of  those  who  ac- 
knowledged one  God,  that  is,  the  wicked 
Mahometans  ;  who,  afterhavin?^  been  pnni  h- 
ed  according  to  their  demerits,  will  at  lent;th 
be  released;  the  second,  named  Lad!iai\.\\v\ 
assign  to  the  Jews  ;  the  third,  named  at  Ho- 
tama,  to  the  Christians ;  the  fourth,  named 
al  Sair,  to  the  Sabians  ;  the  fifth,  named 
Sa/car,  to  the  Magians:  the  sixth,  named  al 
Ja/un,  to  the  idolaters;  and  the  seventh, 
which  is  the  lowest  and  worst  of  all,  and  is 
called  al  Haivyac,  to  the  hypocrites,  or  those 
■who  outwardly  professed  some  religion,  but 
ill  their  hearts  were  of  none.  Over  each  ot 
tliese  apartments  they  believe  there  will  be 
set  a  guard  of  angels,  nineteen  in  number  ; 
to  whom  tlie  damned  will  confess  the  just 
judgment  of  God,  and  beg  them  to  intercede 
with  him  for  some  alleviation  of  their  pain, 
or  that  they  may  be  delivered  by  being 
annihilated. 

Mahomet  has,  in  his  Koran  and  traditions, 
been  very  exact  in  describing  the  various 
torments  cf  hell,  which,  according  to  him, 
the  wicked  will  suffer  both  from  intense 
heat  and  excessive  cold.  We  shall,  however, 
enter  into  no  detail  of  them  here  ;  but  only 
observe,  that  the  degrees  of  these  pains  will 
also  vary  in  proportion  to  the  crimes  of  the 
sufferer,  and  the  apartment  he  is  condemned 
to;  and  that  he  who  is  punished  the  mt  st 
lightly  of  all  will  be  shod  with  shoes  of  fire, 
tVie  fervour  of  which  will  cause  his  skull  to 
boil  like  a  cauldron.  The  condition  of  tliose 
unhappy  wretches,  as  the  same  prophet 
teaches,  cannot  be  properly  called  either  life 
or  death  ;  and  their  misery  will  be  greatly 
increasecl  by  their  despair  of  being  ever  de- 
livered from  that  place,  since,  according  to 
that  frequent  expression  in  the  Koran,  they 
viust  remain  therein  for  ever.  It  must  be 
remarked,  however,  that  the  infidels  alone 
■will  he  liable  to  eternity  of  damnation  ;  for 
the  Moslems,  or  those  who  have  embractd 
the  true  religion,  and  have  been  guilty  of 
heinous  sins,  will  be  delivered  thei.ce  after 
they  shall  have  expiated  their  crimesbv  their 
sufferings.  The  time  wltich  these  believers 
shall  be  detaine  1  there,  according  to  a  tradi- 
tion handed  down  from  their  prophet,  will 
not  be  less  than  nine  hundred  years,  nor 
more  than  seven  thousand.  Aod,  as  to  the 
manner  of  their  delivery,  they  say  that  they 
shall  hie.  distinguished  by  the  marks  of  ]irr>s- 
tratioiAon  those  parts  of  their  bodies  with 
WhidJjthcy  used  to  touch  the  ground  in 
prayT^  and  over  which  the  fire  will  there- 
fore have  no  power  :  and  that,  being  known 
by  this  characteristic,  they  jvill  be  released 
by  tlie  mercy  of  God,  at  the  intercession  of 
Mahomet  and  the  blessed  :  whereupon  those 
■who  shall  have  teen  dead  will  be  restored  to 
life,  as  has  been  said ;  and  those  whose  bodies 
shall  have  contracted  any  sootintiss  or  filth 
from  the  flames  and  smoke  of  hell,  will  be 
immersed  in  one  of  the  rivers  of  paradise, 


called  the  r/tv-r  of  Ife,   which    will    •wash 
diem  whiter  than  pearls. 

The  righteous,  as  the  Mahometans  are 
taught  to  believe,  having  surmounted  the 
(IJfHcuHies,  and  passed  the  sharp  bridge 
:il)ove-mentioned,  before  they  enter  para- 
dise, will  be  refreshed  by  drmking  at  the 
pond  of  their  prophet,  who  describes  it  to 
be  an  exact  square,  of  a  month's  jnurney  in 
compass ;  its  water,  which  is  sappiied  by 
two  j)ipes  from  al  Cawthay,  one  of  the  ri- 
vers of  paradise,  being  whiter  than  milk  or 
silver,  and  more  odorifer'  us  than  musk, 
with  as  many  cups  set  round  it  as  there  are 
stars  in  the  firmament;  of  which  water 
whoever  <lrinks  will  thirst  no  more  forever. 
This  is  the  first  taste  which  the  blessed 
win  have  of  their  future  and  now  near  ap- 
proaching felicity. 

Though  paradise  be  so  very  frequently 
mentioned  in  the  Koran,  yet  it  is  a  di>pute 
among  t!ie  Mahometans,  whether  it  be  al- 
ready created,  or  to  be  created  hereafter  ; 
the  Motazalites  and  some  other  sectaries  as- 
serting, that  there  is  not  at  present  any 
such  place  in  nature,  and  that  the  paradise 
which  the  righteous  will  inhabit  in  the  next 
life  will  be  different  from  that  frc^m  which 
Adam  was  expelled.  However,  the  ortho- 
dox profess  the  contrary,  maintaining  that 
it  was  created  even  before  the  world,  and 
describe  it  from  their  prophet's  traditions, 
in  the  following  manner  : 

They  say  it  is  situated  above  the  seven 
heavens  (or  in  the  seventh  heaven.)  and 
next  under  the  throne  of  God;  and,  to  ex- 
press the  amenity  of  the  place,  tell  us,  that 
the  earth  of  it  is  of  the  finest  wheat  flower, 
or  of  the  purest  musk,  or,  as  others  will 
have  it,  of  saffron  ;  that  its  stones  are  pearls 
anfl  jacinths,  the  walls  of  its  buildings  en- 
riched with  gold  and  silver,  and  that  the 
trunks  of  all  its  trees  are  of  gold  ;  among 
which  the  most  remarkable  is  the  tree 
called  tuba.,  or  the  tree  of  happiness.  C'"n- 
c;rning  this  tree,  they  fable,  that  it  stands 
in  the  palace  of  Mahomet,  thcugh  a  branch 
of  it  will  reach  to  the  house  of  eveiy  true 
believer  ;  that  it  will  i)e  laden  with  pome- 
granates, grapes,  dates,  and  other  fruits, 
of  surprising  bigness,  and  of  tastes  unknown 
to  mortals.  So  that  if  a  man  desire  to  eat 
of  an\'  ] 'articular  kind  of  fruit,  it  will  immc- 
diateiy  be  presented  him  :  or,  if  he  choose 
flesh,  birds  ready  dress<d  will  be  set  before 
him,  according  to  his  wish  They  add,  that 
the  boughs  of  this  tn  e  will  spontaneously 
bend  down  to  the  hand  of  the  person  who 
would  gather  of  its  fruits,  and  that  it  will 
supply  tlie  blessed  not  only  with  food,  but 
also  with  silken  garments,  and  beasts  tn 
ride  on  ready  saddled  and  bridled,  and 
adorned  with  rich  trappings,  which  will 
burst  forth  from  its  fruits  ;  and  that  this 
tree  is  so  large,  that  a  person,  mounted. on 
the  fleetest  horse,  would  not  be  able  to  gal- 
lop from  one  end  of  its  shade  to  the  other  in 
one  hundred  years. 

As  plenty  of  -water  is  one  of  the  greatest 


M  AH 


287 


M  A  II 


aikiitims  to  the  ])leasantness  of  an}'  place, 
Uie  Koran  (.fteii  speaks  of  the  i-ivers  of  pa- 
radise as  a  principal  oniamfnt  tlierc(f: 
suiiie  of  Uicse  nvcrs,  they  say,  flow  wiLh 
•water,  some  with  milk,  stirne  Aviili  wine, 
and  others  with  hoi.ey  ;  all  laiiing  their  rise 
.from  the  root  of  the  tree  tuba. 

But  ail  these  glories  will   be  eclipsed  by  j 
the  resplendent  and   ravishing  girls  of  pa- 
radise, called  from  their  larj^e  black  eyes,  j 
Ilur  at  oyun,  the  enjoyment  f)f  whose  com-  ' 
pany  will  be  a  principal  felicity  of  the  faith-  ' 
ful.      Tiiese,   tiiey  say,    are  created  not  cfj 
clay,   as   nnjrtal    women   are,   hut  of   pure , 
musk  :  being,  as  th^-ir  pnphet  often  aiTirnis  , 
it)  his  Knran,  free  from  all  natural  iinpu- 1 
rities,   defects,   and  inconveniences  incident 
to  the   Sex  ;  of   the  strictest   modesty,  and 
secluded  from   public  view    in   pavilions  of 
hollow  pearls  so  large,  that,  as  somi.-  tradi- 
tions have  it,   one   of  them  will   be   no  less 
tlian   four    parasangs   (cr,    as    others    say, 
sixty  miles)  long  and  as  many  broad. 

The  name  wi\ich  the  Mahometans  usu- 
ally give  to  this  happy  mansion  is  ul  Junnrt, 
or,  "  the  garden ,"  and  sometimes  they 
call  it,  with  an  addition,  Jayinet  al  Fcr- 
daivs,  "  the  garden  of  Paradise  ;"  Jaimet 
Adtn,  *'  the  garden  nf  Eden,"  (though  they 
generally  interpret  the  word  Edm  not  ac- 
cording to  its  acceptation  in  Hebrew,  but 
according  to  its  meaning  in  their  own 
tongue,  wherein  it  signifies  "  a  settled  or 
perpt-tual  habitation  ;'')  Jannet  al  Mawa, 
"  the  garden  of  abode  ;"  Jannet  al  Maim, 
•'  the  garden  of  pleasure ;"  and  the  like : 
by  which  several  appellations  some  under- 
stand so  many  different  gardens,  or  al  least 
places  of  diifcient  degrees  of  felicity,  (f;  r 
they  reckon  no  less  than  one  hundred  socli 
in  all,)  the  vt^ry  meanest  whereof  will  af- 
ford its  inhabitants  so  many  pleasures  and 
delights,  that  one  would  conclude  they  must 
tven  sink  under  them,  had  not  Maliomet 
declared  that,  in  order  to  qualify  the  bles- 
sed for  a  full  enjoyment  of  ihem,  God  will 
give  to  every  one  the  abilities  of  one  hun- 
dred m.en. 

6.  God's  absolute  decree  and  predestina- 
tion botu  of  good  and  evil.  The  orthodox 
doctrine  is,  that  v;hatcver  hath  or  shall 
come  to  pass  in  this  world,  ^vllcthe^  it  be 
good,  or  whether  it  be  bad,  proceedeth  en- 
tirelj'  from  the  Divine  will  and  is  irrevo- 
cably fixed  and  recorded  from  all  eternity 
in  the  preserved  table  ;  God  iiaving  secret- 
ly predetermined  not  only  the  adverse  and 
prosperous  fortune  of  every  person  in  tiiis 
v»'orld,  in  the  most  minute  particulars, 
but  also  his  faith  or  infidelity,  his  obe- 
dience or  disobedience,  and  consequently 
his  everlasting  happiness  or  misery  after 
death ;  which  fate  or  predestination  it  is 
not  possible  by  any  foresight  or  wisdom  to 
avoid. 

11.  Rdi'gious  praciice.  1.  The  first  point 
in  Jirayer,  under  which  are  also  compre- 
hended those  legal  washings  or  purifications 


which  are    necessary  preparations  there- 
to. 

For  the  regular  performance  of  the  duty 
ef  prayer  aiiK.iig  the  Mahometans,  it  is  re- 
quibiie,  wliil  •  they  praj',  to  turn  ilieir  tt.ccs 
tt/wards  tlie  temple  ot  Mecca  ;  the  quarter 
where  the  sanie  is  situated  being,  for  that 
reasuii,  ps  inted  out  witiiiu  their  mosques  by 
a  niche,  which  they  call  al  Mthrub  ;  and 
witlu.ut,  by  the  situation  of  the  doors  open- 
ing into  the  gallaiies  of  the  steeples  :  there 
arc  also  tables  calculated  fur  the  ready  find- 
ing out  their  Keblah,  or  part  towards  which 
they  ought  to  pray,  in  places  where  they 
have  no  other  direction. 

2.  Alms  are  of  two  sorts, /r^ft/ and  volun- 
tary. The  legal  alms  are  of  indispensible 
obligation,  being  commanded  by  the  law, 
which  directs  and  determines  both  the 
portion  wLich  is  to  be  given,  and  of  what 
things  it  ought  to  be  given ;  but  the  volun- 
tary alms  are  left  to  every  one's  liberty, 
to  give  more  or  less,  as  he  shall  see  fit. 
The  former  kind  of  alms  seme  think  to  be 
properly  called  zacat,  and  the  latter  sada- 
kat,  though  this  name  be  also  frequently 
given  to  the  legal  alms.  They  are  called 
zacat,  either  because  they  increase  a  man's 
store  by  drawing  down  a  blessing  thereon, 
and  produce  in  his  soul  the  virtue  of  libe- 
rality, or  because  they  purify  the  remaining 
I^art  of  one's  substance  from  pollution,  and 
the  soul  from  the  filth  of  avarice ;  and 
sadakat,  because  they  are  a  proof  of  a  man's 
sincerity  in  the  worship  of  God.  Some 
writers  have  called  the  legal  alms,  tithes  ; 
but  improperly,  since  in  some  cases  they 
fall  short,  and  in  others  exceed  that  pro- 
portion. 

3.  Fasting  is  a  duty  of  so  great  moment, 
that  Mahomet  used  to  say  it  was  the  gate  of 
religion  ;  and  that  the  odour  of  the  mouth 
of  him  Kvhofasteth  is  more  grateful  to  God 
than  that  of  musk;  and  Al  Ghazali  reck- 
ons fasting  one  fourth  part  of  the  faith. 
According  to  the  Mahometan  divines  there 
are  three  degrees  of  fasting  :  1.  The  re- 
straining the  belly  and  other  parts  of  the 
body  from  satisfying  their  lu.sts. — 2.  The 
restraiiiing  the  ears,  eyes,  tongue,  hands, 
feet,  and  other  members,  from  sin. — 3. 
The  fasting  of  the  heart  from  woi'ldly  cares, 
and  restraining  the  thought  from  everything 
besides  God. 

4.  'I'he  pilgrimage  to  Mecca  is  so  neces- 
sary a  point  of  practice,  that,  according  to 
a  tradition  of  Mahomet,  he  who  dies  with- 
out performing  it,  may  as  well  die  a  Jew 
or  a  Christian ;  and  the  same  is  expressly 
commanded  in  the  Koran.  See  Pilgrim- 
age. 

III.  Mahometanism,  causes  of  the  suc- 
cess of  The  rapid  success  which  attended 
the  propagation  of  this  new  religion  was 
owing  to  causes  that  are  plain  and  evident, 
and  must  remove,  or  rather  prevent,  our 
surprise,  when  they  are  attentively  eonsid- 
ered.    The  terror  of  Mahomet's  arms,  and 


MAH 


288 


M  A  H 


the  repeated  victories  whicli  were  gained 
by  him  and  his  successors,  were,  no  doubt 
the  irresistible  arguments  that  persuaded 
such  multitudes  to  embrace  his  religion, 
and  submit  to  his  dominion.  Besides,  his 
law  was  artfully  and  marvellously  adapted  to 
the  corrupt  naiure  of  man :  and,  in  a  most 
particulai-  manner,  to  the  manners  and  opi- 
nions of  the  eastern  nations,  and  the  vices 
to  which  tliey  v/ere  naturally  addicted:  for 
the  articles  of  fait!\  which  it  proposed  were 
few  in  number,  and  extremely  siinple ;  and 
liie  duties  it  required  were  neitlier  many 
nor  difficult,  nor  such  as  were  incompatible 
with  the  empire  of  appetites  and  passions. 
It  is  to  be  observed  farther,  that  the  gross 
ignorance  under  which  the  Arabians,  Sy- 
rians, Persians,  and  the  greatest  part  of  the 
Eastern  nations,  laboured  at  this  time,  ren- 
dered many  an  easy  prey  to  the  artifice  and 
eloquence  of  this  bold  adventurer.  To  these 
causes  of  the  progress  of  Mahometanism  we 
may  add  the  bitter  dissensions  and  cruel 
animosities  that  reigned  among  the  Chris- 
tian sects,  particularly  the  Greeks,  Nesto- 
rians,  Eutychians,  and  Monophysites;  dis- 
sensions that  hlied  a  great  part  of  the  east 
with  carnage,  assassinations,  and  such  de- 
testable enormities,  as  rendered  the  very 
name  of  Christianity  odious  to  many.  We 
might  add  here,  that  the  Monophysites  and 
Nestorians,  full  of  resentment  against  the 
Greeks,  from  whom  they  had  suiFered  the 
bitterest  and  most  injurious  treatment,  as- 
sisted the  Arabians  in  the  conquest  of  seve- 
ral provinces,  into  which,  of  consequence, 
the  religion  of  Mahomet  was  afterwards 
introduced.  Other  causes  of  the  sudden  pro- 
gress of  that  religion  will  natui'ally  occur  to 
such  as  consider  attentively  its  spirit  and 
genius,  and  the  state  of  the  world  at  this 
time. 

IV.  Mahometanism,  subversion  of.  Of 
things  yet  to  come,  it  is  difficult  to  say  any 
thing  with  pi'ecision.  We  have,  however, 
some  reason  to  believe,  from  the  aspect  of 
Scripture  prophesy,  that,  triumphant  as  tliis 
sect  has  been,  it  shall  at  last  come  to  nought. 
As  it  arose  as  a  scourge  to  Christendom, 
about  the  time  that  Antichrist  obtained  a 
temporal  dominion  ;  so,  it  is  not  improbable, 
but  they  will  liave  their  downfal  neai'ly  at 
the  same  period.  The  ninth  chapter  of 
Revelations  seems  to  refer,  wholly,  to  this 
imposture:  "  The  four  angels  were  loosed," 
says  the  pi'ediction,  15th  ver.  "which  were 
prei)ared  for  an  hour,  and  a  day,  and  a 
month,  and  a  year,  for  to  slay  die  third 
part  of  men."  This  period,  in  the  language 
of  prophesy,  makes  391  years,  wliich,  be- 
ing added  to  the  year  when  the  four  angels 
were  loosed,  will  bring  us  down  to  1844,  or 
there-abouts,  for  the  final  destruction  of  the 
Mahometan  empire.  It  must  be  confessed, 
however,  that,  though  the  event  is  certain. 
the  exact  time  cannot  be  easily  ascertained. 
Prideaux's  Life  of  Mahomet.  Moshcim's 
McclcsiasticaL  History,  cent.  vii.  ch.  2.  Sale's 
Preliminary   Discowse,  ^irefixed   to    his 


English  Translation  of  the  Koran.  Simp- 
son's Key  to  Profihcsy,  sec.  19.  Biaho/i 
J\''cwton,  Mede,  and  (jUI,  on  IJevelat.  ix. 
iMiUer's  Profwgation  of  Christianity,  vol. 
i.  chap.  1.  iVhite''s  Sermons  at  liamfUov. 
Lee.     En  eye.  lirit. 

M.\LEV0LENCE  is  that  disposition  of 
mind  which  inclines  us  to  wish  ill  to  an\ 
person.  It  discovers  itself  in  frowns,  and 
lowering  countenance  ;  in  uncharitableness* 
in  evil  sentiments ;  hard  speeches  to,  or  of, 
its  object;  in  cursing  and  reviling;  and 
doing  mischief,  either  with  open  violence, 
or  secret  spite,  as  far  as  there  is  power. 

MALICE  is  a  settled,  or  deliberate  de- 
termination to  revenge,  or  do  hurt  to  ano- 
ther. It  more  frequently  denotes  the  dis- 
position of  inferior  minds,  to  execute  every 
purpose  of  mischief,  within  the  more  limit- 
ed circle  of  their  abilities.  It  is  a  most  hate- 
ful temper  in  the  sight  of  God,  strictly  for- 
bidden in  ills  holy  word,  Co!,  iii.  8 — 12.  dis- 
graceful to  rational  creatures,  and  every 
way  inimical  to  the  spirit  of  Christianity 
Matt.  V.  44.     See  Charity,  IjOve. 

MALIGNITY,  a  disposition  olwtinately 
bad,  or  malicious.  Mahgnancy  and  malig- 
nity, are  words,  nearly  synonymous.  In  some 
connections,  malignity  seems  ratlier  more 
pertiriently  applied  to  a  radical  depravit) 
of  nature ;  and  malignancy,  to  indications  of 
this  depravity  in  temper  and  conduct  in  par- 
ticular instances. 

MAN,  a  being,  consisting  of  a  rational 
soul,  and  organical  body.  By  some,  he  is 
defined  thus:  "  He  is  the  head  of  the  ani- 
mal creation  ;  a  being  who  feels,  reflects, 
thinks,  contrives,  and  acts;  who  has  the 
power  of  changing  his  place  up.'  n  the  earth, 
at  pleasure  ;  who  possesses  the  faculty  of 
communicating  liis  thouglits,  by  means  of 
speech ;  and,  who  has  dominion  over  all 
other  creatures  on  the  face  of  the  earth." 

We  shall  here  present  the  reader  with  a 
brief  account  of  his  formation,  species,  and 
different  state.  1.  His  formation.  Man  was 
made  last  of  all  the  creatures,  biMng  tl>e 
chief,  and  master-piece  of  the  whole  crea- 
tion on  earth.  He  is  a  comj^endium  of  the 
creation,  and  therefore,  is  sometimes  called 
a  ntic7'ocosm,  a  little  world,  the  world  in 
miniature  ;  something  of  the  vegetable,  ani- 
mal, and  rational  woriti,  meet  in  him  ;  spirit 
and  matter;  yea,  heaven  and  earth  centre 
in  him ;  he  is  the  bond  that  connec^^s  them 
both  together.  The  constituent  and  e<!.sen- 
tia!  parts  of  man,  created  Iw  God,  arc  two  ; 
body  and  soul.  The  one  was  made  out  of 
the  dust;  the  other  was  breathed  into  him. 
The  body  is  formed  with  the  gn  atest  pre-  ; 
cision  and  exactness ;  every  muscle,  vein,  ; 
artery ;  yea,  the  least  fibre,  in  its  proper 
place;  all  hi  just  proportion  and  symmetry, 
in  suf)serviency  to  the  tise  of  each  other, 
and  for  the  good  of  the  whole.  Psalm 
cxxxix.  14  It  is  also  made  erect,  to  dis- 
tinguish it  from  the  four-footed  animals,  who 
look  downward  to  the  earth.  Man  was 
made  to  look  upward  to  the  heavens,  to  con- 


MAN 


289 


MAN 


template  them,  and  the  glcry  of  God  dis- 
played in  them  ;  to  look  up  to  God,  to  wor- 
ship and  adore  him.  In  the  Greek  lan- 
guage, man  has  his  name,  uvU-^oTroi,  from 
turning,  and  looking  upwards.  The  soul  is 
the  otiier  part  of  man,  which  is  a  substance 
or  subsistence :  it  is  not  an  accident,  or 
quality  inherent  in  a  subject ;  but  capable 
of  subsisting  without  the  body.  It  is  a  spiri- 
tual substance,  immaterial,  immorul.  See 
Soul. 

2.  A/an,  different  sfiecies  of.  According 
to  Linnaeus  and  Buffon,  there  are  six  differ- 
ent species  aniong  mankind.  Tiie  first  are, 
those  under  the  Polar  regions,  and  compre- 
hend the  Laplanders,  the  Esquimaux  In- 
dians, the  Samoied  Tartars,  the  inhabitants 
of  Nova  Zembla,  Borandians,  the  Green] an- 
ders,  and  the  people  of  Kamtschatka.  *l'he 
visage  of  men  in  these  countries  is  large  and 
broad ;  the  nose  flat  and  short ;  the  eyes 
of  a  yellowish  brown,  inclining  to  blackness; 
the  cheek-bones  extremely  high  :  the  mouth 
large  ;  the  lips  diick,  and  turning  outwards  ; 
the  voice  thin,  anu  squeaking ;  and  the  skin, 
a  dark  grey  colour.  They  are  short  in  sta- 
ture, the  generality  being  about  four  feet 
high,  and  the  tallest,  not  more  than  five. 
They  are  ignorant,  stupid,  and  superstitious. 
— 2.  The  second  are,  the  Tartar  race,  com- 
prehending the  Chinese  and  the  Japanese. 
Their  countenances  are  broad  and  wrinkled, 
even  in  youth ;  their  noses  short  and  flat ; 
their  eyes  little,  ciieek -bones  high,  teeth 
large,  complexions  are  olive,  and  the  hair 
black. — 3.  The  third  are,  the  southern  Asia- 
tics, or  inhabitants  of  India.  These  are  of 
a  slender  shape,  long,  straight,  black  hair, 
and  generally  Roman  noses.  They  are  sloth- 
ful, submissive,  cowardly,  and  effeminate  — 
4.  The  negroes  of  Africa  constitute  the 
fourth  striljing  variety  in  the  human  species. 
They  are  of  a  black  colour,  having  downy 
soft  hair,  short  and  black;  their  beards  of- 
ten turn  grey,  and  sometimes  white:  their 
noses  are  fiat  and  short ;  their  lips  thick, ! 
and  their  teeth  of  an  ivory  wiiiteness.  Thi'se  i 
have  been,  till  of  late,  the  unhappy  wretch-  j 
es  who  have  been  torn  from  their  families,  j 
friends,  and  native  lands,  and  consigned » 
for  life,  to  misery,  toil,  and  bondage;  and| 
that,  by  the  wise,  polished,  and  the  Christian 
inhabitants  of  Eurcpe  ;  and,  above  all,  by 
the  monsters  of  England! ! — 5.  The  natives 
of  America  are,  the  fifdi  r^ce  of  men  :  they 
areof  a  copper  colour,  with  black,  thick, 
straight  hair,  flat  noses,  high  cheek-bones, 
and  small  eyes. — 6.  The  Europeans  may 
be  considered  as,  the  sixth  and  last  varie- 
ties of  the  human  kind,  whose  features  we 
need  not  describe.  The  English  are  con- 
sidered as  the  fairest. 

3.  Man,  difftrenl  states  of.  The  state  of 
man  has  buen  divided  into  fourfold ;  his 
primitive  state;  fallen  state;  gracious  state; 
and  future  state.  1.  His  state  of  innocence. 
God,  it  is  said,  made  man  upright,  Eccl.  vii. 
29.  without  any  imperfection,  corruption  or 
principle  of  corruption  in  bis  body  or  soul ; 

Do 


■with  light  in  his  understanding,  holiness  in 
his  will,  and  purity  in  his  affection.  This 
constituted  his  original  righteousness,  which 
was  universal,  both  with  respect  to  the  sub- 
ject of  it,  the  whole  man,  and  the  object  of 
it,  the  wlule  law.  Being  thus  in  a  state  of 
holiness,  iie  was  necessarily  in  a  state  of 
happiness.  He  was  a  very  glorious  crea- 
ture, the  favourite  of  heaven,  the  lord  of 
the  world,  possessing  perfect  traquillity  in  his 
own  breast,  and  immortal.  Yet  he  was  not 
without  law  ;  for  to  the  law  of  nature,  which 
was  impressed  on  his  heart,  God  superad- 
ded a  positive  law,  not  to  eat  of  the  forbid- 
den fruit.  Gen.  ii.  17.  under  the  penalty  of 
death  natural,  spiritual,  and  eternal.  Had 
he  obeyed  this  law,  he  might  have  had  rea- 
son to  expect  that  he  would  not  only  have 
had  the  continuance  of  his  natural  and  spi- 
1  itual  life,  but  have  been  transported  to  the 
upper  paradise. — 2.  His  fall.  Man's  righ- 
teousness, however,  though  universal,  was 
not  immutable,  as  the  event  has  proved.  How 
long  he  lived  in  a  state  of  innocence  can  not 
easily  be  ascertained,  yet  most  suppose  it  was 
but  ci  siiort  tinie.  The  positive  law  which  Gcd 
gave  him  he  broke,  by  eating  the  forbidden 
fi-uit.  The  consequence  of  tliis  evil  act  was, 
that  man  lost  the  chief  good  ;  his  nature 
was  corrupted  ;  his  powers  depraved,  his 
body  subject  to  corruption,  his  soul  exposed 
to  misery,  his  posterity  all  involved  in  ruin, 
subject  to  eternal  condemnation,  and  for 
ever  incapable  to  restore  themselves  to  the 
favour  of  God,  to  obey  his  commands  per- 
fectly, and  to  satisfy  his  justice.  Gal.  iii. 
Rom.  V.  Gen.  iii.  Eph.  ii.  Rom.  iii.  pas- 
sim. See  Fall. — 3.  His  recovery.  AI- 
thougli  man  has  fallen  by  his  iniquity,  yet 
he  is  not  left  finally  to  perish.  The  Divine 
Being,  foreseeing  the  fall,  in  infinite  love 
and  mercy  made  provision  for  his  relief. 
Jesus  Christ,  according  to  the  divine  purpose, 
came  in  the  fulness  of  time  to  be  his  Sa- 
viour, and,  bv  virtue  of  his  sufferings,  all 
who  believe  are  justified  from  the  curse  of 
the  law.  By  the  influences  of  the  Holy 
Sf)irit  he  is  regenerated,  united  to  Christ  by 
faith,  and  sanctified.  True  believers,' there- 
fore, live  a  life  of  dependence  on  the  promis- 
es; of  regularity  and  obedience  to  God's  word; 
of  holy  joy  and  peace;  and  have  a  hope 
full  of  immortality. — 4.  His  f  dure  state.  As 
it  respects  the  impenitent,  it  is  a  state  of 
separation  from  God,  and  eternal  punish- 
ment, Matt.  XXV.  46.  But  the  righteous 
shall  rise  to  glory,  honour,  and  everlasting  joy. 
To  the  fonnei-,' death  will  be  the  introduc- 
tion to  misery  ;  to  the  latter,  it  will  be  the 
admission  f;o  felicity.  All  will  be  tried  in 
the  judgment-day,  and  sentence  pronounced 
accordiiigly.  Tlie  wicked  will  be  driven 
away  in  his  wickedness,  and  the  righteous 
be  saved  with  an  everlasting  salvation.  But 
as  these  subjects  are  treated  on  elsewhere, 
we  refer  the  reader  to  the  articles  Grace, 
Heavkn,  Hell,  Sin.  Hartley's  Observa- 
tions on  Man ;  Bostcn^s  Fourfold  State. 
Kame's  Sketchts  of  ths  History  of  Man, 


MAN 


290 


M  A  N 


Locke  on  Unci.  Reid  on  (he  jictive  and 
Intellectual  Povjers  of  Man.  Wollaslon's 
Religion  of  J\ature.  Harm'  Philosophical 
^Arrangements. 

MANICHEES,  or Manichfans  {Man- 
ichxi,)  a  sect  of  ancient  heretics,  who  as- 
serted two  principles;  so  called  from  their 
author  Alanes  or  Alanicxhus,  a  Persian  by 
nation,  and  educated  among  the  Magi,  being 
himself  one  of  that  number  before  he  em- 
braced Christianity. 

This  heresy  had  its  first  rise  about  the 
year  277,  and  spread  itself  principally  in 
Arabia,  Eg)'pt,  and  Africa.  St.  Epiphanins, 
who  treats  of  it  at  large,  observes  that  the 
true  name  of  this  heresiarch  was  C'ubricus ; 
and  that  he  changed  it  for  Manrs,  which, 
in  the  Persian  or  Babylonish  language,  sig- 
nifies vessel.  A  rich  widow,  whose  servant 
he  had  been,  dying  without  issue,  left  him 
stores  of  wealth  ;  after  which  he  assuriied 
the  title  of  the  a/iostle  or  envoy  of  Jesus 
Christ. 

Manes  was  not  contented  with  the  quality 
of  apostle  of  Jesus  Christ,  but  he  also  assu- 
med that  of  the  paraclete,  whom  Christ  had 
promised  to  send  :  which  Augustine  explains, 
by  saying,  that  Manes  endeavoured  to  per- 
suade men  that  the  Holy  Ghost  did  person- 
ally dwell  in  him  with'  full  authority.  He 
left  several  discij)les?  and  among  others, 
Addas,  Thomas,  and  Hcrmas.  These  he 
sent  in  his  life-time  into  several  provinces 
to  preach  his  doctrine.  Manes  having  un- 
dertaken to  cure  the  king  of  Persia's  son, 
and  not  succeeding,  was  put  in  prison  upon 
the  young  prince's  death,  whence  he  made 
his  esca])e  ;  but  he  was  apprehended  soon 
after,  and  flayed  alive. 

However,  the  oriental  wiiters  cited  by 
l)"Herbelot  and  Hydr,  tells  us,  that  Manes 
after  having  been  protected  in  a  singular 
manner  l)y  Hormizdas,  who  succeeded  Sa- 
por in  the  Per.-.ian  throne,  but  who  was  not 
able  to  defend  him,  at  length,  against  the 
united  hatred  (  f  the  Christians,  the  Magi 
the  Jews,  and  the  Pagans,  was  shut  up  in  a 
strong  castle,  to  serve  him  as  a  refuge 
against  those  who  persecuted  him  on  ac- 
count of  his  doctrine.  They  add,  that  af- 
ter the  deatli  of  Hormizda"*,  Varanes  I.  his 
successor,  fir.st  protected  Manes,  but  sifter- 
wards  gave  him  up  to  the  fury  of  the  Magi, 
whose  resentment  against  him  was  due  to 
his  having  adcjjjted  the  Sadducean  principles, 
as  some  say;  while  others  attribute  it  to  his 
having  mingled  the  tenets  of  the  Magi  with 
the  doctrines  of  Christianity.  However  it 
is  certain  that  the  Manicheans  celebrated 
the  day  of  their  masters  deatii.  It  has  been 
a  subject  of  much  controversy  whether 
Manes  was  an  impostor.  The  iearntd  Dr. 
l^ardoer  has  examined  the  arguments  on 
both  sides  ;  and  though  he  does  not  choose 
to  deny  that  he  was  an  impostor,  he  does 
not  discern  evident  jjroofs  of  it.  He  ac- 
knowledges that  he  was  an  arrogant  philo- 
sopher, and  a  great  schemist ;  but  whether 
he  was  an  impostor  he  cannot  certainly  say. 


He  was  much  too  fond  of  philosophical  no- 
tions, which  he  endeavoured  to  bring  into 
religion,  for  which  he  is  to  be  blamed;  ne- 
vertheless, he  observes,  that  every  bold 
dogmatizer  is  not  an  impostor.. 

The  doctrine  of  Manes  was  a  motley 
mixture  of  the  tenets  of  Christianity  with  * 
tiie  ancient  philosophy  of  the  Persians,  in 
which  he  had  been  instructed  during  his 
youth.  He  combined  these  two  systems, 
and  applied  and  accommodated  to  Jesus 
Clirist,  the  characters  and  actions  which 
the  Persians  attiibuted  to  the  god  Mithras. 

He  estatilished  two  principles,  viz.  a  g<%od 
and  an  evil  one  :  the  hrst  a  most  pure  and 
subtile  matter,  which  he  called  lighi,  did 
i  nothing  but  good  ;  and  the  second  a  gross 
i  livd  corrupt  substance,  whicli  *he  called 
Idar^-ness,  nothing  but  evil.  This  philosophy 
IS  ■  very  ancient ;  and  Plutarch  treats  of  it 
at  large  in  his  Isis  and  Osiris, 

Our   souls,    according   to    Manes,    were 
made  by  tlie  good  principle,   and  our  bodies 
by  the  evil  one ;  those  two  principles  being, 
according  to  him,   co-eternal  and  indepen- 
dent of  each  otlier.    Each  of  these  is  sul.)ject 
to  the  dominion  of  a  .superintendent  Being, 
whose  existence  is  from  all  eternity.     The 
Being  who  presides  over  the  light  is  called 
God;  he  that  rules  the  land  of  darkness 
bears  the  title  rf  hylc  or  cUnion.    The  ruler 
of  the  light  is  sujjremely  happy,  and  in  con« 
sequence  thereof  benevolent  and  good  ;  the 
prince  of  darkness   is  unhappy  in  himself, 
and  desirous  of  rendering  others  partakers 
of  his  misery  ;  and  is  evil   and   malignant. 
These  two  beings  have  produced   an   im- 
mense multitude  of  creatures  resenibling 
themselves,  and  distributed  them  through 
their  respective  provinces.    After  a  contest 
between  the  ruler  of  light  and  the  prince  of  \ 
darkness,  iu  which  ttic  latter  a^s  defeated,  ' 
this  prince  of  darkness  produced  the  first 
parents  of  the  human  race.     The  beings  en- 
gendered from  this  original  slock  consist  of 
a  body  formed  out  of  the  corrupt  matter  of 
I  the  kingdom  of  darkness,  and  of  two  souls; 
one  of  which  is  sensitive   and  lustful,   arid 
owes  its  existence  to  the  evil  principle  ;  the 
other  rational  and  immortal,    a  particle  of 
that  divine   liglit  which   had   been   carried 
away  in  the  contest  by  the  army  of  dark- 
ness, and  inuTiersed  into  the  mass  of  malig- 
nant  matter.    The  earth   was  created  by  ^ 
G(>d  out  of  this  corrupt  mass  of  matter,  in 
order  to  be  a  dwelling  for  the  human  race, 
that  their  captive  souls   might,  by  degrees,  j 
be  delivered   from   their  corpireal  prisons,' 
and  the  celestial  elements  extricated  from 
itie  gross  substance  in  which  they  wej"e  in- 
vohed.     With  this  view  (iod  produced  two 
beings  from  his  own  substance,   viz  Christ 
and    the  Holy  Gliost ;  tor   the   Manicheans 
held  a   consubstantial  Trinity.    Christ,   or 
the  glorious  intelligence,  called  l)y  the  Per- 
sians Alithras,   subsisting  in  and  by  liimself, 
a;id  residing  in   the  sun,   appeared  in   due 
time    among    the   Jews,    clothed    with    the 
shadowy  form  of  a  human  body,  to  disvu- 


MAN 


291 


MAN 


gage  the  rational  soul  from  the  corrupt  body, 
and  to  conquer  the  violence  of  malignant 
matter.  The  Jews,  incited  by  the  prince 
of  darkness,  put  him  to  an  ignominious 
death,  which  he  sutfered  not  in  reality,  but 
only  in  appearance,  and  according  to  the 
opinion  of  men.  When  the  purposes  of  Christ 
were  accomplished,  he  returned  to  his 
throne  in  the  sun,  appointing  apostles  to 
propagate  his  religion,  and  leaving  his  fol- 
lowers the  promise  of  the  paraclete  or  com- 
forter, who  is  Manes  the  Persian.  Those 
souis  \vho  believe  Jesus  Christ  to  be  the  Son 
of  God,  renounce  tlie  worship  of  the  god  of 
the  Jews,  wiio  is  the  prince  of  darkness, 
and  obey  the  laws  delivered  by  Christ,  and 
illustrated  by  Manes  the  comforter,  are  gra- 
dually purified  from  the  contagion  of  mat- 
ter :  and  their  purification  being  completed, 
after  having  passed  through  two  states  of 
trial,  by  water  and  fire,  first  in  the  moon 
and  then  in  the  sun,  their  bodies  return  to 
the  original  mass  (for  the  Manicheans  de- 
rided the  resurrection  of  bodies,)  and  their 
souls  ascend  to  the  regions  of  light  But  the 
souls  of  those  who  have  neglected  the  salu- 
tary work  of  purification,  pass  after  death 
into  the  bodies  of  other  animals  and  natures 
where  they  remain  till  they  have  accom- 
plished their  probation.  Some,  however, 
more  pervei'se  and  obstinate,  are  consigned 
to  a  severer  course  of  trial,  being  delivered 
over  for  a  time  to  the  power  of  malignant  j 
aerial  spirits,  who  torment  them  in  various 
ways.  After,  this,  a  fire  shall  break  forth 
and  consume  the  frame  of  the  world ;  and 
the  prince  and  powei's  of  darkness  shall  re- 
turn to  their  primitive  seats  of  anguish  and 
misery,  in  which  they  shall  dwell  fa-  ever. 
These  mansions  shall  be  surrounded  by  an 
invincible  guard,  to  prevent  their  ever  re- 
newing a  war  in  the  regions  of  liglit. 

Manes  borrowed  many  things  from  the 
ancient  Gntstics ;  on  which  account  many 
authors  consider  the  Manicheans  as  a  branch 
of  the  Gnostics. 

In  truth,  the  Manichean  d(  ctrine  was  a 
system  of  philosophy  rather  than  of  reli- 
gion. They  made  use  of  amulets,  in  imita- 
tion of  the  Basilidians  ;  and  are  said  to  liave 
made  profession  of  astronomy  and  astrology. 
They  denied  that  Jesus  Christ,  who  was 
only  God,  assumed  a  true  iiuman  body,  and 
maintained  it  was  only  imaginary ;  and 
therefore  they  denied  his  incarnation,  death, 
&c.  They  pretended  that  the  law  of  Moses 
did  not  come  from  God,  or  the  good  i^rinci- 
ple,  but  from  the  evil  one  ;  and  that  for  this 
reason  it  was  abrogated.  They  rejected 
almost  rJl  the  sacred  books  in  which  Chris- 
tians look  for  the  suljlime  truths  of  tlu-ir 
tioly  religion.  They  affirmed  that  the  Old  1 
Testament  was  not  the  work  of  God,  but  | 
of  the  prince  of  darkness,  who  was  substi- 
tuted by  the  Jews  in  the  place  of  the  true 
God.  They  abstained  entirelv  from  eating 
the  flesh  of  anv  animal ;  following  herein 
the  doctrine  of  the  ancient  Pythatroreans  : 
they  also  condemned  marriage.    "Xhe  rest 


of  their  en'ors  may  be  seen  in  St.  Epipha- 
nius  and  St.  Augustine  :  which  last,  having 
been  of  their  sect,  may  be  presumed  to 
have  been  thoroughly  acquainted  with 
them. 

Though  the  Manichees  professed  to  re- 
ceive the  books  of  the  New  Testament, 
yet  in  effect  they  only  took  so  much  of 
them  as  suited  with  their  own  opinions. 
They  first  formed  to  themselves  a  certain 
idea  or  scheme  of  Christianity  ;  and  to  this 
adjusted  the  writings  of  the  apostles,  pre- 
tending that  whatever  was  inconsistent  with 
this  had  been  foisted  into  the  New  Testament 
by  the  later  writers,  who  were  half  Jews.  On 
the  other  hand,  they  made  fables  and  apocry- 
phal books  pass  for  apostolical  writings  ; 
and  even  are  suspected  to  have  forged 
several  others  the  better  to  maintain  their 
errors.  St.  Epiphanius  gives  a  catalogue 
of  several  pieces  published  by  Manes,  and 
adds  extracts  out  of  some  of  them.  These 
are  the  Mysteries,  Chapters,  Gospel,  and 
I'reasury. 

The  rule  of  life  and  manners  which 
Manes  prescribed  to  his  followers  was  most 
extravagantly  severe.  However  he  divided 
his  disciples  into  two  classes;  one  of  which 
comprehended  the  perfect  Christian,  un- 
der the  name  of  the  elect ;  and  the  other 
the  imperfect  and  feeble,  under  the  title  of 
auditors  or  hearers.  'l"he  elect  were  oblige 
ed  to  rigorous  and  entire  abstinence  from 
Hesh,  eggs,  milk,  fish,  wine,  all  intoxicating 
drink,  wedlock  and  all  amorous  gratifica- 
tions ;  and  to  live  in  a  state  of  the  severest 
penuiy,  nourishing  their  emaciated  bodies 
with  bread,  herbs,  pulse,  and  melons,  and 
depriving  themselves  of  ail  the  comforts  that 
arise  from  the  moderate  indulgence  cf  natural 
passions,  and  also  from  a  variety  of  innocent 
and  agreable  pursuits.  The  auditors  were  al- 
lowed to  possess  houses,  lands,  and  wealth  ; 
to  feed  on  flesh,  to  enter  into  the  bonds  of 
conjugal  tenderness  ;  but  this  Hberty  w^as 
granted  them  with  many  limitations,  and 
under  the  strictest  conditions  of  moderation 
and  tiMTiperance.  The  general  assembly  of 
Manicheans  was  headed  by  a  president, 
wlio  reprt-sented  Jestis  Christ.  There  were 
joined  to  him  twelve  rulers  or  masters,  who 
were  designed  to  represent  the  twelve 
apostles  ;  and  these  v/ere  followed  by  seven- 
ty-two hi>>hops,  the  ima.ges  of  the  seventy- 
two  disci])les  of  our  Lord.  These  bishops 
had  pre.sbj'ters  or  deacons  under  them,  and 
all  the  members  of  these  religious  orders 
were  chosen  out  of  the  class  of  the  elect.. 
Their  worsliip  was  simple  and  plain,  and 
consisted  of  prayers,  reading  the  scripture-;, 
and  hearing  public  discourses,  at  which 
both  the  auditors  and  elect  were  allowed 
to  be  present.  Tlicy  also  observed  the 
Christian  appointment  of  baptism,  and  t  se 
eucharist.  They  kept  the  Lord's  day,  o'j- 
serving  it  as  a  fast;  and  they  likewise  kept 
Easter  and  tlie  Penteco.st. 

Towards    the   fourth  century  the    Mar.j- 
cheans  concealed  themselves  under  various 


MAR 


292 


M  AR 


names,  which  they  successively  adopted, 
and  changed  in  proportion  as  they  were  dis- 
covered by  tliem.  Thus  tliey  assumed  the 
names  of  Encratites,  Apotactics,  Sacco- 
phori,  Hydroparastales,  S^Utaries,  and  seve- 
ral others,  under  which  they  lay  concealed 
for  a  certain  time,  but  could  not,  however, 
long  escape  the  vigilance  of  tlieir  enemies. 
About  the  close  of  the  sixth  century,  this 
sect  gained  a  very  considera')le  infiuence, 
particularly  among  the  Persians. 

Towards  the  middle  of  tlie  twelfth  cen- 
tury, the  sect  cf  Manichees  took  a  new 
face,  on  account  of  one  Constantine,  an 
American,  and  an  adherer  to  it ;  who  took 
upon  him  to  suppress  the  reading  of  all 
other  books,  besides  the  evangelists  and  the 
epistles  of  St.  Paul,  Avhich  he  explained  in 
such  a  maimer  as  to  make  them  contain  a 
new  system  of  iNIanicheism.  He  entirely 
discarded  all  the  wiitings  of  his  p.-edeces- 
sors ;  rejecting  the  chimeras  of  the  ^'alen- 
tinians  and  their  thirty  sons  ;  the  fable  of 
Manes,  witii  regard  to  the  origin  of  rain, 
and  other  dreams ;  but  still  retained  the 
impurities  of  Basilides.  In  this  manner  he 
reformed  Manicheism,  insomuch  that  his 
followers  made  no  scruple  of  anathematiz- 
ing Scythian,  Jiuddas,  called  also  Addas  and 
Terehintli,  the  contemporaries  and  disciples, 
as  some  say,  and  according  to  others,  the 
predecessors  and  masters  of  Manes,  and 
even  Manes  himself:  Constantine  being  now 
their  great  apostle.  After  he  had  seduced 
an  infinite  number  of  people,  he  was  at  last 
stoned  by  order  of  the  emperor. 

This  sect  jnxvailed  in  Bosnia  and  the 
adjacent  pro\  inces  about  the  close  of  the 
fifteenth  century  ;  ])ropagated  their  docU'ine 
with  confidence,  and  held  their  religious 
assemblies  with  impunity. 

MANNERS :  t!ie  plural  noun  has  various 
significations;  as  the  general  way  of  life, 
the  morals  or  the  hal)its  of  any  ])ersnns  ;  al- 
so ceremonial  behaviour  or  studied  civility. 
Good  manners^  according  to  Swift,  is  the 
art  of  making  those  people  easy  with  whom 
we  converse.  Pride,  ill-nature,  and  want  of 
sense,  are  the  three  great  sources  of  ill 
manners.  'Without  some  one  of  these  de- 
fects no  man  will  behave  himself  ill  for 
want  of  experience;  or  of  what,  in  the  ian- 
g;uage  of  some,  is  called  knowing  the  world. 
For  the  effect  tliat  Christianity  has  on 
the  manners  of  men,  see  article  Chris- 
tianity. 

MARCELLIANS,  a  sect  of  ancient  he- 
retics, towards  t!\e  close  of  the  second  cen- 
tury ;  so  called  from  Mar'cellus  of  Ancyra, 
their  leader,  who  was  accused  of  reviving 
the  errors  of  Sabidlius.  Some,  however, 
are  of  opinion,  that  Marcelliis  was  orthodox, 
and  that  they  were  his  enemies,  the  Arians, 
who  fatliered  tiicir  errors  upon  him.  St. 
Epiphanius  observes,  that  tiiere  was  a  great 
deal  of  dispute  with  regai'd  to  the  real 
tenets  of  Marcellus  :  but  as  to  his  followers, 
it  is  evident  that  they  did  not  own  the 
three  hypostases ;  for  JSiarcellus  considered 


the  Son  and  Holy  Ghost  as  two  emanations 
from  the  Divine  nature,  which,  after  per- 
forming their  respective  offices,  were  to  re- 
turn again  into  the  substance  of  the  Father  l 
and  this  opinion  is  altogether  incompatible 
with  the  belief  of  three  distinct  persons  in 
the  Godhead. 

MAKCIONITES,     or     Marcionists, 
Alarcionistue,  a  very  ancient  and   pojmlar 
sect  of  heretics,   who,  in  the  time  of  Epi- 
phanius,   were   spread  over  Italy,    Egypt, 
Palestine,  Syria,  Arabia,  Persia,  and  other 
countries:    they    were     thus    denominated 
from   their  author  Marcion.     Marcion  was 
of  Pontus,  the  son  of  a  bishop,  and  at  first 
made  piofession  of  the  monastical  life ,  but 
I  he  was  excommunicated  by  his  own  father, 
I  who  would    never    admit   him    again  into 
I  communion  with  the  church,   not  even  on 
j  tiis    repentance.      On   this,    he    abandoned 
i  his  own    countiy,    and    retired    to    Rome, 
where  he  began  to  l^roach  his  doctrines. 
I      He   laid  down  two  principles,    the   one 
I  good,  the  other  evil ;  between  these  he  im'a- 
I  gined  an  intermediate  kind  of  Deity,  of  a 
I  mixed  nature,  who  was  the  Creator  of  this 
i  inferior  world,  and  tiie  god  and  legislature 
j  of  the  Jewish  nation  :  the  other  nations  who 
I  worsliipped  a  variety  of  gods,  were  suppos- 
!  ed  to  be  under  the  empire  of  the  evil  prin- 
i  ciple.    These  two  conflicting  powers  exer- 
•  else  oppressions  upon  rational   and  immor- 
:  tal  souls :  and  therefore  the  Suj)reme  God, 
!  to   deliver  them  from  bondage,    sent  to  the 
I  Jews  a  being  more  like  unto  himself,  even  his 
;  Son   Jesus    Christ,    clothed  with    a   certain 
I  shadowy  resemblance  of  a  bod)- :  this  celes- 
!  tial  messenger  was  attacked  by  the  prince 
I  of   darkness,  and   by  the  god  of  the  Jews, 
but  without   effect.     Those  who  follow   the 
'  dn-ections  of  thi.s  celestial   conductor,    mor- 
tify the  body  by  fastings  and  austerities,  and 
renounce. the  prece])ts  of    the   god  of    the 
Jews,   and  of  the  prince  of  darkness,   shall 
after  death  ascend  to  the  mansions  of  feli- 
city and  perfection.     'I'lie   rule  of  manners 
wliicii  Marcion  prescribed   to  his   followers 
was  excessively  austere,    containing  an  ex- 
])ress   prohibition   of  wedlock,   wine,    flesh, 
and  all  the  external  comforts  of  life. 

Marcion  denied  the  real  birth,  incarna- 
tion, and  passion  of  Jesus  Christ,  and  held 
them  to  be  apparent  only.  He  denied  the 
resurrection  of  the  body,  and  .dlowed  u'  nc 
to  be  baptized  but  those  wlio  preserved 
their  continence  ;  but  these  he  granted 
might  be  baptized  three  timrs.  In  many 
tlimgs  he  foliowcd  the  sentiments  of  the 
heretic  Cerdon,  and  rejected  the  law  and 
the  prophets.  He  pretended  the-  Gospel 
had  been  corrupted  by  false  prophets,  and 
allowed  none  of  the  evangelists  but  St. 
Luke,  whom  also  he  altered  in  many  ]3laccs, 
as  well  as  the  epistles  of  St.  Paul,  a  great 
many  things  in  which  he  threw  out.  In 
his  own  copy  of  St.  Luke,  he  threw  out  the 
two  first  chapters  entire. 

MARCITES,  Marcit-T:,  a  sect  of  here- 
tics in  the  second  century,  who  also  called 


MAR 


293 


MAn 


themselves  the  fierfecti,  and  made  profes- 
sion of  dohig  every  thing  with  a  great  deal 
of  liberty  and  without  fear.  This  doctrine 
they  borrowed  from  Simon  Magus,  who 
however,  was  not  their  chief;  for  they  were 
called  Marcites  from  one  Marcus,  who  con- 
ferred the  priesthood,  and  the  administra- 
tion of  the  sacraments,  on  women. 

MARCOSIANS,  or  Colobarsians,  an 
ancient  sect  in  the  church,  making  a  branch 
of  the  Valentinians. 

St.  Irenxus  speaks  at  large  of  the  leader 
of  this  sect,  Marcus,  who  it  seems  was  re- 
puted a  great  magician.  The  Marcosians 
had  a  great  number  of  apocr>'phal  books 
which  they  held  for  canonical,  and  of  the 
same  authority  with  our's.  Out  of  these 
they  picked  several  idle  fables  touching  the 
infancy  of  Jesus  Christ,  which  they  put  off 
for  true  histories.  Many  of  these  fables  are 
still  in  use  and  credit  among  the  Greek 
monks. 

MARONITES,  in  ecclesiastical  history,  a 
sect  of  eastern  Christians  who  follow  the 
Syrian  rite,  and  are  subject  to  the  pope ; 
their  principal  habitation  being  on  Mount 
Libanus. 

Mosheim  informs  us,  that  the  doctrine 
of  the  Monothehtes,  condemned  and  explod- 
ed by  the  council  of  Constantinople,  found 
a  place  of  refuge  among  the  Mardaites,  a 
people  who  inhabited  the  Mounts  Libanus 
and  Atilibanus,  and  who,  about  the  conclu- 
sion of  the  seventh  century,  were  called 
Maronitcs,  after  Maro,  their  first  bishop ; 
a  name  which  they  still  retain.  None  (he 
says)  of  the  ancient  writers  give  any  ac- 
count of  the  first  person  who  instnacted 
these  mountaineers  in  the  doctrine  of  the 
Monothelites  ;  it  is  probable,  however,  from 
several  circumstances,  that  it  was  John 
Maro,  whose  name  they  adopted  ;  and  that 
this  ecclesiastic  received  tlie  name  of  Ma- 
ro from  Ills  having  lived  in  the  character 
of  a  monk  in  the  famous  convent  of  St. 
Maro,  upon  the  borders  of  the  Orontes,  be- 
fore his  settlement  among  the  Mardaites  of 
Mount  Libanus.  One  thing  is  certain,  from 
the  testimony  of  Tyrius  and  other  unexcep- 
tionable witnesses,  as  also  from  the  most 
authentic  records,  viz.  that  the  Maronites 
retained  the  opinions  of  the  Monothelites 
until  the  twelfth  century,  when,  abandon- 
ing and  renouncing  the  doctrine  of  one  will 
in  Clirist,  they  were  re-admitted  in  the 
year  1182,  to  the  communion  of  the  Roman 
church.  The  most  learned  of  the  modern 
Maronites  have  left  no  method  unemployed 
to  defend  their  church  against  this  accusa- 
tion :  they  have  laboured  to  prove,  by  a  va- 
riety of  testimonies,  that  their  ancestors  al- 
ways persevei'ed  in  the  Catholic  faith,  in 
their  attachment  to  the  Roman  pontiff,  with- 
out ever  adopting  the  doctrine  of  the  Mo- 
nophysites,  or  Monothelites.  But  all  their 
efforts  are  insufficient  to  prove  the  trutli  of 
these  assertions  to  such  as  have  any  ac- 
quaintance with  the  history  of  the  church, 
and  the  records  of  ancient  times;  for  to  all 


such,  the  testimonies  they  allege  will  ap- 
pear absolutely  fictitious,  and  destitute  of 
authority. 

Faustus  Nairon,  a  Maronite,  settled  at 
Rome,  has  published  an  apology  for  Maro, 
and  the  rest  of  his  nation.  His  tenet  is, 
that  they  really  took  their  name  from  the 
Maro,  who  lived  about  the  year  400,  and  of 
whom  mention  is  made  in  Chrysostom, 
Theodoret,  and  the  Menologium  of  the 
Greeks.  He  adds,  that  the  disciples  of  this 
Maro  spread  themselves  throughout  all  Sy- 
ria ;  that  they  built  several  monasteries, 
and  among  others,  one  that  bore  the  name 
of  their  leader ;  that  all  the  Syrians  who 
were  not  tainted  with  heresy,  took  refuge 
among  them ;  and  that  for  this  reason 
the  heretics  of  those  times  called  them 
Maronites. 

Mosheim  observes,  that  the  subjection  of 
the  Maronites  to  the  spiritual  jurisdiction  of 
the  Roman  pontiff  was  agreed  to  with  this 
express  condition  ;  that  neither  the  pope* 
nor  their  emissaries  should  pretend  to 
change  or  abolish  any  thing  that  related 
to  the  ancient  rites  moral  precepts,  or  re- 
ligious opinions  of  this  people ;  so  that  in 
reality,  there  is  nothing  to  be  found  among 
the  Maronites  that  savours  of  popery,  if 
we  except  their  attachment  to  the  Roman 
pontiff,  who  is  obliged  to  pay  very  dear 
for  their  friendship.  For  as  the  Maronites 
live  in  the  utmost  distress  of  povei  ty,  under 
the  tyrannical  yoke  of  the  Mahometans, 
the  bishop  of  Rome  is  under  the  necessity 
of  furnishing  them  with  such  subsidies  as 
may  appease  their  oppressors,  procure  a 
subsistence  for  their  bishop  and  clergy,  pro- 
vide all  things  requisite  for  the  support  of 
their  churches,  and  the  uninterrupted  ex- 
ercise of  public  worship,  and  contribute  in 
general  to  lessen  their  miseries.  It  is  cer- 
tain that  there  are  Maronites  in  Syria  who 
still  behold  the  church  of  Rome  with  the 
greatest  aversion  and  abhorrence ;  nay, 
what  is  still  more  remarkable,  great  num- 
bers of  that  nation  residing  in  Italy,  even 
under  the  eye  of  the  pontiff,  opposed  his 
authority  during  the  last  century,  and  threw 
the  court  of  Rome  into  great  perplexity. 
One  body  of  these  nonconforming  Maronites 
retired  into  the  vallies  of  Piedmont,  where 
they  joined  the  Waldenses,  another,  above 
six  hundred  in  number,  witli  a  bishop  and 
several  ecclesiastics  at  their  head,  fled  into 
Corsica,  and  implored  the  protection  of  the 
Republic  of  Genoa  against  the  violence  of 
the  inquisitors. 

The  Maronites  have  a  patriarch  who  re- 
sides in  the  monastery  of  Cannubin,  on 
Mount  Libanus,  and  assumes  the  title  of 
patriarch  of  Antioch,  and  the  name  of  Pe- 
ter, as  if  he  seemed  desirous  of  being  con- 
sidered as  the  successor  of  that  apostle. 
He  is  elected  by  the  clei-gy  and  the  people, 
according  to  the  ancient  custom  ;  but,  since 
their  reunion  with  the  chui'ch  of  Rome,  he 
is  obliged  to  have  a  bull  of  confirmation 
il  from  the  pope.     He  keeps  a  perpetual  ce- 


MAR 


294 


MAR 


iibacy,  as  well  as  the  rest  of  the  bishops, 
his  suflFragans  :  as  to  the  rest  of  the  eccle- 
siastics, they  are  allowed  to  marry  before 
ordination  ;  and  yet  the  monastic  life  is  m 
great  esteem  aniong  them.  Their  monks 
are  of  the  order  of  St.  Anthony,  and  live  in 
the  most  obscure  places  in  the  mountains, 
far  from  the  commerce  of  the  world. 

As  to  their  faith,  they  agree  in  the  main 
with  the  rest  of  the  eastern  church.  Their 
priests  do  not  say  mass  singly,  but  all  say  it 
together,  standing  round  the  altar.  They 
communicate  in  unleavened  bread :  and  the 
laity  have  hitherto  partaken  in  both  kinds, 
though  the  practice  of  communicating  in 
one  has  of  late  been  getting  footing,  having 
been  introduced  by  little  and  little.  In  Lent 
they  eat  nothing,  unless  it  be  two  or  three 
hours  before  sunrising  :  their  other  fastings 
are  very  numerous. 

MARRIAGE,  a  covenant  between  a  man 
and  a  woman,  in  which  they  mutually  pro- 
mise cohabitation,  and  a  continual  care  to 
promote  the  comfort  and  happiness  of  each 
other.  By  Grove  thus  :  "  A  society  formed 
between  two  persons  of  different  sexes, 
chiefly  for  the  procreation  and  education  of 
children."  This  union  is  very  near  and  strict, 
and  indeed  indissoluble  but  by  death,  ex- 
cepting in  one  case  ;  unfaithfulness  in  the 
one  to  the  other  by  adultery  or  fornication, 
Rom.  vii.  2.  Matt.  v.  32.  It  is  to  be  en- 
tered into  with  deliberation,  at  a  proper 
age,  and  with  mutual  consent,  as  well  as 
with  the  consent  of  parents  and  guardians, 
under  whose  care  single  persons  may  be.  It 
is  a  very  honourable  state,  Heb.  xiii.  4,  be- 
ing an  institution  of  God,  and  that  in  Para- 
dise, Gen.  ii.  Christ  honoured  marriage  by 
his  presence,  and  at  such  a  solemnity 
wrought  his  first  miracle,  John  ii.  More- 
over, it  is  honourable,  as  families  are  form- 
ed ancLbuilt  up,  the  world  peopled  with  in- 
habitants, prevents  incontinence  and  forni- 
cation, and  where  tlie  various  duties  of  it 
are  attended  to,  renders  life  a  blessing. 

The  laws  of  revelation,  as  well  as  most 
civilized  countries,  have  m.ide  several  ex- 
ceptions of  persons  marrying  who  are  near- 
ly related  by  blood.  The  marriage  of  pa- 
rents and  children  appears,  at  first  view, 
contrary  to  nature,  not  merely  on  account  of 
the  disparity  of  age,  but  of"  the  confusion 
which  it  introduces  into  natural  relations,  and 
its  obliging  to  inconsistent  duties,  such  as  reve- 
rence to  a  son,  and  the  daughter  to  be  ecjual 
with  the  father.  Nor  can  the  son  or  daugh- 
ter acquit  themselves  of  such  inconsistent 
duties  as  would  arise  from  this  unnatural 
union.  The  marriage  of  brothers  and  sis- 
ters, and  of  some  other  near  relations,  is 
likewise  disapproved  by  reason  on  various 
accounts.  It  frustrates  one  design  of  mar- 
riage, which  is  to  enlarge  benevolence  and 
friendship,  by  cementing  various  families 
in  a  close  alliance.  And,  farther,  were  it 
allowed,  young  persons,  instead  of  entering 
into  marriage  upon  mature  consideration, 
with  a  settled  esteem  and  friendship,  and  a 


proper  concern  and  provision  for  the  sup- 
port and  education  of  children,  would  be  in 
danger  (through  the  intimacy  and  affec- 
tion produced  by  their  near  relation,  and  be- 
ing bred  together)  of  sliding  in  their  incon- 
siderate years  into  those  criminal  familiari- 
ties which  are  most  destructive  of  the  great 
ends  of  marriage.  Most  nations  have 
agreed  to  brand  such  marriages  as  highly 
criminal,  who  cannot  be  supposed  to  have 
derived  their  judgment  from  Moses  and  the 
Israelites.  It  is  probable  God  expressly 
prohibited  these  marriages  in  the  beginning 
of  mankind,  and  from  the  first  heads  of 
families  the  prohibition  might  be  transmit- 
ted as  a  most  sacred  law  to  their  descend- 
ants.   See  Incest. 

Some  have  supposed  from  those  passages, 
1  Tim.  iii.  2.  Tit.  i.  6,  that  Bishops  or 
Pastors  ought  never  to  marry  a  second 
wife.  But  such  a  prohibition  would  be  con- 
trary to  natural  right,  and  the  design  of  the 
law  itself;  neither  of  which  was  ever  intend- 
ed to  be  set  aside  by  the  Gospel  dispensa- 
tion. It  is  more  probably  designed  to  guard 
against  polygamy,  and  against  divorce  on 
frivolous  occasions ;  both  of  which  were 
frequent  among  the  Jews,  but  condemned  by 
our  Lord,  Matt.  xix.  3 — 9. 

The  duties  of  this  state  are,  on  the  part 
of  the  husband,  love,  superior  to  any  shewn 
to  any  other  person  :  a  love  of  complacency 
and  delight,  Prov.  v.  18,  19.  Chaste  and 
single.  Provision  for  the  temporal  good  of 
the  wife  and  family,  1  Tim.  v.  3.  Protec- 
tion from  abuse  and  injuries,  Ruth  iii.  9.  1 
Sam.  XXX.  5,  18.  Doing  every  thing  that 
may  contribute  to  the  pleasure,  peace,  and 
comfort  of  the  wife,  1  Cor.  vii.  33.  Seeking 
her  spiritual  welfare,  and  every  thing  that 
shall  promote  her  edification  and  felicity. 
The  duties  on  the  part  of  the  wife  are  reve- 
rence, subjection,  obedience,  assistance, 
sympathy,  assuming  no  authority,  and  con- 
tinuance with  him,  Eph.  v.  32,  33.  Tit.  ii. 
5.  1  l^im.  V.  11,  12  Ruthi.  16  See  ar- 
ticles Divorce,  Parent.  Grove's  Mor. 
Phil.  vol.  ii.  p.  4ro.  Faley's  Mor.  Phil. 
ch.  viii.  vol.  i.  p.  339.  Bean's  Christian 
Afinistcr's  Jidvice  to  a  J\,''eiv  Married  Lou- 
ple.  Guide  to  Domestic  Happiness.  .Ad- 
vantages and  Disadvantages  of  the  Mar- 
ried State.  Stennet  on  Domestic  Duties. 
Jay's  Essay  on  Marriage.  Doddridge's 
Lect.  525,  234,  265,  vol.  i.  8vo.  ed. 

MARTYR,  is  one   who   lays  down   his      ; 
life  or  suffers  death  for  the  sake  of  his  re-      i 
ligion.     The   word  is  Greek,  f^ctprvp,   and      1 
properly  signifies  a  "  witness."  It  is  applied 
bv  way  of  eminence  to  those   who  suffer  in 
witness  of  the  truth  of  the  Gospel. 

Tile  Christian  church  has  abounded  with     j 
martyrs,   and    history  is    filled   with    sur-      | 
prising  accounts  of  their  singular  constan-      '" 
cy   and  fortitude  under  the  cruellest   tor- 
ments  human    nature   was  capable  of  suf- 
fering.      The    primitive    Christians    were 
accused    by    their    enemies   of    paying    a 
sort  of   divine    woi'ship   to  martyrs.       Of 


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this  we  have  an  instance  in  the  answer 
of  the  church  of  Smyrna  to  the  sugges- 
tion of  the  Jews,  who,  at  the  martyr- 
dom of  Polycarp,  desired  the  heathen 
judge  not  to  suffer  the  Christians  to  car- 
ry off  his  body,  lest  they  should  leave 
their  crucified  master,  and  worship  him 
in  his  stead.  To  which  they  answei'ed, 
*'  We  can  neither  forsake  Christ,  nor 
•worship  any  other :  for  we  worship  him 
as  the  Son  of  God  ;  but  love  tlie  martyrs 
as  the  disciples  and  followers  of  the  Lord, 
for  tl.e  gi-eat  affection  they  have  shewn 
to  their  King  and  Master."  A  like  an- 
sv/tr  was  given  at  the  martyrdom  of 
Fnjctuosus,  in  Spain  ;  for  when  the  judge 
asked  Eulogius,  his  deacon,  whether  he 
would  nut  worship  Fructuosus,  as  think- 
ing, that  though  he  refused  to  worship 
the  lieathen  idols,  he  might  yet  be  in- 
clined to  worship  a  Christian  martyr, 
Eulogius  replied,  "  I  do  not  worship  Fruc- 
tuosus, but  Him  whom  Fructuosus  wor- 
ships." The  priniilive  Christians  believ- 
ed, that  the  martyrs  enjoyed  very  singu- 
lar privileges;  that  upon  their  death,  they 
wei'e  iiimiediately  admitted  to  the  btati- 
lic  vision,  while  other  souls  waited  for 
the  comj)letion  of  their  happiness  till  the 
day  of  judgment  ;  and  that  God  would 
grant  to  their  prayers  the  hastening  of 
his  kingdom,  and  shortening  the  times  of 
persecution.  Perhaps  this  consideration 
mi;^ht  excite  many  to  court  martyrdom, 
as  we  beiiL-ve  many  did.  It  must  be  re- 
collected, however,  that  martyrdom,  in 
itself,  is  no  proof  of  the  goodness  of  our 
cause,  only,  that  we  ourselves  are  per- 
suaded that  it  is  so.  "  It  is  not  t!:e 
blood,  but  the  cause  that  makes  the  mar- 
tyr "  C Mead. J  Yet  we  may  consider 
the  number  and  fortitude  of  those  who 
have  suffered  for  Christianity  as  a  colla- 
teral proof  at  least  of  its'  excellency  : 
for  tbe  thing  for  which  they  suffered  was 
not  a  point  of  speci;lation,  but  a  plain 
matter  of  fact,  in  which  (had  it  been 
false)  they  could  not  have  been  mistaken 
TVie  maityrdoni,  therefore,  of  so  many 
wise  and  good  men,  taken  witli  a  view 
of  the  whole  system  of  Christianity,  will 
certainly  afford  something  considerable  in 
its  favour. 

The  churches  built  over  the  graves  of 
the  martyrs,  and  called  by  their  names, 
in  order  to  preserve  the  memory  of  their 
sufferings,  were  distinguished  by  the  title 
marcyrium  corifessw,  or  vienioria. 

The  festivals  of  the  martyrs  are  of 
very  ancitr'.t  date  in  the  Christian  church, 
and  may  be  earned  back  at  least  from  tlie 
time  of  Polycarp,  who  suffered  martyr- 
dom about  the  year  of  Christ  168.  On 
these  days  the  Christians  met  at  the 
graves  rf  the  martyrs,  and  offered  pray- 
ers and  thanksgivings  to  God  for  the  ex- 
ample they  had  afforded  them  :  they  cele- 
brated the  eucharist  and  gave  alms  to 
the  poor;    which,  together   with  a  pane- 


gyrical oration  or  sermon,  and  reading  the 
acts  of  the  martyrs,  were  the  spiritual  ex- 
ercises of  these  aniversaries. 

Of  the  sayings,  sufferings,  and  deaths  of 
the  martyrs,  though  preserved  with  great 
care  for  the  above  purpose,  and  to  serve 
as  models  to  future  ages,  we  have  but 
very  little  left,  the  greatest  part  of  them 
having  been  destroyed  during  that  dread- 
ful persecution  which  IJioclesian  carried 
on  lor  ten  years  with  fresh  fury  against 
the  Christians ;  for  a  most  diligent  search 
was  then  made  after  all  their  books  and 
papers :  and  all  of  them  that  were  found 
were  committed  to  the  flames.  Eusebios, 
indeed,  composed  a  martyrology,  but  it 
never  reached  down  to  us ;  and  those  since 
compiled  are  extremely  suspected.  From 
the  eighth  century  downwards,  several 
Greek  and  Latin  authors  endeavoured  to 
make  up  the  loss, « by  compiling  with  vast 
labour,  accounts  of  the  lives  and  actions  of 
j  the  ancient  martyrs,  but  which  consist  of 
!  little  else  than  a  series  of  fables:  nor  are- 
those  record-s  that  pass  under  the  name  of 
martyrclogy  worthy  of  superior  credit,  since 
they  bear  the  most  evident  marks  both  of 
ignorance  and  falsehood. 

MARTYROLOGY,  a  catalogue  or  list 
of  martyrs,  including  th.e  history  of  their 
lives  and  sufferings  for  the  sake  of  religion. 
The  term  comes  from  y.xprvp,  "  witness," 
and  ^cyu.  dico,  or  Asyw  colligo. 

The  martyrologies  draw  their  materials 
from  the  calendars  of  particular  churches, 
in  which  the  several  festivals  dedicated  to 
them  are  marked  ;  and  which  seem  to  be 
derived  from  the  practice  of  the  ancient 
Romans,  who  inserted  the  names  of  heroes 
and  great  men  in  their  fasti,  or  puljlic  re- 
gisters. 

The  martyrologies  are  very  numerous, 
and  contain  many  ridiculous  and  even  con- 
tradictory narratives  :  which  is  easily  ac- 
counted for,  if  we  consider  how  many  for- 
ged and  spurious  accounts  cf  the  lives  of 
saints  and  martyrs  appeared  in  the  first 
'  ages  of  the  church,  which  the  legendary 
writers  afterwards  adopted  without  exam- 
ining into  the  truth  of  them.  However 
some  good  critics,  of  late  years,  h.ave  gone 
a  great  way,  towards  clearing  the  lives  of 
the  saints  and  martyrs  from  the  monstrous 
heap  of  fiction  they  laboured  under.  See 
article  Legend. 

The  martyrology  of  Eusebius  of  Cxsarea 
was  the  mcst  celebrated  in  the  ancient 
church.  It  was  translated  into  Latin  by  St. 
Jerome  :  but  the  learned  agree,  that  it  is 
not  now  extant.  That  attributed  to  Beda, 
m  the  eighth  century,  is  of  very  doubtful 
authority ;  the  names  of  several  saints 
being  there  found  who  did  not  live  till  after 
the  time  of  Beda.  •  The  iihith  century  was 
very  fertile  in  martyrologies;  then  appear- 
ed that  of  Florus,  subdeucon  of  the  church 
at  Lyons  ;  who,  however,  only  filled  up  the 
'I  chasms  in  Beda.    This  was  published  about 


MAS 


296 


MAS 


the  3'ear  830,  and  was  followed  by  that  of 
Waldenburtus,  monk  of  the  diocese  of  Tre- 
ves, written  in  verse,  about  the  year  848  ; 
and  this  by  that  of  Usard,  a  French  monk, 
and  written  by  the  command  of  Chaiies 
the  Bald,  in  875 ;  which  last  is  the  mar- 
tyrology  now  ordinarily  used  in  the  Romish 
church.  That  of  Rabanus  Maurus  is  an 
improvement  on  Beda  and  Florusj  written 
about  the  year  845 .-  that  of  Noker,  monk 
of  St.  Gal,  was  written  about  the  year  894, 
The  martyi'ology  of  Ado,  monk  of  Ferriers, 
in  the  diocese  cf  Treves,  afterwards  arch- 
bishop of  Vienne,  is  a  descendant  of  the 
Roman,  if  we  may  so  call  it ;  for  Du  Sol- 
lier  gives  its  genealogy  thus  : — The  marty- 
rology  of  St.  Jerome  is  the  great  Roman 
martyrology  ;  from  this  was  made  the  little 
Roman  one  printed  by  Roswevd :  of  this 
little  Roman  martyrologv  was  formed  that 
of  Beda,  augmented  by  Florus.  Ado  com- 
piled his  in  the  year  858.  'l"he  martyrolo- 
gy of  Nevelon,  monk  of  Corbie,  written 
about  the  year  1089,  is  little  more  than  an 
abridgment  of  that  of  Ado ;  father  Kir- 
cher  also  makes  mention  of  a  Coptic  mar- 
tyrology, preserved  by  the  Maronites  at 
Rome. 

'  We  have  also  several  Protestant  marty- 
rologies,  containing  the  sufferings  of  the 
reformed  under  the  Papists,  viz.  an  En- 
glish martyrology,  by  J.  Fox  ;  with  others 
by  Clark,  Bray,  ik.c.    See  Persecution. 

Martyrology  is  also  used  in  the  Romish 
church  for  a  roll  or  register  kept  in  the 
vestry  of  each  church,  containing  the  names 
of  all  the  saints  and  martyrs  both  of  the 
universal  church,  and  of  the  particular  ones 
of  that  city  or  monastery. 

Martyrology  is  also  applied  to  the  paint- 
ed or  written  catalogues  in  the  Romish 
churches,  containing  the  foundations,  orbits, 
prayers,  and  masses,  to  be  said  each  day. 

MASORA,  a  term,  in  the  Jewish  theo- 
logy, signifying  a  work  on  the  Bible,  per- 
formed by  several  learned  rabbins,  to  secure 
it  from  any  alterations  which  might  other- 
wise happen. 

The  work  regards  merely  the  letter  of 
the  Hebrew  text,  in  which  they  have  first 
fixed  the  true  reading  by  vowels  and  ac- 
cents ;  they  have,  secondly,  numbered  r.ot 
only  tlie  chapters  and  sections,  but  the 
verses,  words,  and  letters  of  the  text ;  and 
they  find  in  tke  Pentateuch  5245  verses, 
and  in  the  whole  Bible  23,206.  The  masoja 
is  called  by  tlie  Jews,  the  hedge  or  fence 
of  the  law,  because  this  enumenation  of  the 
\erses,  ^c.  is  a  means  of  pi'eserving  it  frou) 
being  corrupted  and  altered.  Tliey  ha\e, 
thirdly,  marked  whatever  irregularities  oc- 
cur in  any  of  the  letters  of  the  Hebrew 
text  :  such  as  the  different  size  of  the  let- 
ters, their  various  positions  and  inversions, 
&c.  ;  and  they  have  been  fruitful  in  finding 
out  reasons  for  these  mysteries  and  irregu- 
larities in  them.  They  are,  fourthly,  sup- 
posed to  be  the  authors  of  tlie   Keri   and 


Chetibh,  or  the  marginal  corrections  of  the 
text  in  our  Hebrew  Bibles. 

The  text  of  the  sacred  books,  it  is  to  be 
observed,  was  originally  written  without 
any  breaks  or  divisions  into  chapters  or 
verses,  or  even  into  words  ;  so  that  a  whole 
book,  in  the  ancient  manner,  was  but  one 
continued  word :  of  this  kind  we  have  still 
several  ancient  manuscripts,  both  Greek 
and  Latin.  In  regard,  therefore,  the  sacred 
writings  had  undergone  an  infinite  number 
of  alterations  ;  whence  various  readings  had 
arisen,  and  the  original  was  become  much 
mangled  and  disguised,  the  Jews  had  re- 
course to  a  canon,  -^which  they  judged  in- 
fallible, to  fix  and  ascertain  the  reading  of 
the  Hebrew  text;  and  this  rule  they  call 
niasora,  "  tradition,"  from  "IDD,  tradit,  as 
if  this  critique  were  nothing  but  a  tradition 
which  they  had  received  from  their  fore- 
fathers. Accordingly  they  say,  that,  when 
God  gave  the  law  to  Moses  at  Mount  Sinai, 
he  taught  him  first  the  true  reading  of  it ; 
and,  secondly,  its  true  interpretation  ;  and 
that  both  diese  were  lianded  down  by  oral 
tradition  from  generation  to  generation,  till 
at  length  ihey  were  committed  to  v/riting. 
The  former  of  these,  viz.  the  true  reading, 
is  the  subject  of  the  masora  ;  the  latter,  or 
true  interpretation,  that  of  the  mishna  and 
gemara. 

According  to  Elias  Levita,  they  were  the 
Jews  of  a  famous  school  at  Tiberias,  about 
five  hundred  years  after  Christ,  who  com- 
posed, or  at  least  began,  the  masora ;  whence 
they  are  called  masoriles  and  viasoretic 
doctors.  Aben  Ezra  makes  them  the  au- 
thors of  the  points  and  accents  in  the  He- 
brew text,  as  we  now  find  it,  and  which 
serve  for  vowels. 

The  age  of  the  masorites  has  been  much 
disputed.  Archbishop  Usher  places  them 
before  Jerome ;  Capcl,  at  the  end  of  the 
fifth  century  ;  father  Morin,  in  the  tenth 
century.  Basnage  says,  that  they  were  not 
a  society  but  a  succcssicwi  of  men  ;  and  that 
the  masora  was  the  work  of  many  gramma- 
rians, who,  without  associating  and  commu- 
nicating their  notions,  composed  this  collec- 
tion of  criticisms  on  the  Hebrew  text.  It  is 
urged,  that  there  were  masorites  from  the 
time  of  Ezra  and  the  men  of  the  great  sy- 
nagogue, to  about  the  year  of  Christ  lO.SO: 
and  that  Ben  Asher,  and  Ben  Naphtali,  who 
were  the  best  of  the  profession,  and  who, 
according  to  Basnage,  were  the  inventors  of 
the  mcssora,  flourished  at  tliis  time.  Each 
of  these  publishctl  a  copy  of  the  whole  He- 
Ijrew  text,  as  correct,  says  Dr.  Pridcaux^ 
as  they  could  make  it.  'Fhe  eastern  Jews 
have  followed  that  of  Ben  Naphtali,  and 
the  western  that  of  Ben  Aslier :  and  all  that 
has  been  done  since  is  to  copy  after  them, 
without  making  any  more  corrections,  cr 
masoretical  criticisms. 

The  Arabs  have  done  the  same  thing  bv 
their  Koran  that  the  Masorites  have  done 
by  the  Bible  ;   nor  do  the  Jews  deny  their 


MA  S 


297 


MAS 


having  borrowed  this  expedient  from  the 
Arabs,  who  first  put  it  in  practice  in  the 
seventh  century. 

There  is  a  great  and  little  masora  print- 
ed at  Venice  and  at  Basil,  with  the  Hebrew 
text  in  a  different  character.  Buxtorf  has 
written  a  niasoretic  commentary,  which  he 
calls  Tiberias. 

MASS,  Missa,  in   the  church  of  Rome, 


the  office  cr  prayers  used  at  the  celebra- 1  mosarabum,  is  that  used  among  the  Goths 


tion  of  the  eucharist  ;  or,  in  other  words, 
consecrating  the  bread  and  wine  into  the 
body  and  blood  of  Christ,  and  offering  them, 
so  transubstantiated,  as  an  expiatory  sacrifice 
for  the  quick  and  the  dead. 

As  the  mass  is  in  general  believed  to  be 
a  representation  of  the  passion  of  o\ir  bless- 
ed Saviour,  so  every  action  of  the  priest, 
and  every  particular  part  of  the  service,  is 
supposed  to  allude  to  the  particular  circum- 
stances of  his  passion  and  death. 

Nicod,  after  Baronius,  observes,  that  the 
word  comes  from  the  Hebrew  missach  (ob- 
latum  ;)  or  from  tlie  Latin  missa  misso- 
rur?i ;  because  in  the  former  times  the 
catechumens  and  excommunicated  were 
sent  out  of  the  church,  when  the  deacons 
said,  Ite  missa  est,  after  sermon  and  read- 
ing of  the  epi  tie  and  gospel ;  they  not  be- 
ing allowed  to  assist  at  the  consecration. 
Menage  derives  the  word  from  jnissio, 
"  dismissing ;"  others  from  missa,  "  miss- 
ing, sending ;"  oecause  in  the  mass  the 
prayers  of  men  on  earth  are  sent  up  to 
heaven. 

The  general  division  of  masses  consists 
in  high  and  low.  The  first  is  that  sung 
by  the  choristers,  and  celebrated  with 
the  assistance  of  a  deacon  and  sub-deacon: 
low  masses  are  those  in  which  the  prayers 
are  barely  rehearsed  without  singing. 

There  are  a  great  number  of  diffei'ent  ox 
occasional  masses  in  the  Romish  church, 
many  cf  which  have  nothing  peculiar  but 
the  name  :  such  are  the  masses  of  the 
saints:  that  of  saint  Mary  of  the  Snow, 
celebrated  on  the  fifth  of  August ;  that  of 
St.  Margaret,  patroness  of  lying-in  women  ; 


deceased's  tomb,  whei'e  the  priest  pro- 
nounces a  solemn  absolution  of  the  deceas- 
ed. There  are  likewise  private  iiiasses 
said  for  stolen  or  strayed  goods  or  cattle, 
for  health,  for  travellers,  &c.  wiiich  go 
under  the  name  of  votive  masses.  There 
is  still  a  further  distinction  of  masses,  de- 
nominated from  the  countries  in  which  they 
were  used  :  thus  the  Gothic  mass,  or  missa 


when  tliey  were  masters  of  Spain,  and 
which  is  still  kept  up  at  Toledo  and  Sala- 
manca ;  the  Ambrosian  mass  is  that  com- 
posed by  St.  Ambrose,  and  used  only  at  Mi- 
lan, of  which  city  he  was  bishop  ;  the  Gal- 
lic mass,  used  by  the  ancient  Gauls  ;  and 
the  Roman  mass,  used  by  almost  all  the 
churches  in  the  Romish  communion. 

Mass  of  t/ic  firesanctijied  (misaa  firx- 
sanctijicatorum,)  is  a  mass  peculiar  to  the 
Greek  church,  in  which  there  is  no  conse- 
cration of  the  elements  ;  but,  alter  singine 
some  hymns,  they  receive  the  bj-ead  and 
wine  which  were  before  consecrated.  This 
mass  is  performed  all  Lent,  except  on  Sa- 
turdays, Sundays,  and  the  Annunciation. 
The  priest  counts  upon  his  fingers,  the 
days  of  the  ensuing  week  on  which  it  is  to 
be  celebrated,  and  cuts  off  as  many  pieces 
of  bread  at  the  altar  as  he  is  to  say  masses; 
and  after  having  consecrated  them,  steeps 
them  in  wine,  and  puts  them  in  a  box  ;  out 
of  which  upon  every  occasion,  he  takes 
some  of  it  Avith  a  si)oon,  and,  putting  it  on 
a  dish,  sets  it  on  the  altar. 

MASSACRE,  a  term  used  tp  signify  the 
sudden  and  promiscuous  butchery  of  a  mul- 
titude.   See  Persecution. 

MASSALLANS,  or  Messalians,  a  sect 
which  sprung  up  about  the  year  361,  in  the 
reign  of  the  emperor  Constantius,  who 
maintained  that  men  have  two  souls,  a  ce- 
lestial and  a  diabolical ;  and  that  the  latter 
is  driven  out  by  prayer.  From  those  words 
of  our  Lord,  "  Labour  not  for  the  meat 
that  perisheth,"  it  is  said,  that  they  con- 
cluded they  ought  not  to  do  any  work  to  get 
{lieir  bread.      We   may  suppose,  says  Dr. 


that  at  the  feast  of  St.  John  the   Baptist,  '\  Jortin,    that  this  sect  did   not   last    Jong ; 


the  Innocents,  at  which  X.\ie  gloria  in  excel- 
sis  and  hallelujah  are  omitted,  and,  it  being 
a  day  of  mourning,  the  altar  is  of  a  voilet 
colour.  As  to  ordinary  masses,  some  are 
said  for  the  dead,  and,  as  is  supposed,  con- 
tributed to  fetch  the  soul  out  of  purgatory. 
At  these  masses  the  altar  is  put  in  mourn- 
ing, and  the  only  decorations  are  a  cross  in 
tiie  middle  of  six  yellow  wax  lights :  the 
dress  of  the  celebrant.,  and  the  very  mass- 
book,  are  black  -,  many  parts  of  the  office 
are  omitted,  and  the  people  are  dissmissed 
without  the  benediction.  If  the  mass  be 
said  for  a  person  distinguished  by  his  rank 
or  virtues,  it  is  followed  with  a  funeral  ora- 
tion :  they  erect  a  chapelle  ardente,  that  is, 
a  representation  of  the  deceased,  with 
branches  and  tapers  of  yellow  wax,  either 
in  the  middle  of  the  church,  or  near  the 


of  the  world  ;  or,  rather,  that  cold  and 
hunger  sharpened  their  wits,  and  taught 
them  to  be  better  intei-preters  of  scripture. 

MASTER,  a  person  who  has  servants 
under  him  ;  a  ruler,  or  instructor.  The  du- 
ties of  masters  relate  to  the  cix>il  concerns 
of  the  family.  To  arrange  the  several 
businesses  required  of  servants;  to  give 
particular  instructions  what  is  to  be  done, 
and  how  it  is  to  be  done  ;  to  take  care  that 
no  more  is  required  of  servants  than  they 
are  equal  to ;  to  be  gentle  in  our  deport- 
ment towards  them  ;  to  reprove  them  when 
they  do  wrong,  to  commend  them  when 
they  do  right ;  to  make  them  an  adequate 
recompence  for  their  services,  as  to  pro- 
tection, maintenance,  wages,  and  character^ 
— 2.  yls  to  the  morals  of  servants.  Mas- 
ters must  look  well  to  their  servants'  charac- 


M  A  T 


298 


MAT 


ters  before  they  hire  them  ;  instruct  them 
in  the  principles  and  confirm  them  in  the 
habits  ot  virtue;  watch  over  their  morals, 
and  set  them  good  examples. — 3.  jIs  to  their  1 
religious  interests.  They  should  instruct  i 
them  in  the  knowledge  of  divine  things, 
Gen.  xiv.  14.  Gen.  xviii.  19.  Pray  with  them 
and  for  them,  Joshua  xxiv.  15.  Allow  them 
time  and  leisure  for  religious  services,  &c. 
Eph.  vi.  9.  See  Stennet  on  Domestic  Du- 
ties, ser.  8.  Paley's  j\/or.  Phil.  vol.  i.  233, 
235.  Beattie^s  Elements  of  Moral  Science, 
vol.  i.  150,  153.  Doddridtfe's  Lectures,  vol. 
ii.  266. 

MATERIALISTS,  a  sect  in  the  arcient 
church  composed  of  persons,  who,  being 
prepossessed  with  thai  maxim  in  philoso- 
phy, "  ex  nihilo  nihil  fit,"  out  ,of  nothing, 
nothing  can  arise,  had  rf.course  to  an  inter- 
nal matter,  on  which  they  supposed  God 
■wrought  in  the  creation,  instead  of  admit- 
ting Him  alone  as  the  sole  cause  of  the  ex- 
istence of  all  things.  TertuUian  vigorously 
opposed  them  in  his  treatise  against  Hermo- 
genes  who  was  one  of  their  number. 

Materialists  are  also  those  who  maintain 
that  the  soul  of  man  is  material,  or  that  the 
principle  of  perception  and  thouglit  is  not  a 
substance  distinct  from  the  body,  but  the  re- 
sult of  corporeal  organization.  There  are 
others  called  by  this  name,  who  have  main- 
tained that  there  is  nothing  but  matter  in 
the  universe. 

The  followers  of  the  late  Dr.  Priestly  are 
considered  as  Materialists  or  philosophical 
Necessarians.  According  to  the  doctor's 
writings,  he  believed, 

1.  That  man  is  no  more  than  what  we 
now  see  of  him:  his  being  commences  at 
the  time  of  his  conception,  or  perhaps  at  an 
earlier  period.  The  corporeal  and  mental 
faculties,  inhering  in  tiie  same  substance, 
grow,  ripen,  and  decay  together ;  and  v,hen- 
evcr  the  system  is  dissolved,  it  continues 
in  a  state  of  dissolution,  till  it  shall  please 
that  Almighty  Being  Avho  called  it  into  ex- 
istence, to  restore  it  to  life  again.  For  if 
the  mental  principle  were,  in  its  own  na- 
ture, immaterial  and  imra^ital,  all  its  pe- 
culiar faculties  would  be  so  too  ;  whereas 
we  see  that  every  faculty  of  the  muid,  with- 
out exception,  is  liable  to  be  impaired,  and 
even  to  become  wholly  extinct,  htfore  death. 
Since,  therefore,  all  the  faculties  of  the 
mind,  separately  taken,  a])pear  to  be  mor- 
tal, the  substance,  or  principle,  in  which 
they  exist,  must  be  pronounced  mortal  too. 
Thus  we  might  conclude  that  the  body  was 
mortal,  from  observing  that  all  the  sej)arate 
senses  and  limbs  were  liable  to  decay  and 
ITcrish. 

This  system  gives  a  real  value  to  tlie 
docti'ine  of  the  resurrection  from  the  dead, 
which  is  peculiar  to  revelation  ;  on  which 
alone  the  sacred  writers  build  all  our  hopes 
of  future  life :  and  it  explains  the  unifonu 
language  of  the  scriptures,  which  speak  of 
one  day  of  judgment  for  all  mankind ;  and 
represent  all  the  rewards  of  virtue,  and  all 


the  punishments  of  vice,  as  taking  place  at 
that  awful  day,  and  not  before.  In  the 
scriptures,  the  heathens  are  represented  as 
without  hope,  and  all  mankind  as  perishing 
at  death,  if  there  be  no  resurrection  of  the 
dead. 

The  apostle  Paul  asserts,  in  1  Cor.  xv.  16, 
that  if  the  dead  rise  not,  then  is  not  Christ 
risen  ;  and  if  Christ  be  not  raised,  your 
faith  is  vain,  ye  are  yet  in  your  sins :  then 
they  also  who  are  fallen  asleep  in  Lhrist  are 
/lerished.  And  again  ver.  32,  If  the  dead 
rise  not,  let  us  eat  and  drink,  for  to-morrow 
vje  die.  In  the  whole  discourse,  he  does  not 
even  mention  the  doctrine  of  happiness  or 
misery  without  the  body. 

If  we  search  the  scriptures  for  passages 
expressive  of  the  state  of  man  at  death, 
we  find  such  declarations  as  expressly  ex- 
clude any  trace  of  sense,  thought,  or  en- 
joyment.   See  Ps.  vi.  5.  Job  xiv.  7,  &c. 

2.  That  there  is  some  fixed  law  of  na-> 
ture  respecting  the  will,  as  well  as  the  other 
powers  of  the  mind,  and  every  thing  else  in 
the  constitution  of  nature  ;  and  consequently 
that  it  is  never  determined  without  some 
real  or  apparent  cause  foreign  to  itself ;  i.  e. 
without  some  motive  of  choice ;  or  that 
some  motives  influence  us  in  some  definite 
and  invariable  manner,  so  that  every  voli- 
tion, or  choice,  is  constantly  regulated  and 
determined  by  what  precedes  it :  and  this 
constant  determination  of  mind,  according 
to  the  niotives  presented  to  it,  is  what  is 
meant  by  its  necessary  determination.  This 
being  admitted  to  be  fact,  there  will  be  a 
necessary  connection  between  all  things  past, 
present,  and  to  come,  in  the  way  of  proper 
cause  and  effect,  as  much  in  the  intellec- 
tual as  in  the  natural  world  ;  so  that,  accor- 
ding to  the  established  laws  of  nature,  no 
event  could  have  been  otherwise  than  it  has 
been  or  is  to  be,  and  therefore  all  things 
past,  present,  and  to  come,  are  precisely 
what  the  Author  of  Nature  really  intended 
them  to  be,  and  has  made  provision  for. 

To  establish  this  conclusion,  nothing  is 
necessary  but  that  throughout  all  nature  the 
same  consequences  should  invariably  re- 
sult from  the  same  circumstances.  For  if 
this  be  admitted,  it  will  necessarily  follow, 
that  at  the  commencement  of  any  system, 
since  the  several  parts  of  it  and  their  re- 
spective situatioris  were  appointed  by  the 
Deity,  the  first  change  would  take  place 
according  to  a  certain  rule  established  by 
himself,  the  result  of  which  would  be  a  new 
situation  ;  after  which  the  same  laws  con- 
taining another  change  would  succeed,  ac- 
cording to  the  same  rules,  and  so  en  for 
ever ;  every  new  situation  invariably  lead- 
ing to  another,  and  every  event  from  the 
commencement  to  the  termination  of  the 
system,  being  strictly  connected,  so  that, 
unless  the  fundamental  laws  of  the  system 
were  ch.anged,  it  would  be  impossible  that 
any  event  should  have  been  otherwise  than 
it  was.  In  all  these  cases,  the  circumstances 
ii  preceding  any  change  are  called  the  causes 


MAT 


299 


ME  A 


of  that  change ;  and  since  a  determinate 
event,  or  effect,  constantly  follows  certain 
circumstances,  or  causes,  the  connection 
between  cause  and  effect  is  concluded  to  be 
invariable,  and  therefore  necessary. 

It  is  universally  acknowledged,  that  there 
can  be  no  effect  without  an  adequate  cause. 
This  is  even  the  foundation  on  which  the 
only  proper  argument  for  the  being  of  a 
God  rests.  And  the  Necessarian  asserts, 
that  if,  in  any  given  state  of  mind,  with  re- 
spect both  to  dispositions  and  motives,  two 
different  determinations,  or  volitions,  be  pos- 
sible, it  can  be  on  no  other  principle,  than 
that  one  of  them  should  come  under  the  de- 
scription of  an  effect  without  a  cause ;  just 
as  if  the  beam  of  a  balance  might  incline 
either  ^vay,  though  loaded  with  equal 
weights.  And  if  any  thing  whatever,  even 
a  thought  in  the  mind  of  man,  could  arise 
without  an  adequate  cause,  any  thing  else, 
the  mind  itself,  or  the  whole  universe, 
might  likewise  exist  without  an  adequate 
cause. 

This  scheme  of  philosophical  necessity 
implies  a  chain  of  causes  and  effects  esta- 
blished by  infinite  wisdom,  and  terminating 
in  the  greatest  good  of  the  whole  universe ; 
evils  of  all  kinds,  natural  and  moral,  being 
admitted,  as  far  as  they  contribute  to  that 
end,  or  are  in  the  nature  of  things  insepara- 
ble from  it.  Vice  is  productive  of  good,  but 
of  evil  to  us,  both  here  and  hereafter, 
though  good  may  result  from  it  to  the  whole 
system ;  and  according  to  the  fixed  laws  of 
nature,  our  present  and  future  happiness 
necessarily,  depend  on  our  cultivating  good 
dispositions. 

This  scheme  of  philosophical  necessity 
is  distinguished  from  the  Calvinistic  doc- 
trine of  predestination  in  the  following  par- 
ticulars. 


philosophical  necessity,  and  indeed  results 
from  it. 

4.  The  Necessarian  believes  nothing  of 
the  posterity  of  Adam's  sinning  in  him,  and 
of  their  being  liable  to  the  wratli  of  God 
on  that  account ;  or  the  necessity  of  an  in- 
finite Being  making  atonement  for  them  by 
suffering  in  their  stead,  and  thus  making 
the  Deity  propitious  to  them.  He  believes 
nothing  of  all  the  actions  of  any  man  being 
necessarily  sinful ;  but  on  the  contrary, 
thinks  that  the  very  worst  of  men  are  ca- 
pable of  benevolent  intentions  in  many 
things  that  they  do  ;  and  likewise  that  very 
good  men  are  capable  of  fallirig  from  virtue, 
and  consequently  of  sinking  into  final  per- 
dition. Upon  the  principles  of  the  Neces- 
sarian, also,  all  late  repentance,  and  espe- 
cially after  a  long  and  confirmed  hal)its  of 
vice,  is  altogether  and  necessarily  ineffec- 
tual ;  there  not  being  sufficient  time  left  to 
produce  a  change  of  disposition  and  charac- 
ter, which  can  only  be  done  by  a  change 
of  conduct  of  proportionabiy  long  continuance. 

In  short,  the  three  doctrines  of  Material- 
ism, Philosophical  Necessity,  and  Socinian- 
ism,  are  considered  as  equally  parts  of  one 
system.  Tlie  scheme  of  necessity  is  the  im- 
mediate result  of  the  materiality  of  man  :  for 
mechanism  is  the  undoubted  consequence  of 
materialism,  and  that  man  is  wholly  material, 
is  eminently  subservient  to  the  proper  or  mere 
humanity  of  Christ,  For  if  no  man  have  a 
soul  distinct  from  his  body,  Christ,  who  in  all 
other  I'espects  appeared  as  a  man,  could 
not  have  a  soul  which  had  existed  before  liis 
body :  and  the  whole  doctrine  of  the  pre- 
existence  of  souls,  of  which  the  opinion  of 
I  the  pre-existence  of  Christ  is  a  branch,  will 
ibe  effectually  overturned.  See  Necessity, 
j  Pre-existence,  Spinosism,  Soul,  Uni- 
TARiAN,  and  books  under  those  articles. 


MEANS  OF  GRACE,  denote  those  du- 
1.  No  Necessarian  supposes  that  any  of  j  ties  we  perform  for  the  purpose  of  improv 


the  human  race  will  suffer  eteraally ;  but 
that  future  punishments  will  answer  the 
same  purpose  as  temporal  ones  are  found 
to  do  ;  all  of  which  tend  to  good,  and  are 
evidently  admitted  for  that  purpose.  Upon 
the  doctrine  of  necessity,  also,  the  mosi  in- 
different actions  of  men  are  equally  necessa- 
Ty  with  the  most  important ;  since  every 
volition,  like  any  other  effect,  must  have  an 
adequate  cause  depending  upon  the  previous 
state  of  the  mind,  and  the  influence  to 
which  it  is  exposed. 

2.  The  Necessarian  believes  that  his  own 
dispositions  and  actions  are  the  necessary 
and  sole  means  of  his  present  and  future 
happiness :  so  that,  in  the  most  proper  sense 
of  the  words  ;  -it  depends  entirely  on  him- 
self whether  he  be  virtuous  or  vicious,  hap- 
py or  miserable. 

3.  The  Calvinistic  system  entirely  ex- 
cludes the  popular  notion  of  free-will,  viz. 
the  liberty  or  power  of  doing  what  we 
please,  virtuous  or  vicious,  as  belonging  to 
every  person,  in  every  situation  ;  which  is 
perfectly   consiateat  "\vith  the  doctrine   of 


ing  our  minds,  affecting  our  hearts,  and  of 
obtaining  spiritual  blessings ;  such  as  hearing 
the  Gospel,  reading  the  scriptures,  self-ex- 
amination, meditation,  prayer,  praise.  Chris- 
tian conversation,  &:c.  The  means  are  to 
be  used  Avithout  any  reference  to  merit,  but 
solely  with  a  dependence  on  the  Divine  Be- 
ing ;  nor  can  we  ever  e.xpect  happiness  in 
ourselves,  nor  be  good  examplars  to  others, 
w'liile  we  live  in  neglect  of  them.  It  is  in 
vain  to  argue  that  the  Divine  decrees  su- 
percedes the  necessity  of  them,  since  God 
has  as  certainly  appointed  the  means  as 
the  end.  Besides,  he  himself  generally 
works  by  thcrn  :  and  the  moie  means  he 
thinks  proper  to  use,  the  more  he  dis- 
plays his  glorious  perfections.  Jet.us  Christ, 
when  on  earth,  used  means ;  he  prayed,  he 
exhorted,  and  did  good,  by  going  from  plar^ 
to  place.  Indeed,  the  systems  of  nature, 
providence,  and  grace,  are  all  carried  on 
by  means.  The  scriptures  abound  with  ex- 
hortations to  them.  Matt.  v.  Rom.  xii.  and 
none  but  enthusiasts  or  immoral  characters 
ever  refuse  to  use  them. 


MED 


300 


MED 


MEDIATOR,  a  person  that  intervenes 
between  two  parties  at  variance,  in  order 
to  reconcile  them.  Thus  Jesus  Christ  is 
the  Mediator  between  an  offended  God  and 
sinful  man,  1  Tim.  ii.  5.  Both  Jcavs  and 
Gentiles  have  a  notion  of  a  Mediator ;  the 
Jews  call  the  Missian  5<j,«yoN  the  Mediator 
or  Middle  One.  The  Persians  call  their 
god  Mithras,  ^teTirri;,  a  Mediator;  and  the 
demons,  with  the  heathens,  seem  to  be,  ac- 
cording to  them,  mediators  between  the  su- 
perior gods  and  men.  Indeed,  the  whole 
religion  of  Paganism  was  a  system  of  n>e- 
diation  and  intercession.  The  idea,  there- 
fore, of  salvation  by  a  Mediator,  is  not  so  no- 
vel or  restricted  as  some  imagine  ;  and  the 
scriptures  of  truth  inform  us,  that  it  is  only 
by  this  way  human  beings  can  arrive  to 
eternal  felicity,  Acts  iv.  V2.  John  xiv.  6. 
Alan,  in  his  state  of  innocence,  was  in  friend- 
ship with  God ;  but,  by  sinning  against  him, 
he  exposetl  himself  to  his  just  displeasure  ; 
his  powers  became  enfeebled,  and  his  heart 
filled  with  enmity  against  him,  Rom.  viii. 
6.  he  was  driven  out  of  his  paradisaical 
Eden,  and  totally  incapable  of  returning  to 
God,  and  making  satisfaction  to  his  justice. 
Jesus  Christ,  therefore,  was  the  appointed 
Mediator  to  bring  about  reconciliation.  Gen. 
iii.  12.  Col.  i.  21.  and  in  the  fulness  of  time 
he  came  into  this  world,  obeyed  the  law,  sa- 
tisfied justice,  and  brought  his  people  into  a 
state  of  gi'ace  and  favour ;  yea,  into  a  more 
exalted  state  cf  friendship' with  Gnd  than 
was  lost  by  the  fall.  Eph.  ii.  18  Now,  in 
order  to  the  accomplishing  of  this  work,  it 
•was  necessary  that  the  Mediator  should  be 
God  and  man  in  one  person.  It  was  neces- 
sary that  he  should  be  man,  1.  That  he 
might  be  related  to  those  he  was  a  Media- 
tor and  Redeemer  of — 2.  That  sin  might  be 
satisfied  for,  and  reconciliation  be  made  for 
it,  ill  tlie  same  nature  which  sinned — 3.  It 
■was  proper  that  the  Mediator  should  be  ca- 
pable of  obeying  the  law  broken  bv  the  sin 
cf  man,  as  a  divine  person  could  not  be  sub- 
ject to  the  law,  and  yield  obedience  to  it, 
(ial.  iv  4.  Rom  v.  19—4.  It  was  meet  that 
the  Mediator  should  be  man,  that  he  might 
be  capable  of  suffering  death  ;  for,  as  God, 
he  could  not  die,  and  without  shedding  of 
blood  there  Avas  no  remission,  Heb.  ii.'  10, 
15.  viii.  3. — 5.  It  was  fit  he  should  be  man, 
that  he  might  be  a  faithful  high  priest,  to 
sympathize  w'th  his  people  under  all  their 
trials,  temptations,  &c.  Heb.  ii  17,  18.  Heb. 
iv.  15. — 6.  It  was  fit  that  he  should  be  a  holy 
and  righteous  man,  free  from  all  sin,  origin- 
al and  actual,  that  he  might  offer  himself 
•without  spot  to  God,  take  away  the  sins  of 
men,  and  be  an  advocate  for  them,  Heb.vii.  ^C\ 
ix.  14.  1  John  iii.  5.  But  it  was  not  enough 
to  be  truly  man,  and  an  innocent  person ; 
he  must  be  more  than  a  man;  it  was  re- 
qiiisite  that  he  should  be  God  also,  for,  I. 
Kg  mere  man  could  have  entered  into  a 
covenant  with  God  to  mediate  between  him 
and  sinful  men. — 2.  He  must  be  Gcid,  to 
give  virtue  and  value  to  his  obedience  ar.d 


sufferings ;  for  the  sufferings  of  men  or  an- 
gels would  not  have  been  sufficient. — 3.  Be- 
ing thus  God-man,   we  are  encouraged  to 
hope  in  him.    In  the  person  of  Jesus  Christ 
the  object  of  trust  is  brought  neai'er  to  our- 
selves; and  those  well  known  tender  affec- 
tions which  are  only  figuratively  ascribed  to 
the  Deity,  are  in  our  great  Mediator,  tlio- 
roughly  realized.    Farther,  were  he  God, 
and  not  man,  we  should  approach  him  with 
fear  and  dread ;  were  he  man  and  not  God, 
we  should  be  guilty  of  idolatry  to  v/orship 
and  trust  him  at  all,  Jer.  xvii.  5.  The  plan  of 
salvation,  therefore,  by  such  a  Mediator,  is 
the  most  suitable  to  human  beings  that  pos- 
sibly could  be  ;  for  here  "  Mercy  and  truth 
meet  together,  righteousness  and  peace  kiss 
each  other,"  Psal.  Ixxxv.  10.    The  proper- 
ties of  Christ  as  Mediator  are  these :  1.  He 
!  is  the  Mediator,    1   Tim.  ii.   4.     Praying, 
j  therefore,  to  saints  and  angels  is  an  error 
I  of  the  church  of  Rome,  and  has  no  counte- 
I  nance   from  the  scripture. — 2.  Christ  is  a 
j  Mediator  of  men  only,  rot  of  angels:  good 
I  angels  need  not  any ;  and  as  for  evil  angels, 
I  none  is  provitled  nor  admitted. — 3.  He  is  the 
Mediator  both  for  Jews  and  Gentiles,  Eph. 
iii.  18.  1  John  ii  2. — 4.  He  is  Mediator  both 
j  for  Old  and  New  Testament  saints — 5.  He 
I  is  a  suitable,  constant,  willing,  and  preva- 
j  le^t  Mediator;  his   mediation  always  suc- 
I  ceeds,  and  is  infallible.     Gill's  Body  of  Di- 
j  -vinity,  vol.  i.  octavo,  page  336.  li'iisii  JScon. 
'  Fxd.   lib.   ii.   chapter  4.      Fuller's  Gosfiel 
■  its  otvn  Witness,  chapter  iv.  page  2.   Hur- 
17707?'*  Christ  Crucijied,  page  103,  8cc.     Vr. 
Owen  on  the  Person  of  Christ.   Dr.  Good- 
win's Jl'orks,  book  iii. 
I     MEDITATION  is  an  act  by  which  %ve 
consider  any  thing  closely,  or  wherein  the 
'  soul  is  employed  in  the  search  or  consider- 
I  ation  of  any  truth.     In  religion  it  is  used  to 
I  signify  the  serious  exercise  of  the  under- 
j  standing,  whereby  our  thoughts  are  fixed 
jon  the  observation  of  spiritual  things,  in  or- 
!der  to  practice.    Mystic  divines  make  a 
j  great  difference  between  meditation  and  con- 
.' templation  :    the  former  consists  in  discur- 
'  sive  acts  of  the  soul,  considering  methodi- 
cally and   with  attention  the   mysteries  of 
faitii  and  the  precepts  of  morality;  and  is 
I  performed   by    reflections    and    reasonings 
which  leave  behind  them  manifest  impres- 
!sionson  the  brain.     The  pure  contempla- 
tive, they  say,  have  no  need  of  meditation, 
as  seeing  all  things  in  Gnd  at  a  glance,  r.^d 
:  without   any  refit ction.    See  Beglins   and 

QuiETISTS. 

1.  Aleditadon  is  a  duty  which  ought  tol)e 
attended  to  by  all  who  wish  well  to  their 
spiritual  interests.  It  ought  to  be  deliber- 
ate, close,  and  perfietual,  Psal.  cxix.  97. 
Psal.  I.  2 — 2.  The  snl'jects  which  ought 
more  especially  to  engage  the  Christian 
mind  are  the  works  of  creation,  Psal.  xix. 
the  perfections  of  God,  Deut.  xxxii.  4.  the 

1  excellencies,  ofiices,  characters,  and  W(  rks 
of  Christ,  Heb.  xii.  2,  3.  the  ofiices  and  ope- 
rations of  the  Holy  Spirit,  John  xv.  and  xvi. 


MEE 


301 


MEL 


the  various  dispensations  of  Providence,  Ps. 
xcvii.  1,  2:  the  precepts,  declarations  promi- 
ses, &c.  ofGod's  word,Psalm.  cxix:  the  value, 
powers,  and  immortality  of  the  soul,  Mark 
viii.  36:  the  noble,  beautiful,  and  benevolent 
plan  of  the  gospel,  1  Tim.  i.  11:  the  necessity 
of  our  personal  interest  in  and  experience  of 
its  power,  John  iii.  3 ;  the  depravity  of  our 
nature,  and  the  freedom  of  Divine  grace  in 
choosing,  adopting,  justifying,  a -,d  sanctify- 
ing us,  1  Cor.  vi.  11:  the  shortness,  worth, 
and  swiftness  of  time,  James  iv.  14:  the 
certainty  of  death,  Heb.  ix.  27:  the  resur- 
rection and  judgment  to  come,  1  Cor.  xv. 
50,  &c.  and  the  future  state  of  eternal  re- 
»vards  and  punishments.  Matt.  xxv.  These 
are  some  of  the  most  important  subjects  on 
which  we  should  meditate. — 3.  To  perform 
this  duty  aright,  we  should  be  much  in 
prayer,  Luke  xviii.  1 :  avoid  a  worldly  spirit, 
1  John  ii  15:  beware  of  sloth,  Heb.  vi.  11: 
take  heed  of  sensual  pleasures,  James  iv.  4 : 
watch  against  the  devices  of  Satan,  1  Pet.  v. 
8 :  be  often  in  retirement,  Psal.  iv.  4 :  em- 
brace the  most  favourable  opportunities,  the 
calmness  of  the  morning,  Psal.  v.  1,  3:  the 
solemnity  of  the  evening.  Gen.  xxiv.  63: 
sabbath  days,  Psal.  cxviii.  S4 :  sacramental 
occasions,  &c.  1  Cor.  xi,  28.-4.  The  ad- 
vantages resulting  from  this  are,  improve- 
ment of  tlie  faculties  of  the  soul,  Prov.  xvi. 
22:  the  affections  are  raised  to  God,  Psalm 
xxxix.  1,  4:  an  enjoyment  of  Divine  peace 
and  felicity,  Phil.  iv.  6,  7 :  holiness  of  life  is 
promoted,  Psal.  cxix.  59,  60 :  and  we  there- 
l>y  experience  a  foretaste  of  eternal  glory, 
Psal.  Ixxni   25,  26.  2  Cor.  v.  1,  &c, 

MEEKNESS,  a  temper  of  mind  not  easily 
provoked  to  resentment.  In  the  Greek  lan- 
guage it  is  T^*^  quasi,  pa®-  facilis,  easi- 
ness of  spirit,  and  thus  it  may  be  justly  call- 
ed ;  for  it  accommodates  the  soul  to  every 
occurrence,  and  so  makes  a  man  easy  to  him- 
self and  to  all  about  him.  The  Latins  call  a 
meek  man  mansuetus  qu  manu  assuetus, 
used  to  the  hand  ;  which  alludes  to  the  tam- 
ing and  reclaiming  of  creatures  wild  by  na- 
ture, and  bnnging  them  to  be  tractable  and 
familiar,  James  iii.  7,8:  so  where  the  grace 
of  meekness  reigns,  it  subdues  the  impetuous 
di.sposition,  and  learns  it  submission  and  for- 
giveness. It  teaches  us  to  govern  our  own 
anger  whenever  we  are  at  any  time  provo- 
ked, and  patiently  to  bear  the  anger  of  others, 
ttiat  it  may  not  be  a  provocation  to  us.  The 
former  is  its  office,  especially  in  superiors  ; 
the  latter  in  inferiors,  and  both  in  equals, 
.TamQS^  ill.  13.  The  excrllency  of  such  a 
spirit  apfiears^  if  we  consider  that  it  ena- 
bles us  to  gain  a  victory  over  corrupt  nature, 
Prov.  xvi.  32;  that  it  is  a  beauty  and  an 
ornament,  to  human  beinsrs,  1  Pet.  iii.  4; 
that  it  is  obedience  to  God's  word,  and  con- 
formity to  the  best  patterns,  Eph.  v.  1,  2. 
Phil.  iv.  8.  It  is  productive  of  the  highest 
peace  to  the  possessor,  Luke  xxi.  19  Matt. 
xi.  28,  29.  It  fits  us  for  any  duty,  instruc- 
tion, relation,  condition  or  persecution,  Phil. 
3v.  11,  12.     To  obtain   this  spirit,  consider 


that  it  is  a  divine  injunction,  Zeph.  ii.  S. 
Col.  iii.  12.  1  Tim.  vi.  11.  Observe  the 
many  examples  of  ft;  Jesus  Christ,  Matt. 
xi.  28;  Abraham,  Gen.  xiii.  Gen.  xvi.  5,  6: 
Moses,  Numb.  xii.  3 :  David,  Zech.  xii.  8. 
2  Sam.  xvi.  10,  12.  Ps.  cxxxi.  2:  Paul,  1 
Cor.  ix.  19.  How  lovely  a  spirit  it  is  in 
itself,  and  how  it  secures  us  from  a  va- 
riety of  evils.  That  peculiar  promises  are 
made  to  such.  Matt.  v.  5.  Isaiah  lx\i.  2. 
That  such  give  evidence  of  their  being  un- 
der the  influence  of  Divine  grace,  and  shall 
enjoy  the  Divine  blessing.  Is.  Ivii.  15.  See 
Henry  on  Meekness.  l)unlop^s  Sermons, 
vol.  ii.  p.  434.  Evans*  Sermons  on  the 
Christian  Temper,  sermon  29.  Tillotson  on 
1  Pet  ii.  21.  and  on  Matt.  v.  44.  Logan's 
Sermons,  vol.  i.  sermon  10;  and  Jortin'a 
Sertnons,  sermon  11.  vol.  iii. 

MEETING-HOUSE,  a  place  appropri- 
ated by  Dissenters  for  the  purpose  of  public 
worship.  Since  the  act  of  uniformity  pass- 
ed, 1662,  by  which  so  many  hundreds  of 
ministers  were  ejected  from  their  livings, 
meeting-houses  have  become  very  numerous. 
For  a  considerable  time,  indeed,  they  were 
prohibited  by  the  conventicle  act ;  but,  at 
last,  toleration  being  granted  io  Dissenters, 
they  enjoyed  the  privilege  of  meeting  and 
worshipping  God  according  to  the  dictates 
of  their  own  consciences,  and  which  they 
still  possess  to  this  day.  The  number  of 
meeting-houses  in  London,  may,  perhaps, 
amount  to  about  150,  though  some  reckon 
upwards  of  200.  In  all  the  respectable 
towns,  and  even  in  many  villages  of  Eng- 
land, there  are  meeting-houses ;  and,  within 
a  few  years,  they  have  greatlv  increased. 

MELANCHOLY,  sadness  or  gloom; 
arising  either  from  the  habit  of  body,  or 
the  state  of  the  mind.  To  remove  it,  the 
following  remedies  may  be  applied:  1.  Ear- 
ly rising.  2.  Plain  nourishing  food.  3.  Ex- 
ercise in  the  open  air.  Or.  if  it  arises  par- 
ticularly from  the  mind,  1.  Associate  with 
the  cheerful.  2.  Study  the  scriptures.  5. 
Consider  the  amiable  character  of  God.  4. 
Avoid  sin.  5.  Be  much  in  prayer.  See 
Burton,  Baxter,  and  BogeJS,  on  Melan- 
choly . 

MELATONI,  so  called  from  one  Mi- 
ieto,  who  taught  that  net  the  soul,  but  the 
bodv  of  man,  was  made  after  God's  image. 

KlELCHIZEDEZIANS,  a  denomination 
which  arose  about  the  bt  ginning  oi  the  third 
century.  They  affirmed  that  Melchizedeck 
was  not  a  man,  but  a  heavenly  pov;er  su- 
perior to  Jesus  Christ;  for  Melchizedeck, 
they  said,  was  the  intercessor  and  mediator 
of  the  angels ;  and  Jesus  Christ  was  only 
so  for  man,  and  his  pi'iesthood  only  a  copy 
of  that  of  Melchizedeck. 

MELCHITES,  the  name  given  to  the 
Syriac,  Egvptian,  and  other  Christians  o 
the  Levant.  The  IVIelchites,  excepting  some 
few  points  of  little  or  no  importance,  which 
relate  only  to  ct  re  monies,  and  ecclesiastical 
discipline,  are,  in  every  respect,  professed 
Greeks ;  but  they  are  goveraed  by  a  paiti- 


MEM 


302 


MEN 


tular  patriai'ch,  who  assumes  the  title  of 
Patriarch  ofAntioch.  They  celebrate  mass 
in  the  Arabian  language.  The  religious 
among  the  Melchites  follow  the  rule  of  St. 
Basil,  the  common  nile  of  all  the  Greek 
monks. 

MELETIANS,  the  name  of  a  considera- 
ble party  who  adhered  to  the  cause  of  Me- 
letius,  bishop  of  Lycopolis,  in  Upper  Egypt, 
after  he  was  deposed,  about  the  year  306, 
by  Peter,  bishop  of  Alexandria,  under  the 
charge  of  his  having  sacrificed  to  the  gods, 
and  having  been  guilty  of  other  heinous 
crimes ;  though  Epiphanius  makes  his  only 
failing  to  have  been  an  excessive  severity 
against  the  lapsed.  This  dispute,  which 
was  at  first  a  personal  difference  between 
Meletius  and  Peter,  became  a  religious  con- 
troversy ;  and  the  Meletian  party  subsisted 
in  the  fifth  century,  but  was  condemned  by 
the  first  council  of  Nice. 

MEMORY,  a  faculty  of  the  inind,  which 
presents  to  as  ideas  or  notions  of  things  that 
are  past,  accompanied  with  a  persuasion  that 
the  things  themselves  were  formerly  I'eal 
and  present.  When  we  remember  with 
little  or  no  effort,  it  is  called  remembrance 
simply,  or  memory,  and  sometimes  passive 
memory.  When  we  endeavour  to  remem- 
ber what  does  not  immediately  and  of  itself 
occur,  it  is  called  active.memory  or  recollec- 
tion. A  good  memory  has  these  several  quali- 
fications: 1.  It  is  ready  to  receive  and  ad- 
mit with  great  ease  the  various  ideas,  both 
of  words  and*  things,  which  are  learned 
or  taught — 2.  It  is  large  and  copious  to  trea- 
sure up  these  ideas  in  great  number  and 
variety. — 3.  It  is  strong  and  durable  to  re- 
tain for  a  considerable  time,  those  words 
or  thoughts  which  are  committed  to  it. — 4. 
It  is  faithful  and  active  to  suggest  and  re- 
collect, upon  every  proper  occasion,  all 
those  words  or  thoughts  which  it  hath  trea- 
sured up.  As  this  faculty  may  be  injured 
by  neglect  and  slothfulness,  we  will  here 
subjoin  a  few  of  the  best  rules  which  have 
been  given  for  the  improvement  of  it.  1. 
We  should  form  a  clear  and  distinct  appre- 
hension of  the  things  which  we  commit  to 
memory. — 2.  Beware  of  every  sort  of  in- 
temperance, for  that  greatly  impairs  the 
faculties. — 3.  If  it  be  weak,  we  must  not 
overload  it,  but  charge  it  only  with  the  most 
useful  and  solid  notions. — 4.  We  should  take 
eveiy  opportunity  of  uttering  our  best 
thoughts  in  conversation,  as  this  will  deeply 
imprint  them — 5.  We  should  join  to  the 
idea  we  wish  to  remember,  some  other  idea 
that  is  more  familiar  to  us,  which  bears 
some  similitude  to  it,  either  in  its  nature, 
or  in  the  sound  of  the  word.  6.  We  should 
think  of  it  before  we  go  to  sleep  at  night, 
and  the  first  thing  in  the  moraing,  when 
the  faculties  are  fresh.— 7.  Method  and 
regularity  in  the  things  we  commit  to  the 
memory  are  necessary. — 8.  Often  thinking, 
writing,  or  talking,  on  the  sulyects  we  wish 
to  I'emember. — 9.  Fervent  and  frequent  pray- 
er. See  Wads  on  the  Mind,  chapter  17 ; 
Grey's  Mcmoria  Technica.    Rogers'  Plea- 


sures of  Memory.  Reid's  Intellectual  Pow- 
ers of  Man,  313,  310,  338,  356. 

MENANDRIANS,  the  most  ancient 
branch  of  Gnostics ;  thus  called  from  Me- 
nander  their  chief,  said  by  some,  without 
sufficient  foundation,  to  have  been  a  disci- 
ple of  Simon  Magus,  and  himself  a  reputed 
magician. 

He  taught,  that  no  person  could  be  saved 
unless  he  were  baptized  in  his  name ;  and 
he  conferred  a  peculiar  sort  of  baptism, 
which  would  render  those  who  received  it 
immortal  in  the  next  world ;  exhibiting 
himself  to  the  world  with  the  phrenzy  of 
a  lunatic  more  than  the  founder  of  a  sect  a% 
a  promised  Saviour  ;  for  it  appears  by  the 
testimonies  of  Irenaus,  Justin,  and  Tertul- 
lian,  that  he  pretended  to  be  one  of  the 
seons  sent  from  the  plei'oma,  or  ecclesiasti- 
cal regions,  to  succour  the  souls  that  lay 
groaning  under  bodily  oppression  and  servi- 
tude ;  and  to  maintain  them  against  the  vi- 
olence and  stratagems  of  the  demons  that 
hold  the  reigns  of  empire  in  this  sublunary 
world.  As  this  doctrine  was  built  upon  the 
same  foundation  with  that  of  Simon  Magus 
the  ancient  writers  looked  upon  him  as  the 
instructor  of  Menander.    See  Simonians. 

MENDICANTS,  or  Begging  Friars, 
several  oi'ders  of  religious  in  popish  coun- 
tries, who,  having  no  settled  revenues,  are 
supported  by  the  charitable  contributions 
they  receive  from  others. 

This  sort  of  society  began  in  the  thir- 
teenth century,  and  the  members  of  it,  by 
the  tenor  of  their  institution,  were  to  remain 
entirely  destitute  of  all  fixed  revenues  and 
possessions ;  though  in  process  of  time  their 
number  became  a  heavy  tax  upon  the  peo- 
ple. Innocent  III.  was  the  first  of  the 
popes  who  perceived  the  necessity  of  insti- 
tuting such  an  order ;  and  accordingly  he 
gave  such  monastic  societies  as  made  a  pro- 
fession of  poverty,  the  most  distinguished 
marks  of  his  protection  and  favour.  They 
were  also  encouraged  and  patronised  by  the 
succeeding  pontiffs ;  when  experience  had 
demonstrated  their  public  and  extensive 
usefulness.  But  when  it  became  generally 
known  that  they  had  such  a  peculiar  place 
in  the  esteem  and  protection  of  the  rulers 
of  the  church,  their  number  grew  to  such 
an  enormous  and  unwieldy  multitude,  and 
swarmed  so  prodigiously  in  all  tlie  European 
provinces,  that  they  became  a  burden,  not 
only  to  the  people,  but  to  the  church  itself. 
The  great  inconvenience  that  arose  from 
the  excessive  multiplication  of  the  Mendi- 
cant orders,  was  remedied  by  Gregory  X. 
in  a  general  council,  which  he  assembled 
at  Lyons  in  1272  ;  for  here  all  the  religious 
orders  that  had  sprung  up  after  the  council 
held  at  Rome  in  1215,  under  the  pontificate 
of  Innocent  III.  were  suppressed ;  and  the 
extravagant  multitude  of  Mendicants,  as 
Gregory  called  them,  were  reduced  to  a 
smaller  number,  and  confined  to  the  four 
following  societies  or  denominations,  viz. 
tlie  Dominicans,  the  Franciscans,  the  Car- 


MEN 


503 


MEN 


meiites,  and  the  Augustins,  or  iiermits  of 
St.  Augustin.  ^,     ,. 

As  the  pontiffs  allowed  these  four  Mendi- 
cant orders  the  liberty  of  travelling  -where- 
ver they  thought  proper,  of  conversing  with 
persons  of  every  rank,   of  instructing   the 
youth  and   n\ultitude  wherever  they  went ; 
and  as  those  monks  exhibited  in  their  out- 
ward appearance  and  manner  of  life,   more 
striking  marks  of  gravity  and  holiness  than 
were  observable  in  the  otlier  monastic  soci- 
eties, they  rose  all  at  once  to  the  very  sum- 
rpit  of  fame,  and   were  regarded  with  the 
utmost  esteem  and  veneration   through  all 
the  countries  of  Europe.    The  enthusiastic 
attachment  to  these  sanctimonius   beggars 
went  so  far,    that    as  we  learn    from    the 
most  authentic  records,  several  cities   were 
divided  or  cantoned  out  into  four  parts,  with 
a  view  to  these  four  orders :  the  first  part  be- 
ing assigned  to  the  Dominicans,  the  second 
to  the  Franciscans,  the  third  to  the  Carme- 
lites, and  the  fourth  to  the  Augustins.    The 
people  were  unwilling  to  receive  the  sacra- 
ments from  any  other  hands  than  those  of 
the  Mendicants,  to  whose    churches  they 
crowded  to  perform  their  devotions  while 
living,  and  were  extremely  desirous  to  de- 
posit there  also  their  remains  after  death. 
Nor   did  the    influence  and   credit  of  the 
Mendicants  end  here ;  for  we  find  in    the 
history  of  this  and  of  the  succeeding   ages, 
that  they  were  employed  not  only  in  spiritu- 
al matters,  but  also  in  temporal  and  political 
affairs  of  the  greatest  consequence,  in  com- 
posing the  differences  of  princes,  concluding 
treaties  of  peace,  concerting  alliances,  pre- 
siding in  cabinet  councils,  governing  courts, 
levying  taxes,  and  other    occupatioi\s,  not 
only  remote  fi-om,  but  absolutely  inconsistent 
with  the  monastic  character  and  pi'ofession. 
However,  the   power   of    the    Dominicans 
and  Franciscans  greatly  surpassed   that  of 
the  other  two  orders,  insomuch  that  these 
two   oi'ders  were,  before  the    reformation, 
what  the  Jesuits  have  been  since  that  hap- 
py and   glorious  period ;   the  very  soul   cf 
the  hierarchy,  the  engines  of  the  state,  the 
secret    springs    of  all  the  motions  of  the 
one  and  the  other,  and  the  authors  and  di- 
rectors of  every  great  and  important  event, 
both  in  the   reJigious   and  political   world. 
By  very  quick  progression  their  pride  and 
confidence  arrived  at  such  a  pitch,  that  they 
had  the  presumption  to  declare  publicly,  that 
they  had  a  divine  impulse  and  commission 
to  illustrate  and  maintain  the  religion  of  Je- 
sus.   They  treated  with    the    utmost  inso- 
lence and  contempt  all  the  different  orders 
of  the  priesthood ;  they  affirmed,  without  a 
blush,  that  the    true    metliod  of  obtaining 
salvation  was  revealed  to  them  alone  ;  pro- 
claimed with  ostentation  the  superior  effica- 
cy and  virtue    of  their   indulgences ;  and 
vaunted  beyond  m.easure  their   interest    at 
the  court  of  heaven,  and  their  familiar  con- 
nections with  the  Supreme  Being,  the  Vir- 
gin Mary,  and  the  saints  in  glory.  By  these 
impious  wiles  they  so  deluded  and  captiva- 


ted the  miserable,  and  blinded  the  multi- 
tude, that  they  would  not  intrust  any  other 
but  the  Mendicants  with  the  care  of  their 
souls.  They  retained  their  credit  and  in- 
fluence to  such  a  degree  towards  the  close 
of  the  fourteenth  century,  that  great  num- 
bers of  both  sexes,  some  in  health,  others  in  a 
state  of  infirmity,  others  at  the  point  of 
death,  earnestly  desired  to  be  adrtnittcd  into 
the  Mendicant  order,  which  they  looked 
upon  as  a  sure  and  infallible  method  of  ren- 
dering heaven  propitious. — Many  made  it 
;in  essential  part  of  their  last  wills,  that 
their  bodies  after  death  should  be  wrapped 
in  old  ragged  Dominican  or  Franciscan  ha- 
bits, and  interred  among  the  Mendicants. 
For  such  was  the  barbarous  superstition 
and  wretched  ignorance  of  this  age,  that 
people  universally  believed  they  should  rea- 
dily obtain  mercy  from  Christ  at  the  day 
of  judgment,  if  they  appeared  before  his 
tribunal  associated  with  the  Mendicaiit 
friars. 

About  this  time,  however,  they  fell  under 
an  universal  odium ;  but,  being  resolutely 
protected  against  all  opposition,  whether 
open  or  secret,  by  the  popes,  who  regarded 
them  as  their  best  friends  and  most  ef- 
fectual supports,  they  suffered  little  or  no- 
thing from  the  efforts  of  their  numerous  ad- 
versaries. In  the  fifteenth  century,  besides 
•their  arrogance,  which  was  excessive,  a 
quarrelsome  and  litigious  spirit  prevailed 
among  them,  and  drew  upon  them  justly  the 
displeasure  and  indignation  of  many.  By 
affording  refuge  at  this  time  to  the  Beguins 
in  their  order,  they  became  offensive  to  the 
bishops,  and  were  hereby  involved  in  diffi- 
culties and  perplexities  of  various  kinds. 
They  lost  their  credit  in  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury by  their  rustic  impudence,  their  ridi- 
culous superstitions,  their  ignorance,  cruelty, 
and  brutish  manners.  They  discovered  the 
most  barbarous  aversion  to  the  arts  and  sci- 
ences, and  expressed  a  like  abhorrence  of 
certain  eminent  and  learned  men,  who  en- 
deavoured to  open  the  'paths  of  science  to 
the  pursuits  of  the  studious  youth,  recom- 
mended the  culture  of  the  mind,  and  attack- 
ed the  barbarism  of  the  age  in  their  w^ri- 
tings  and  discourses.  Their  general  char- 
acter, together  Avith  other  circumstances, 
concurred  to  render  a  reformation  desira- 
ble, and  to  accomplish  this  happy  event. 

Among  the  number  of  Mendicants  are  al- 
so ranked  the  Capuchins,  Recollects,  Mi- 
mims,  and  others,  who  are  branches  or  de- 
rivations from  the  former. 

Buchanan  tells  us,  the  Mendicants  ia 
Scotland,  under  an  appearance  of  beggary, 
lived  a  very  luxurious  life  ;  whence  one 
wittily  called  them  not  Mendicant  but  Man- 
ducant  friars. 

MENNONITES,  a  sect  in  the  United 
Provinces,  in  m.ost  respects  the  same  with 
those  in  other  places  called  Anabaptists. 
They  had  their  rise  in  1536,  when  Menno 
Simon,  a  native  of  Friesland,  who  had  been 
a  Romish  priest^  ar^d  a  notorious  profligate, 


ME  N 


304 


MEN 


i*esigned  his  rank  and  office  in  the  Romish 
church,  and  publicly  embraced  the  commu' 
nion  of  the  Anabaptists. 

Menno  was  born  at  Witmarsum,  a  vil- 
lage in  the  neighbourhood  of  Bolswert,  in 
Friesland,  in  the  year  1505,  and  died  in  1561, 
in  the  duchy  of  Holstein,  at  the  country  seat 
of  a  certain  nobleman  not  far  from  the  city 
of  Oldesloe,  who,  moved  with  compassion  by 
the  view  of  the  perils  to  which  Menno  was 
exposed,  and  the  snares  that  were  daily 
laid  for  his  ruin,  took  him,  with  certain  of 
his  associates,  into  his  protection,  and  gave 
him  an  asylum.  The  writings  of  Menno, 
which  are  almost  all  composed  in  the  Dutch 
language,  were  published  in  folio  at  Amster- 
dam, in  the  year  1651.  About  the  year 
1537,  Menno  was  earnestly  solicited  by  ma- 
ny of  the  sect  Avith  which  he  connected 
himself,  to  assume  among  them  the  rank 
and  functions  of  a  public  teacher  ;  and,  as 
he  looked  upon  the  persons  who  made  this 
prqjosal  to  be  exempt  from  the  fanatical 
phrenzy  of  their  brethren  at  Munster, 
(though  according  to  other  accounts  they 
were  originally  of  the  same  stamp,  only 
rendered  somewhat  wiser  by  their  suffer- 
ings,) he  yielded  to  their  entreaties.  From 
this  period  to  the  end  of  his  life  he  travel- 
led from  one  country  to  another  with  his 
wife  and  children,  exercising  his  ministry, 
under  pressures  and  calamities  of  various 
kinds,  that  succeeded  each  other  without 
interruption,  and  constantly  exposed  to  the 
danger  of  falling  a  victim  to  the  severity  of 
the  laws.  East  and  West  Friesland,  to- 
gether with  the  province  of  Groningen  were 
first  visited  by  this  zealous  apostle  of  the 
Anabaptists ;  from  whence  he  directed  his 
course  into  Holland,  Guelderland,  Brabant, 
and  Westphalia;  continued  it  through  the 
German  provinces  that  lie  on  the  coast  of 
the  Baltic  sea,  and  penetrated  so  far  as  Li- 
vonia. In  all  these  places  his  ministerial  la- 
tours  were  attended  with  remarkable  success, 
and  added  to  his  sect  a  prodigious  number 
of  followers.  Hence  he  is  deservedly  con- 
sidered as  the  common  chief  of  almost  all 
the  Anabaptists^  and  the  parent  of  the  sect 
that  still  subsists  under  that  denomination. 
Menno  was  a  man  of  genius,  though  not  of 
a  very  sound  judgment :  he  possessed  a  natu- 
ral and  persuasive  eloquence,  and  such  a 
degree  of  learning  as  made  him  pass  for  an 
oracle  in  the  estimation  of  the  multitude. 
He  appears,  moreover,  to  have  been  a  man 
of  probity,  of  a  meek  and  tractable  spirit, 
gentle  in  his  manners,  pliable  and  obsequi- 
ous in  his  commerce  with  people  of  all 
ranks  and  characters,  and  extremely  zeal- 
ous in  promoting  practical  religion  and  vir- 
tue, which  he  recommended  by  his  exam- 
ple as  well  as  by  his  precepts.  The  plan 
of  doctrine  and  discipline  drawn  up  by 
Menno  was  of  a  much  more  mild  and  mo- 
derate nature  than  that  of  the  furious  and 
fanatical  Anabaptists  (whose  tumultuous 
proceedings  have  been  recited  under  that 
article,)  but  somewhat  more  severe,  though 


more  clear  and  consistent  than  the  doctrine 
of  the  wiser  branches  of  that  sect,  who 
aimed  at  nothing  more  than  the  restoration 
of  the  Christian  church  to  its  primitive  pu- 
rity. Accordingly,  he  condemned  the  plan 
of  ecclesiastical  discipline  that  was  founded 
on  the  prospect  of  a  new  kingdom,  to  be 
miraculously  established  by  Jesus  Christ  on 
the  ruins  oi  civil  government,  and  the  de- 
struction of  human  rulers,  and  which  had 
been  the  fatal  and  pestilentiijj  source  of  such 
dreadful  commotions,  such  execrable  rebel- 
lions, and  such  enormous  crimes.  He  de- 
clared publicly  his  dislike  of  that  doctrine 
which  pointed  out  the  approach  of  a  mar- 
vellous reformation  in  the  church  by  the 
means  of  a  new  and  extraordinary  effusion  of 
the  Holy  Spirit.  He  expressed  his  abhor- 
I'ence  of  the  licentious  tenets  which  several 
of  the  Anabaptists  had  maintained  with  re- 
spect to  the  lawfulnes  of  polygamy  and  di- 
vorce ;  and  finally,  considered  as  unworthy 
of  toleration  those  fanatics  who  were  of 
opinion,  that  the  Holy  Ghost  continued  to 
descend  into  the  minds  of  many  chosen  be- 
lievers, in  as  extraordinary  a  manner  as  he 
did  at  the  first  establishment  of  the  Chris- 
tian church,  and  that  he  testified  his  pecu- 
liar presence  to  several  of  the  faithful  by 
miracles,  predictions,  dreams,  and  visions  ot' 
various  kmds.  He  retained,  indeed,  the 
doctrines  commonly  received  among  the 
Anabaptists,  in  relation  to  the  baptism  of  in- 
fants ;  the  millenium,  or  one  thousand  years 
reign  of  Christ  upon  earth ;  the  exclusion 
of  magistrates  from  the  Christian  church  ; 
the  abolition  of  war ;  and  the  prohibition  of 
oaths  enjoined  by  our  Saviour ;  and  the  van- 
ity, as  well  as  the  pernicious  effects  of  hu- 
man science.  But  while  Menno  retained 
these  doctrines  in  a  general  sense,  he  ex- 
plained and  modified  them  in  such  a  man- 
ner, as  made  them  resemble  the  religions 
tenets  that  were  universally  received  in  the 
Protestant  churches;  and  this  rendered 
the>m  agieeable  to  many,  and  made  them 
appear  incffensive  even  to  numbers  who  had 
no  inclination  to  embrace  them.  It,  how- 
ever, so  happened,  that  the  nature  of  the 
doctrines  considered  in  themselves,  the  elo- 
quence of  Menno,  which  set  them  off  to 
such  advantage,  and  the  ciicum stances  of 
the  times,  gave  a  high  degree  of  credit  to 
the  religious  system  of  this  famous  teacher 
among  the  Anabaptists,  so  that  it  made  a 
rapid  progress  in  that  sect.  And  tlius  it 
was  in  consequence  of  the  ministry  of  Men- 
no,  that  the  different  sorts  of  Anabaptists 
agreed  together  in  excluding  from  their 
communion  the  fanatics  tliat  dishonoured  it, 
and  in  renouncing  all  tenets  that  were  de- 
trimental to  the  authority  of  civil  govern- 
ment, and  by  an  unexpected  coaliticn  forni- 
ed  themselves  into  one  community. 

Though  the  Mennonites  usually  pass  for 
a  sect  of  Anabaptists,  yet  M.  Herman  Scliyn. 
a  Mennonite  minister,  who  has  published 
their  history  and  apology,  maintains,  that 
they  are  not  Anabaptists  cither  by  princi- 


MEN 


30J 


MEN 


jiiC  or  I)y  orii^in.  However,  nothing  can  be 
more  certain  than  this  fact,  viz  that  tlie 
first  Meiinduite  congregations  were  coni- 
pi'sed  of  the  rlifft-reiit  surts  of  Anabaptists  ; 
of  those  who  liad  been  always  in  lien  si  ve 
and  upright,  and  of  those  who,  b'.-f,iie  their 
c  inversion  by  the  ministry  of  Mennn,  had 
been  seditious  fan.itics ;  besides,  it  is  alleg- 
ed, that  the  Meinionites  do  actually  retain 
at  this  day  some  of  those  opinions  and  d.-c- 
triiies  w  ich  K.-d  the  seditious  and  turljulent 
Anabaptists  of  old  to  the  commissifwi  (jf  so 
many,  and  such  enormous  crimes  :  such  par- 
ticularly is  ttie  d'Ctriue  concerning  the  na- 
ture of  Christ's  kingdom,  nr  of  the  church 
of  the  New  Testament,  thoiigli  m.idihed  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  have  lont  its  noxious 
qualities,  aiid  to  be  no  longer  pernicious  in 
its  influence. 

The  Mennonites  are  subdivided  into  se- 
veral sects,  whereof  tiie  two  principal  are 
the  FlandiianH,  or  Flemingians,  and  the 
Walerlandians-  The  oi)ini(,ns,  says  .Moshe- 
im  that  are  ht-ld  in  common  by  the  Meinio- 
nites, seem  to  be  all  derived  from  tliis  fun- 
damental princijjle, — that  the  kingdom 
which  Christ  established  upnn  earth  is  a 
visible  church,  or  conmiunity,  into  wliich 
the  hoiy  and  just  alone  are  to  be  admitted  ; 
and  which  is  consequently  exempt  from  all 
those  institutions  and  rules  of  discipline  that 
have  been  invented  by  human  wisdom  for 
the  correction  and  reformation  of  the  wick- 
ed. This  princiijle,  indeed,  v/as  avowed 
by  the  ancient  Mennonites,  but  it  is  now 
almost  wholly  renrmnced:  nevertheless,  from 
this  ancient  doctrine  many  of  the  religious 
opinions  that  distinguish  the  Mennonites 
fr  ini  all  other  Christian  communities  seem 
to  be  derived.  In  consequence  of  this  doc- 
trine, they  admit  none  to  the  sacrament  of 
baptism  but  pt  rsons  tivat  are  come  to  the 
full  use  of  their  reason  ;  they  neither  admit 
ci\i!  rulers  into  their  communion,  nor  allow 
any  of  their  members  to  perform  the  func- 
tions of  magistracy :  they  deny  the  lawful- 
ness of  repelling  force  by  force  ;  and  consi- 
der war,  in  all  its  sh  ipes,  as  unchristian  and 
unjust:  they  entertain  the  utmost  aversion 
to  the  execution  of  justice,  and  move  espe- 
cially to  capital  punishments  :  and  they  also 
r  fuse  to  confirm  their  testimony  by  an  oath. 
The  particular  sentiments  that  divided  the 
more  considerable  societies  of  the  Meiaio- 
nites  are  the  following :  The  rigid  Menno- 
nites, called  the  Flc?nirigia2is,  maintain  witli 
various  degrees  of  rigour  the  opinions  of 
their  founder  Menno,  as  to  the  human  na- 
ture of  Christ,  alleging  that  it  was  produ- 
ced in  the  womb  of  the  \'irgin  by  the  crea- 
tii'ig  power  fif  the  Holy  Ghost ;  the  obliga- 
tion that  binds  us  to  wash  the  feet  of 
strangers,  in  consequence  of  our  Saviour's 
command  :  the  necessity  of  excommunica- 
ting and  avoiding,  as  one  would  do  the 
plague,  not  only  sinners,  but  also  all  tliose 
who  depart,  even  in  some  light  instances 
pertaining  to  dress,  &c  from  the  simplici- 
ty of  their  ancestors ;  the  contempt  due  to 


I  human  learning;  and  other  matters  of  less 
I  moment.  However,  this  austere  system 
declines,  and  the  rigid  Mennonites  are  gra- 
dually aj)proacliing  towards  die  (jHiiioiisand 
discipline  of  the  more  moderate,  or  JVa- 
ttrlundiunn. 

Tlie  iirst  settlement  of  the  Mennonites  in 
the  United  Provinces  was  granted  them  by 
William,  jjrince  of  Orange,  towards  the 
close  of  the  sixteenth  century:  but  it  was 
not  before  the  f.,ll(,wing  century  that  their 
lib;  rty  and  tranqniliity  were  fixed  upon  solid 
foundations,  when,  by  a  confession  of  faith, 
published  in  the  year  IGifi,  they  cleared 
themselves  from  the  imputations  of  those 
pernicious  and  detestable  errors  that  had 
bi-en  laid  to  their  charge.  In  order  to  ap- 
[lecise  their  intestine  discords,  a  considera- 
ble ])art  of  the  Anabaptists  of  Flanders, 
Germany,  and  Fi'itsland,  concluded  their 
debates  in  a  conference  held  at  Amsterdam 
i.i  tlie  year  1630,  and  entered  into  the  bonds 
of  fraternal  communion,  each  reserving  to 
themselves  a  liberty  of  retaining  certain 
opinions.  This  association  was  renewed 
and  coiifirmed  by  new  resolutions  in  the 
year  1649  ;  in  consequence  of  which  the  ri- 
gorous laws  of  Menno  and  his  successors 
were,  in  various  respects,  mitigated  and 
corrected.     Si-e  Anabaptists 

MEN  OF  UNDEHSFANDING.  This 
title  distinguished  a  denomination  which  ap- 
p -ared  in  Flanders  and  Brussels  in  the  year 
1511.  Toey  owed  their  origin  to  an  illiter- 
ate man,  whose  name  was  Egidius  Cantor, 
and  to  William  of  Hilden'son,  a  Carmelite 
monk.  They  preten.ded  to  be  honoured 
with  ctle.stial  visions,  denied  that  any  could 
arrive  at  perfect  knowledge  of  the  holy 
scriptures  witluait  tlic  extraordinary  suc- 
cours of  a  divine  illumination,  and  declared 
the  aj^proach  of  a  new  revelation  fn  m  hea- 
ven, nn^re  perfect  than  the  gospel  of  Christ. 
They  said  that  the  n  !:unection  was  accom- 
plish.ed  in  the  person  of  Jesus,  and  no  other 
v/as  to  Ix'  expected;  that  the  inward  man 
was  not  defiled  by  the  outward  actions, 
whatever  they  were  ;  that  the  pains  of  hell 
were  to  have  an  end  ;  and  not  only  all  man- 
kind, but  even  the  devils  themselves,  were 
to  return  to  Go;l,  and  to  be  made  partakers 
of  etei'na!  felicity.  They  also  taught  among 
other  t'iiiags,  that  Ci'.rist  alone  had  merited 
eternal  life  and  felicity  for  tiie  human  race; 
and  that  therefore  men  could  n^it  acquire 
this  inestimable  privilege  by  their  own  ac- 
tions alone — that  the  ])riests,  to  whom  the 
people  confessed  their  transgressions,  had 
not  die  power  of  abselving  t'lem,  but  this 
authority  was  vested  in  Christ  alone — that 
voluntary  penance  and  mortification  was  not» 
necessary  to  saltation. 

This  denomination  appears  to  have  been 
a  branch  of  the  Brethren  and  Sisters  of  the 
Free  Spirit. 

MERCY  is  that  disposition  of  mind  which 
excites  us  to  pity  and  relieve  those  \A\o 
are  in  trouble,  or  to  pass  by  their  crimes 
without  punishing  them.    It  is  distinguished 


MER 


506 


M  E  U 


irom  love,  thus;  The  object  of  love  is  the 
creature  bimply  ;  the  object  ot"  mercy  is  the 
creature  falle:i  into  misery.  Parents  love 
their  children  simply  as  tliey  are  their 
chihh-en  ;  but  if  they  fall  into  mist  ry,  love 
works  in  a  way  of  i)ity  and  compassion  :  love 
is  turned  into  mercy. 

"  As  we  are  all  {he  objects  of  mercy  in 
one  degree  or  an'iiher,  tlie  mutual  exercise 
of  it  towards  each  other  is  necessary  to  pre- 
sei've  the  harnioiiy  and  happiness  of  society 
But  there  are  '..tie  who  may  be  more  par- 
ticularly f  .idered  as  the  objects  of  it; 
such  as  tile  guilcxj,  the  indir^eiit,  and  the 
miserable.  As  it  respects  the  guilty,  the 
greatest  mercy  we  can  shew  to  them  is  to 
endeavour  to  reclaim  them,  and  prevent  the 
bad  consequences  of  their  miscunduct,  James 
V.  20-  Mercy  may  also  be  shewn  to  them 
by  a  proper  mitigation  of  justice,  and  not 
extending  the  punishment  bey(.nd  the  nature 
or  desert  of  the  crime.  VVith  regard  to 
those  who  are  in  ?ircessity  and  want,  mercy 
calls  upon  us  to  afpurd  the  most  suitable  and 
seasonable  supplies;  and  here  otir  benefac- 
tions must  be  dispensed  in  proportion  to  (.ar 
circumstances,  and  the  real  distress  of  the 
object,  1  John  iii.  17.  As  to  those  who  are 
in  misery  and  distress,  mercy  prom]jts  us 
to  relieve  and  comfort  thein  by  doing  what 
■we  can  to  remove  or  alleviate  their  burdens. 
Our  Lord  strongly  recommended  this  act  of 
mercy  ia  the  parable  of  the  man  who  fell 
among  thieves,  and  vvas  relieved  by  the 
poor  Samaritan  :  and  in  the  conclusion  he 
adds,  '  Go  and  do  thou  likewise,'  Luke  x 
30—37. 

"  This  merciful  temper  will  shew  and  ex 
ert  itself  not  only  towards  those  of  our  own 
party  and  acquaintance,  but  to  the  whole 
human  species  ;  and  not  only  to  the  whole 
human  specivs,  but  to  the  whole  anim.ii 
creation.  It  is  a  degre^e  of  inimnianity  to 
take  a  pleasure  in  giving  any  thing  pain, 
and  more  in  putting  useful  animals  t^  ex- 
treme torture  for  our  own  si)e.rt.  This  is 
not  that  dominion  v/hich  God  originally  gave 
to  man  over  the  beas's  of  the  fiehl.  It  is, 
therefore,  an  usurped  authority,  which  man 
has  no  right  to  exercise  over  brute  ci-ea- 
tures,  -which  were  made  for  his  service, 
con^■enience,  support,  and  ease;  but  not  f :  r 
the  gratification  of  unlawful  passions,  or  cru- 
el dispositions. 

"  Mercy  must  be  distloguished  from  th(!se 
weaknesses  of  a  natural  temper  which  of- 
ten put  on  the  appearance  of  it.  Witii  re- 
gard to  criminals  or  deiiiKpients,  it  is  false 
compassi(;n  to  suppress  the  salutary  admo- 
nition, and  refuse  to  set  their  guilt  before 
'them,  merely  because  the  sight  of  it  will 
give  their  conscience  pain  :  such  unseasf^na- 
ble  tenderness  in  a  surgeon  may  jjrove  t!ie 
death  of  his  patient:  this,  however  it  may 
appear,  is  not  mercy,  but  cruelty.  So  is 
that  fondness  of  a  parent  that  witldiolds  the 
hand  of  (iiscipline  from  a  l)eloved  child, 
when  its  frowardness  ar,d  faults  render  sea- 
sonable and  prudent  correction  necessary 


to  save  it  from  ruin.  In  like  manner,  wlieii 
a  magistrate,  through  excessive  clemency, 
suiTers  a  criminal  who  is  a  pest  to  society 
to  escape  unpunished,  or  so  mitigates  the 
sentence  of  the  law  as  to  put  it  into  his 
power  to  do  still  greater  hurt  to  others,  he 
violates  not  only  the  laws  of  justice,  but  of 
meicy  too. 

"  Mercy  to  the  indigent  and  necessitous 
has  been  no  less  abused  and  perverted  by 
acts  of  mistaken  beneficence,  when  impu- 
dence and  clamour  are  permitted  to  extort 
from  the  hand  of  charity  that  relief  which 
is  due  to  silent  distress  and  modest  merit ; 
or  when  one  object  is  lavishly  relieved  to 
the  detriment  of  another  who  is  more  de- 
serving. As  it  respects  those  who  are  in 
tribulation  or  misery,  to  be  sure,  every  such 
person  is  an  object  of  our  compassion  ;  but 
tiiat  compassion  may  be,  arid  often  is,  exer- 
cised in  a  wrong  manner.  Some  are  of  so  ten- 
der a  make,  that  they  cannot  bear  the  sight 
of  distress,  and  stand  aloof  from  a  friend  in 
pain  and  affliction,  because  it  aflFects  them  t(.o 
sensibly,  when  their  presence  would  at  lea.st 
give  ihem  some  little  comfort,  and  might  pos- 
sibly ndminister  lasting  relief.  This  weak- 
ness should  be  opposed,  because  it  not  only 
looks  like  unkindness  to  our  friends,  but  is 
really  shewing  more  tenderness  to  ourselves 
than  to  them  :  nor  is  it  doing  as  we  would 
be  done  by.  Again  ;  it  is  false  pity,  when, 
out  of  mere  tenderness  of  nature,  we  either 
advise  or  i)ermit  our  afflicted  friend  to  take 
or  do  any  thing  which  will  give  him  a  lit- 
tle present  transient  ease,  but  which  we 
know,  at  the  same  time,  Avill  increase  his 
luture  pain,  and  aggravate  the  symjjtoms  of 
his  disease."  Seeing,  therefore,  the  ex- 
tremes to  which  we  are  liable,  let  us  learn 
to  cultivate  that  wisdom  and  prudence  which 
are  nectssai-y  to  regulate  this  virtue.  'I"o 
be  just  without  being  cruel,  and  merciful 
without  being  weak,  should  lie  our  constant 
aim,  under  all  the  circumstances  of  guilt, 
mdigence,  and  misery,  wliich  present  them- 
selves to  our  view.  See  Bknehcence, 
Charity,  Lovk. 

MEKCY  OF  GOD  is  his  readiness  to 
relieve  the  mi.serab!e,  and  to  pardon  the 
guilty. 

1.  It  is  essential  to  his  nature.  Exodus 
xx.xiv.  6,  7;  not,  indeed,  as  a  passion  or  af- 
fection, as  it  is  in  men,  but  the  result  of  his 
sovereign  will,  and  guided  bj'  his  infinite 
wistlom. — 2.  It  is  fn  e,  as  notliing  out  of 
iiimself  can  be  the  cause  of  it;  for  then 
there  would  be  a  caiise  prior  to  him,  the 
cause  ef  himself.  'l"he  misery  of  the  crea- 
ture is  not  the  cause  of  mercy,  for  he  is  not 
wrought  upon  as  creatures  are,  nur  are  the 
merits  of  the  creature  the  cause.  Tit.  iii. 
.1 ;  nor  are  even  the  sufierings  of  C'hrist  the 
cause,  but  the  effects  of  it:  but  it  arises 
from  the  goodness  of  his  natui'e,  and  fi'om 
his  sovereign  will  and  pleasure,  Exod.  xxxiii. 
19.  Rom.  ix.  18 — 3.  His  mercy  is  infinite  ; 
it  i)ardons  (Ifi  nces  cemmitted  against  an  in- 
finitely holy  .Being,  and  bestows  an  hifinitc 


MES 


3o; 


MES 


good  on  all  who  believe,  even  Jesus  Christ, 
Luke  i.  78. — 4.  It  is  immutable  ;  nothing 
can  change  it :  it  is  invariably  tfie  same, 
Mai.  iii.  6  Luke  i.  50 — 5.  Shail  be  for  ever 
celfbraied  in  a  future  state,  Psal.  Ixxxix.  2. 
Psal  ciii.  17. — 6.  It  is  only  displayed  in  and 
through  Christ,  Eph.  ii.  It  has  been  far- 
ther distinguished  i:ito,  1.  Preventing  mer- 
cy, Psal.  hx.  10. — 2.  Forbearing  nsercy, 
Horn.  ii.  4. — 3.  Comforting  mercy,  2  Cor.  i 
4. — 4.  Relieving  mercy,  Psal  cxiv.  8,  9  — 5. 
Pardoning  rneicy.  Is.  Iv.  6  — 6  Universal  <jr 
extensive  mercy.  It  extends  to  all  kinds  of 
b-ings  and  fallen  creatures.  The  brute 
creation  share  in  it,  Psai.  cxiv.  9  Psal  xxxvi. 
5,  6.  The  ungodly  are  the  objects  of  it  in  a 
general  way.  Matt.  v.  45.  1  lim.  iv.  10. 
'I'he  s  lints  on  earth  are  continual  monu- 
ments of  it,  Kom.  ix  23.  and  the  spirits  c^f 
just  men  made  perfect  in  glory  are  always 
praising  God  f(.r  it.  Fnially,  it  is  enjjyed 
in  an  especial  manner  by  all  who  are  true 
believers,  of  every  nation,  in  every  age,  in 
every  circumstance,  in  all  places,  and  at  all 
time.s.  See  Grace,  Pardon  ;  Gill's  Body 
of  Diviniiy,  vol.  i.  page  124.  cxtavo  edition. 
Saurin'a  Sermons^  vol.  i.  sermon  8.  Dr. 
Goodu-in'.i  Works,  vol.  v.  part  2.  Tillotsoii's 
Sermotis,  sermon  14f.  Hill's  Sermons,  ser- 
mon 10 

MEKIT  signifies  desert,  or  to  earn  :  ori- 
ginally the  word  was  applied  to  soldiers 
and  other  military  persons,  wlio,  by  their 
labours  in  the  field,  and  by  the  various 
hardships  they  underwent  during  the  course 
of  a  campai.rn,  as  also  by  other  services  they 
might  occasionally  render  to  the  ommon- 
•wealth,  Avere  said,  merere  stiptndia,  to  me- 
rit, or  earn  their  pay:  which  they  might 
properly  be  said  to  do,  becau.se  they  yield- 
ed in  real  service,  an  equivalent  to  the  state 
for  the  stipend  they  received,  which  was 
therefore  due  to  tiitm  in  justice.  Here, 
then  we  come  at  the  true  mear:ing  of  the 
word  merit  ;  from  v/hich  it  is  very  clearly 
to  be  seen,  that  ttiere  can  be  no  such  tb.ing 
as  merit  in  our  best  obedience  (Jne  man  may 
merit  of  annther,butall  mankind  toget'ier can- 
not merit  from  the  hand  of  God.  This  evi- 
dently appears,  if  we  consider  the  imper- 
fections of  all  our  services,  and  the  express 
declaration  of  the  Diviiie  word,  Eph.  ii.  8. 
9.  Rom.  xi.  5,  6.  Tit.  iii.  5  Rom.  x  1,  4. 
The  Doctrine  of  Merit  stattd,  sermon  1, 
vol.  iii  SoutKs  Sermons.  Tofdadu's  IVorks, 
page  471,  vol.  iii.  Hervey's  EUx'en  Let- 
ters to  Wesley.  Bobinson's  Claude,  vol.  ii. 
pace  218. 

MERITS  OF  CHRIST,  a  term  used  to 
den  te  the  active  and  passive  cbedience  of 
Ciirist ;  all  that  he  wrought  and  all  that  he 
suffered  for  the  salvation  of  mankind  See 
articles  Atonement,  Imputation, 
Righteousness  ok  Christ. 

MESSIAH  signifies  anointed,  the  title 
given  by  wav  of  eminence  to  our  Saviour  ; 
meaning  the  same  in  Hebrew  as  Christ  in 
Greek,  and  alludes  to  the  authority  he  had 
to  assume  the  characters  of  prophet,  priest 


and  king,  and  that  of  Saviour  of  the  world. 
The   ..ixieiit   Jews  hud  just  notions  of  the 
Messiali,    wliicli  came   gradually   to  be  cor- 
rupted,  by  expecting  a  tem])..ral  monarch 
and  conqueror;   and  finding  Jesus  Cluist  to 
be  pnor,  humble,  and  ot  an  unpromising  ap- 
pearance, they  lejecti-d  him.     Most   ot  the 
modern   rubbn;s,   according  to  Buxtorf,  be- 
lieve  that  the   Messiah  is   come,   but  that 
he  lies  concealed  because  oi  the  sins  of  the 
Jews.     Others  bv.'lieve  he   is  not  yet  come, 
fixing   diiierent    times  for   his    appearance, 
many  of  »\  liich  are  elapsed  ;  and,  being  thus 
bafded,     have    promunced    an    anathema 
against  tho.->e  who  shall  pretend  to  calculate 
the   time  of  nis   coming.     To  rtccaicile  the 
pr(>phecies    concerning     the    Messiah    that 
seemed  to  be  contradictory,  some  liave  had 
recourse   to   a   two-f(ild  IVlessiah  ;  one  in  a 
I  state  of  poverty  and  suftVring,  the  other  of 
I  splendour   and   glory.     l"he  first,  they  say, 
j  is   to   pnceed   from  the  irilje  of  Ephraim, 
I  who  is  to  fight  against  Gr.g,  and  to  be  slain 
I  by   Annillus,   Zech.  xii.  10.    the  s  cond  is  to 
I  be  of  the  trilie  of  Judah  and  lint-age  of  Da- 
I  vid,  who  is  to  ccnquer  and  kill  .\nmllus  ;  to 
;  bring  th.e  first  Messiah  to  file  again,   to  as- 
j  bembie  all   Israel,  and  rule  over  the  whole 
I  world. 

I  That  Jesus  ('hrist  is  the  true  Messiah, 
i  and  actually  come  in  the  flesh,  is  evident,  if 
i  we  consider  (as  Mr.  Fuller  observes)  that 
lit  is  uitimated,  that  whenever  he  should 
;  come,  the  sacrifices  and  ceremoi.ies  of  the 
,  Mosaic  law  were  to  be  superseded  by  him, 
Psalm  xl.  6 — 8  1  Samuel  xv.  22.  Daniel  ix. 
27.  Jeremiah  xxxi.  51,  34  Hebrews  viii.  1.3. 
Now  sacrifice  and  oblation  havi-  ceased. 
They  vvtnallij  ceased  wiien  Jesus  offered, 
himself  a  sacrifice;  and  in  a  few  j'ears  af- 
ter, they  actually  ceased.  A  few  of  the 
ancient  ceremonies  are  indeed  adhered  to, 
ibut  as  one  of  the  Jewisli  writers  acknow- 
ledges, "  The  sacrifices  of  tiie  Holy  Temple 
have  ceaseil."  Let  eveiy  Jew  then  fi're, 
ask  hims-lf  this  question  :  Should  M'-ssiah, 
the  Prince,  come  at  some  future  joeriod,  how 
are  the  sacrifice  and  oblation  to  cease  on 
his  appearance,  when  they  have  already 
ceased  nearly  18C0  year.«. 

Again,  it  is  suggested  in  the  Scripture, 
that  tiie  great  body  of  spxred  prophesy 
s'i'.uld  be  accompHshed  in  hi  -i ;  Genesis  iii. 
16  xxii  18.  Isaiah  xiix.  10.  liii. — 1.  The 
time  when  he  was  to  come  is  clearly  marked 
out  ir.  pr' phesy  ;  Isa.  xJix.  10.  H  iigai  ii.  6 
— 9  D.iiiiel  ix.  24.  He  actually  came,  ac- 
i  carding  to  that  tune. — 2  The  place  where 
Messiah  sh-.uld  oe  br.rn,  and  where  he 
:  sh(;u!d  principally  impart  his  dcctrine,  is 
determined  ;  Micah  v.  2.  Isaiah  ix.  2.  and 
was  hteraliy  fulfilled  in  Jesus. — 3  The 
house  or  fa  <  ily  from  whom  he  should  de- 
scend is  clearlv  ascertained.  So  much  is 
.said  of  his  d«'scending  from  David,  that  we 
need  not  refer  to  particular  proofs  ;  and  the 
rather,  as  no  i'tvr  will  deny  it.  The  genea- 
logies of  Matthew  and  Luke,  whatever  va- 
rieties there  are  between  them,  agree  in 


MES 


308 


MES 


tracing  his  pedigree  to  David.  And  though, 
in  both,  it  is  traced  in  the  name  of  Joseph. 
yet  this  appears  to  be  only  in  conformity  to 
the  Jewish  custom  of  traciiig  no  pedigrt  e  in 
the  name  of  a  female.  The  father  of  Jo 
stph,  as  mentioned  by  Luke,  seen\s  to  have 
been  his  father  by  marriage  only  :  so  tliat  it 
■was,  in  reahty,  Mary's  pedigree  that  is 
traced  by  Luke,  though  under  her  husband's 
name ;  and  this  being  the  natural  line  of 
descent,  and  that  of  Mattluw,  the  legal 
one,  by  which,  as  a  king,  lie  would  have 
inherited  the  crown,  there  is  no  inc;n- 
sistency  between  them. — 4.  The  kind  of 
miracles  that  iVIessiah  should  perfurm  is 
specified :  Isaiah  xxxv.  5,  6.  He  actually 
performed  the  miracles  there  predicted,  his 
enemies  themselves  being  judges — 5.  It 
•was  prophesied  that  he  should,  as  a  King, 
be  distinguished  by  his  loivliness  ;  enterhig 
into  JerusaK-m,  not  in  a  chariot  of  state, 
but  in  a  much  humbler  style  ;  Zcchariah  ix. 
9  this  was  really  the  case,  Matthew  xxi. 
6.  It  was  predicted  tliat  he  shnukl  suffer 
and  die  by  the  hands  of  wicked  nun  ;  Isa. 
xlix.  7  liii.  9.  Daniel  ix.  26.  Nothing  could 
be  a  more  striking  fulfiiment  of  prophesy, 
than  the  treatment  tlie  Messiah  met  with, 
in  almost  every  particular  circumstance — 7 
It  was  foretold  that  he  should  rise  from  the 
dead:  Isaiah  liii.  11.  Psalm  Ixviii.  18.  xvi. 
10.  his  resurrection  is  proved  by  indubita!)!e 
evidence. — 8.  It  was  foretold,  tliat  the  great 
body  of  the  Jewish  nation  would  not  believe 
in  film,  and  that  he  would  set  up  his  king- 
dom among  the  Gentiles  ;  Isaiah  liii.  1.  xlix. 
4 — 6.  vi  9 — 12.  Never  was  a  prophesy 
more  ccmpletely  fulfiiled  than  this,  as  facts 
evidently  prove. 

Lastly,  It  is  declared,  that  when  the  Mes- 
siah sliould  come,  the  will  (f  Cird  would  be 
perfectly  fulfilled  by  him,  Isaiah  xlii  1.  49. 
Isa.  3.  5  And  what  was  his  whole  life  but 
perfect  conformity  to  him  '  He  finished  the 
■work  the  Father  gave  Him  to  do :  never 
was  there  such  a  cliaracter  seen  among 
men.  Well,  therefore,  may  we  say.  Truly, 
this  was  the  Son  of  Goth  See  Article 
Christianity,  Jesus  Christ. 

Tliere  have  been  numerous  false  Mes- 
siahs, which  liave  arisen  at  different  times. 
Of  these,  the  Saviour  predicted,  Matthew 
xxiv.  14.  Some  have  reckoned  as  m^iny  as 
twenty-four,  of  whom  we  shall  here  give  an 
account. 

1.  Caziba  was  the  first  of  any  note  wlio 
made  a  r.dihe  in  the  world.  Being  disshti;,- 
fied  with  the  state  of  things  under  Afliian, 
he  set  himself  up  at  the  head  of  tlie  Jewish 
nation,  and  proclaimed  himself  tlieir  lon>4- 
expected  Messiah.  He  was  one  of  those 
banditti  that  infested  Judea,  and  committed 
all  kinds  of  violence  against  the  R<nians: 
and  had  become  so  powerful,  that  he  was 
chosen  kiiig  of  the  Jews,  and  by  them  ac- 
knowledged their  Messiah.  However,  to 
facilitate  the  success  of  this  bold  enterprize, 
he  ch;inged  his  name  from  Caziba,  which  it 
>vas  at  first,  to  that  of  Barchccheba,  alluding 


to  the  star  foretold  by  Balaam  ;  for  he  pre 
tended  to  be  the  star  sent  from  heaven  to 
restore  his  nation  to  its  ancient  liberty  and 
glory.  He  chose  a  forerunner,  raised  an 
army,  was  anointed  king,  coined  money  in- 
scribed with  his  own  name,  and  ]jrociaimcd 
himself  Messiah  and  prince  of  the  Jewish 
nation.  Adrian  raised  an  army,  and  sent  it 
against  liim.  He  retired  into  a  town  c  lUtd 
Bitlier,  where  he  was  besieged.  Barcho- 
cheba  was  killed  in  the  si;  ge,  the  city  was 
taken,  and  a  dreadful  havock  succeeded. 
The  Jews  themselves  allow,  that,  during 
this  short  war  against  the  Remans,  in  de- 
fence of  this  false  ISiessiah,  they  lost  five  or 
six  hundred  thousand  souls.  This  was  in 
the  former  jiart  of  the  second  century. 

2  In  the  reign  of  Theodosius,  the  young- 
er, in  the  year  of  our  Lord  434,  another  im- 
poster  arose,  called  Mobes  Cretensis.  He 
pretended  to  be  a  second  Moses,  sent  to  de- 
liver the  Jews,  who  dwelt  in  Crete,  and 
promised  to  divide  the  sea,  and  give  them 
a  safe  passage  through  it.  Their  delusion 
proved  so  string  and  universal,  ihat  they 
neglected  their  lands,  houses,  and  ail  other 
coi.cerns,  and  took  only  so  much  with  them 
as  they  (  ould  conveniently  carry.  And  on 
the  day  appointed,  this  false  Moses,  having 
led  them  to  the  top  of  a  rock  ;  men,  v/omen, 
andchildren,threwthen;selves  headlong  down 
into  the  sea,  without  the  least  hesitation  or 
reluctance,  till  so  great  a  number  of  them 
were  drowned,  as  opened  the  eyes  of  the 
rest,  and  made  them  sensible  of  the  cheat. 
They  then  began  to  look  out  for  their  i)re- 
tended  leader,  but  he  disappeared,  and  es- 
caped out  of  their  hand. 

3.  In  the  reign  of  Justin,  about  520,  ano- 
ther im])oster  appeared,  who  called  himself 
the  son  of  Meses.  His  name  was  Dunaan. 
He  entered  into  a  city  of  Arabia  Felix,  and 
there  he  greatly  oppressed  the  Christians  ; 
but  lie  was  taken  prisoner,  and  put  to  death 
by  Elesban,  an  iEthic>pian  general. 

4  In  the  year  529,  the  Jews  and  Samari- 
tans rebelled  against  the  emperor  Justinian, 
and  set  up  one  Julian  for  their  king ;  and 
accounted  him  the  Messiah.  The  emperor 
sent  an  army  against  them,  killed  great 
num'ers  of  them,  took  their  pretended 
Messiah  prisoner  and  immediately  put  him 
to  d(  ath. 

5.  In  the  year  57\  was  horn  Mahomed, 
in  Arabia.  At  first,  he  professed  himself 
to  be  the  Messiah,  who  was  promised  to 
the  Jews.  By  this  means  he  drew  many 
of  that  unhappy  pe;^])lc  after  hiu).  In  some 
sense,  therefore,  lie  may  be  considered  in 
the    number  of  false   Messiahs.     See  Ma- 

nOPIKTANISM. 

6.  About  tlie  year  721,  in  the  time  of 
I..eo  Isarus,  arose  another  false  Messiah  in 
Spain:  his  name  was  Serpens.  He  drew 
sreat  numbers  after  him,  to  their  no  small 
loss  and  disappointmer.t,  but  all  his  pre- 
tmsions  came  to  nothing. 

7.  The  twelfth  century  was  fruitful  in 
false  Messiahs;   for,  about  the  year  ll."", 


ME  S 


309 


ME  S 


there  appeared  one  in  France,  who  was 
put  to  iltath,  and  nriany  of  those  who  fol- 
tbwed  him. 

8.  In  the  year  1138,  the  Persians  were 
disturbed  with  a  Jew,  Avho  called  himselt" 
ihe  Messiah.  He  collected  together  a  vast 
army.  Hut  he  too,  was'  put  to  death,  and 
his  followers  treatetl  with  great  inhuma- 
nity. 

9.  In  the  year  1157,  a  false  Messiah  stir- 
red up  tlie  Jews  at  Corduha,  in  Spain 
'I'lie  wiser  and  better  sort  looked  upon  him 
as  a  madman,  but  the  great  body  of  the 
Jews  in  that  nation  believed  in  him.  On 
this  occasion,  almost  all  the  Jews  in  Spain 
were  destroyed. 

10.  In  the  year  1167,  another  false  Mes- 
siah rose  in  the  kingdom  of  Fez,  which 
brought  great  troubles  and  persecution  upon 
the  Jews  that  were  scattered  through  that 
country. 

11.  In  the  same  year,  an  Arabian  set  up 
there  for  the  Messiah,  and  pretend- 
ed to  work  miracles.  When  search  was 
made  for  him.  his  followers  fled,  and  he 
was  brought  before  the  Arabian  king.  Be- 
ing questioned  by  him,  he  replied,  that  he 
was  a  prophet  sent  from  God.  The  king 
then  asked  him,  what  sign  he  could  shew, 
to  confirm  his  mission.  Cut  off  my  head, 
said  he,  and  I  will  return  to  life  again. 
The  king  took  him  at  his  word,  promising 
to  believe  him  if  his  prediction  came  to 
pass.  The  poor  wretcli,  however,  never 
returned  to  life  again,  and  the  cheat  was 
sufficiently  discovered.  Those  who  had 
been  deluded  by  him  were  grievously  pun- 
ished, and  the  nation  condemned  to  a  very 
heavy  fine. 

12.  Not  long  after  this,  a  Jew,  who  dwelt 
beyond  Euphrates,  called  himself  the  Mes- 
siah, and  drew  vast  multitudes  of  people  af- 
ter him.  He  gave  this  for  a  sign  of  it,  that 
he  had  been  leprous,  and  was  cured  in  the 
course  of  one  night.  He  like  the  rest,  pe- 
rished in  the  attempt,  and  brought  great 
persecution  on  his  countrymen 

13.  In  the  year  1174,  a  magician  and 
false  Christ  arose  in  Persia,  who  was  called 
David  Almusser.  He  pretended,  that  he 
could  make  himself  invisible ;  but  he  was 
soon  taken  and  put  to  death,  and  a  heavy 
fine  laid  upon  his  brethren,  the  Jews. 

14.  In  the  year  1177,  another  of  these  im- 
posters  arose  in  Moravia,  who  was  called 
David  Almusser.  He  pretended,  that  he 
coidd  make  himself  invisible;  but  he  was 
soon  takfu,  and  put  to  death,  and  a  heavy 
fine  laid  upon  his  brethren,  the  Jews. 

15.  In  the  year  1199,  a  famous  cheat  and 
rebel  exerted  himself  in  Persia,  called 
David  el  David.  He  was  a  man  of  learn- 
ing, a  great  magician,  and  pretended  to 
be  the  Messiah.  He  raised  an  army 
against  the  king,  but  was  taken  and  im- 
prisoned :  and,  having  made  his  escape, 
was  afterwards  seized  again,  and  beheaded. 
Vast  numbers  of  the  Jews  were  butchered 
for  taking  part  with  this  impostor. 


16.  We  are  told  of  another  false  Christ  in 
tills  same  century,  by  Maimonides  and 
Si.lomon;  but  they  took  no  notice  either 
of  his  name,  country,  or  good  or  ill  suc- 
cess. 

Here  we  may  observe,  that  no  less  than 
ten  false  Christs  arose  in  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury, and  brought  prodigious  calamities  and 
destruction  upon  the  Jews,  in  various  quar- 
ters of  the  world. 

17.  In  the  year  1497,  we  find  another 
false  Christ,  whose  name  was  Ismael  So- 
phus,  who  deluded  the  Jews  in  Spain.  He 
also  jicrished,  and  as  many  as  believed  in  him 
were  dispersed. 

18.  In  the  year  1500,  Rabbi  Lemlem,  a 
German  Jew,  of  Austria,  declared  himself  a 
forerunner  of  the  Messiah,  and  pulled  down 
his  own  even,  promibing  his  brethren,  that 
they  should  bake  their  bread  in  the  Holy 
Land  next  year. 

19.  In  the  year  1509,  one  whose  name 
was  Pleff.-rkorn,  a  Jew,  of  Cologn,  pretended 
to  be  the  Messiah.  He  afterwards  affected, 
however,  to  turn  Christian. 

20  In  the  year  1534,  Rabbi  Salomo  Mal- 
cho,  giving  out  that  he  was  the  ^^essiah, 
was  burnt  to  death,  by  Charles  the  Fifth,  of 
Spain. 

21.  In  the  year  1615,  a  false  Christ  arose 
in  the  F.ast  Indies,  and  was  greatly  followed 
by  the  Portuguese  Jews,  who  were  scattered 
over  that  country. 

22.  In  the  year  1624,  another  in  the  low 
countries  pretended  to  be  the  Messiah  of 
the  family  of  Da\-id,  and  of  the  line  of  Na- 
than. He  promised  to  destroy  Rome,  and 
to  overthrow  the  kingdom  of  Antichrist, 
and  the  Turkish  empire. 

23  In  the  year  1666,  appeared  the  false 
Messiah,  Zabathai  Tzevi,  who  made  so 
great  a  noise,  and  gained  such  a  nunber  of 
proselytes.  He  was  born  at  Aleppo,  im- 
p-^sed  on  the  Jews  for  a  considerable  time: 
but  afterwards,  with  a  view  of  saving  his 
life,  turned  M.ihometan,  and  wiis  at  last 
beheaded.  As  the  history  of  this  impostor* 
is  more  entertaining  than  that  of  those  we 
have  already  mentioned,  I  will  give  it  at 
some  length 

The  year  1666  was  a  year  of  great  ex- 
pectation, and  some  wonderful  thing  was 
looked  for  by  many.  This  was  a  fit  time 
for  an  impostor  to  set  up ;  and  accordingly 
lying  reports  were  carried  about.  It  was 
said,  that  great  multitudes  marched  from 
unknown  parts  to  the  remote  deserts  of 
.Arabia,  and  they  were  supposed  to  be  the 
ten  tribes  of  Israel,  who  had  been  dispersed 
for  many  ages;  that  a  ship  was  arrived  in 
•  he  north  part  of  Scotland,  with  sails  and 
cordage  of  siik  ;  that  the  mariners  spake 
nothing  but  Hebrew  ;  that  on  the  sails  was 
this  motto.  The  iivelve  Tribes  of  Israel  — • 
Thus  were  credulous  men  possessed  at  that 
time. 

Then  it  was  that  Sabatai  Sevi  appeared 
at  Smyrna,  and  professed  himself  to  be  the 
Messias.  He  promised  the  Jews  deliverance 


ME  S 


310 


ME  S 


and  a  prnsperous  kingdom.  This,  which  he 
promised,  they  firmly  believed.  The  Jews 
now  attended  to  no  business,  discoursed  of 
nothing  but  their  return,  and  believed  Saba- 
lai  to  be  the  Messias  as  firmly  as  we  Chris- 
tians believe  any  article  of  faith.  A  ris^ht 
reverend  person,  then  in  Turkey,  meetini'; 
v/ith  a  Jew  of  his  acquaintance  at  Aleppo, 
he  asked  him  what  he  thought  of  Sabatai. 
The  Jew  replied,  that  he  believed  him  to 
be  the  Messias ;  and  that  he  was  so  far  of 
that  belief,  that,  if  he  should  prove  an  im- 
postor, he  wruld  then  turn  Christian.  It  is 
fit  we  should  be  particular  in  this  relation, 
because  the  history  is  so  very  surprising  and 
remarkable ;  and  Ave  have  the  account  of  it 
from  those  who  were  in  Turkey. 

Sabatai  Sevi  was  the  son  of  Mordecai  Se- 
vi,  a  mean  Jew  of  Smyrna.  Sabatai  was 
very  bookish,  and  an-ived  to  great  skill  in 
the  Hebrew  learning.  He  was  the  author 
of  a  new  doctrine,  and  for  it  was  expelled 
the  city.  He  went  thence  to  Salonichi,  of 
old  called  Thessalonica,  where  he  mari'ied 
a  very  handsome  woman,  and  was  divorced 
from  her.  Then  he  travelled  into  the  Mo- 
rea,  then  to  Tripoli,  Gaza,  and  Jerusalem. 
By  the  way  he  picked  uj)  a  third  wife.  At 
Jei'usalem  he  began  to  reform  the  Jews' 
constitutions,  and  abolish  one  of  their  solemn 
fasts,  and  communicated  his  designs  of  pro- 
fessing himself  the  Messias  to  one  Nathan. 
He  was  pleased  with  it,  and  set  up  for  his 
Elias,  or  forerunner,  and  took  upon  him  to 
abohsh  all  the  Jewish  fasts,  as  not  beseeming, 
when  the  biidegroom  was  now  come.  Na- 
than prophesies  that  the  Messias  should  a])- 
pear  before  the  Grand  Seignior  in  less  than 
two  years,  and  take  from  him  his  crown,  and 
lead  him  in  chains. 

At  Gazr,  Sabatai  preached  repentance, 
together  with  a  faith  in  himself  so  efifectu- 
ally,  that  the  peojjle  gave  themselves  up  to 
tlieir  devotions  and  alms.  The  noise  of  this 
Messias  began  to  till  all  places.  Sabatai  now 
resolves  fur  Smyrna,  and  then  for  Constan- 
tinople. Nathun  v/rites  to  him  from  Da- 
mascus, and  thus  he  begins  his  letter  :  "  To 
the  King,  our  King,  hird  of  lords,  who  gath- 
ers the  dispersed  of  fsrael,  who  redeems  our 
captivity,  the  man  elevated  to  the  height  of 
all  sublimity,  the  Messias  of  the  G(!d  of  Ja- 
cob, the  true  Messias,  the  celestial  Lion, 
S:ibatai  Sevi." 

And  now,  throughout  Turkey,  the  Jews 
were  in  great  expectation  of  glorious  times. 
They  now  were  devout  and  penitent,  that 
they  might  not  obstruct  the  good  which  they 
hoped  for. 

Some  fasted  so  long,  that  they  were  fam- 
ished to  death  ;  others  buried  themselves 
in  the  earth  till  their  limbs  grew  stiff ;  some 
•would  endure  melting  wax  dropp^d  on  their 
flesh  ;  some  rolled  in  snow  :  others,  in  a 
cold  season,  would  put  themselves  into  cold 
water ;  and  many  buried  themselves.  Busi- 
ness was  laid  aside  ;  superfluities  of  house- 
hold utensils  were  sold  -,  the  poor  were  pro- 
vided for  by  immense  contributions.    Saba- 


tai comes  to  Snjyrna,  where  he  was  adored 
by  the  people,  though  the  Chacham  con- 
tradicted him,  for  which  he  was  removed 
from  his  office.  There  he  in  writing  styles 
himself  the  only  and  first-born  Son  of  God, 
the  Messias,  the  Saviour  of  Israel.  And 
though  he  met  with  some  opposition,  yet 
he  prevailed  there  at  last  to  that  degree, 
that  some  of  his  followers  prophesied,  and 
fell  into  stranger  ecstacies :  four  hundred 
men  and  women  prophesied  of  his  growing 
kingdom  ;  and  young  infants,  who  could 
hardly  speak,  would  plainly  pronounce  Sa- 
batai, Messias,  and  Son  of  God.  The  peo- 
ple were  for  a  time  possessed,  and  voices 
heard  from  their  bowels ;  some  fell  into 
trances,  foamed  at  the  month,  recounted 
their  future  prosperity,  their  visions  of  the 
Lion  of  Judah,  and  the  triumphs  of  Saba- 
tai. All  whicl),  says  the  relater,  were  cer- 
tainly true,  being  effects  of  diabolical  de- 
lusions, as  the  Jews  themselves  have  since 
confessed. 

Now  the  impostor  swells  and  assumes. 
Whereas  the  Jews,  in  their  synagogues, 
were  wont  to  pray  for  the  Grand  Seignior, 
he  orders  those  prayers  to  be  foreborne  for 
the  future,  tliinking  it  an  indecent  thing  to 
pray  for  him  who  was  shortly  to  be  his 
captive;  and,  instead  of  prayhig  for  the 
Turkish  emperor,  he  appoints  prayers  for 
himself.  He  also  elected  princes  to  govern 
the  Jews  in  their  march  towards  the  Holy 
Land,  and  to  minister  justice  to  them  when 
they  should  be  possessed  of  it.  These 
princes  were  men  well  known  in  the  city 
of  Smyrna  at  that  time.  The  people  were 
now  pressing  to  see  some  miracle  to  con- 
firm their  faith,  and  to  convince  the  Gen- 
tiles. Here  the  impostor  was  puzzled, 
though  any  juggling  trick  would  have  served 
their  turn.  But  the  credulous  people  sup- 
plied this  defect.  When  Sabatai  was  before 
the  Cadi  (or  justice  of  the  peace,)  snme 
affirmed  they  saw  a  pillar  of  fire  between 
him  and  the  Cadi ;  and  after  some  had 
affirmed  it,  others  were  ready  to  swear  it, 
and  did  swear  it  also ;  and  this  was  pre- 
sently believed  by  the  Jews  of  that  city. 
He  that  did  not  now  believe  him  to  be  the 
Messias  was  to  be  shunned  as  an  excommu- 
nicated person  The  impostor  now  declares 
that  he  was  called  of  God  to  see  Constanti- 
nople, where  he  had  much  to  do.  He  sliips 
himself,  to  that  end,  in  a  Turkish  saick, 
in  January,  1666.  He  had  a  long  and  trou- 
blesome voyage :  he  had  not  power  over 
the  sea  and  winds.  The  Vizier  upon  the 
news,  sends  for  him,  and  confines  him  in  a 
loathsome  prison.  The  Jews  pay  him  their 
visits  ;  and  they  of  this  city  are  as  infatu- 
ated as  those  in  Smyrna.  They  forbid  traf- 
fic, and  refuse  to  pay  their  debts.  Some 
of  our  English  merchants,  not  knowing  how 
to  recover  their  debts  from  the  Jews,  took 
this  occasion  to  visit  Sabatai,  and  make  their 
complaints  to  him  against  his  subjects; 
whereupon  he  wrote  thc-ibllowing  letter  to 
the  Jews : 


ME  S 


111 


ME  S 


"  To  you  of  the  nation  of  the  Jews,  who 
expect  tlie  appearance  of  the  Messias,  and 
the  salvation  of  Israel,  peace  without  end. 
Whereas  we  are  informed  that  yon  are  in- 
tlebted  to  several  of  the  English  nation,  it 
seemetli  right  unto  us  to  order  you  to  make 
satisfaction  to  these  your  just  debts,  which 
if  you  refuse  to  do,  and  not  obey  us  heiein 
know  you  that  then  you  are  not  to  enter 
with  us  into  our  joys  and  dominions." 

Sabatai  remained  a  prisoner  in  Constan- 
tinople for  the  space  of  two  months.  The 
Grand  Vizier,  designing  for  Candia,  thought 
it  not  safe  to  leave  him  in  the  city  during 
the  Grand  Seignior's  absence  and  his  own. 
He,  therefore,  removed  him  to  the  Darda- 
nelh,  a  better  air  indeed,  but  yet  out  of  the 
way,  and  consequently  importing  less  dan- 
ger to  the  city  ;  which  occasioned  tiie 
Jews  to  conclude,  that  the  Turks  could  not, 
or  durst  not,  take  away  his  life;  which 
■had,  tliey  concluded,  been  the  surest  way 
to  have  removed  a!l  jealousy.  The  Jews 
flocked  in  great  numbers  to  the  castle, 
where  he  was  a  prisoner  ;  not  only  those 
that  were  near,  but  from  Poland  Germany, 
Leghorn,  Venice,  and  other  places :  they 
received  Sabatai's  blessing,  and  promises  of 
advancement.  The  Turks  made  use  of 
this  confluence  ;  they  raised  the  price  of 
their  lodgings  and  provisions,  and  put  their 
price  upon  those  who  desired  to  see  Saba- 
tai for  their  adniittance.  This  profit  stop- 
ped their  mout)is,  and  no  complaints  were 
for  this  cause  sent  to  Adrianople. 

Sabatai,  in  his  confinement,  appoints  the 
manner  nf  tiis  own  nativity.  He  commands 
the  Jews  to  keep  it  on  the  ninth  day  of  the 
month  Ab,  and  to  make  it  a  day  of  great 
jfy,  lo  Cv-lebrate  it  with  pleasing  meats  and 
flrinks,  w;tli  illuminations  and  music.  He 
obligeth  them  to  acknowledge  the  love  of 
God,  in  giving  them  that  day  of  consolation 
for  the  birth  of  their  king  Messias,  Sa- 
batai Sevi,  his  servant  and  first-born  son  in 
love. 

We  may  observe,  by  the  way,  the  inso- 
lence of  this  impostor.  This  day  was  a 
solemn  day  of  fasting  among  the  Jews,  for- 
merly in  mem-^ry  of  the  burning  of  the  tem- 
ple by  the  Chaldees;  several  other  sad 
things  happened  in. this  month,  as  the  Jews 
observe  ;  tliat  then,  and  upon  the  same 
day,  the  second  temple  was  destroyed ; 
and  that  in  this  month  it  was  decreed  in  the 
wilderness,  that  the  Israelites  should  not 
enter  into  Canaan,  &c.  Sabatai  was  born 
on  this  day  ;  and  therefore,  the  fast  must 
be  turned  to  a  feast ;  whereas,  in  jtmth, 
it  had  been  well  for  the  Jews  had  he  not 
been  born  at  all ;  and  much  better  for  him- 
self, as  will  appear  from  what  follows. 

The  Jews  of  that  city  paid  Sal^atai  Sevi 
great  respect.  They  decked  their  syna- 
gogues with  S  S.  in  letters  of  gold,  and  made 
for  him  in  tne  wall  a  crown  ;  they  attribu- 
ted the  same  titles  and  prophecies  to  him 
■which  we  apply  to  our  Saviour.  He  was 
also,  during  this  imprisonment,  visited  by 


pilgrims  from  all  parts,  that  had  heard  his 
stor}-.  Among  whom  Nehtmiali  Cohen, 
from  Poland,  was  one,  a  man  of  gi-eat 
learning  in  the  Kabbala  and  easteni  tongues; 
who  desired  a  conference  with  Sabatai, 
and  at  tlie  conference  maintained,  that, 
accordir:g  to  the  scripture,  there  ought  to 
be  two-fold  Messias  ;  one  the  son  of  Ephra- 
ini,  a  poor  and  despised  teacher  of  the  law; 
the  otlier  the  son  of  David,  to  be  a  con- 
queror. Neherniah  was  content  to  be  the 
former,  the  son  of  Epliraim,  and  to  leave 
tlie  glory  and  dignity  of  the  latter  to  Sa- 
batai. Sabatai  for  what  appears,  did  not 
mislike  this.  But  here  lay  the  ground  of 
tiiequanel;  Neherniah  taught  that  the  son 
of  Ephraim  ought  to  be  the  forerunner  of 
the  son  of  David,  and  to  usher  him  in ; 
and  Nehemiah  accused  Sabatai  of  too  great 
forwardness  in  appearing  as  the  son  of 
David,  before  the  son  of  Ephraim  had  led 
him  the  way.  Sabatai  could  not  brook  this 
doctrine  ;  for  he  might  fear  that  the  son 
of  Ephraim,  w!io  was  to  lead  the  way, 
miglit  pretend  to  be  the  son  of  David,  and 
so  leave  him  in  the  lurch  ;  and  therefore, 
he  excluded  him  from  any  part  or  share  in 
this  matter;  which  was  the  occasion  of 
the  ruin  of  Sabatai,  and  all  his  glorious  de- 
signs. Nehemiah  being  disappointed,  goes 
to  Adrianople,  and  informs  the  gi'eat  minis- 
ters of  state  against  Sabatai,  as  a  lewd  and 
dangerous  person  to  the  government,  and 
that  it  was  necessary  to  take  him  out  of 
the  way.  The  Grand  Seignior,  being  in- 
formed (ff  this,  sends  for  Sabatai,  who, 
much  dejected,  appears  before  him.  The 
Grand  Seignior  requires  a  miracle,  and 
chooses  one  himself  ;  and  it  was  this :  that 
Sabatai  should  be  stripped  naked,  and  set 
as  a  mark  for  his  archers  to  shoot  at ; 
and,  if  the  arrows  did  not  pierce  his  flesh, 
he  would  o^ivn  him  to  be  the  Messias.  Sa- 
batai had  not  faith  enough  to  bear  up  under 
so  great  a  trial.  The  Grand  Seignior  let  -• 
him  know,  that  he  would  forthwith  impale 
him,  and  that  the  stake  was  prepared  for 
him,  unless  he  would  turn  Turk.  Upon 
which  he  con.sented  to  turn  Mahometan,  to 
the  great  confusion  of  the  Jews.  And  yet 
some  of  the  Jews  were  so  vain  as  to  affirm, 
that  it  was  net  Sabatai  himself,  but  his 
shadow,  that  professed  the  religion,  and 
was  seen  in  die  habit  of  a  Turk ;  so  great 
was  their  obstinacy  and  infidelity,  as  if  it 
were  a  thing  impussible  to  convince  these 
deluded  and  infatuated  wretches. 

After  all  this,  several  of  the  Jews  con- 
tinued to  use  the  forms,  in  their  public  wor- 
ship, prescribed  by  this  Mahometan  Mes- 
sias, wliich  obliged  the  principal  Jews  of 
Constantinople  to  send  to  the  synagogue  of 
Smyrna  to  forbid  this  practice.  During 
these  things,  the  Jews,  instead  of  minding 
their  trade  and  traffic,  filled  their  -etters 
with  news  of  Sabatai,  their  Messias  and  his 
wonderful  works.  They  reported,  that 
when  the  Grand  Seignior  sent  to  take  him, 
he  caused  all  the  messengers  that  were  fen* 


MET 


312 


M  E  r 


to  die;  and  when  other  Janizaries  were 
sent,  they  all  fell  dead  by  a  word  from  his 
mouth  ;  and,  being  requested  to  do  it,  he 
caused  them  to  revive  again.  They  added, 
that  though  the  prison  whei'e  Sabatai  lay 
was  barred  and  fastened  with  string  iron 
locks,  yet  lie  was  seen  to  walk  through  the 
streets  with  a  numerous  train ;  that  the 
shackles  which  were  upon  his  neck  and  feet 
did  not  fall  off,  but  were  turned  into  gold, 
with  which  Sabatai  gratified  his  followers. 
Upon  the  fame  of  these  things,  the  Jews 
of  Italy  sent  legates  to  Smyrna,  to  inquire 
into  the  truth  ot  these  matters.  Wlien  the 
legates  arrived  at  Smyrna,  they  heard  of 
the  news  that  Sabatai  was  turned  Tui'k,  to 
their  very  great  confusion  ;  but,  going  to  vi- 
sit the  brother  of  Sabatai,  he  endeavoured 
to  persuade  them  that  Sabatai  was  still  the 
true  iVIessias ;  that  it  was  not  Sabatai  tliat 
went  about  in  the  habit  of  a  Turk,  but  his 
angel,  or  spirit :  that  his  body  was  taken 
into  heaven,  and  should  be  sent  down  again 
when  God  should  think  it  a  tit  season.  He 
added,  that  Nathan,  his  forerunner,  who 
had  wrought  many  miracles,  would  soon,  be 
at  Smyrna ;  that  he  would  reveal  hidden 
things  to  them,  and  confirm  them.  But 
this  Elias  was  not  suffered  to  come  into 
Smyrna,  and  though  the  legates  saw  him 
elsewhere,  they  received  no  satisfaction 
at  all. 

24.  The  last  false  Christ  that  had  made  any 
considerable  number  of  converts,  was  one 
Rabbi  Mordecai,  a  Jew  of  Germany :  he 
appeared  in  the  year  1632.  It  wsis  not  long 
before  he  was  found  out  to  be  aii  impostor, 
and  was  obliged  to  fly  from  Italy  to  Poland 
to  save  his  fife.  Wliat  became  of  him  af- 
terwards does  not  seem  to  be  recorded. 

This  may  be  considered  as  true  and  exact 
an  account  of  the  false  Christs  that  have 
arisen  since  the  crucifixion  of  our  blessed 
Saviour,  as  can  well  be  given.  See  Johan- 
nes a  Lent's  History  of  False  JMei-.siuhs 
Jortin's  Remarks  on  Ecclesiastical  Histo- 
ry, vol.  iii.  page  330.  Kidder's  Demon- 
stration of  the  Messias.  Harris'  Sermo7is 
on  the  Messiah.  The  Eleventh  Volianc  of 
the  Modern  Part  of  the  Universal  History 
Smfison's  Key  to  the  Prophecies,  section 
9,  Maclaurin  on  the  Prophecies  relating 
to  the  Messiah.  Puller's  Jesus  the  true  ^ 
Messiah- 

METHODIST,  a  name  applied  to  diffe- 
rent sects,  both  Papists  and  Pi'otestaats. — 
1.  The  Po/iish  Methodists  were  those  po- 
lemical doctors,  who  arose  in  France  about 
the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century,  in 
opposition  to  the  Hugonots,  or  Protestants. 
Tiiese  Methodists,  from  their  different 
manner  of  treating  tlie  controversy  with 
their  opponents,  may  be  divided  into  two 
classes.  The  one  comprehends  those  doc- 
tors whose  method  of  disputing  with  the 
Protestants  was  disingenuous  and  unreasona- 
ble ;  and  who  followed  the  example  of  those 
military  chiefs,  who  shut  up  their  troops  in 
intrenchments  and  strong  holds,  in  order  to 


cover  them  from  the  attacks  of  the  enem\ . 
Of  tins  number  were  the  Jesuit  Veron,  wl'io 
required  the  Protestants  to  prove  the  tenets 
of  iheir  church  by  plain  passages  of  scrip- 
ture, without  being  allowed  the  liberty  (.f 
illustrating  those  passages,  reasoning  upon 
them,  or  drawmg  any  conclubions  from 
them  ;  Nihubius,  an  apostate  from  the  Pro- 
testant religion;  the  two  Wallenburgs,  and 
others,  who  confined  themselves  to  tiie  bu- 
siness of  answering  objections  ;  and  cardi- 
nal Richheu,  who  confined  the  wiiole  con- 
troversy to  the  single  article  of  the  (li\i;ie 
institution  and  auliun-iiy  of  ihe  church. — 
2.  Tlie  Methodists  of  the  second  class 
were  of  opinion,  that  the  most  expedient  ' 
manner  of  reducing  the  Protestants  to  si- 
lence, was  not  to  attack  ihem  by  piece- 
meal, but  to  overwhelm  them  at  once  by 
the  weight  of  some  general  princij^le,  or 
presumption,  or  some  universal  argument, 
which  comprehended,  or  might  be  applied 
to  all  the  points  contested  between  tiie  two 
churches ;  thus  imitating  the  conduct  of  those 
military  leaders,  who,  instead  of  spending 
their  time  and  strength  in  sieges  and  skn-- 
mishes,  endeavoured  to  put  an  end  to  the 
war  by  a.  general  and  decisive  action.  Some 
of  these  polemics  rested  the  defence  of  po- 
pery upon  prescription ;  others  upon  the 
wicked  lives  of  Protestant  princes  who  had 
left  the  church  of  Rome  ;  others,  the  crime 
of  religious  schism  ;  the  variety  of  opinions 
among  Protestants  with  regard  to  doc- 
trine and  discipline,  and  the  uniformity  of 
the  tenets  and  worship  of  the  church  of 
Rome  ;  and  thus,  by  urging  their  respective 
arguments,  they  thought  they  sluuld  stop 
the  mouths  of  their  adversaries  at  once. 

METHODISTS,  PROTESTANTS,  ori- 1-^ 
gin  of  It  is  not  generally  known  that  the  5 
name  of  Methodist  had  been  given  long  1 
before  to  a  religious  sect  in  England, 
or  at  least,  to  a  party  in  religion  which  was 
distinguished  by  some  of  the  same  marks  as 
are  now  supposed  to  apply  to  the  Mitho- 
dists.  John  Spence,  who  was  librarian  cl 
Sion  College  in  1657,  in  a  book  which  he 
published,  says,  "  Where  are  now  our  An- 
abaptists and  plain  pike-staff'  Methodists, 
who  esteem  all  flowers  of  rhetoric  in  ser- 
mons no  better  than  stinking  weeds  P" — 
But  the  denomination  to  which  we  here  re- 
fer, was  founded  in  the  year  17:9,  i)y  one 
Mr  Morgan,  and  Mr.  Inhn  Wesley.  In  the  ^ 
month  of  November  that  year,  the  latter  ' 
being  then  fellow  of  Lincoln  College,  began 
to  spend  some  evenings  in  reading  the 
Greek  Testament,  with  Charles  Wesley, 
student,  Mr.  Morgan,  commoner  of  Christ 
Church,  and  Mr  Kirkham,  of  Merton  Col- 
lege. Not  long  afterwards,  two  or  three  ol 
the  pupils  of  Mr.  John  Wesley,  obtained 
leave  to  attend  these  meetini:;s.  They  then 
began  to  visit  the  sick  in  different  parts  of 
the  town,  and  the  pj-isoners  also,  who  were 
confined  in  the  castle  Two  years  a*ter, 
they  were  joined  by  Mr.  Ingham,  of  Queen's 
CoUege,  Mr,  Broughton,  and  Mr.  Hervey: 


MET 


313 


MET 


and,  in  1735,  by  the  celebrated  Mr.  Whit- 
field, then  in  his  eighteenth  year.  At  this 
time  their  number  in  Oxford  amounted  to 
about  fourteen.  They  obtained  tiieir  name 
from  the  e.'cact  regularity  of  tlieir  lives, 
which  gave  occasion  to  a  young  gcnileaiau 
of  Chriat  Church  to  say,  "Here  is  a  new 
sect  of  Methodist  sprung  up;"  alluding  to  a 
sect  of  ancient  physicians,  who  were  called 
Metliodists,  because  they  reduced  the  whole 
healing  art  to  a  few  common  principles, 
and  brought  it  into  some  method  and 
order. 
At  the  time  that  this  society  was  form- 
.  ed,  it  is  said  that  the  whole  kingdom  of 
■  England  was  tending  fast  to  infidelity.  "  It 
is  c-mv,"  says  bishop  Butler,  "1  knov/  not 
how,  to  be  taken  for  granted  by  many  per- 
sons, that  Cliristianity  is  not  so  much  as  a 
subject  of  inquiry  ;  but  that  it  is  now  at 
length  discovered  to  be  fictitious ;  and  ac- 
cordnigly  they  treat  it  as  if,  in  the  present 
age,  this  were  an  agreement  among  all  peo- 
ple of  discernment,  and  nothing  remained 
but  to  set  it  up  as  a  principal  subject  of 
mirth  and  ridicule,  as  it  weie,  by  way  of 
reprisals  for  its  having  so  long  interrupted 
the  pleasures  of  the  world.  "  There  is 
every  reason  to  believe,  that  the  Mvthodists 
were  the  inslrun'.ents  <  i  stemming  tiiis  tor- 
rent. The  side  and  the  poor  also  tasted 
the  fruits  of  their  labours  and  benevolence. 
Mr.  Wesley  abridged  himself  of  all  his  su- 
perfluities, and  proposed  a  fund  for  the  relief 
ot  the  indi;.;ent  ;  and  so  prosperous  was  the 
scheme,  that  they  quicj^ly  increased  their 
fund  to  eighty  puunds  per  annum.  This, 
which  one  should  have  thought  would  have 
been  attended  with  praise  instead  of  cen- 
sure, quickly  drew  upon  them  a  kind  of 
persecution  ;  some  of  the  seniors  of  the  uni- 
versity l>a;an  to  intertere,  and  it  was  re- 
ported, "that  the  college  censors  were  go- 
ing to  blow  up  the  godit/  chid."  Tliey  found 
thenise  ves,  however,  patritu'zed  and  en- 
couraged by  some  men  emiiient  for  their 
learning  and  virtue  ;  so  that  the  society 
still  continued,  though  they  had  suffered  a 
severe  loss,  in  1730,  by  tiie  denth  of  Mr. 
Morgan,  who,  it  is  said,  was  the  founder  of 
it.  In  Octobtr  1735,  Ji)hn  and  Charlts  VVes 
ley,  Mr.  Ingliam,  and  Mr.  Dclamotte,  son 
of  a  merchant  in  London,  embarked  fur 
Georgia,  in  order  to  preach  the  gospel  to 
the  Indians.  After  their  arrival  they  were 
at  first  fa'/<ni!-ai)ly  received,  but  in  a  short 
time,  lost  the  affection  (:f  the  people  ;  and, 
on  account  of  some  dift'erences  with  the 
store-keeper,  Mr.  Wesley  was  obliged  to 
return  to  England.  Mr.  W<-sley,  however, 
was  soon  succeeded  by  Mr.  Whitfield, 
whose  repeated  labours  in  that  part  of  the 
world  are  well  knov^^n. 

II.  Methodists,  tenets  of.  After  Mr. 
Whitfield  returned  from  America  in  174], 
he  declared  his  full  assent  to  the  doctrines 
of  Calvin-  Mr.  Wesley,  on  the  contrar)%  pro- 
fessed the  Arminian  doctrine,  and  had  print- 
ed in  favour  of  perfection  and  universal  re- 

II  r 


demption,  and  very  strongly  against  elec- 
tion ;  a  doctrine  which  Mr.  W'hitfield  be- 
lieved to  be  scriptural.  The  difference, 
therefore  of  sentiments  between  these  two 
great  men  caused  a  separation.  Mr.  Wes- 
ley ])reaclied  in  a  place  called  the  P'oundery, 
where  Mr.  Whitfield  preached  but  once, 
and  no  tnore.  Mi-.  Whitfield  then  preach- 
ed to  very  large  congregations  out  ot  doors; 
and  soon  after,  in  connection  with  Mr.  Cen- 
nick,  and  one  or  two  more,  began  a  new 
house,  in  Kingswood,  Gloucestershire  and 
established  a  school  that  favoured  Calvinis- 
tical  preachers.  The  Methodists,  therefore, 
were  now  divided  ;  one  part  following  Mr. 
Wesley,  and  the  other  Mr.  Whitfield. 

The  doctrines  of  Wesleyan  Methodists, 
according  to  their  own  account,  are  the 
same  as  the  church  of  England,  as  set 
forth  in  her  hturgy,  articles,  and  homilies. 
This,  however,  has  been  disputed.  Mr. 
Wesley,  in  his  appeal  to  men  of  reason  and 
religion,  thus  dtclai'es  his  sentiments:  "All 
I  teach,"  he  observes,  "  respects  either  the 
nature  and  condition  of  justification,  the  na- 
ture and  condition  of  salvation,  the  nature 
of  justifying  and  saving  faith,  or  the  Author 
of  faith  and  salvation.  That  justification 
whereof  our  articles  and  homilies  speak, 
signifies  presf  nt  forgiveness,  and  conse- 
quently acceptance  \vith  God  :  I  believe  the 
condition  of  this  is  faith  ;  I  mean  not  only  that 
without  faith  we  cannot  be  justified,  but  al- 
so that,  as  soon  as  any  one  has  true  faith, 
in  that  moment  he  is  justified.  Good  works 
follow  this  faith,  but  cannot  go  before  it  ; 
much  less  can  sanctification,  which  implies 
a  continued  course  of  good  works,  springing 
from  h(.Hness  of  heart.  But  it  is  allowed 
that  sanctification  goes  before  our  justifica- 
tion at  the  last  day,  Heb.  xii.  14.  Repent- 
ance, and  fruits  meet  for  repentance  go  be- 
fV.re  faith.  Repentance  absolutely  must  go 
before  faith  :  fruits  meet  for  it,  if  there  be 
opportunity.  By  repentance,  I  mean  convic- 
tion of  sin,  producing  real  desires  and  sin- 
cere .resolutions  of  amendment ;  by  salvation, 
1  mean  not  barely  deliverance  from  hell, 
but  a  jiresent  deliverance  from  sin.  Faith, 
in  general,  is  a  divine  supernatural  evidence, 
or  conviction  of  things  net  seen,  not  disco- 
verable by  our  bodily  senses ;  justifying 
faith  implies  not  only  a  divine  evidence  or 
conviction  that  God  was  in  Christ  recon- 
ciling the  world  unto  himself,  but  a  sure 
trust  and  confidence  that  Christ  died  for  mv 
sins,  that  he  loved  me,  and  gave  himself 
for  me.  And  the  moment  a  penitent  sin- 
ner believes  this,  God  pardons  and  absolves 
him  ;  and  as  soon  as  his  pardon  or  justifica- 
tion is  witnessed  to  him  by  the  Holy  Ghost, 
he  is  saved.  From  that  time  (unless  he 
make  shipwreck  of  the  faith)  salvation  gra- 
dually increases  in  his  soul. 

"The  author  of  faith  and  salvation  is 
God  alone.  There  is  no  more  of  power  than 
of  merit  in  m'an  ;  but  as  all  merit  is  in  the 
Son  of  God,  in  what  he  has  done  and  suf- 
fered for  us,  so  all  power  is  in  the  Spirit  of 


MET 


314 


MET 


God.  And,  therefore,  every  man,  in  oi'-  i 
tier  to  believe  unto  salvation,  must  receive 
the  Holy  Ghost."  So  far  Mr.  Wesley. 
Respecting  original  sin,  free  will,  the  justi- 
fication of  men,  good  works,  and  works 
done  before  justification,  he  refers  us  to 
what  is  said  on  these  subjects  in  the  former 
part  of  the  ninth,  the  tenth,  the  eleventh, 
the  twelfth,  and  thirteenth  articles  of  the 
church  of  England.  One  of  Mr.  Wesley's 
preachers  bears  this  testimony  of  him  and 
his  sentiments :  "  The  Gospel,  considered 
as  a  general  plan  of  salvation,  he  viewed  as 
a  display  of  the  Divine  perfections,  in  a 
way  agreeable  to  the  nature  of  God ;  in 
which  all  the  Divine  attributes  harmonize, 
and  shine  forth  with  peculiar  lustre. — The 
Gospel,  considered  as  a  means  to  attain  an 
end,  appeared  to  him  to  discover  as  great 
fitness  in  the  means  to  the  end  as  can  possi- 
bly be  discovered  in  the  structure  of  natural 
bodies,  or  in  the  various  operations  of  na- 
ture, from  a  view  of  which,  we  draw  cur 
arguments  for  the  existence  of  God. — Man 
he  viewed  as  blind,  ignorant,  wandering  out 
of  the  way,  with  his  mind  estranged  from 
Gnc. — He  considered  the  Gospel  as  a  dis- 
pensation of  mercy  to  men,  holding  forth 
pardon,  a  free  pardon  of  sin  to  all  who  re- 
pent and  believe  in  Christ  Jesus  The  Gos- 
pel he  believed,  inculcates  universal  holi- 
ness, both  in  heart  and  in  the  conduct  of 
life. — He  shewed  a  mind  well  instructed  in 
the  oracles  of  God,  and  well  acquainted 
with  human  nature.  He  contended,  that 
the  first  step  to  be  a  Christian  is  to  repent ; 
and  that,  till  a  man  is  convinced  of  the  evil 
of  sin,  and  is  determined  to  depart  from 
it ;  till  he  is  convinced  that  there  is  a  beau- 
ty in  holiness,  and  something  truly  desirable 
in  being  reconciled  to  God.  he  is  not  pre- 
pared to  receive  C!irist.  The  second  im- 
portant and  necessary  step,  he  believed  to 
be  faith,  agreeable  to  the  order  of  the  apos- 
tle, '  Repentance  toward  God,  and  faith 
toward  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,'  Acts  xx.  20, 
21.  In  explaining  sanctification,  he  accu- 
rately distinguished  it  from  justification,  or 
the  pardon  of  sin.  Justification  admits  us 
into  a  state  of  grace  and  favour  with  God, 
and  lays  the  foundation  of  sanctification,  or 
Christian  holiness,  in  all  its  extent.  There 
has  been  a  great  clamour  raised  against 
him  because  he  called  his  view  of  sanctifi- 
catioi)  by  tlie  word  perfection  y  but  he  often 
e.«:plained  what  he  meant  by  this  term.  He 
meant  by  the  word  fierfeclion,  such  a  de- 
j^ree  of  the  love  of  God,  and  the  love  of 
man  ;  such  a  degree  of  the  love  of  justice, 
truth,  holiness,  and  purity,  as  will  remove 
from  the  heart  every  contrary  disposition 
towards  God  or  man  ;  and  that  this  should 
be  our  state  of  mind  in  every  situation  and  in 
every  circumstance  of  life. — He  maintained 
that  God  is.  a  God  of  love,  not  to  a  part  of 
his  creatures  only,  but  to  all ;  that  He  who  is 
the  Father  of  all,  who  made  all,  who  stands  in 
the  same  relation  to  all  his  creatures,  loves 
them  all ;  that  he  loved  the  world,  and  gave 


his  Son  a  ransom  for  all  without  distinction 
of  persons.  It  appeared  to  him,  that  to.re- 
present|God  as  partial,  as  confining  his  love  to 
a  few  was  unworthy  our  notions  of  the  Deity. 
He  maintained  that  Christ  died  for  all  men  ; 
that  he  is  to  be  offered  to  all ;  that  all  are 
to  be  invited  to  come  to  him  ;  and  that  who- 
soever comes  in  the  way  which  God  has 
appointed  may  partake  of  his  blessings. 
He  supposed  that  sufficient  grace  is  given 
to  all,  in  that  way  and  manner  which  is 
best  adapted  to  influence  the  mind.  He  did 
not  believe  salvation  was  by  works.  So  far 
Avas  he  from  putting  works  in  the  place  of 
tlie  blood  of  Christ,  that  he  only  gave  them 
their  just  value  ;  he  considered  them  as  the 
fruits  of  a  living,  operative  faith,  and  as 
the  measure  of  our  future  reward  ;  for  eve- 
ry man  will  be  rewarded  not  for  his  works, 
but  according  to  the  measure  of  thtm.  Me 
gave  the  whole  glory  of  salvation  to  God, 
from  first  to  last.  He  believed  that  man 
would  never  turn  to  God,  if  God  did  not 
begin  the  work  ;  he  often  said  that  the  first 
approaches  of  grace  to  the  mind  are  irre- 
sistible ;  that  is,  that  a  man  cannot  avoid 
being  convinced  that  he  is  a  sinner ;  that 
God,  by  various  means,  awakens  his  con- 
science ;  and,  whether  the  man  wil  or  no, 
tliese  convictions  approach  him."  In  order 
that  we  may  form  still  clearer  ideas  respect- 
lu^  Mr.  Wesley's  opinions,  we  shall  here 
qar.te  a  few  questions  and  answers  as  laid 
down  in  the  Murutes  of  Confcre7ice  Q. 
"  In  what  sense  is  Adam's  sin  imputed  to 
all  mankind  i"  A.  "  In  Adam  all  die,  i.  e. 
1.  Our  bodies  then  became  mortal. — 2.  Our 
souls  died,  i.  e.  were  disunited  from  God. 
And  hence, — 3  We  are  all  born  with  a  sin- 
ful, devilish  nature ;  by  reason  whereof, — 
4.  We  are  children  of  wrath,  liable  to  death 
eternal,"  Rom.  v.  18.  Eph.  ii.  3.  Q.  "  In 
what  sense  is  the  righteousness  of  Christ 
imputed  to  all  mankind,  or  to  believers.*" 
A..  "  We  do  not  find  it  expressly  affirmed 
in  scripture,  that  God  imputes  the  righ- 
teousness of  Christ  to  any,  although  we  do 
find  that  faith  is  imputed  for  righteousness. 
That  text,  'As  by  one  man's  disobedience 
all  men  were  made  sinners,  so  by  the  obe- 
dience of  one,  all  were  made  righteous,'  we 
conceive,  means,  by  the  merits  of  Christ 
all  men  are  cleared  from  the  guilt  of 
Adam's  actual  sin."  Q.  "  Can  faith  be  lost 
through  disobedience  ?"  A.  "  It  cannot.  A 
believer  first  inwardly  disobeys ;  inclines  to 
sin  with  his  heart ;  then  his  intercourse 
with  God  is  cut  off,  i.  e.  his  faith  is  lost ; 
and  after  this  he  may  fall  into  outward  sin, 
being  now  weak,  and  like  another  man." 
Q.  *'  What  is  implied  in  being  a  perfect 
Christian  ?"  A.  "  The  loving  of  the  Lord 
our  God  with  all  our  heart,  and  with  all  our 
mind,  and  soul,  and  strength."  Q.  "  Does 
this  imply  that  all  inward  sin  is  taken 
away  ?"  A,  "  Without  doubt :  or  liow  could 
we  be  said  to  be  saved /ro7«  all  our  unclean- 
ness  ?"  Ezek.  xxxvi.  29.  Q.  "  How  much 
,  is  allowed  by  our  brethren  who  differ  from 


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us  with  regard  to  entire  sanctification  P"  A. 
"  They  grant,  1.  That  evt-ry  one  must  be 
entirely  sanctified  in  the  article  of  death. — 
2.  That  till  then  a  believer  daily  grows  in 
grace,  conies  nearer  and  nearer  to  perfec- 
tion.— 3.  That  we  ought  to  be  continually 
pressing  after  this,  and  to  exhort  all  others 
to  do  SO:"  Q-  "  What  do  we  allow  them  ?" 
A.  "  We  grant,  1.  Tliat  many  of  those  who 
have  died  in  the  faii.h,  yea,  the  greater 
part  of  those  we  have  known,  were  not 
sanctified  throughout,  not  made  perfect  in 
love,  till  a  little  before  death. — 2  That  the 
term  sayictijied  is  continually  applied  by  St. 
Paul  to  all  that  were  justified,  that  were 
true  believers — 3.  That  by  this  term  alone 
he  rarely  (if  ever)  means  saved  from  all 
sin. — 4.  That  consequently  it  is  not  proper 
to  use  it  in  this  sense,  without  adding  the 
word  '  wholly,  entirely,'  or  the  like. — 5. 
That  the  inspired  writers  almost  continual- 
ly speak  of,  or  to  those  who  are  justified, 
but  very  rarely  eidier  of,  or  to  those  who 
were  sanctified  — 6.  That  consequently  it 
behoves  us  to  speak  in  public  almost  continu- 
ally of  the  state  of  justification  :  but  more 
rarely  in  full  and  explicit  terms  concerning 
entire  sanctification."  Q.  "  What,  then, 
is  the  point  wherein  we  divide?"  A.  "It 
is  this  :  whether  we  should  expect  to  be  sav- 
ed from  all  sin  before  the  article  of  death  ?" 
Q.  "  Is  there  any  clear  scripture  promises 
of  this,  that  God  will  save  us  from  all  sin  ?" 
A.  "  There  is.  Psalm  cxxx.  8  :  '  He  shall 
redeem  Israel  from  all  his  iniquities '  This 
is  more  largely  expressed  in  Ezek.  xxxvi. 
25,  29.  2  Cor.  vii  1.  Deut.  xxx.  6.  1 
John  iii.  8.  Eph.  v.  25,  27.  John  xvii.  20, 
23.     1  John  iv.  17. 

Thus  I  have  endeavoured  to  give  a  view 
of  the  tenets  of  the  Wesleyan  Methodists  ; 
and  this  I  have  chosen  to  do  in  their  own 
words,  in  order  to  prevent  misrepresenta- 
tion. 

As  to  the  doctrines  of  the  Calvinistic  Me- 
thodists, they  need  not  be  inserted  here,  as 
the  reader  will  find  the  substance  of  them 
under  the  article  Calvinists. 

III.  Methodists,  government  and  disci- 
filine  of.  A  considerable  numljer  botli  of 
the  Calvinists  and  Arminian  Methodists  ap- 
prove of  the  discipline  of  the  church  of 
England,  while  many,  it  is  said,  are 
dissenters  in  principle.  Mr.  \A'^es!ey  and 
Mr.  Whitfield  were  both  brought  up  in  and 
paid  peculiar  respect  to  that  church  They 
did  not,  however,  as  it  is  well  known,  c. in- 
fine  themselves  to  her  laws  in  all  respects 
as  it  related  to  discipline. 

Mr.  Wesley  having  formed  numerous  so- 
cieties in  different  parts,  he,  with  his  bro- 
ther Charles,  drew  up  certain  rules,  by 
which  they  were,  and  it  seems  in  many 
respects  still  are  governed.  They  state  t!ic 
nature  and  design  of  a  Methodist  society  in 
the  following  words : 

"  Such  a  society  is  no  other  than  a  com- 
pany of  men  having  the  form  and  seeking 
the  power  of  godliness:  united,  in  order  to 


pray  together,  to  receive  the  word  of  ex- 
hortation, and  to  watch  over  one  another  in 
love,  that  they  may  help  each  other  to  work 
out  their  salvation." 

"  That  it  may  the  more  easily  be  discern- 
ed whether  they  are  indeed  working  out 
their  own  salvation,  each  society  is  divided 
into  smaller  companies,  called  classes,  ac- 
cording to  their  respective  places  of  abode. 
There  are  about  twelve  persons  (sometimes 
fifteen,  twenty,  or  even  more)  in  each  class; 
one  of  whom  is  siyled  the  leader.  It  is  his 
business,  1.  To  see  each  person  in  his  class 
once  a  week,  at  least,  in  order  to  enquire 
how  their  souls  j)rosper ;  to  advise,  reprove, 
comfort,  or  exhort,  as  occasion  may  re- 
quire ;  to  receive  what  they  are  willing  to 
give  to  the  poor,  or  toward  the  Gospel. — 
2  To  meet  the  minister  and  the  stewards 
of  the  society  once  a  week,  in  order  to  in- 
form tlie  minister  of  any  that  are  sick,  or 
of  any  that  walk  disorderly,  and  will  not 
be  reproved  ;  to  pay  to  the  stewards  what 
they  have  received  of  their  several  classes 
in  the  week  preceding ;  and  to  shew  their 
account  of  what  each  person  has  conti'ibu- 
ted. 

"  There  is  only  one  condition  previously 
required  of  those  who  desire  admission  into 
these  societies,  namely,  ^  desv'c  to  Jiee 
from  the  ivraih  to  come  ;  to  be  saved  from 
their  sins  :  but  wherever  this  is  really  "fixed 
in  the  soul,  it  will  be  shewn  by  its  fruits.  It 
is,  therefore,  expected  of  all  who  continue 
therein,  that  they  should  continue  to  evi- 
dence their  desire  of  salvation. 

"  First  by  doing  no  harm ;  by  avoiding 
evi'  in  every  kind  ;  especially  that  which  is 
most  generally  practised,  such  as  the  ta- 
king the  name  of  God  in  vain;  the  profa- 
ning the  day  of  the  Lord,  either  by  doing 
ordinary  work  thereon,  or  by  buying  or 
selling  ;  drunkeness  ;  buying  or  selling-  s/ii- 
ritiious  liquors,  or  drinking  them,  unless  in 
cast's  of  extreme  necessity  ;  fighting,  quar- 
relling, brawling ;  brother  going  to  law 
with  brother;  returning  evil  for  evil,  or 
railing  for  railing  ;  the  using  many  nvords 
in  buying  or  selling;  tiie  buying  or  selling 
uncusto))icd  goods  ;  the  giving  or  taking 
things  on  usury,  i.  e.  unlawful  interest. 

"  Uncharitable  or  xinfirofitabie  conversa- 
tion ;  particularly,  speaking  evil  of  magis- 
trates, or  of  ministers. 

"  Doing  to  others  as  we  would  not  they 
should  do  unto  us. 

"  Doing  what  we  know  is  not  for  the  glo- 
ry of  God  ;  as  XhG putting  on  gold  or  costly 
apparel;  the  taking  such  diversio72s  as 
cannot  be  used  in  the  name  of  the  Lord 
Jesus 

"  The  singing  those  songs,  or  reading 
those  books  whicli  do  not  tend  to  the  know- 
ledge nr  love  of  G<<\ ;  softness,  and  needless 
self-indulgence ;  laying  up  treasure  upon 
earth  ;  borrowing  without  a  prol-iability  of 
paying  :  or  taking  u]>  goods  without  a  pro- 
bability of  paying  for  them. 

"  It  is  expected  of  all  who  continue  in 


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these  societies,  that  they  should  continue  to 
evidence  their  desire  of  salvation. 

"  Secondly,  By  doing  good  ;  by  being  in 
every  kind  merciful  after  their  pow^er,  as 
they  have  opportunity  ;  doing  good  of  every 
possible  sort,  and  as  far  as  possi!)le  to  all 
men  ;  to  their  bodies,  of  the  ability  which 
God  giveth;  by  giving  food  to  ihe  hungry, 
by  clothing  the  naked,  by  visiting  or  help- 
ing them  that  are  sick,  or  in  jjrison :  to 
their  souls,  by  instructing,  reproving,  or  ex- 
horting all  we  have  any  intercourse  with  ; 
ti'ampling  under  foot  that  enthusiastic  doc- 
trine of  devils,  that  '  We  are  not  to  do  good, 
unless  our  hearts  be  free  to  it.'' 

"  By  doing  good,  especially  to  them  that 
are  of  the  household  of  faith,  or  groaning  so 
to  be  ;  employing  them  preferable  to  others  ; 
buying  one  of  another  ;  heljiing  each  other 
in  bushiess :  and  so  much  the-  more,  be- 
cause the  world  will  love  its  own,  and  them 
only  ;  by  all  possible  diligence  and  frugality , 
that  the  Gospel  be  not  blamed  ;  by  runnnig 
■with  patience  the  race  set  before  them, 
denying  themselves,  and  taking  up  their 
cross  daily  ;  submitting  to  bear  the  re- 
proach of  Christ ;  to  be  as  the  filth  and  oft'- 
scouring  of  the  world,  and  looking  that  men 
should  say  all  manner  of  evil  of  ihem  falsely 
for  the  Lord's  sake. 

"  It  IS  <  xpected  of  all  who  desire  to  con- 
tinue in  their  societies,  tliat  they  should 
continue  to  evidence  their  desire  of  salva- 
tion. 

"  Thirdly,  Bv  attending  on  all  the  ordi- 
nances of  God:  such  are, — Tlie  public  wor 
ship  of  God;  the  ministry  of  the  ••''w^ord 
either  read  or  expounded:  the  supper  of 
the  Lord ;  family  and  private  praver ; 
searching  the  scriptures  ;  and  fasting  and 
abstmence. 

"  These  are  the  general  rules  of  onr  so- 
cieties, all  which  we  are  taught  <  f  G  d  to 
observe,  even  in  his  written  word;  the  only 
rule,  and  the  sufficient  ra'e,  both  of  our 
faith  and  practice  ;  and  all  these  we  know 
his  Spirit  writes  on  every  truly  awakened 
heart  If  there  l)e  any  aroong  us  v  hoobse  rvc 
them  not,  who  habitually  break  any  eif  them, 
let  it  b?  made  known  unto  tliem  who  watch 
over  that  soul,  as  they  that  must  give  an 
account.  We  will  admonish  him  of  the  er- 
ror cf  his  ways  ;  we  w;:l  bear  with  him  for 
a  season  but  then,  if  he  repent  n'%  lie 
hath  no  more  place  among  us :  we  have  de- 
livered our  eiwn  souls. 

May  1,  1743.  John  Wesley, 

Charles  Wesley." 

In  Mr.  Wesley's  connecti'.n,  they  have 
r.ircuits  and  conferences,  which  we  fnul 
were  thus  formed  : — When  the  preachers 
at  first  went  out  to  txhort  .md  preach,  it 
•was  by  Mr.  Wesley's  permission  and  direc- 
tion ;  some  from  one  part  of  the  kingdom, 
and  some  from  another ;  and  though  fi-e- 
quently  strangers  to  each  other,  and  those 
to  whom  they  were  sent,  yet  on  his  credit 
and  sanction  alone  they  were  received  and 
provided    for  as  friends    by  the    societies 


wherever  they  came.  But  having  little  or 
no  communication  or  intercourse  with  one 
another,  nor  any  subordination  among  them- 
selves, they  must  have  been  under  the  ne- 
cessity  of  recurring  to  Mr.  Wesley  for  di- 
rections how  and  where  they  were  to  la- 
bour. To  remedy  this  incf nvenience,  he 
conceived  the  design  of  caMig  them  together 
to  an  annual  conference  :  by  this  means  he 
brought  them  into  closer  imion  with  each 
other,  and  made  them  sensible  of  the  utility 
of  acting  in  concert  and  harmony.  He  soon 
found  it  necessary,  also,  to  bring  their  itin- 
erancy under  certain  regulations,  and  re- 
duce it  to  some  fixed  order,  both  to  prevent 
confusion,  and  for  his  own  ease  ;  he  therefore 
took  fifteen  or  twenty  societies,  more  or 
less,  which  lay  round  some  principle  socie- 
ty in  those  parts,  and  wliich  were  so  situat- 
ed, tliat  the  greatest  distance  froni  one  to 
the  other  was  not  much  more  than  twenty 
miles,  and  united  them  into  what  was  call- 
led  a  circuit.  At  the  yearly  conference  he 
appointed  two,  three,  or  four  preachers  to 
one  of  these  circuits,  according  to  its  extent, 
which  at  first  was  often  very  considerable, 
sometimes  taking  in  a  part  of  three  or  four 
counties.  Here,  and  here  only,  were  they  to 
labour  for  one  year,  that  is,  until  the  next 
conference.  One  of  the  preachers  on  every 
circuit  was  called  the  assistant,  because  he 
assisted  Mr.  VAVsley  in  superintending  the 
sfcietics  and  other  preachers ;  he  took 
charge  of  the  societies  within  the  limits 
assigned  him  ;  he*  enforced  the  rules  every 
where,  and  directed  the  labours  of  the 
preachers  associated  with  him.  Having  re- 
cpivod  a  list  of  the  setcieties  forming  his 
circuit,  he  took  his  own  station  in  it,  gave 
to  the  other  preachers  a  plan  of  it,  and 
pointed  out  the  day  M'lien  each  should  be  at 
the  place  fixed  for  him,  to  begin  a  progres- 
sive mr-tinn  r^imd  it,  in  spch  (-rder  as  the 
|)lnn  directed.  They  new  fi'llowed  one  ano- 
t'lrr  through  all  the  societies  belonging  to 
that  circuit,  at  stated  distances  of  time,  all 
being  governed  !)y  the  same  rules,  and 
undergr>ing  the  same  labour.  By  this  plan, 
f'verv  preacher's  daily  work  was  appe^iiite  d 
l>'^forehand  ;  each  knew,  every  day,  where 
the  others  werf,  and  each  society  when 
to  expect  tie  preacher,  and  how  long  he 
would  stay  with  them. 

It  may  he  ohs^rv  d.however.that  ?4r.Wes- 
Ifv's  design  in  calling  the  preacliers  togeth- 
er annually,  was  not  merely  for  the  regula- 
tim'of  the  circuits,  hut  also  fe.r  the  review 
(f  their  elortrines  ■■'■rx)  discipline,  and  for  the 
examination  of  their  moral  condu  t;  tliat 
those  who  were  to  administer  with  him  in 
lulv  things  nielit  be  thoroughly  furnished 
for  evirii  gnod  ivork. 

The  fir'^t  conferemce  was  held  in  .Time 
1744,  at  which  :\Ir  \A'esley  met  his  brother, 
two  or  three  other  c'ergymen,  and  a  few  of 
the  preachers  whom  he  had  appointed  to 
come  from  various  parts,  to  confer  with 
them  on  the  affairs  cf  the  societies. 

"  Monday,  June  25,"  obsen-es  Mr.  Wes- 


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ley,  "  and  the  five  following  days,  we  spent 
in  conference  with  our  preachers,  seriously 
considering  by  what  means  we  might  the 
most  effectually  save  our  own  souls,  and 
them  that  heard  us  ;  and  the  resu't  of  *  ur 
consultations  we  set  down  to  be  the  rule  ot 
our  future  practice  " 

Since  that  time  a  conference  has  been  held 
annually,  Mr.  Wesley  himself  having  pre- 
sided at  forty-seven.  The  subjects  of  their 
deliberations  were  proposed  in  the  form  of 
questions,  which  were  amply  discussed ; 
and  the  questions  with  the  answers  agreed 
upon,  were  afterwards  printed  under  the 
title  of  "  Minutes  of  several  Conversations 
between  the  Rev.  Mr.  Wesley  and  others," 
commonly  called  Minutes  of  Conference. 

As  to  their  preachers,  the  f  "llnwing  extract 
from  the  above-mentioned  Minutes  of  Con- 
ference will  shew  us  in  what  manner  they 
are  chosen  and  designated;  Q.  "How  shall 
we  try  those  who  think  they  are  moved  bv 
the  Holy  Ghost  to  preach  ?"  A.  "  Inquire, 
1.  Do  they  know  God  as  a  pardoning  God  ? 
Have  they  the  love  of  God  abiding  in  them? 
Do  they  desire  and  seek  nothing  but  God  ' 
And  are  they  holy  in  all  manner  of  conver 
sation  ? — 2.  Have  they  gfts,  as  well  as  grace, 
for  the  work  ?  Have  they,  in  some  tolerable 
degree,  a  clear,  sound  understanding  *  Have 
they  a  right  judgment  in  the  things  of  God  ? 
Have  they  a  just  conception  of  salvation  by 
faith  ?  And  has  God  given  them  any  de- 
gree of  utterance?  Do  thev  speak  iustlv. 
readily,  clearly  ' — 3  Have  they./rwa  .?  Art- 
any  truly  convinced  of  sin,  and  converted 
to  God,  by  their  preaching  ? 

"  As  long  as  these  three  marks  concur  in 
any  one,  we  believe  he  is  called  of  God  to 
preach.  These  we  receive  as  sufficient 
proof  that  he  is  moved  thereto  by  the  Holy 
Ghost. 

Q.  "  What  method  may  we  use  in  re- 
ceiving a  new  helper?"  A.  "  A  proper  time 
for  doing  this  is  at  a  conference,  after 
solemn  fasting  and  prayer ;  every  person 
proposed  is  then  to  be  present,  and  each  of 
them  may  be  asked, 

"  Have  you  faith  in  Christ?  Are  you  go- 
ing on  to  fierfection  ?  Do  you  expect  to  be 
perfected  in  love  in  this  life  ?  Are  you 
groaning  after  it  ?  Are  you  resolved  to  de- 
vote yourself  wholly  to  God  and  to  his 
wovk  ?  Have  you  considered  the  rules  of  a 
helfier  ?  Will  you  keep  them  for  conscience 
sake  ?  Are  you  determined  to  employ  all 
your  time  in  the  work  of  God  !  Will  you 
preach  every  morning  and  evening  .''  VVill 
you  diligently  instruct  the  children  in  every 
place  }  Will  you  visit  from  house  to  house  ? 
Will  you  recommend  fasting  both  by  pre- 
cept and  example  ? 

"  We  then  may  receive  him  as  a  proba- 
tioner, by  giving  him  the  Minutes  of  the 
Conference,  inscribed  thus: — 'To  A.  B, 
You  think  it  your  duty  to  call  sinners  to  re- 
pentance. .Make  full  proof  hereof,  and  we 
shall  rejoice  to  receive  you  as  a  fellow-la- 
bourev-'    Let  him  then  read  and  carefully 


weigh  what  is  contained  therein,  that  if  he 
has  any  doubt  it  may  be  removed." 

"  To  the  above  it  may  be  useful  to  add," 
says  Mr.  Benson,  "  a  few  remarks  on  the 
method  pursued  in  the  choice  of  the  itiner- 
ant preachers.,  as  many  have  formed  the 
most  erroneous  ideas  on  the  subject,  imagin- 
ing they  are  employed  with  hardly  any 
prior  preparation.     1.  They  are  received  as 

private  members  of  the  society  on  trial 2. 

Alter  a  quarter  of  a  year,  if  they  are  found 
deserving  they  are  admitted  as  proper  mem- 
bers— 3.  When  their  grace  and  abilities 
are  sufficiently  manifest,  they  are  appointed 
leaders  of  classes. — 4,  If  they  then  discover 
talents  for  more  important  services,  they 
are  employee  to  exhort  occasionally  in  the 
smaller  congregations,  when  the  preachers 
cannot  attend. — 5.   If  approved  in  this  line 

of  duty,  they  are  allowed  to  preach 6.  Out 

of  these  men  who  are  called  local  Jireachers, 
are  selected  the  itinerant  preachers,  who 
are  first  proposed  at  a  quarterly  meeting 
of  the  stewards  and  local  preachers  of  the 
circuit :  then  at  a  meeting  of  the  travelling 
preachers  of  the  district :  and,  lastly,  in  the 
conference  ;  and,  if  accepted,  are  nominated 
t  ir  a  circuit. — 7.  Their  characters  and 
conduct  are  examined  annually  in  the  con- 
ference ;  and,  if  they  continue  faithful  for 
four  years  of  trial,  they  are  recei^  ed  into  full 
connection.  At  these  conferences,  also, 
strict  enquiry  is  made  into  the  conduct  and 
success  of  every  preacher,  and  those  who 
are  found  deficient  in  abilities  are  no  longer 
employed  as  itinerants ;  while  those  whose 
conduct  has  not  been  agreeable  to  the  Gos- 
pel are  expelled,  and  thereby  deprived  of 
all  the  privileges  even  of  private  membeis 
of  the  society." 

IV.  Methodists,  new  coimection  o/i  .Since 
Mr.  Wesley's  death,  his  people  have  been 
divided  ;  but  this  division,  it  seems,  respects 
discipline  more  than  sentiment.  Mr.  Wes- 
ley professed  a  strong  attachment  to  the  es 
tablished  church  of  England,  and  exhorted 
the  societies  under  his  care  to  attend  her 
service,  and  receive  the  Lord's  supper  from 
the  regidar  clergy.  But  in  the  latter  pait 
ot  his  time  he  thought  proper  to  ordain 
some  bishops  and  priests  for  America  and 
Scotland  ;  but  as  one  or  two  of  the  bishops 
have  never  been  out  of  England  since  their 
appointment  to  the  office,  it  is  probable 
that  he  intended  a  regular  ordination  should 
take  place  when  the  state  of  the  connection 
might  render  it  necessary.  During  his  life, 
some  of  the  societies  petitioned  to  ha\'e 
preaching  in  their  own  chapels  in  church 
hours,  and  the  Lord's  supper  administered 
by  the  travelling  preachers.  This  request 
he  generally  refused,  and  where  it  could  be 
conveniently  done,  sent  some  of  the  clergy- 
men who  officiated  at  the  New  Chapel  in 
London  to  perform  these  solemn  services. 
At  the  first  conference  after  his  death, 
which  was  held  at  Manchester,  the  preach- 
ers published  a  declaration,  in  which  they 
said  that  they  would  "  take  up  the  Flan  as 


MET 


318 


MET 


Mr,  Wesley  had  left  it"  This  was  by  no 
means  satisfactory  to  many  of  the  preach- 
ers and  people,  who  thought  that  religious 
liberty  ought  to  be  extended  to  all  the  so- 
cieties which  desired  it.  In  order  to  fa- 
vour this  cause,  so  agreeable  to  the  spirit 
of  Christianity  and  the  rights  of  English- 
men, several  respectable  preachers  came 
forward  ;  and  by  the  writings  which  they 
circulated  through  the  connection,  paved 
the  way  fur  a  plan  of  pacification  ;  by  which 
it  was  stipulated,  that  in  every  society 
where  a  threefold  majority  of  class-leaders, 
stewards,  and  trustees  desired  it,  the  peo- 
ple should  have  preaching  in  church  hours, 
and  the  sacraments  of  baptism  and  the 
Lord's  supper  administered  to  them.  The 
spirit  of  enquiry  being  roused,  did  not  stop 
here  ?  for  it  appeared  agreeable  both  to 
reason  and  the  customs  of  the  primitive 
chiuxh,  that  the  people  should  have  a 
voice  in  the  temporal  concerns  of  the  socie- 
ties, vote  in  the  election  of  church  officers, 
and  give  their  suffrages  in  spiritual  con- 
cerns. Th\s  subject  produced  a  variety  of  ar- 
guments ortaToth^ides  of  tlie  question  :  many 
of  the  preJche^  and  people  thought  that  an 
annual  delegation  of  the  general  stewards  of 
the  circuits,  to  sit  either  in  the  conference 
or  the  district  meetings,  in  order  to  assist 
in  the  disbursement  of  the  vearly  collection, 
the  Kingswood  School  collection,  and  the 
preachers'  fund,  and  in  making  new  or  re- 
vising old  laws,  would  be  a  bond  of  union 
between  the  conference  and  connection  at 
large,  and  do  away  the  very  idea  of  arbitra- 
ry power  among  the  travelling  preachers. 
In  order  to  facilitate  this  good  work,  many 
societies,  in  various  parts  of  the  kingdom, 
sent  delegates  to  the  conference  held  at 
Leeds  in  1797,  they  were  instructed  to  re- 
quest, that  the  people  might  have  a  voice 
in  the  formation  of  their  oivn  laws,  the 
choice  of  their  own  officei's,  and  the  distri- 
bution of  their  owtufirofieriy.  The  pr.-ach-'' 
ers  proceeded  to  discuss  twr  motions  ;  Shall 
delegates  from  the  societies  be  admitted  in- 
to the  conference  I  Shall  circuit  stewards  be 
admitted  into  the  district  meetings?  Both 
motions  were  negatived,  and  consequently 
all  hopes  of  accommodation  between  the 
parties  were  given  up.  Several  friends  of 
relisinus  liberty  proposed  a  plan  for  a  new 
itinerancy.  In  order  that  it  might  be  car- 
ried into  immediate  effect,  they  formed 
themselves  into  a  regular  meeting,  in 
Ebenezer  Chapel,  Mr  William  Thom  be- 
ing chosen  president,  and  Mr  Alexandei 
Kilham  secretary.  The  meeting  proceeded 
to  arrange  the  plan  for  supplying  the  circuits 
of  the  new  connection  with  preachers:  and 
desired  the  president  and  secretary  to  draw 
up  the  rales  of  church  govenmcnt,  in  order 
that  they  might  be  circulated  through  the 
societies  for  their  approbation.  According- 
ly, a  form  of  ehnrcli  government,  suited  te 
an  itinerant  ministry,  was  printed  by  thes( 
two  brethren,  under  tlie  A^itle  of  "Out- 
lines of  a  Ccnstitution  pwiiPd  for  the  Ex- 


amination, Amendment,  and  Acceptance  of 
the  Members  of  the  Methodist  new  Itiner- 
ancy." The  plan  was  examined  by  select 
committees  in  the  different  circuits  of  the 
connection,  and,  witli  a  few  alterations,  was 
accepted  by  the  conference  of  preachers  and 
delegates.  1  he  preachers  and  people  are 
incorporated  in  all  meetings  for  business,  not 
by  temporary  concession,  bat  by  the  essen- 
tial principles  of  their  constitution ;  for  the 
private  members  choose  the  class- leaders; 
the  leaders'  meeting  nominates  the  stew» 
ards;  and  the  society  confirms  or  rejects 
the  nomination.  The  quarterly  meetings  are 
composed  of  the  general  stewards  and  re- 
presentatives chosen  by  the  different  socie- 
ties of  the  circuits,  and  the  fourth  quarterly 
meeting  of  the  year  appoints  the  preacher 
and  delegate  of  every  circuit  that  shall  at- 
tend the  general  conference.  For  a  farther 
account  of  their  principles  and  discipline, 
we  must  refer  the  reader  to  a  pamyjhlet, 
entitled,  "  General  Rules  of  the  Uriited 
Societies  of  Methodists  in  the  new  Connec- 
tion." 

The  Calvinistic  Methodists  are  not  incor- 
porated into  a  bod}(  as  the  Arminians  are, 
but  are.  chiefly  under  the  direction  or  influ- 
ence of^their-  ministers  or  patrons. 

It  is  necessary  to  observe  here,  that  there 
are  many  congregations  in  London,  and  else- 
where, who,  although  they  are  called  Me- 
thodists,, yet  are  neither  in  Mr.  Wesley's, 
Mr.  Whitfield's,  nor  the  new  connecdon. 
-Bom&of  these  are  supplied  by  a  variety  of 
jninistersj  and  others,  bordering  more  upon 
vthe 'congregational  plan,  have  a  resident 
minis'terr  I'he  clergy  of  the  church  of  Eng- 
lai|J4,.who  strentiously  preach  up  her  doc- 
trines and  articles,  are  called  Methodists. 
/t  distinct  connection  upon  Mr.  Whitfield's 
plan,  was  formed  and  patronised  by  the  late 
lady  Huntingdon,  and  which  still  subsists. 
J'he  term  Methodist,  also,  is  applied  by  way 
rf)f  reproach  to  almost  every  one  who  mani- 
fests more  than  common  concern  for  the 
hiterests  of  religion,  and  the  spiritual  good 
of  mankind. 

V  Methodists^  numbers  and  success  of. 
Notwithstanding  the  general  contempt  that 
has  been  thrown  upon  them,  and  the  oppo- 
sition they  have  met  with,  yet  their  num- 
bers are  veiy  considerable. 

From  the  minutes  of  the  conference  of 
the  Wesleyan  Methodists  held  in  London, 
July  30,  1810,  it  appears  that  the  number 
of  persons  in  their  societies  is  as  follows : 
In  Great  Britain,  137,997:  Gibraltar  50:  In 
the  West  Indies,  Nova  Scotia,  and  New- 
foundland, 13,580.  The  Methodists  in  Ame- 
rica are  not  in  immediate  connection  with 
the  Wesleyans  here  Their  church  is  Epis- 
copal, and  according  to  their  account  in 
1809,  contains  163,03'3  persons.  Among  the 
Calvinistic  Methodists,  there  are  also  a  con- 
siderable number  of  preachers,  whose  con- 
gregations and  soci(  ties  are  very  extensive : 
some  of  their  chapels  in  London  are  the 
largest  and  best  attended  in  the  world :  it  is 


i{. 


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319 


MIL 


<ilmost  incredible  to  see  the  numbers  of  peo 
pie  who  flock  to  these  places.  As  to  their 
success  in  doing  good,  it  is  evident,  that 
though  many  ignorant  enthusiasts  have  been 
found  among  them,  yet  no  people  have  done 
more  to  mralize  mankind  than  they;  nor 
have  tliey  rested  there ;  they  have  iiot  only 
contributed  to  render  thousands  better  mem- 
bei-s  ot  society,  but  been  ttie  instruments  of 
promoting  their  spiritual  and  eternal  inter- 
ests. Their  simplicity  of  language,  fervour 
of  address,  patience  in  opposition,  unweari- 
edness  in  labour,  piety  of  conduct,  and  de- 
pendance  on  Almighty  God,  are  certainly 
worthy  of  the  greatest  praise,  and  call  for 
the  imitation  of  many  who  unjustly  condemn 
them.  See  History  of  Methodism  ;  Gillies's 
Lije  of  Whitfield,  and  Works.  Cokeys  Life 
of  Wesley.  Macgowan's  Shaver.  Wes- 
ley's Works.  Benson's  Vindication  and 
^fiology  for  the  Methodists.  Fletcher's 
Works.  liogue  and  Bennett's  History  of 
the  Dissenters,  vol.  iii.  Walker's  .Address 
to  the  Methodists. 

ME  IROPOLITAN,  a  bishop  of  a  mother 
church,  or  of  the  chief  church  in  the  chief 
city.  An  archbishop.  See  articles  Bishop, 
Episcopacy. 

MlLl'l'ANT,  from  militans,  fighting ;  a 
term  applied  to  the  church  on  earth,  as  en- 
gaged in  a  warfare  with  tiie  world,  sin, 
and  the  devil :  in  distinction  from  the  church 
triumfihant  in  heaven. 

MILLENARIANS,  or  Chilianists,  a 
name  given  to  those  who  believe  that  Uie 
s^nts  will  reign  on  earth  with  Christ  a 
thousand  years.     See  article. 

MILLENNIUM,  "  a  thousand  years  ;" 
generally  employed  to  denote  the  thousand 
years,  during  which,  according  to  an  ancient 
tradition  in  the  church,  grc  unded  on  some 
doubtful  texts  in  the  Apocalypse  and  other 
scriptures,  our  blessed  Saviour  shall  reign 
with  the  faithful  upon  earth  after  the  first 
resurrection,  before  the  final  completion  of 
beatitude. 

Though  there  have  been  no  ages  of  the 
church  in  which  the  millennium  was  not 
admitted  by  individual  divines  of  the  first 
eminence,  it  is  jet  evident,  from  the  writ- 
ings of  Eusebius,  Irenaus,  Origin,  and  others, 
among  the  ancients,  as  well  as  from  the 
histories  of  Dupin,  Mosheim,  and  all  the 
moderns,  that  it  was  never  adopted  by  the 
whole  church,  or  made  an  article  of  the  es- 
tablished creed  in  any  nation. 

About  the  middle  of  the  fourth  centu- 
ry, the  Millenarians  held  the  following 
tenets  ; 

1st,  That  the  city  of  Jerusalem  should  be 
rebuilt,  and  that  the  land  of  Judea  should  be 
the  habitation  of  those  who  were  to  reign 
on  the  earth  a  thousand  years. 

2ndly,  That  the  first  resurrection  was  not 
to  be  confined  to  the  martyrs,  but  that,  after 
the  fall  of  Antichrist,  all  the  just  were  to 
rise,  and  all  that  were  on  the  earth  were  to 
continue  for  that  space  of  time. 

3dly,  That  Christ  shaU  then  come  down 


from  heaven,  and  be  seen  on  earth,  and 
reign  there  with  servants. 

4thly,  That  the  saints,  during  this  period, 
shall  enjoy  all  the  delights  of  a  terrestrial 
paradise. 

These  opinions  were  founded  upon  seve- 
ral passages  in  scripture,  which  the  Millena- 
rians, among  the  fathers,  understood  in  no 
other  than  a  literal  sense ;  but  which  the 
moderns,  who  hold  that  opinion,  consider  as 
partly  literal  and  partly  metaphorical.  Of 
these  passages,  that  upon  which  the  great- 
est stress  has  been  laid,  we  believe  to  be  the 
following: — "  And  I  saw  an  angel  come 
down  from  heaven,  having  the  key  of  the 
bottomless  pit,  and  a  great  chain  in  his 
hand  And  he  laid  hold  on  the  dragon, 
that  old  serpent,  which  is  the  Devil  and 
Satan,  and  bound  him  a  thousand  years, 
and  cast  him  into  the  bottomless  pit,  and 
shut  him  up,  and  set  a  seal  upon  him,  that  he 
should  deceive  the  nations  no  more,  till  the 
thousand  years  should  be  fulfilled  ;  and,  af- 
ter that,  he  must  be  loo.sed  a  little  season. 
And  I  saw  thrones,  and  they  sat  upon  them, 
and  judgment  was  given  unto  them  ;  and  I 
saw  the  souls  of  them  that  were  beheaded 
for  the  witness  of  Jesus  and  for  the  word  of 
God,  and  which  had  not  worshipped  the 
beast,  neither  his  image,  neither  had  receiv- 
ed his  mark  upon  their  foreheads,  nor  in 
their  hands;  and  they  lived  and  reigned 
with  Christ  a  thousand  years-  But  the  rest 
of  the  dead  lived  not  again  lil!  the  thousand 
years  were  finished.  This  is  the  first  re- 
surrection," Rev.  XX.  1 — 6.  This  passage 
all  the  ancient  Millenarians  took  in  a  sense 
grossly  literal,  and  taught,  that,  during  the 
Millennium,  the  saints  on  earth  were  to  en- 
joy every  bodily  delight.  The  modems,  on 
the  other  hand,  consider  the  power  and 
pleasures  of  this  kingdom  as  wholly  spiri- 
tual: and  they  represent  them  as  not  to 
commence  till  after  conflagration  of  the  pre- 
sent earth.  But  that  this  last  supposition  is 
a  mistake,  the  very  next  verse  but  one  as- 
sures us ;  for  we  are  there  told,  that,  "  when 
the  thousand  years  are  expired,  Satan  shall 
be  loosed  out  of  his  prison,  and  shall  go  out 
to  deceive  the  nations  which  are  in  the  four 
quarters  of  the  earth ;"'  and  we  have  no 
reason  to  believe  that  he  will  have  such 
power  or  such  liberty  in  "  the  new  heavens 
and  the  new  earth,  wherein  dwelleth  righ- 
teousness." We  may  observe,  however,  the 
following  things  respecting  it :  1.  That  the 
scriptures  afford  us  ground  to  believe  that 
the  church  will  arrive  to  a  state  of  prosperi- 
ty which  it  never  has  yet  enjoyed,  Rev.  xx. 
4,  7.  Psal.  Ixxii.  11.  Is.  ii.  2,  4.  xi.  9 
xlix.  23.  Ix.  Dan.  vii.  27.-2.  That  this 
"will  continue  at  least  a  thousand  years,  or 
a  considerable  space  of  time,  in  which  the 
work  of  salvation  may  be  fully  accomplish- 
ed in  the  utmost  extent  and  glory  of  it.  In 
this  time,  in  which  the  world  will  soon  be 
filled  with  real  Christians,  and  continue  full 
by  constant  propagation  to  supply  the  place 
oj  Uiose  "Who  leave  the  world,  there  will  be 


MIL 


320 


MIN 


many  thousands  born  and  live  on  the  earth, 
to  each  one  that  has  been  born  and  lived  in 
the  preceding  six  thousat.d  years ;  so  that,  if 
they  who  shall  be  born  in  that  thousand 
years  shall  be  all,  or  most  of  tliem  saved 
(as  they  will  be,)  there  will,  on  the  whole, 
be  many  thousands  of  mankind  saved  to  one 
that  shall  be  lost — 3  This  will  be  a  state  of 
great  happiness  and  glory.  Some  think  that 
Christ  will  reign  personally  on  earth,  and 
that  there  will  be  a  Uteral  resurrection  of  tht- 
saints.  Rev.  xx.  4,  7 ;  but  I  rather  suppose 
that  the  reign  of  Christ  and  resurrection  of 
saints  alluded  to  in  that  passage,  is  only 
figurative  ;  and  that  nothing  more  is  meant 
than  that,  before  the  general  judgment  the 
Jews  shall  be  converted,  genuine  Christi- 
anity be  diffused  through  all  nations,  and 
that  Christ  shall  reign,  by  his  spiritual  pre- 
sence in  a  glorious  manner.  It  will,  how- 
ever, be  a  time  of  eminent  holiness,  clear 
light  and  knowledge,  love,  peace,  and 
friendship,  agreement  in  doctrine  and  wor- 
ship. Human  life,  perhaps,  w'll  rarely  be 
endangered  by  the  poisons  of  the  mineral, 
vegetable,  and  animal  kingdoms.     Beasts  of 

Erey,  perhaps,  will  be  extirpated,  or  tamed 
y  the  power  of  man.  The  inhabitants  of 
every  place  will  rest  secure  from  fear  of 
robbery  and  murder  War  shall  be  entire- 
ly ended.  Capital  crimes  and  punishments 
be  heard  of  no  more  Governments  placed 
on  fair,  just,  and  humane  foundations.  The 
torch  of  civil  discord  will  be  extinguished. 
Perhaps  Pagans,  Turks,  Deists,  and  Jews, 
■will  be  as  few  in  number  as  Christians  are 
now.  Kings,  nobles,  maristrates,  and  rulers 
in  churches  shall  act  witfi  principle,  and  be 
forward  to  promote  the  best  interests  of 
men :  tyranny,  oppi-ession,  persecution,  bigo- 
try, and  cruelty,  shall  cease.  Business  will 
be  attended  to  without  contention,  dishones- 
ty, and  covetousness.  Trades  and  manufac- 
tories will  be  carried  on  with  a  design  to  pro- 
mote the  general  good  of  mankind,"  and  not 
with  selfish  interests  as  now  Merchandize 
between  distant  countries  will  be  conducted 
without  fear  of  an  enemy;  and  works  of  orna- 
ment and  beauty,  perhaps,  shall  not  be  want- 
ing in  those  days.  Learning,  which  has  al- 
ways flourished  in  proportion  as  religion  has 
spread,  shall  then  greatlv  increase,  and  be 
employed  for  the  best  of  purposes.  Astrono- 
my, geography,  natural  history,  metaphv  sics, 
and  ill  the  useful  science  s,  will  be  better 
understood,  and  consecrated  to  the  service 
of'God  ;  and  I  cannot  help  thinking  that  by 
the  improvements  which  have  been  made, 
and  are  making,  in  ship-building,  navigation, 
electricity,  medicine,  ccc.  that  "  the  tempest 
will  loose  half  its  force,  the  lightning  loose 
half  its  terrors,  and  the  human  frame  not 
near  so  much  exposed  to  danger."  Above 
all,  the  Bible  will  be  more  highly  a])precia- 
ted,  its  harmony  perceived,  its  superiority 
owned,  and  its  energy  felt  by  millions  of  hu- 
man beings.  In  fact,  the  earth  shall  be  fill- 
ed with  the  knowledge  of  the  Lord  as  the 
waters  cover  the  sea.— .4.  The  time  when 


the  Millennium  will  commence  cannot  be 
Uil  y  ascertained,  but  the  common  idea  is, 
thai  it  will  be  in  the  seven  thousandth  y^ar 
of  the  world.  It  will,  most  probably,  C(  me 
on  by  degrees,  and  be  in  a  manner  intndu- 
ced  years  before  that  time.  And  who  knows 
but  the  i)resent  convulsions  among  diftVrent 
nations  ;  the  overthrow  which  popery  has 
had  in  places  where  it  has  been  so  dominant 
for  hundreds  cf  years  ;  the  fulfilment  of  pro- 
phecy respecting  infidels,  and  the  tailing 
away  of  many  in  the  last  times  :  and  yet, 
in  the  midst  of  all,  the  nuniber  ot  Missiona- 
ries sent  into.diffeicnt  parts  of  the  world,  to- 
gether with  the  increase  of  Gospel  ministers; 
the  thousands  (if  ign(;rant  children  that  have 
been  taught  to  read  the  Bible,  and  the  vast 
number  of  difl'  rent  societies  that  have  been 
lately  instituted  for  the  benevolent  purpose 
of  informing  the  minds  and  impressing  the 
hearts  of  the  ignorant ;  who  knows,  1  say, 
but  what  these  things  are  the  forerunners 
of  events  of  the  most  delightful  nature,  and 
which  may  usher  in  the  happy  morn  of 
that  bright  and  glorious  day  when  the 
whole  world  shall  be  filled  with  his  glory, 
and  all  the  ends  of  the  earth  see  the  sal- 
vation of  nur  God  ?  See  Hojikina  on  the 
Millen.  TVhitby's  Treatise  on  it,  at  the  end 
of  the  Id  Vol.  of  his  'Annotations  on  the 
JVcw  Test.  Robert  Gray^s  Discourses 
dis.  10.  Bishoft  J\fewton's  Twentyfft/i 
Diss,  on  the  Pro/ih.  Jiellamy^s  Treat,  on 
the  Millennium.  There  are  four  admira- 
ble papers  of  Mr.  Shrubsole's  on  the  sub- 
ject, in  the  6th  vol.  of  the  Theol.  Misc. 
Lardner's  Crcd.  4th,  5th,  7th,  and  9th 
vol.  Mosheim^s  Eccl.  Hist,  cent  3,  p. 
11,  ch.  12.  Taylor^  Ser?7?ons  on  the  Mil- 
lennium. Illustrations  of  Pro/ihecy,  ch, 
31. 

MIND,  a  thinking,  intelligent  being; 
otherwise  called  sfiirit,  or  soul.  SeeSouu 
Dr.  Watts  has  given  us  some  admirable 
thoughts  as  to  the  imfu-ovement  of  the 
mind.  "  Thi-re  are  Jive  eminerit  means  or 
methods"  he  observes,  "  whereby  the  mind 
is  improved  in  the  knowledge  of  things ; 
and  these  are  obsei'vation,  reading,  instruc- 
tion by  lectures,  conversation,  and  medita- 
tion ;  which  last,  in  a  most  peculiar  man- 
rer,  is.  called  study.  See  Watts  on  the 
mind,  a  book  which  no  student  should  be 
without. 

MINIMS,  a  religious  order  in  the  church 
of  Rome,  founded  by  St.  Francis  de  Paula, 
towards  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  centurj'. 
Their  habit  is  a  coarse  black  woollen 
stuff  with  a  woollen  girdle  of  the  same 
colrur,  tied  in  five  knots.  They  are  not 
permitted  to  quit  their  habit  and  girdle 
night  nor  day.  Formerly  they  went  bare- 
footed, but  are  now  allowed  the  use  of 
shoes. 

MINISTER,  a  name  applied  to  those 
who  are  pastors  of  a  congregation,  cr 
preachers  of  GoH's  word.  They  are  also 
called  divines,  and  may  be  distinguished 
into  iiolemic,  or  those  who  possess  centre- 


MIN 


321 


MIN 


venial  talents  ;  casuistic,  or  those  wlio  re- 
solve Ciibi-s  ot  cuiibciciic^ ;  expei-iinenlal, 
tliose  who  address  themselves  to  tlie  feel- 
int^s,  castas  and  circuiiistances  of  their  hear- 
ers :  and,  lastly, //n<cna// those  who  insist 
upon  the  jJcrtV.niiunce  of  all  those  duties 
"vvliich  tlie  word  of  Gud  enj.iiiis.  An  able 
minister  will  have  soiuetlnug  of  all  these 
united  in  ium,  though  he  may  not  excel 
in  all  ;  and  it  becomes  every  one  who  is 
a  candidate  for  the  ministry  to  get  a  clear 
idea  of  each,  that  he  may  not  be  deficient 
in  the  discharge  of  that  work  which  is 
the  most  important  that  can  be  sustained 
by  morta'  beini;s.  Many  volumes  have 
been  written  on  this  subject,  but  we  must 
be  content  in  this  place  to  offer  only  a 
few  remarks  rel.itive  to  it.  In  the  first 
place,  then,  it  must  be  observed,  that  min- 
isters of  the  G.spel  ought  to  be  sound  as 
to  their  princifilcs.  They  must  be  men 
whose  hearts  are  renovated  by  Divine  grace, 
iintl  whose  sentiments  are  derived  from  the 
sacred  oracles  of  Divine  truth.  A  minister 
without  principles  will  never  do  any  good  ; 
and  he  who  professes  to  IjeUeve  in  a  system, 
should  see  to  it  that  it  accords  with  the 
■word  of  God.  His  mind  should  clearly  per- 
ceive the  beauty,  harmony,  and  utility  of 
the  doctrines,  while  hij  heart  should  be 
deeply  impressed  with  a  sense  of  tiieir 
value  and  importance. — 2.  They  should  be 
mild  and  affable  as  lo  their  disfiosiiions 
and  dejiortiiient. — A  haughty  imperious 
spirit  is  a  disgrace  to  the  miiiisterial  cha- 
racter, and  generally  l)rings  contempt. 
Tiiey  should  learn  to  bear  injuries  with 
patience,  and  be  ready  to  do  good  to  every 
one  ;  be  courteous  to  all  without  cringing 
to  any  ;  be  aifable  without  levity,  and  hum- 
ble without  pnsillaninnty  :  conciliating  the 
affections  without  violating  the  truth  ;  con- 
necting a  suavity  of  manners  with  a  dignity 
of  character;  oljiiging  without  flattery; 
and  throwing  off'  all  reserve  without  run- 
ning into  the  opposite  extnme  of  volubility 
and  trifling. — 3.  They  should  be  superior  as 
to  their  knowledge  and  talents.  Tiiougb 
many  have  been  ujeful  without  what  is 
called  learning,  yet  none  have  been  so 
without  some  portion  of  knowledge  and 
wisdom.  Nor  has  God  AhniglUy  ever 
sanctified  ignc-rance,  or  consecrated  it  to 
his  service  ;  since  it  is  the  tfflct  (if  the 
fall,  and  the  consequence  (jf  our  departure 
from  the  Fountain  of  intelligence.  Minis- 
ters, therefore,  especially,  should  endeavour 
to  break  these  shackles,  get  their  minds 
enlarged,  and  stored  with  all  useful  know- 
ledge. The  Bible  should  be  well  studied, 
and  that,  if  possible,  in  the  original  lan- 
guage. The  scheme  of  salvation  by  Jesus 
Christ  should  be  well  understood,  with  all 
the  various  topics  connected  with  it.  Nor 
■will  some  knowledge  of  history,  natural 
philosophy,  logic  mathematics,  and  rhetoric, 
be  useless.  A  clear  judgment,  also,  with  a 
retentive  memory,  inventive  faculty,  and  a 

S  s 


facility  of  communication,  should  be  ob- 
tained.— 4.  They  should  be  diligent  as  to 
their  studies.  Tlieir  time  especially  should 
be  improved,  and  not  lost  by  too  much 
sleep,  formal  visits,  indolence,  reading  use- 
less books,  stud)  ing  useless  subjects.  Every 
(lay  should  have  its  work,  biid  every  sub- 
ject its  due  attention.  Some  advise  a 
chapter  in  the  Hebrevr  Bible,  another  in 
the  Greek  Testament,  to  be  read  every- 
day. A  well-chosen  system  of  divinity 
should  be  accurately  studied.  The  best 
definitions  should  be  obtained,  and  a  con- 
stant regard  paid  to  all  those  studies  which 
savour  of  religion,  and  have  some  tendency 
to  public  work. — 5.  Mijiisters  should  be 
extensive  as  to  their  benevolence  and  can- 
dour A  contracted  bigoted  spirit,  ill  be- 
comes those  who  preach  a  Gospel  which 
breathes  the  purest  benevolence  to  mankind. 
This  spirit  has  done  mcjre  harm  among  all 
parties  than  many  imagine  ;  and  is,  in  my 
opinion,  one  of  the  most  powerful  engines 
the  devil  makes  use  of  to  oppose  the  best 
interests  of  mankind ;  and  it  is  really 
slKckmg  to  observe  how  sects  and  parties 
have  all  in  their  turns,  anathematised  each 
other.  Now,  while  ministers  ought  to  con- 
tend earnestly  for  the  faith  once  delivered 
to  the  saints,  they  must  remember  that 
men  always  will  think  different  from  each 
other  ;  that  prejudice  of  education  has  great 
influence  ;  that  difference  of  opinion  as  to 
non-essential  things  is  not  of  such  import- 
ance as  to  be  a  ground  of  dislike.  Let  the 
ministers  of  Christ,  then  pity  the  weak, 
forgive  the  ignorant,  bear  with  the  sincere 
though  mistaken  zealot,  and  love  all  -who 
love  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ. — 6.  Ministera 
should  be  zealous  and  faithful  in  their 
public  work.  The  sick  must  be  visited; 
children  must  be  catechised;  the  ordinan- 
ces administered ;  and  the  word  of  God 
preached.  These  tilings  must  be  taken  up, 
n;>c  as  a  matter  of  duty  only,  but  of  plea- 
sure, and  executed  with  faithfulness  ;  and, 
as  they  are  of  the  utinist  importance, 
ministers  should  attend  to  them  with  alltliat 
sincerity,  earnestness,  and  zeal,  which  thai 
importance  demands.  An  idle,'  frigid,  in- 
diif.  rent  minister  is  a  pest  to  sr ciety,  a 
disgrace  to  his  profession,  an  injury  to  the 
rliinch,  and  offensive  to  God  himself — 7. 
Lastly,  ministers  should  be  unform  as  t(f 
their  conduct.  No  brightness  of  talent, 
no  superiority  of  intellect,  no  extent  of 
knowledge,  will  ever  be  a  substitute  for 
this.  They  shc^uld  not  only  possess  a  lu- 
minous mind,  but  set  a  good  example. 
This  will  procure  dignity  to  themselves, 
give  energy  to  what  they  say,  and  prove  a 
blessing  to  the  circle  in  which  they  move. 
In  fine,  they  should  be  men  of  prudence 
and  prayer,  light  and  love,  zeal  and  know- 
ledge, courage  and  humility,  humanity  and 
religion.  See  Declamation,  ELoquENCE, 
Pkeaching,  and  Sermons,  in  this  work; 
Dr.  iimit/1'3  Led.    on   (he  sacrcU   Office: 


MI  N 


322 


MIR 


Gerard'd  Pastoral  Care.  Maci^ilL's  .Ad- 
dress to  Young  Clergymen.  Clirysostom 
on  the  Priesthood.  JBaxrei-'s  Reformed 
Pastor.  Burnet's  Pastoral  Care.  Watt's 
Humble  Attempt.  Dr.  Edwards'  Preach- 
er. Mason's  Student  and  Pastor.  Gib- 
bon's Christian  Minister.  Mather's  Stu- 
dent and  Preacher.  Ostervuld's  Lectures 
on  the  Sacred  Ministry.  Robinson's  Claude. 
Doddridge's  Lectures  on  Preaching  and 
the  Ministerial  Office. 

MINISTRY  GOSPEL,  an  ordinance  ap- 
pointed for  the  purpose  of  instructing  men 
in  the  principles  and  knowledge  of  the 
<jOspel,  Eph.  iv.  8,  11.  Rom.  x.  15.  Heb.  v. 
4.^  That  the  Gospel  ministry  is  of  Divine 
crigin,  and  intended  to  be  kept  np  in  the 
church,  -will  evidently  apj^ear,  if  we  con- 
sider the  promises,  that  in  the  Inst  and  best 
times  of  the  New  Testament  dispensation, 
there  would  be  an  instituted  and  regular 
ministry  in  her,  Eph.  iv.  8,  11.  Tit.  i.  5. 
2  Pet.  i.  3.  Tim.  i.  also  from  the  names  of 
office  peculiar  to  some  members  in  the 
church,  and  not  common  to  all,  Eph.  iv.  8, 
11 ;  from  the  duties  wliich  are  repre- 
sented, as  reciprocally  binding  on  minis- 
ters and  people,  Heb.  xiii.  7,  17.  1  Pet. 
V.  2,  3,  4  ;  from  the  promises  of  assistance 
which  were  givf-n  to  the  first  ministers 
of  the  new  dispensation,  Matt.  xx\  iii.  20 ; 
and  from  the  importance  of  a  Gcispel  mi- 
nistry, which  is  represented  in  the  Scrip- 
ture as  a  very  great  blessing  to  them 
who  enjoy  it,  and  the  removal  of  it  as  one 
of  the  gi'eatest  calamities  which  can  befal 
any  people.  Rev.  ii.  and  iii.  St.  books  under 
last  article. 

MINISTERIAL  CALL,  a  term  used 
to  denote  that  riglit  or  authority  which  a 
person  receives  to  preach  the  Gospel. 
This  call  is  considered  as  twofold,  divine 
and  ecclesiastical.  The  follouing  things 
seem  essential  to  a  divine  call  :  1.  A  holy, 
blameless  life. — 2.  An  ardent  and  constant 
inclination  and  zeal  to  do  good. — 3.  Abili- 
ties suited  to  the  work ;  such  as  know- 
ledge, aptness  to  teach,  courage,  5cc — 4. 
An  opportunity  aSbrded  in  Providence  to 
be  useful.  An  ecclesiastical  call  consists  in 
the  election  Avhich  is  m.ade  of  any  person 
to  I)e  a  jjastor.  But  here  the  Episcopalian 
and  the  Dissenter  difivr  ;  tiie  former  be- 
lieving that  the  choice  and  call  of  a  mi- 
nister rest  with  the  superior  clergy,  or 
those  who  have  the  gift  of  an  ecclesiasti- 
cal benefice ;  the  latter  supposes  that  it 
should  rest  en  the  suffrages  of  the  people  to 
whom  he  is  to  minister.  The  churchman 
reasons  thus:  "  Though  the  people  maybe 
competent  judges  of  the  abilities  of  their 
tradesmen,  they  cannot  be  allowed  to  have 
an  equal  discernment  in  matters  of  science 
and  erudition.  Daily  experience  may  con- 
vince us  how  injudiciously  pi-eferment  would 
be  distributed  by  popular  elections.  The 
modesty  of  genius  would  stand  little  chance 
of  being  distinguislied  by  an  ignorant  mul- 


titude. The  most  illiterate,  the  most  im- 
pudent, those  who  could  most  dexterously 
play  the  hypocrite,  who  could  best  adapt 
their  preaching  to  the  fanaticism  of  the 
vulgar,  would  be  the  only  successful  candi- 
dates for  public  favour.  Thus  moderation 
and  literature  would  soon  be  banished, 
and  a  scene  of  corruption,  confusion,  and 
madness  would  prevail."  But  sptcious  as 
these  arguments  seem,  they  have  but 
little  force  on  the  mind  of  the  Congrega- 
tionalists,  who  thus  reasons :  "  The  church 
being  a  voluntary  .society,  none  imposed 
upon  her  memliers  by  men  can  be  related 
to  them  as  their  pastor,  without  their  own 
consent.  None  can  so  well  judge  what 
gifts  are  best  suited  to  their  spiritual  edi- 
fication as  Christians  themselves.  The 
scriptures  allow  the  election  of  pastors  in 
ordinary  cases  to  adult  Christians,  and  to 
none  else.  Acts  i.  15,  26.  Acts  vi.  1,  6. 
Acts  xiv.  23.  Christ  requires  his  people 
to  try  the  spirits,  which  supposeth  their 
ability  to  do  so,  and  their  power  to  ch  ose 
such  only  as  they  find  most  proper  to 
edify  their  snuls,  and  to  refuse  others,  1 
John  iv.  1.  The  introduction  of  ministers 
into  their  office  by  fiatronage,  of  whatever 
form,  hath  its  origin  fr -m  popery,  tends 
to  establish  a  tyranny  over  men's  con- 
science, which  and  whom  Christ  hath 
made  free,  and  to  fill  pulpits  with  wicked 
and  indolent  clergymen.  Whoever  will 
attentively  examine  the  histoiy  of  the  pri- 
mitive times,  will  find  that  all  ecclesiastical 
officers  for  the  first  three  hundred  years 
were  elected  by  the  people  "  We  must  re- 
fer the  reader  for  more  on  this  subject  to 
the  articles  Church,  Episcopacy,  and 
Independents. 

MIRACLE,  in  its  original  sense,  is  a 
word  of  the  same  import  with  nvonder ; 
but  in  its  usual  and  more  appropriate  sig- 
nification, it  denotes  "  an  effect  contrary  to 
the  established  constitution  and  course  of 
things,  or  a  sensible  deviation  from  the 
known  laws  of  nature." 

"  That  the  visible  world,"  says  Dr.  Gleig, 
"  is  governed  by  stated  general  rules,  or 
that  there  is  an  order  of  causes  and  effects 
established  in  evcrv  part  of  the  system  of 
natmc,  which  falls  under  our  observation, 
is  a  fact  which  cannot  be  controverted.  If 
the  Supreme  Being,  as  some  have  supposed, 
be  tlie  only  real  agent  in  the  universe,  we 
have  the  evidence  of  experience,  that  in  the 
particular  system  to  which  we  belong,  he 
acts  by  stated  rules.  If  he  employs  inferior 
agents  to  conduct  the  various  motions  from 
whicii  the  plienomena  result,  we  have  the 
.same  evidence  that  he  has  subjected  those 
agents  to  certain  fixed  laws,  commonly  call- 
ed the  laws  of  nature.  On  either  hypothe- 
sis, effects  which  are  produced  by  the  re- 
gular operation  of  these  laws,  or  which  are 
conformable  to  the  established  course  of 
events,  are  properly  called  natural;  and 
eveiy  contradiction  to  this  constitution  of 


MIR 


MIR 


the  natural  system,  and  the  correspondent 
coui'se  it  events  in  it,  is  called  a  miracle. 

"  If  this  definition  of  a  miracle  be  just, 
no  evcrnt  can  be  deemed  miraculous  merely 
because  it  is  strange,  or  even  to  us  unac- 
countable :  since  ii  may  be  nothing  more 
tlian  a  regular  effect  of  some  unknown  Idw 
of  nature.  In  tliis  country,  earthquakes  are 
rare ;  and  for  monstrous  births,  perhaps  no 
particular  and  satisfactory  account  can  bi- 
given  :  yet  an  earthqu-ike  is  as  regular  an 
etFcct  of  the  estaljlished  laws  of  nature  as 
any  of  those  with  whicli  we  are  most  inti- 
mately acquainted  :  and,  under  circumstan- 
ces in  which  there  would  always  be  the 
same  kind  of  production,  the  monster  is 
nature's  genuine  issue.  It  is  therefore  ne- 
cessary, before  we  can  pronounce  any  ef- 
fect to  be  a  tnie  miracle,  tliat  the  circum- 
stances under  which  it  is  produced  be 
known,  and  that  t!ie  common  course  of  na- 
ture be  in  some  degree  understood ;  for  in 
all  those  cases  in  which  we  are  totally  ig- 
norant of  nature,  it  is  impossible  to  deter- 
miiie  what  is,  or  what  is  not,  a  deviation 
from  its  course.  Miracles,  therefore,  are 
not,  as  some  have  represented  them,  ap- 
peals to  our  ignorance.  They  suppose  some 
antecedent  knowledge  of  the  course  of  na- 
ture, without  which  no  proper  judgment 
can  be  formed  concerning  them  :  though 
with  it  their  reality  may  be  so  apparent  as 
to  prevent  all  possibility  of  a  dispute. 

"  Thus,  were  a  physician  to  cure  a  blind 
man  of  a  cataract,  by  anointing  his  eyes 
with  a  chemical  preparation  wiiich  he  had 
never  before  seen,  and  to  the  nature  and  ef- 
fects of  which  we  are  absolute  strangers, 
the  cure  would  undoubtedly  be  wonderful; 
but  we  could  not  pronounce  it  miraculous, 
because.'for  any  thing  known  to  us,  it  might 
be  the  natural  effect  of  the  operation  of  the 
unguent  on  the  eye.  But  were  lie  to  recover 
his  patient  merely  by  commanding  him  to 
see,  or  by  anointing  his  eyes  with  spittle,  we 
should  with  the  utmost  confidence  pronounce 
the  cure  to  be  a  m.iracle  ;  because  we  Imow 
perfectly,  that  neithc-r  tlie  human  voict^  nor 
human  spittle  havt,  by  tlie  established  con- 
stitution of  things,  any  such  power  over  the 
diseases  of  the  eye. 

"  If  miracles  be  effects  contrary  to  the 
established  constitution  of  things,  we  are 
certain  that  they  will  never  be  ])erformed 
on  trivial  occasions.  The  constitution  of 
things  was  established  by  the  Creator  and 
Governor  of  the  universe,  and  is  undoubted- 
ly the  offspring  of  infinite  wisd(,m.  pursuing 
a  plan  for  the  best  of  purpc^ses  From  this 
plan  no  deviation  can  be  made  but  by  God 
himself,  or  by  some  pi  werful  being  acting 
with  his  permission.  The  plans  devised  by 
wisdom,  are  steady  in  proportion  to  thtir 
perfection,  and  the  plans  of  infinite  wisdom 
must  be  absolutely  perfect.  From  this  con- 
sideration, some  men  have  ventured  to  con- 
clude that  no  miracle  was  ever  wrought,  or 
can  rationally  be  expected  ;  but  maturer  re- 


flection must  soon  satisfy  us  that  all  such 
conclusions  are  hasty. 

"  Man  is  unquestionably  the  principal  crea- 
ture in  this  world,  and  apparently  the  only 
one  in  it  who  is  capable  of  being  made  ac- 
quainted with  the  relation  in  which  he 
stands  to  his  Creator.  We  cannot,  there- 
fore, doubt,  but  tliat  such  of  the  laws  of  na- 
ture as  extend  not  their  operation  beyond 
the  limits  of  this  earth  were  established 
chiefly,  if  not  solely,  for  the  good  of  man- 
kind ;  and  if,  in  any  particular  circumstances, 
that  good  can  be  more  effectally  promoted  by 
an  occasional  deviation  from  those  laws,  sucli 
a  deviation  may  be  reasonably  expected. 

"  We  know  from  history,  that  almost  all 
mankind  were  once  sunk  into  the  grossest 
ignorance  of  the  most  important  truths , 
that  they  knew  not  the  Being  by  whom  they 
were  created  and  supported ;  that  the}' 
paid  divine  adoration  to  stocks,  stones,  and 
the  vilest  reptiles ;  and  that  they  were, 
slaves  to  the  most  impious,  cruel,  and  de- 
grading superstitions. 

"  From  tliis  depraved  state  it  was  surely 
not  unworthy  of  the  Divine  Being  to  rescue 
his  helpless  creatures,  to  enlighten  their  un- 
derstandings, that  they  might  perceive  what 
is  right,  and  to  present  to  them  motives  of 
sufficient  force  to  engage  them  in  the  prac- 
tice of  it.  But  the  understandings  of  igno- 
rant barbarians,  cannot  be  enlightened  by 
arguments  ;  because  of  the  force  of  such 
arguments  as  regard  moral  science,  they 
are  not  qualified  to  judge.  The  philoso 
phers  of  Athens  and  Rome  inculcated,  in 
deed,  many  excellent  moral  precepts,  and 
they  sometimes  ventured  to  expose  the  ab- 
surdities of  the  reigning  superstition  :  but 
dieir  lectures  had  no  influence  upon  the 
multitude ;  and  they  had  themselves  imbi- 
bed such  erroneous  notions  respecting  the 
attributes  of  the  Supreme  Being,  and  the 
nature  of  the  human  soul,  and  converted 
tliose  notions  into  first  principles,  of  which 
tliev  would  mt  permit  an  examination,  that 
tven  am.ong  them  a  thorough  reformation 
was  not  to  be  expected  from  the  powers  of 
reasoning.  It  is  like\v'ise  to  be  observed, 
that  there  arc  many  truths  of  t'le  utmost 
importance  to  mankind,  whicli  unassisted 
reason  could  never  have  discovered  — 
Amongst  tliese,  we  may  confidently  reckon 
die  immortality  of  the  sou!,  the  tei-ms  upon 
which  God  will  save  sinners,  and  the  man- 
ner in  which  that  all-perfect  Being  may  be 
acceptably  worshipped  ;  abctit  all  of  which 
philosophers  were  in  such  uncertainty,  that, 
according  to  Plato,  "  Whatever  is  set  right, 
and  as  it  should  be,  in  the  present  evil 
state  of  the  world,  can  be  so  only  by  the 
particular  interposition  of  God." 

"  An  immediate  revelation  from  heaven, 
therefore,  v/as  the  only  method  by  whiclt 
infinite  wisdom  and  perfect  goodness  could 
reform  a  bewildered  and  vicious  race.  Rut 
this  revelation,  at  whatever  time  we  sup- 
pose it  given,  must  have  been  made  direct- 


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324 


MIR 


jy,  either  to  some  chosen  individuals,  com- 
missioned to  instruct  others,  or  to  every 
man  and  woman  for  -whose  benefit  it  was 
ultimately  intended.  Were  every  person 
instructed  in  the  knowledge  of  his  duty,  by 
immediate  inspiration,  and  were  the  motives 
to  practice  it,  Ijrcught  heme  to  his  m\vx\ 
by  God  himself,  human  nature  would  be 
wholly  changed  :  men  would  not  be  moral 
y.gents,  nor  by  consequence  be  capable 
either  of  reward  or  of  punishment.  It  re- 
mains, therefore,  that  if  G(;d  has  been  gra- 
ciously pleased  to  enlighten  and  reform 
jnankind,  without  destroying  that  moral  na- 
ture which  man  possesses,  he  can  have 
done  it  only  by  revealing  his  truth  to  cer- 
tain chosen  instruments,  who  were  the  im- 
mediate instructors  of  their  contemporaries, 
and  through  them  have  been  ttie  instruc- 
tors of  succeeding  ages. 

*'  Let  us  suppose  this  to  have  been  actu- 
ally the  case,  and  consider  how  those  in- 
spired teachers  could  communicate  to 
others  every  truth  which  had  been  reveal- 
ed to  themselves.  They  might  easily,  if  it 
v/eve  part  of  their  duty,  deliver  a  sublime 
system  of  natural  and  moral  science,  and 
establish  it  upon  the  common  basis  of  expe- 
riment and  demonstration ;  but  wliat  foun- 
dation could  they  lay  for  those  truths  which 
unassisted  reason  cannot  discover,  and 
whicli,  when  they  are  revealed,  appear  to 
have  no  necessary  relation  to  any  thing  pre- 
viously known  ?  To  a  bare  affirmation  that 
they  had  been  immediately  received  from 
God,  no  rational  being  could  be  expected  to 
assent.  The  teachers  might  be  men  of 
known  veracity,  whrse  simple  assertion 
would  be  admitted  as  sufficient  evidence  for 
any  fact  in  conformity  with  the  laws  of  na- 
ture; but  as  every  man  has  the  evidence 
of  his  own  consciousness  and  experience, 
that  revelations  from  heaven  are  deviations 
from  these  laAvs,  an  assertion  so  apparently 
extravagant,  would  be  rejected  as  fa'se, 
unless  supported  by  some  better  proof  than 
the  mere  affirmatic^n  of  the  teacher.  In 
this  state  of  things,  we  can  conceive  no  evi- 
dence sufficient  to  make  such  doctrines  be 
received  as  the  truths  of  Ciod,  but  the  pow- 
er of  working  miracles  committed  to  him 
who  taught  them.  This  would,  indeed,  be 
fully  adequate  to  the  purpose  ;  for  if  there 
were  nothing  in  the  doctrines  themselves 
impious,  immoral,  or  contrary  to  truths  al- 
ready known,  the  only  thing  which  could 
render  the  teacher's  assertion  incredible, 
■would  be  its  implying  such  an  intimate  com- 
munion with  God,  as  is  contrary  to  the  es- 
tablished course  of  things,  by  which  men 
are  left  to  acquire  all  tlieir  knov;ledge  by 
the  exercise  of  their  own  faculties.  Let  us 
now  suppose  one  of  those  inspired  teachers 
to  tell  his  countrymen,  that  he  did  not  de- 
^re  them,  on  his  i/ise  dixit,  to  believe  that 
he  had  any  preternatural  communion  with 
the  Deity,  but  that,  for  the  truth  of  his  as- 
sertion, lie  would  give  them  the  evidence 
of  their  own  senses ;  and  after  this  decla- 


ration, let  us  suppose  him  immediately  to 
raise  a  person  from  the  dead  in  their  pre- 
sence, merely  by  calling  upon  him  to  come 
out  of  his  grave.  Would  not  the  only  pos- 
sible f.bjection  to  the  man's  veracitv  be  mov- 
ed by  this  miracle  ?  and  his  assertion  that 
he  had  received  such  and  such  doctrines 
from  Gf  d,  be  as  fully  credited  as  if  it  rela- 
ted to  the  most  common  occurrence  .''  Un- 
doubtedly it  would  ;  fur  when  so  much  pre- 
ternatural/?07Wrr  was  visibly  communicated 
to  this  person,  no  one  could  have  reason  to 
question  h  s  having  received  an  equal  por- 
tion of  preternatural  knonvledge.  A  palpa- 
ble deviation  from  the  known  laws  of  na- 
tuce  in  one  instance,  is  a  sensible  proof  that 
such  a  deviation  is  possible  in  another ;  and 
in  such  a  case  as  this,  it  is  the  witness  of 
God  to  the  truth  of  a  man. 

"  Miracles,  then,  under  which  we  include 
prophecy,  are  the  only  direct  evidence 
which  can  be  given  of  Divine  inspiration. 
When  a  religion,  or  any  religious  tmth,  is 
to  be  revealed  from  heaven,  they  appear  to 
be  absolutely  necessary  to  enforce  its  recep- 
tion among  men  ;  and  this  is  the  only  case 
in  which  we  can  suppose  them  necessary, 
or  believe  for  a  moment  that  they  ever 
have  been  or  will  be  performed. 

"  The  history  of  almost  eveiy  religion 
abounds  with  relations  of  prodigies  and  won- 
ders, and  of  the  intercourse  of  men  with 
the  gods  ;  but  we  know  of  no  religious  sys- 
tem, those  of  the  Jews  and  Christians  ex- 
cepted, which  appealed  to  m.iracles  as  the 
sole  evidence  of  its  truth  and  divinity.  The 
pretended  miracles  mentioned  by  Pagan 
historians  and  poets,  are  not  said  to  have 
been  publicly  wrought  to  enforce  the  truth 
of  a  new  religion,  contrary  to  the  reigning 
idolatry.  Many  of  them  may  be  clearly 
sliewn  to  have  been  mere  natural  events  ; 
others  of  them  are  jneseited  as  havii.g 
been  performed  in  secret  on  the  most  trivi- 
al occasions,  and  in  obscure  ai.d  fabulous 
ages  long  prior  to  the  era  of  the  writers  by 
v/hom  thty  are  recorded ;  and  such  of 
them  as  at  first  v'ew  appear  to  be  best  at- 
tested, are  evidently  tricks  contrived  for  in- 
terested purposes,  to  flatter  power,  or  to 
promote  the  prevailing  sujjeistitior.s.  For 
these  reasons,  as  well  as  on  account  of  the 
immoral  character  of  the  divinities  by 
whom  they  are  sa  d  to  have  been  wrought, 
they  are  altogether  unworthy  of  examina- 
tion, and  carry  in  the  very  nature  of  them 
the  completest  proofs  of  falsehood  and  im- 
posture. 

"  But  the  miracles  recorded  of  Moses 
and  of  Christ  bear  a  very  different  chaiac- 
ter.  None  of  them  are  represented  as 
wrought  on  trivial  occasions.  The  Avrilers^ 
who  mention  them  were  eye-witnesses  of 
the  facts  ;  which  they  affirm  to  have  been 
performed  publiclx-,  in  attestation  of  the 
truth  of  their  respective  systems.  They 
are,  indeed,  so  incorporated  with  these 
systems,  that  the  miracles  cannot  be  sepa- 
rated frona  the  doctrines ;  and  if  the  mira- 


MIR 


325 


MIR 


cles  be  not  really  performed,  the  doctrines 
cannot  possibly  be  true.  Besides  all  tliis, 
they  were  wrought  in  support  of  revelations 
•which  opposed  all  the  religious  systems, 
superstitidus,  and  prejudices,  of  the  age  in 
which  they  were  given :  a  circumstance 
which  of  itself  sets  them,  in  point  of  autho- 
rity, infinitely  above  the  Pagan  prodigies, 
as  well  as  the  lying  wonders  of  the  Romish 
church. 

"  It  is  indeed,  we  believe,  universally  ad- 
mitted, that  the  miracles  mentioned  in  the 
book  of  Exodus,  and  in  the  four  Gospels, 
might,  to  those  who  saw  them  performed, 
be  sufficient  evidence  of  the  Divine  inspira- 
tion of  Moses  and  of  Christ,  but  to  us  it  may 
be  thought  that  they  are  no  evidence  what- 
ever, as  we  must  believe  in  the  miracles 
themselves,  if  we  believe  in  them  at  all ; 
upon  the  bare  authority  of  human  testimo- 
ny. Why,  it  has  been  sometimes  asked,  are 
not  miracles  wrought  in  all  ages  and  coun- 
tries? If  the  religion  of  Christ  was  to  be  of 
perpetual  duration,  every  generation  of  men 
ought  to  have  complete  evidence  of  its  truth 
and  divinity. 

"  To  the  performance  of  miracles  in  every 
age  and  in  every  country,  perhaps  the  same 
objections  lie,  as  to  the  immediate  inspiration 
of  every  individual.  Were  those  miracles 
universally  received  as  such,  men  would  be 
so  overwhelmed  with  the  number  rather 
than  with  the  force  of  their  authority,  as 
hardly  to  remain  masters  of  their  own  con- 
duct ;  and  in  that  case  the  very  end  of  all 
miracles  would  be  defeated  by  their  fre- 
quency. The  truth,  however,  seems  to  be, 
that  miracles  so  frequently  repeated  would 
not  be  received  as  such,  and  of  course  would 
have  no  authority;  because  it  would  be  dif- 
ficult, and  in  many  cases  impossible,  to  dis- 
tinguish them  from  natural  events.  If  they 
recurred  regularly  at  certain  intervals,  we 
could  not  prove  them  to  be  deviations  from 
the  known  laws  cf  natm'e,  because  we  should 
have  the  same  experience  for  one  series  of 
events  as  fur  the  other  ;  for  the  regular 
succession  of  preternatural  effects,  as  for  the 
established  constitution  and  course  of  things. 

"  Be  this,  however,  as  it  may,  we  shall 
take  the  liberty  to  affirm,  that  for  the  real- 
ity of  the  Gdspel  miracles  we  have  evidence 
as  convincing  to  the  reflecting  mind,  though 
not  so  striking  to  vulgar  apprehension,  as 
those  had  who  were  contemporary  with 
C^irist  and  his  apostles,  and  actually  saw 
the  mighty  works  which  he  performed. 
Mr.  Hume,  indeed,  endeavoured  to  prove, 
that  '  no  testimony  is  sufficient  to  establish 
a  miracle ;  and  the  reasoning  employed  for 
this  purpose  is,  that  a  miracle  being  a  vio- 
lation of  the  laws  of  nature,  which  a  firm 
and  unalterable  experience  has  established, 
tlie  proof  against  a  miracle,  from  the  very 
nature  of  the  fact,  is  as  entire  as  any  ar- 
gument from  experience  can  be :  whereas 
our  experience  of  human  veracity,  which 
(according  to  him)  is  the  sole  foundation 
of  the  evidence  of  testimony,  is  far  from 


being  uniform,  and  can  therefore  never 
preponderate  against  that  experience  which 
admits  of  no  exci-piion.'  This  boasted 
and  plausible  argument  has,  with  equal 
candour  and  acuttness,  been  examined  by 
Dr  Campbell,  in  his  Dissertation  on  Mira- 
cles, who  justly  observes,  that  so  far  is  ex- 
perifoce  from  being  the  hole  foundation  of 
the  evidence  of  testimony,  that  on  the  con- 
trary, testimony  is  the  sole  foundation  of 
by  far  the  greater  part  of  wliat  Mi.  Hume 
calls  firm  and  unalterable  experience  ;  and 
that  if,  in  certain  circumstances,  we  did 
not  give  an  implicit  faith  to  testimony,  our 
knowledge  of  events  would  be  confined  to 
those  which  had  fallen  under  the  immedi- 
ate observation  of  own  our  senses. 

"  We  need  not  waste  time  here  in  prov- 
ing that  the  miracles,  as  they  are  presented 
in  the  writings  of  the  New  Testament,  were 
of  such  a  nature,  and  performed  before  so 
many  witnesses,  that  no  imposition  could 
possibly  be  practised  on  the  senses  of  those 
who  affirm  that  they  were  present.  From 
every  page  of  the  G(jjpels  this  is  so  evident, 
that  the  philosojjlucal  adversaries  of  the 
Christian  faith  never  suppose  the  apostles 
to  have  been  themselves  deceived,  but  boldly 
accuse  them  of  bearing  false  witness.  But 
if  this  accusation  be  well  founded,  their  tes- 
timony itself  is  as  great  a  miracle  as  any 
which  thev  I'ecord  of  themselves,  or  of  their 
Master.  'For  if  they  sat  down  to  fabricate 
their  pretended  revelation,  and  to  contrive  a 
series  of  miracles  to  which  they  were  unani- 
mously to  appeal  for  its  truth,  it  is  plain, 
since  they  proved  successful  in  their  daring 
enterprise,  that  they  must  have  clearly  fore- 
seen every  possible  circumstance  in  which. 
they  could  be  placed,  and  have  prepared 
consistent  answers  to  eveiy  question  that 
could  be  put  to  them  by  their  most  inveter- 
ate and  most  enlightened  enemies ;  by  the 
statesmen,  the  lawyer,  the  philosopher,  and 
the  priest.  That  such  foreknowledge  as 
this  would  have  been  miraculous,  will  not 
surely  be  denied  ;  since  it  forms  the  very 
attribute  which  we  find  it  most  difficult  to 
allow  even  to  God  himself.  It  is  not,  how- 
ever, the  only  miracle  which  this  supposi- 
tion would  compel  us  to  swallow.  The  very 
resobitio7i  of  the  apostles  to  propagate  the 
belief  of  false  miracles  in  support  of  such  a 
religion  as  that  which  is  taught  in  the  New 
Testament,  is  as  great  a  miracle  as  human 
imagination  can  easily  conceive. 

"  When  they  formed  this  design,  either 
they  must  have  hoped  to  succeed,  or  they 
must  have  foreseen  that  they  should  fail  in 
their  undertaking;  and,  in  either  case,  they 
chose  evil  for  its  own  sake.  They  could  not,  if 
they  foresaw  that  they  should  fail,  look  for 
any  thing  but  that  contempt,  disgrace,  and 
persecution,  which  were  then  the  inevitable 
consequences  of  an  unsuccessful  endeavour 
to  overthrow  the  estalilished  religion.  Nor 
could  their  pros]>ects  be  brighter  upon  the 
supposition  of  their  success.  As  they  knew 
themselves  to  be  false  witnesses,  and  impious 


MIR 


326 


MIS 


deceivers,  they  could  have  no  hopes  beyond 
the  grave  ;  and  by  determining  to  oppose  all 
the  religious  systems,  supt  rstitions,  and  pre- 
judices of  the  age  in  which  they  lived,  they 
wilfully  exposed  themselves  to  inevitable 
misery  in  the  present  life,  to  insult  and  im- 
prisonment, to  stripes  and  death.  Nor  can 
it  be  said  that  they  might  look  forward  to 
power  and  affluence,  when  they  should, 
through  suiferings,  have  converted  their 
countrymen;  for  so  desinus  were  they  of 
obtaining  nothing  but  misery,  as  the  end  of 
their  mission,  that  thty  made  their  own 
persecution  a  test  of  the  truth  of  their  doc- 
trines. They  introduced  the  Master  from 
whom  they  pretended  to  have  received  these 
doctrines  as  telling  them,  that  '  they  were 
sent  forth  as  sheep  in  the  midst  of  wolves ; 
that  they  sh.uld  be  delivered  up  to  councils, 
and  scourged  in  synagogues ;  that  they 
should  be  hated  of  all  men  for  his  name's 
sake ;  that  the  brother  should  deliver  up 
the  brother  to  death,  and  tlie  father  the 
child;  and  that  he  who  took  not  up  his 
cross,  and  followed  after  him,  was  not  wor- 
thy of  him  '  The  very  system  rf  religion, 
therefore,  which  they  invented  and  resolved 
to  impose  upon  mankind,  was  so  contrived, 
that  the  worldly  prosperity  of  its  first  preach- 
ers and  even  their  exemptitn  friim  perse- 
cution, was  incompatible  with  its  success- 
Had  these  clear  predictions  tf  the  Auth'  r 
of  that  religion,  under  whom  the  apostles 
acted  only  as  ministers  not  been  verified,  all 
mankind  must  have  instantly  perceived  that 
their  pretence  to  inspiration  was  false,  and 
that  Christianity  was  a  scandalous  and  im- 
pudent imposture.  All  this  the  apostles 
could  not  but  foresee  when  they  formed 
their  plan  for  deluding  the  world.  Whence 
it  follows,  that  when  they  resolved  to  sup- 
port their  pretended  revelation  by  an  ap- 
peal to  forged  miracles,  they  wilfully,  and 
with  their  eyes  open,  exposed  themselves 
to  inevitable  misery,  whether  they  shoidd 
succeed  or  fail  in  their  enterprise  ;  and 
that  they  concerted  their  measures  so  as 
not  to  admit  of  a  possibihtv  of  recnmpeuce 
to  themselves,  either  in  tliis  life  or  in  that 
which  is  to  come.  But  if  there  be  a  law  of 
nature,  for  the  reality  of  which  we  have 
better  evid'  nee  tlian  we  have  fcr  others,  it 
is,  that  '  no  man  can  choose  misery  for  its 
own  sake,'  or  make  the  acquisition  of  it  the 
ultimate  end  of  hi.-,  pursuit.  The  existence 
of  other  laws  of  nature  we  know  by  tes- 
timony, and  our  own  cbservatinn  of  the  re- 
gularity of  their  effects.  The  existence  of 
this  law  is  made  known  to  us  not  only  by 
these  means,  but  also  by  the  still  clearer  and 
more  conclusive  evidence  of  our  own  con- 
sciousness. 

"  Thus,  then,  do  miracles  force  them- 
selves upon  our  assent  in  every  possible  view 
which  we  can  take  of  this  interesting  sul> 
ject.  If  the  testimony  nf  the  first  preachers 
of  Christianity  were  true,  tht-  miracles  re- 
cor'led  in  the  (iuspp!  were  certainly  per- 
formed, and  the  doctrines  of  our  religion  are 


derived  from  heaven.  On  the  other  hand,  if 
that  testitmony  were  false,  either  God  must 
have  miraculously  effaced  from  the  minds  of 
those  by  whom  it  was  given  all  the  associa* 
tions  formed  between  their  sensible  ideas 
and  the  words  of  language,  or  he  must  have 
endowed  those  men  with  the  gifts  of  pre- 
science, and  have  impelled  them  to  fabri- 
cate a  pi-etended  revelation  for  the  purpose, 
of  deceiving  the  world,  and  involving  them- 
selves in  certain  and  fi^rcseen  destruction. 

"  The  power  necessary  to  perform  the 
one  series  of  those  miracles  may,  for  any. 
thing  known  to  us,  be  as  great  as  that  which, 
would  be  requisite  for  the  performance  of 
the  other;  and,  considered  merely  as  exer- 
tions of  preternatural  power,  they  may  seem 
to  balance  each  other,  and  to  hold  the  mind 
in  a  state  of  suspense  ,  but  when  we  take 
into  C'  nsideration  the  different  purposes  for 
which  these  opposite  and  contending  mira- 
cles were  wrought,  the  balance  is  instantly 
destroyed.  The  miracles  recorded  in  the 
Gospels,  if  real,  were  wrought  in  suj^port 
of  a  revelation  which,  in  the  opinion  of  all 
by  whom  it  is  received,  has  brought  to  light 
many  important  truths  whicli  could  not 
otherwise  have  betn  made  known  to  men  ; 
and  which,  by  the  confession  of  its  adversa- 
ries, contains  the  purest  moral  precepts  by 
which  the  conduct  of  mankind  was  ever 
directed.  The  opposite  series  of  miracles, 
if  real,  was  performed  to  enable  and  even 
to  compel,  a  company  of  Jews,  of  the  lowest 
rank  and  of  the  narrowest  education,  to  fab- 
ricate, with  the  view  of  inevitable  destruc- 
tion to  themselves,  a  consistent  scheme  of 
falsehood,  and  by  an  appeal  to  forged  mira- 
cles to  impose  it  upon  the  world  as  a  reve- 
lation from  heaven.  The  object  of  the  for- 
mer miracles  is  worthy  of  a  God  of  infinite 
wisdom,  goodness,  and  power;  the  object  of 
the  latter  is  absolutely  inconsistent  with 
wisdom  and  goodness,  which  are  demon- 
strably attributes  of  that  Being  by  whom 
alone  miracles  can  be  performed  Whence 
it  follows,  that  the  supposition  nf  the  apos- 
tles bearing  false  testimony  to  the  miracles 
of  their  M.ister,  implies  a  series  of  devia- 
tions from  the  laws  of  nature  infinitely  less 
pro'wble  in  themselves  than  those  miracles: 
arid  therefore,  by  Mr.  Hume's  maxim,  we 
must  necessarily  reject  the  supposition  of 
falsehood  in  the  testimony,  and  admit  the 
reality  of  the  miracles.  So  true  it  is,  that 
for  the  reality  of  the  Gospel  miracles  we 
have  evidence  as  convincing  to  the  reflect- 
ing mind  as  those  had  who  were  contempo- 
rary with  Christ  and  his  apostles,  and  were 
actual  witnesses  to  their  mighty  works." 

The  power  of  working  miracles  is  suppos- 
ed by  some  to  have  been  continued  no  lon- 
ger than  the  apostles'  days.  Others  think 
that  it  was  continued  long  after.  It  seems 
pretty  clear,  however,  that  miracles  univer- 
sally ceased  before  Chrysostom's  time.  As 
for  wh.at  Augustine  says  of  those  wrought 
at  the  tombs  of  the  martyrs,  and  some 
other  places,  in  his  time,  the  evidence  i? 


MIS 


32/ 


MIS 


not  always  so  convincing  as  might  be  desir- 
ed in  facts  of  importance.  The  controversy 
concerning  the  time  when  miraculous  pow- 
ers ceased  was  carried  on  by  Dr.  Micklleton, 
in  his  Free  Enquiry  into  the  Miraculous  Pow- 
ers, &c.  by  Mr.  Yate,  Mr  Toll,  and  others, 
who  suppose,  that  miracles  ceased  with  the 
aposiles  On  the  contrary  side  appeared 
Dr  Stabbing,  Dr  Chapman,  Mr.  Parker, 
Mr.  Brooke^  and  others. 

As  to  the  miracles  of  the  Romish  church, 
it  is  evident,  as  Doddridi^e  observes,  that 
many  of  them  were  ridiculous  tales,  accord- 
ing to  their  own  historians  ;  others  were 
performed  without  any  credible  witnesses, 
or  in  circumstances  where  the  performer 
had  the  greatest  opportunity  for  juggling , 
and  it  is  particularly  remarkable,  that  they 
were  hardly  ever  wrought  where  they  st  em 
most  necessary,  i.  e.  in  countries  where  those 
doctruu  s  are  renounced,  which  that  church 
esteems  of  the  highest  importance.  See 
Fltetnuood,  Clafiartde,  Conybeare  Camfi- 
btll,  Lardner,  Fanner,  jldams,  and  We.^- 
ton,  on  Miracles  Article  Miracle,  En.  Brit. 
l)oddridg:*s  Led.  lee  101,  and  135.  Le- 
iand's  View  of  Deistical  Writers,  let.  3,  4, 
7.    Hiirrion  on  the  S/iirit,  p.  i'99,  &c. 

MIRTH,  joy,  gaiety,  merriment  It  is 
distinguished  from  clieerfulness,  thus  ;  Mirth 
is  considered  as  an  act :  cheerfulness  an 
habit  of  the  mind.  Mirth  is  short  and 
transient :  cheerfulness  fixed  and  permanent. 
"  Those  are  often  raised  into  the  gi'eatest 
transports  of  mirth  who  are  subject  to  the 
greatest  depressions  of  melancholy  ;  on  the 
contrary,  cheerfulness,  though  it  does  not 
give  such  an  exquisite  gladness,  prevents 
us  from  falling  into  any  depths  of  sorrow. 
Mirth  is  like  a  flash  of  lightning,  that  breaks 
through  a  gloom  of  clouds,  and  glitters  for 
a  moment ;  cheerfulness  keeps  up  a  kind  of 
daylight  in  the  mind,  and  fills  it  with  a 
steady  and  perpetual  serenity.''  Mirth  is 
sinful.  1.  When  men  rejoice  in  that  which 
is  evil.  2  When  unreasonable.  3.  When 
tending  to  commit  sin.  4.  When  a  hindrance 
to  duty.  5.  When  it  is  blasphemous  and 
profane. 

MISANTHROPIST,  /M,,<r«vepa5re?,  a  ha- 
ter of  mankind ;  one  that  abandons  society 
from  a  principle  of  discontent.  The  consi- 
deration of  the  depravity  of  human  nature 
is  certainly  enough  to  raise  emotirns  of  sor- 
row in  the  breast  of  every  man  of  the  least 
sensibility  ;  yet  it  is  our  duty  to  bear  with 
the  folUes  of  mankind ;  to  exercise  a  de- 
gree of  candour  consistent  with  truth ;  to 
lessen,  if  possible,  by  our  exertions,  the  sum 
of  moral  and  natural  evil ;  and  by  connecting 
ourselves  with  society,  to  add  at  least  some- 
thing to  the  gei.eral  interests  of  mankind. 
The  misanthropist,  therefore,  is  an  ungene- 
rous and  dishonourable  character.  Disgust- 
ed with  life,  he  seeks  a  retreat  from  it ; 
like  a  coward,  he  flees  from  the  scene  of 
action,  while  he  increases  his  own  misery 


by  his  natural  discontent,  and  leaves  others 
to  do  what  they  can  for  themselves. 

The  folio  wing  is  his  character  more  at  large . 
"  He  is  a  man,"  says  Saurin,  "  who 
avoids  society  only  to  free  himself  from  the 
trouble  of  being  useful  to  it.  lie  is  a  man, 
who  cnnsideis  his  neighbours  only  on  the 
side  of  their  defects,  not  knowing  the  art  of 
combining  their  virtues  with  their  vices, 
and  of  rendering  the  imperfections  of  other 
people  tolerable  by  reflecting  on  his  own. 
He  is  a  man  more  employed  in  finding  out 
and  inflicting  punishments  on  the  guilty  than 
in  devising  means  to  reform  them.  He  is 
a  man,  who  talks  of  nothing  but  banishing 
and  executing,  and  who,  because  he  thinks 
his  talents  are  not  suflficiendy  valued  and 
employed  by  his  fellow  citizens,  or  rather 
because  thty  know  his  foibles,  and  do  not 
choose  to  be  subject  to  his  caprice,  talks  of 
quitting  cities,  towns,  and  societies,  and  of 
living  in  dens  or  deserts." 

MISER,  a  term  formerly  used  in  refer- 
ence to  a  person  in  wretchedness  or  cala- 
mity ;  but  it  now  denotes  a  parsimonious 
person,  or  one  who  is  covetous  to  extremi- 
ty ;  who  denies  himself  even  the  comforts 
of  life  to  accumulate  wealth.  Avarice,  says 
Saurin,  may  be  considered  in  two  diiFerent 
points  of  light.  It  may  be  considered  in 
those  men,  or  rather  those  public  blood- 
suckers, or,  as  the  <•  fficers  of  the  Roman 
emperor  Vespasian  were  called,  those  sfion- 
ges  of  society,  who,  infatuated  with  this 
passif  n,  seek  after  riches  as  the  supreme 
good,  determine  to  acquire  it  by  any  me- 
tliods,  and  consider  the  ways  that  lead  to 
wealth,  legal  or  illegal,  as  the  only  road 
for  them  to  travel. 

Avarice,  however,  must  be  considered 
in  a  second  point  of  light.  It  not  only  con- 
sists in  committing  bold  crimes,  but  in  en- 
ttrtaining  mean  ideas  and  practising  low 
methods,  incompatible  with  such  magna- 
nimity as  our  condition  ought  to  inspire.  It 
consists  not  only  in  omitting  to  serve  God, 
but  in  trying  to  associate  the  service  of  God 
with  that  of  mammon. 

How  many  forms  doth  avarice  take  to 
disguise  itself  from  the  man  who  is  guilty  of 
it,  and  who  will  be  drenched  in  the  guilt  of 
it  till  the  day  he  dies  !  Sometimes  it  is  firu- 
dence  which  requires  him  to  provide  not 
only  for  his  present  wants,  but  for  such 
as  he  may  have  in  future.  Sometimes  it 
is  charity  which  requires  him  not  to  give 
society  examples  of  prodigality  and  parade. 
Sometimes  it  \s  parental  love  obUging  him 
to  save  something  for  his  children.  Some- 
times it  is  circumspection,  which  requires 
him  not  to  supply  people  Avho  make  an  ill 
use  of  what  they  get.  Sometimes  it  is  ne- 
cessity, which  obliges  him  to  repel  artifice 
by  artifice.  Sometimes  it  is  conscience^ 
which  convinces  him,  good  man,  that  he 
hath  already  exceeded  in  compassion  and 
alms-giving,  and  done  too  much.  Sometimes 
it  is  equity,  for  justice  requires  that  every 


MIS 


328 


MI  S 


one  should  enjoy  the  fruit  of  his  own  labours, 
and  those  of  his  anctstors — Such  aias  !  are 
the  uwful  pretexts  and  subterfuges  of  the 
miser.  Saurin  s  Her.  y>)\  v.  ser.  12.  Sec 
Avarice,  Covktousness. 

MlsEUY,  such  a  state  of  wretchedness, 
unliappiii'^'ss,  or  calamity,  as  renders  a  per 
son  an  object  of  compassion. 

MISCHNA,  or  Misna  (from  nJjy,  in- 
teravir,)  a  part  of  the  Jewish  Talmud. 

The  Miscr.na  contains  the  text:  and  the 
Gemara,  which  is  the  second  part  of  the 
I'almud,  contains  the  commtntaries :  so  that 
the  Gemara  is,  as  it  were,  a  glossary  on  the 
Mischna. 

The  Mischna  consists  of  various  traditiors 
of  the  Jews,  and  of  explanations  of  several 
passages  of  scripture :  tliese  traditions  serv- 
ing as  an  explication  of  the  written  law, 
and  supplement  to  it,  are  said  to  have  been 
delivered  to  Moses  during  the  time  of  his 
abode  on  the  Mount ;  which  he  afterwards 
communicated  to  Aaron,  Eleazer,  and  his 
servant  Joshua.  By  t'.iese  they  were  trans- 
mitted to  the  seventy  elders  ,  by  them  t< 
the  propliets,  who  communicated  them  to 
the  men  of  the  great  sanhedrim,  from  whom 
the  wise  men  of  Jerusalem  and  Babylon  re- 
ceived them.  According  to  Pridcanx's  ac- 
count, they  passed  from  Jeremiah  to  Ba 
ruch,  from  him  to  Ezra,  and  from  Ezra  ti- 
the men  of  the  great  synagogue,  the  last  of 
whom  was  Simon  the  Just,  who  delivered 
them  to  Antigonus  of  Socho:  and  from 
him  they  came  down  in  regular  succession 
to  Simeon,  who  took  our  Saviour  in  his 
arms  :  to  Gamaliel,  at  whose  feet  Paul  was 
educated  ;  and  last  of  all,  to  Rabbi  Judah 
the  Holy,  who  committed  tliem  to  writing 
in  the  Mischna.  But  Dr.  Prideaux,  reject- 
ing the  Jewish  fiction,  oi)serves,  that  after 
the  death  of  Simon  the  Just,  about  299 
years  before  Christ,  the  Mischnical  doctors 
arose,  who,  by  their  comments  and  conclu- 
sions added  to  the  number  of  those  tradi- 
tions which  had  been  received  and  allowed 
by  Ezra  and  the  men  of  the  great  syna- 
gogue ;  so  tliat  towards  the  middle  of  the 
second  century  after  Christ,  under  the  em- 
pire of  Antonius  Pius,  it  was  found  neces- 
sary to  commit  these  traditions  to  writmg  ; 
more  especially  as  their  country  had  consi- 
derably suffered  under  Adrian,  and  many 
of  their  schools  had  been  dissolved,  and 
their  learned  men  cut  off;  and  therefore 
the  usual  method  of  preserving  their  tradi- 
tions had  failed.  Rabbi  Judah  on  this  oc- 
casion being  rector  of  the  school  at  Tiberi- 
as, and  president  of  the  sanhedrim,  in  that 
place,  undertook  the  work,  and  compiled 
it  in  six  books,  each  consisting  of  several 
tracts,  which  a'together  make  up  the  num- 
ber of  sixtv-three.  Prid.  Connex.  vol.  ii. 
page  468,  8cc.  edition  9.  This  learned  au- 
thor computes,  that  the  Mischna  was  com- 
posed about  the  150th  year  of  our  Lord  ; 
but  Dr.  Lightfoot  says,  that  Rabbi  Judah 
compiled  the  Mischna  about  the  year  of 


Christ  190,  in  the  latter  end  of  the  reign  of 
Commodus  ;  or,  as  some  compute,  in  the 
year  of  Christ  220.  Dr.  Lardner  is  of  ( jji- 
oion,  that  this  work  coukl  nut  have  b.  en 
finished  before  the  year  190.  or  'attr  Col- 
Itciion  of  Jewish  and  Heathen  Testimonies, 
vol  1  page  178.  Tiius  the  bock  called  the 
Mischna  was  formed  ;  a  book  wiiich  the 
Jews  have  generally  received  with  the  great- 
est veneration.  The  original  has  been  ]jub- 
iished  with  a  Latin  translation  by  Sureului- 
sius,  with  notes  ( f  his  own  and  others  from 
the  learned  Maimonides,  &c.  in  six  vols.  fol. 
Amster.  A.  D.  1698—1703.  See  Talmud. 
It  is  written  in  a  much  purer  style,  and  is 
not  near  so  full  of  dreams  and  \i3ions  as  tbe 
Gemara. 

MISREPRESENTATION,  the  act  rf 
wilfully  representing  a  ihii'g  otherwise  than 
it  is  "  ihis,"  as  an  eicgant  writer  ob- 
serves, "  is  one  of  the  greatest  misciiitfs  of 
conversation.  Self-love  is  coiitinually  at 
work  to  give  to  all  we  say  a  bias  in  our  own 
favour.  How  often  in  society,  otherwise  re- 
spectable, we  are  pained  with  narrations 
in  which  prejudice  warps,  and  self-love 
blinds!  How  often  do  we  see  that  with- 
holding part  of  a  truth  answers  the  worst 
ends  of  a  falsehood  !  How  often  regret  the 
unfair  turn  given  to  a  cause,  by  placing  a 
sentiment  in  one  point  of  view,  which  the 
speaker  had  used  in  another  !  the  letter  of 
truth  preserved,  where  its  spirit  is  vio- 
lated !  a  superstitious  exactness  scrupu- 
lously maintained  in  the  underparts  ot  a 
dttail,  in  order  to  impress  such  an  idea  of 
integrity  as  shall  gain  credit  for  the  mis- 
\refiresenter,  while  he  is  designedly  mis- 
j taking  the  leading  principle!  How  may 
]  we  observe  a  new  character  given  to  a  fact 
I  by  a  different  look,  tone,  or  emphasis,  which 
alters  it  as  much  as  words  C(uld  have  done! 
jthe  false  impression  of  a  sermrin  ccnveyecf, 
when  we  do  not  like  the  preacher,  or  whew 
I  through  him  we  wish  to  make  religion  it- 
self ridiculous !  the  care  to  avoid  literal  un- 
I  truths,  while  the  mischief  is  better  effected 
by  the  unfair  quotation  of  a  passage  di^■est- 
ed  of  its  context !  the  bringing  together 
detached  portions  of  a  subject,  and  making 
those  parts  ludicrous,  when  connected,  which 
were  serious  in  their  distinct  position  !  the 
insiduous  use  made  of  a  sentiment  by  re- 
presenting it  as  the  c/ihilon  of  him  who 
had  only  brought  it  forward  in  order  to  ox- 
pose  it!  the  relating  opinions  which  had 
merely  been  put  hyp(  thetically,  as  if  they 
were  the  avowed  principles  of  him  we 
would  discredit !  that  subtle  falsehood  which 
is  so  made  to  incorporate  with  a  certain 
quantity  of  truth,  that  the  most  skilful 
moral  chemist  cannot  analyse  or  separate 
them  !  for  a  good  misrepres enter  knows 
that  a  successful  lie  must  have  a  certain 
infusion  of  truth,  or  it  will  not  go  down. 
And  this  amalgamation  is  the  test  ot  his 
skill  ;  as  too  much  truth  would  defeat  the 
eiid   of  his   n)ischief,  and   too  little  would 


MI  S 


329 


MIS 


destroy  the  belief  of  the  hearer.  All  that 
iudefiiuible  ambiguity  and  equivocation ;  ali 
that  prudent  dtctit,  wliich  is  rather  ini- 
phed  than  expressed:  thu^e  more  delicate 
artilict-s  of  toe  school  of  Loyohi  and  of 
Ciiestertickl,  wliich  allow  us,  when  we  dare 
not  deny  a  truth,  yet  sd  to  disguise  and 
disciilour  it,  thut  the  truth  we  relate  shali 
not  resciitblc  liie  trutii  we  heard  :  these, 
and  ah  the  thousand  shades  of  siiTiulation 
and  dissimulation,  will  be  carefully  guarded 
against  in  the  conversation  of  vigilant  Chris- 
tians."— M'ss  H.  Moore  on  Education,  v,<l. 
ii.  page  91. 

MISSAL,  the  Romisli  mass-book,  con- 
taining the  several  masses  to  be  said  on 
Particular  days.  It  is  derived  from  the 
latin  word  7nissa,  which  in  the  ancivnt 
Christian  church  signified  every  part  of 
divine  service. 

MISSION,  a  power  f,r  commission  to 
pr.-ach  the  Gospel.  Thus  Jesus  Christ 
gavc  his  disciples  their  mission,  when  he 
said,  "  Go  ye  into  all  th  •  world,  and  preacli 
the  Gospel  to  every  cr..'ature."  See  next 
article. 

MlbSlON,  an  establishment  of  people 
zealous  fir  the  glory  of  Gnd  and  tlie  salva- 
tion of  souls,  who  go  and  preach  the  Gos- 
Sel  iu  remote  countries,  a;id  among  infidels. 
To  man  possi-ssed  of  the  least  (kgree  of 
feeling  or  compassion  foi-  the  human  race 
can  deny  the  necessity  and  utility  of  Chris- 
tian missions.  Whoever  considers  tliat  the 
major  part  of  the  world  is  envel<^])ed  in  the 
gr.isscst  darkness,  bound  with  tiie  chains  of 
savage  barbarity,  and  immersed  in  the  aw- 
ful chaos  of  brutal  ignorance,  must,  if  lie 
be  not  destitute  <)f  every  principle  of  reli- 
gion and  hunianitv,  concur  with  the  design 
and  applaud  the  principles  of  thost-  who  en- 
gage in  so  benev(j!ent  a  work  We  shall 
not,  however,  in  this  place,  enter  into  a  de- 
fence of  missions,  but  shall  present  the 
reader  with  a  short  view  of  those  that  have 
been  established. 

In  the  sixteenth  century,  the  Romish 
church  particularly  exerted  herself  for  the 
propagation  of  their  relii;ion.  The  Portu- 
guese and  Spaniards  pretend  to  have  done 
mighty  exploits  in  the  spread  of  the  Cliris- 
tian  failh  in  Asia,  Africa,  and  America  ; 
but,  when  we  consider  the  superstitions 
they  imposed  on  some,  and  the  dreadful 
cruellies  tiu-y  inilicted  on  otliers,  it  more 
than  counterbalances  any  go;  d  that  was 
done.  For  a  time,  the  Diniiuicans,  Fran- 
ciscans, and  other  religions  orders,  v;ere 
very  zealous  in  the  conversion  of  the  hea- 
then :  but  the  Jesuits  outdid  them  all  in 
their  attempts  in  the  conversion  of  Afiican, 
Asian,  and  American  infidels.  Xavier 
spread  some  hints  of  the  R  imish  relii^ion 
thrnu2;h  the  Portuguese  settlements  in  the 
East  Indies,  through  most  of  the  Iiidian 
continent,  and  of  Ceylon.  In  1549  he  sailed 
to  Japan,  and  laid  the  foundation  of  a  church 
there,  whlcl*  at  one  time  was  said  to  have 
consisted  of  about  600,000  Christians.    After 

Tt 


I  him,  others  penetrated  into  China,,  and 
t  .unded  a  church,  which  continued  about 
170  years.  About  lohO,  others  penetrated 
into  Chili  and  Peru,  in  South  America,  and 
converted  the  natives  Others  bestirred 
themselves  to  convert  the  Greeks,  Nestori- 
ans,  Monojjhysites,  Abyssinians,  the  Egyp- 
tian cojns.  "  It  is,  however,"  as  one  ob- 
serves, "  a  matter  of  doubt  whether  the 
disciples  of  Xavier,  or  tne  converts  of  a 
Loyola  and  Dominic,  with  their  paitisans  of 
the  Romish  church,  should  be  admitted 
among  the  number  of  Christians,  or  their 
labours  be  thought  to  have  contributed  to 
the  promotion  or  to  the  hindrance  of  the 
religion  of  Christ.  Certain  it  is,  that  the 
methods  these  men  pursued  tended  much 
more  to  make  disciples  to  themselves  and 
the  pontiffs  <f  Rome,  than  to  form  the  mind 
to  the  reception  of  evangelical  truth." 
With  ardent  ztal,  however,  and  unwea- 
ried industry,  these  apostles  laboured  in 
this  work  In  1622  we  find  the  pope  esta- 
blished a  congregation  of  cardinals,  de  firo- 
fiui^andu  fide,  and  endowed  it  with  ample 
le venues,  and  every  thing  which  could  for- 
ward the  missions  was  liberally  supplied. 
In  1627,  also.  Urban  added  the  college  ybr 
the  firop.agation  of  the  faith;  in  which  mis- 
sionaries were  taught  the  languages  of  the 
countries  to  which  they  were  to  be  sent. 
France  copied  the  example  of  Rome,  and 
formed  an  establishment  for  the  same  pur- 
poses. The  Jesuits  claimed  the  first  rank, 
IS  due  to  their  zeal,  learning,  and  devo- 
teihiess  to  the  holy  see.  The  Dominicans, 
Franciscans,  and  others,  disputed  the  palm 
with  thetn.  The  new  world  and  the  Asiatic 
regions  were  the  chief  fields  of  their  la- 
bours. They  penetrated  into  the  unculti- 
vated recesses  of  America.  They  visited 
the  untried  regions  of  hiam,  Tonkin,  and 
Cochin  China.  They  entered  the  vast  em- 
pire of  China  itself,  and  numbered  millions 
among  their  converts.  They  dared  confront 
the  dangers  of  the  tyrannical  government 
of  Japan.  In  India  they  assumed  the  garb 
and  austerities  of  the  Bralmiins,  and  boast- 
ed on  the  coasts  of  Malabar  of  a  thousand 
converts  baptized  in  one  year  by  a  single 
missionar)-.  Their  sufferings,  however,  were 
very  great,  and  in  China  and  Japan  they 
were  exposed  to  the  most  dreadful  persecu- 
tions, and  many  thousands  were  cut  ofl^ 
with,  at  last,  a  final  expulsion  from  the 
empires.  In  Africa  the  Capuchins  were 
chiefly  employed,  though  it  does  not  ap- 
pear that  they  had  fmy  considerable  suc- 
cess. And  in  America  their  laborious  ex- 
ertions have  had  but  little  influence,  we  fear, 
to  promote  the  real  conversion  of  the  na- 
tives to  the  truth. 

In  the  year  1631,  the  Dutch  opened  a 
church  in  the  city  of  Batavia,  and  from 
hence  ministers  were  sent  to  Amboyna.  At 
Levden,  ministers  and  assistants  were  edu- 
cated for  the  purpose  of  missions  unfler  riie 
finious  W>>'xus,  and  sent  into  the  East, 
where  thousands  embraced   the  Christia^i 


MIS 


330 


MIS 


religion  at  Formosa,  Columba,  Java,  Mala- 1 
bar,  &c.  and  though  the  work  declined  in  | 
some  places,  j'et  there  are  still  churches  in  , 
Ceylon,  Sumatra,  Amboyna,  &c.  | 

About  1705,  Frederick  IV,  of  Denmark, 
applied  to  the  university  of  Halle,  in  Ger- 
many, for  missionaries  to  preach  the 
Gospel  on  the  coast  at  Malabar,  in  the 
East  Indies;  and  Messrs.  Ziegenbalg  and 
Plutsche  were  the  first  employed  on 
this  important  Mission  ;  to  tiem  others 
were  soon  added,  who  laboured  with  con- 
siderable success.  It  is  said  that  upwards 
of  18,000  Geiitoos  have  been  brought  to  the 
proftssi'  n  (f  Christianity 

A  grcr.t  work  has  been  carried  on  among 
the  Indian  nations  in  A'ortli  Ajuerica-  One 
of  tlie  first  and  most  eminent  instruments 
in  this  work  was  the  excellent  Mr.  Elliott, 
commdnly  called  the  Indian  apostle,  who, 
from  the' time  of  his  going  to  New  England, 
in  1631,  to  his  death,  in  1690,  devoted  him- 
self to  this  great  work  by  his  lips  and  pen, 
translating  the  Bibie  and  other  books  into 
natic  dialect.  Some  years  after  this,  Thomas 
Mayliew,  esq.  governor  and  patentee  of  the 
islandsof  Martha's  Vineyard,  and  some  neigh- 
brurirg  islai  ds,  greatly  exerted  himself  in 
the  attempt  to  convert  the  Indians  in  that 
])art  of  America.  His  son  John  gathered 
and  founded  an  Indian  church,  wliich,  af- 
ter his  death,  not  being  able  to  pay  a  minis- 
ter, the  old  gentlemen  himself,  at  seventy 
yeais  of  age,  became  their  instructor  for 
more  than  twenty  years,  and  his  grandson 
and  great-grandson  both  succeeded  him  in 
the  hame  w'  rk.  Mr  D  Brainerd  was  also 
a  truly  pious  and  successful  missionary 
am  ^ng  the  Susquehaimah  and  Delaware 
Indians.  His  journal  contains  instances  of 
verv  f  xtra(  rf'.'naiy  conver>ions. 

Hnt  tne  i\Io7'avia?i&  have  exceeded  all  in 
their  m'ssionary  ex'.rtions.  They  have  vari- 
ous mis-ions;  and,  by  their  persevering  ztal, 
it  -s  snid,  upwards  of  2.'^. COO  of  the  mcst 
destitute  of  mankind,  in  different  regions  of 
the  earth,  have  been  brought  to  the  kn>;wledge 
of  the  truth  Vast  numbers  in  the  Danish 
isla  i.i  of  St  Thomas,  St.  Jau,  and  St.  Croix, 
and  ill.  Rnislish  islands  of  Jamaica,  Antitji'.a, 
Ne  is,  Barbadoes,  St  Kitts,  and  Tobago, 
ha  •  1-y  their  ministry  been  called  to  worship 
G' .''  in  spirit  aiid  iii  truth.  In  the  inlu'spi- 
table  c'imes  of  Greenland  and  Labradore 
tiev  have  met  with  wonderful  success,  after 
imdfi'going  the  most  astonishing  dangers  and 
difficulties.  The  Arrowack  Indians,  and 
the  negroes  of  Surinam  and  Berb'ce,  have 
been  collected  into  bodies  of  faith  ^ul  people 
by  them.  Carada,  and  the  United  States 
cif  North  Anrit  rica,  have,  by  their  instru- 
mcntaViiv,  afliided  happy  evidences  of  the 
power  of  the  Gospel.  Even  those  esteemed 
the  last  of  human  beings,  for  brutishness 
and  ignorance,  the  Hottentots,  have  been 
formed  into  tlieir  societies  :  and  upwards  of 
scvon  hundred  are  said  to  be  worshijjping 
Gnd  at  Bavians  Clrnf.  near  the  '''  -.Vf.  of 
Good  Hope.    We  might  also  mention  their 


efforts  to  illumine  the  distant  East,  the 
coast  of  Coromandel,  and  the  Nicobar  is- 
lands ;  their  attempts  to  penetrate  into  Abys- 
sinia, to  carry  the  Gospel  to  Persia  and 
Egypt,  and  to  ascend  the  mountains  of 
Caucasus.  In  fact,  where  sliall  we  find  the 
men  who  have  laboured  as  these  have ; 
Their  invincible  patience,  their  well  regu- 
lated zeal,  their  self-denial,  their  constant 
prudence,  desene  the  meed  of  highest  ap- 
probation. Nor  are  they  wearied  in  so 
honourable  a  senice ;  for  they  have  nume- 
rous missionaries  still  employed  in  different 
parts  if  the  world.    See  Moravians. 

Good  has  been  also  done  by  the  U'esleya?i 
niet/todisls,  who  are  certainly  net  the  least 
in  missionaiy  work.  They  have  several 
missionaries  in  the  British  dominions  in 
America  and  in  the  West  Indies.  They 
have  some  thousands  of  members  in  their 
societies  in  those  parts.  See  Metho- 
dists. 

In  1791,  a  society  was  instituted  among 
the  BafitintSy  called,  "The  particular  Bap- 
tist Society  for  propagating  the  Gospel 
among  the  Heathen  ;"  under  the  auspices 
of  which  missionaries  were  sent  to  India, 
and  favourah'e  accounts  of  their  success 
have  been  received.  We  leani,  with  plea- 
sure, that  through  their  iudefaticable  indus- 
try, the  New  Testament,  and  part  of  the 
Bible,  have  been  translated  and  printed  in 
the  Bengalee ;  and  that  parts  of  the  Scrip- 
tures have  been  translated  into  ten  of  the 
languages  spoken  in  the  East.  See  Periodi- 
cal jiccounis  of  this  Society. 

In  the  year  1795,  The  London  Missiona- 
ry Society  was  formed. — This  is  not  confined 
to  one  body  of  people,  but  consists  of  Epis- 
Cfpalians,  Presbyterians,  Secedeis,  Metho- 
dists, and  Independents,  who  hold  an  annual 
meeting  in  London  in  May.  As  the  state  of 
this  society  is  befi  re  the  public,  it  would  be  un- 
necessary here  to  enlarge  ;  suffice  it  to  say, 
that  it  is  now  on  the  mcst  permanent  and 
respectable  footing.  "  It  has  assumed  con- 
sistency and  order ;  it  combines  mtegrity  of 
character,  fortitude  of  mind,  and  fixedness 
of  resolution,  with  a  continued  progression 
of  efforts  for  the  exalted  purpcse  cf  pre- 
senting the  doctrines  of  the  blessed  Gospel 
to  the  acceptance  of  the  perishing  heathen, 
and  of  exhibiting  an  ui  ccn'iipt  example  cf 
their  tendencies  and  effects  in  their  own 
characters  and  conduct. 

Besides  the  above-mentioned  societies,  oth- 
ers have  been  formed  of  less  note.  In  1699, 
a  striety  was  instituted  in  England  ior pro- 
moting C/nistian  Knovjledge.  In  1701, 
another  was  formed  for  the  propagation 
of  the  Gospel  in  f'~rcign  parts.  In  Scotland, 
about  the  year  17C0,  a  society  was  instituted 
for  the  Pro/iagation  of  Christian  Know- 
ledge. Receiitly,  some  clergymen  of  the 
established  church  have  formed  one  among 
themselves.  S<Kieties  for  spreading  the 
Gospel  also  have  been  instituted  in  various 
otlier  places.  From  the  wholr,  it  seems 
evident  that  the  light  and  knowledge  of  the 


MOL 


331 


MON 


glorious  Gospel  will  be  moi-e  diffused  than 
ever  throughout  the  earth.  And  who  is 
there  that  nas  any  concern  for  the  souls  of 
men,  and  love  for  truth  and  religion,  but  ■ 
what  must  rejoice  at  the  formntion,  nam-  j 
ber,  and  success  of  those  institutions,  which  , 
have  not  the  mere  temporal  Cv.ncerns  ofj 
men,  but  their  everlasting  welfare  as  their ; 
object?  My  heart  overflows  'vith  joy,  and; 
mine  eyes  with  tears,  when  I  consider  the 
happy  and  extensive  effects  which  are  like- 
ly to  take  place.  The  untutored  mind  will 
receive  the  peaceful  principles  of  religion 
and  virtue ;  the  savage  barbarian  will  re- 
joice in  the  copious  blessings,  and  feel  the 
benign  effects  of  civilization;  the  ignorant 
idolater  will  be  directed  to  offer  up  his 
prayers  and  p  aises  to  the  true  God,  and 
learn  the  way  of  salvation  through  Jesus 
Christ.  The  habitations  of  cruelty  will  be- 
come the  ab)des  of  peace  and  security, 
while  ignorance  and  superstition  shall  give 
v/ay  to  the  celestial  blessings  of  intelligence, 
purity,  and  joy. — Happy  men,  who  are  em- 
ployed as  instruments  in  this  cause  ;  who 
forego  your  personal  comforts,  relinquish 
your  native  country,  and  voluntarilv  devote 
yourselves  to  the  most  noble  and  honourable 
of  services!  Peace  and  prosperity  be  with 
you '  Milier's  History  of  the  Prefiagation 
of  i.hr!st  Kennett's  dilto.  Gillies'  Histori- 
cal Collection.  Carn/s  Enquiry  respecting 
Missions  LoskieWs  History  of  the  Mora- 
vian Missions.  Lrantz's  History  of  Green- 
land Home's  Letters  on  Missions.  Ser- 
mons and  Reports  of  the  London  Mission- 
am  Society. 

MODERATION,  the  state  of  keeping  a 
due  mean  between  extremes ;  calmness, 
terajjerance,  or  equanimity.  It  is  sometimes 
used  with  reference  to  our  opinions,  Rom. 
xii.  .3  but  in  general  it  respects  our  conduct 
in  that  state,  which  comes  under  the  descrip- 
tion of  ease  or  prosperity  ;  and  ought  to  take 
place  in  our  wishes,  pursuits,  exijectations, 
pie  tsures,  and  passions.  See  Bishop  Hall 
0  .  Moderation,  ser.  IG.  Blair's  Sermons, 
Vol  iii.  ser.  -2.  Toplady's  Works,  vol.  iii. 
ser.  10. 

MODE.'^  FY,  is  sometimes  used  to  de- 
note humility,  and  sometimes  to  express 
chastity.  The  Greek  word  Kei-ttjo?  mo- 
destus,  signifies  neat  or  clean.  Modesty 
therefore,  consists  in  purity  of  sentiment 
and  manners,  inclining  us  to  abhor  the  least 
appearance  of  vice  and  indecency,  and  to 
fear  doing  any  thing  which  will  incur  cen- 
sure. An  excess  of  modesty  may  be  called 
bashfulness,  and  the  want  of  it  impertinence. 
There  is  a  false  or  vicious  modesty,  which 
influences  a  man  to  do  any  thing  that  is  ill 
or  indiscreet ;  such  as,  through  fear  of  of- 
fending his  companions  he  runs  into  their 
follies  or  excesses:  or  it  is  a  false  modesty 
which  restrains  a  man  from  doing  \vhat  is 
good  or  laudable:  such  as  being  ashamed 
to  speak  of  religion,  and  to  be  seen  in  the 
exercises  of  piety  and  devotion. 


church  who  follow  the  doctrine  and  senti- 
ments of  the  Jesuit  Molina,  relating  to  suffi- 
cient and  efficacious  grace.  He  taught  that 
the  operations  of  L»ivine  grace  were  entire- 
ly consistent  with  the  freedom  of  the  human 
will ;  and  introduced  a  new  kind  of  hypodiesis 
to  remove  the  difficulties  attending  the  doc- 
trines of  predestination  and  liberty,  t(j  recon- 
cile the  jarring  opinions  of  Agustines,  Tiis- 
mists,  Semi-Pelagians,  and  otner  conieotii  iis 
divines  He  affirmed  that  the  decree  of  prt  - 
destination  to  eternal  i.;lory  was  founded  upon 
a  previous  knowledge  and  consideration  of 
the  merits  of  the  elect ;  that  the  grace, 
from  whose  operation  these  merits  are  de- 
rived, is  not  efficacious  by  its  own  intrinsic 
po-wer  only,  but  also  by  the  consent  f  our 
own  will,  and  because  it  is  administ;  red  in 
those  circumstances  in  which  the  Dvity,  by 
that  branch  of  his  knowledge  which  is  call- 
ed scie?itia  media,  foresees  that  it  will  be 
efficacious.  The  kind  of  prescience,  de- 
nominated in  the  schools  scientia  niedia^  is 
that  foreknowledge  of  future  contingents 
that  arises  from  an  acquaintance  witli  the 
nature  and  faculties  of  rational  beings,  of  the 
circumstances  in  which  they  shall  be 
placed,  of  the  objects  that  shall  be  present- 
ed to  them ;  and  of  the  influence  which 
their  circumstances  and  objects  must  have 
on  their  actions. 

MONARCHIANS,  the  same  as  the  Pa- 
tripassians,  which  see. 

MONASTERY,  a  convent  or  house 
built  for  the  reception  of  religious  ;  whe- 
ther it  be  abbey,  priory,  nunnery,  or  the  like. 
i  Monastery  is  only  properly  applied  to  the 
houses  of  monks,  mendicant  friars  and 
nuns:  the  rest  are  more  properly  called 
religions  houses.  For  the  origin  of  monas- 
teries, see  Monastic  and  Monk. 

The  houses  belonging  to  the  several  re- 
ligious orders  which  obtained  in  England 
j  and  Wales,  were  cathedrals,  colleges,  ab- 
beys, priories,  preceptories,  commandries, 
hospitals,  friaries,  hermitages,  chantries, 
and  free  chapels. — These  were  under  the 
direction  and  management  of  varions  •.  ffi- 
cers  The  dissolution  of  houses  of  this  kind 
b,^gan  so  early  as  the  year  1312,  when  the 
Templars  were  suppressed;  and  m  l.'>2o, 
their  lands,  churches,  advowson,  and  liiier- 
ties,  here  in  England,  were  given,  by  17 
Edw.  II,  Stat.  3,  of  the  prior  and  brethren 
of  the  hospital  of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem.  In 
the  years  1390,  1437,  1441,  1450,  1497,  1505, 
1508,  and  1515,  several  other  houses  were 
dissolved,  and  their  revenues  settled  on  dif- 
ferent colleges  in  Oxford  and  Cambridge. 
Soon  after  the  last  period,  cardinal  Wds'-y, 
by  licence  of  the  king  and  pope,  obtained  a  dis- 
solution of  above  thirty  religioushouses  for  the 
founding  and  endowing  his  colleges  at  Ox- 
ford and  Ipswich.  About  the  same  time  a 
bull  was  granted  by  the  same  pope  to  Car- 
dinal Wolsey  to  suppress  monasteries,  where 
there  were  not  above  six  monks,  to  the 
value  of  eight  thousand  ducats  a  year,  for 


MOLINISTS,    a   sect    in    the    Romish  I  endowing  Windsor   and  King's  College  in 


MON 


332 


MON 


Cambridge  ;  and  two  other  bulls  were  grant- 
ed to  Cardinals  Wolsey  and  Campeius, 
■where  there  were  less  than  twelve  nmnks, 
and  to  annex  them  to  the  greater  moi.aste- 
ries ;  and  anotiier  bull  to  ihe  same  cardinals 
to  inquire  about  abbeys  to  be  suppressed  in 
order  to  be  made  cathedrals.  Akliough 
nothing  appears  to  have  been  done  in  C(.nse- 
quence  of  these  bulls,  the  motive  wliich  in- 
duced Wolsey  and  many  others  to  suppress 
these  houses  was  the  desire  of  promoting 
learning ;  and  archbishop  Cranmer  engagecl 
in  it  with  a  view  of  carrying  on  the  refor- 
ination. 

There  were  other  causes  that  concurred 
to  bring  on  their  ruin  :  many  of  the  reli- 
gious were  loose  and  vicious ;  the  monks 
Avere  generally  thought  to  be  in  their  hearts 
attached  to  the  pope's  supremacy ;  their 
revenues  were  not  employed  according  to 
the  intent  of  the  donors  ;  many  cheats  in 
images,  feigned  miracles,  and  counterfeit 
relics,  had  been  discovered,  which  brought 
the  monks  into  disgrace;  the  observant  fii- 
ars  had  opposed  the  king's  divorce  from 
queen  Catharine :  and  these  circumstances 
operated,  in  concurrence  with  the  king's 
■want  of  a  supply,  and  the  people's  desire  to 
save  their  money,  to  forward  a  motion  in 
parliament,  that,  in  order  to  support  the 
king's  state,  and  supply  his  wants,  all  the 
religious  houses  might  be  conferred  upon  the 
crown,  which  were  not  able  to  spend  above 
200/.  a  year;  and  an  art  was  passed  for 
that  purpose,  17  Hen.  Vlil.  c.  28.  By  this 
act  about  three  hundred  and  eighty  houses 
•were  dissolved,  and  a  revenue  of  30.000/.  or 
32,000/-  a  year  came  to  the  crown  ;  besides 
about  100,000/.  in  plate  and  jewels.  The 
suppression  of  these  houses  occasioned  dis- 
content, and  at  length  an  open  rebellion : 
•when  this  was  appeased,  the  king  resolved 
to  suppress  the  rest  of  the  monasteries,  and 
appointed  a  new  visitation,  wliich  caused 
the  greater  abbeys  to  be  surrendered  apace  : 
and  it  was  enacted  by  31  Henry  Vlll.  c.  13, 
that  all  monasteries  which  have  been  sur- 
rendered since  the  4th  of  Fet)ruary,  in  the 
twenty-seventh  year  of  his  majesty's  reign. 
and  which  hereafter  shall  be  surrendered, 
shall  be  vested  in  the  king.  The  knights 
of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem  were  also  suppres- 
sed by  the  32d  Hen.  VIII  c.  24.  The  sup- 
pression of  these  greater  houses  by  these 
two  acts  produced  a  revenue  to  the  king  of 
above  100,000/.  a  year,  besides  a  large  sum 
in  plate  and  jewels.  The  last  act  of  disso- 
lution in  this  kings  reign  was  the  act  of  37 
Hen.  VIII.  c  4.  for  dissolving  colleges,  f'-ee 
chapels,  chantries,  &c  which  act  was  far- 
ther enforced  by  1  Edw.  VI.  c.  14.  Bv  this 
act  were  suppressed  90  colleges,  110  hospi- 
tals, and  2,374  chantries  and  free  chapels. 
The  number  of  houses  and  places  suppres- 
sed from  first  to  last,  so  far  as  any  calcula- 
tions appear  to  have  been  made,  seems  to 
be  as  follows ; 


Of  les.ser  monasteries,  of  which  we 
have  the  valu:ition,        -        _        - 
Of  greater  monasteries. 
Belonging  to  the  hospitallers, 
Colleges,  _         -         _         -         _ 

Hospitals,  -         _         _        -        _ 

Chantries  and  free  chapels,    - 

Total,  3ia2 

Besides  the  friars,  houses,  and  those  sup- 
]jressed  by  Wolsey,  and  many  small  houses 
of  wliich  we  have  no  jiarticular  account. 

The  sum  total  of  the  clear  yearly  reve- 
nue of  the  s(  veral  houses  at  tl»e  time  of 
their  dissolution,  of  which  we  have  any  ac- 
count, seems  to  be  as  loilows: 

Of  the  greater   monaste- 
ries.       -        -        -        L.  104,919  13  3J 
Of  all  those  of  the  lesser 

monasteries    of   which 

we  have  tlie  valuation.  29,702  1  10^ 
Knights  hospitallers,  head 

house  in  London,  -         2,585  12     8 

We  have  the  valuation  of 

only  28  of  their  houses 

in  the  country,       -        -        3,026    9    5 
Friar's  houses  of  which  we 

have  the  valuation,  -        ."51     2     02 


Total,  L.  140,784  19     3J 

If  proper  allowances  are  made  for  the  les- 
ser monasteries  and  houses  not  included  in 
this  estimate,  and  for  the  plate,  &c.  which 
came  into  the  hands  of  the  king  by  the  dis- 
solution, and  for  the  value  of  money  at  that 
time,  whicii  was  at  least  six  times  as  much 
as  at  present,  and  also  consider  that  the 
estimate  of  the  lands  was  generally  su])po- 
sed  to  be  much  under  the  rial  worth,  we 
must  conclude  their  whole  revenues  to  have 
been  immense. 

It  does  not  appear  that  any  computation 
hath  been  made  of  the  number  of  persons 
contained  in  the  religious  houses. 

Those  of  the  lesser  monasteries 
dissolved  by  27  Henry  Vlll.  were 
reckoned  at  about        -        -        -     10,000 

If  we  suppose  the  colleges  and  hos- 
pitals to  have  contained  a  propor- 
tionable number,  these  will  make 
about  .        .        .        -        .         5,347 

If  we  reckon  the  number  in  the 
greater  monasteries  according  to 
the  proportion  of  their  revenues, 
they  will  be  about  3.-5,00O ;  hut,  as 
probably  they  had  larger  allow- 
ances in  proportion  to  their  num- 
ber tiian  those  of  the  lesser  mo- 
nasteries, if  we  abate  upon  that 
account  5,000,  they  will  then  be       30,000 

One  for  each  chantry  and  free  cha- 
pel, -        .        .        >        -  2,374 

Total,  47,721 


MON 


333 


MON 


But  as  there  were  probably  more  than  one 
person  to  ofRciate  in  several  of  the  free 
chapels,  and  there  were  other  houses  which 
are  not  included  within  this  calculation,  per- 
haps they  may  be  computed  in  one  general 
estimate  at  about  50,000.  As  there  were 
pensions  paid  to  almost  all  those  of  the 
greater  monasteries,  the  king  did  no^  imme- 
diatelv  come  into  the  full  enjoyment  of  their 
whole  revenues  ;  however,  by  means  i)f  what 
he  did  receive,  he  lounded  six  new  bishop 
rics,  viz.  those  of  Westminster  (which  was 
clmr.ged  by  queen  Elizabeth  into  a  deanery, 
with  twelve  prebends  and  a  school,)  Pe- 
terborough, Chester,  Gloucester,  Bristol,  and 
Oxftird.  And  in  ei.',ht  other  sees  he  founded 
deaneries  and  ciiapters,  ijy  ci.n verting  the 
priors  and  monks  into  deans  and  prebenda- 
ries, viz.  Caiiterbury,  Winchester,  Durham, 
Worcester,  Rochester,  Norwich,  Ely,  and 
Carlisle.  He  founded  also  the  coilei^es  of 
Christ  Church  in  Oxford,  and  Trinity  in 
Cambridge,  and  finished  King's  College 
there.  He  likewise  founded  professorships  ot 
divinity,  law,  physic,  and  of  the  Hebrew  and 
Greek  tongues  in  both  the  said  Universi- 
ties He  gave  the  house  of  Grey  Friars, 
and  St.  Bartholomew's  Hospital  to  the  city 
of  London,  and  a  pei-petu;'.!  pension  to  th( 
poor  knights  of  Windsor,  and  laid  cut  great 
sums  in  building  and  fortifying  many  ports 
in  the  channel.  It  is  observable,  upon  the 
whole,  that  the  dissolution  of  these  hruses 
was  an  act  not  of  the  church,  but  of  the 
state,  in  the  period  preceding  the  reforma- 
tion, by  a  king  and  parhameiit  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  communion  in  all  points,  except 
the  king's  supremacy ;  to  which  the  pope 
himself,  by  his  bulls  and  hcenses,  had  led 
the  way. 

As  to  the  merits  of  these  institutions, 
authors  are  much  divided.  While  some 
have  considered  them  as  beneficial  to  learn- 
ing, piety,  and  benevolence,  others  have 
thought  them  very  injurious.  We  may 
form  some  idea  of  them  from  the  following 
remarks  of  Mr.  Gilpin. 

He  is  speaking  of  Glastonbury  Abljey, 
which  possessed  the  amplest  revenues  ot 
anv  religious  houses  in  England.  "  Its  fra- 
ternity." says  he,  "  is  said  to  have  consisted 
i)f  five  hundred  established  monks,  besides 
nearly  as  many  retainers  on  the  abbey  — 
Above  four  hundred  children  wre  not  only 
educated  in  it,  but  entirely  maintained. — 
Strangers  from  all  parts  of  Europe  were 
liberally  received,  classed  according  to  their 
sex  and  nation,  and  might  consider  the 
hospitable  roof  under  which  they  lodged 
as  their  own.  Five  hundred  travellers, 
with  their  horses,  have  been  lodged  at  once 
within  its  walls ;  while  the  poor,  from  eve- 
ry side  of  the  country,  waiting  the  ringing 
of  the  alms-bell ;  when  they  Hocked  in 
crowds,  young  and  old,  to  the  gate  of  the  mo- 
nastery, where  they  received,  every  morn- 
ing, a  plentiful  provision  for  themselves  and 
their  families  : — all  this  appears  great  and 
noble. 


."On  the  other  hand,  when  we  consider 
five  hundred  persons  bred  up  in  indolence, 
.nd  lost  to  the  co  ■  monwealth  ;  when  we 
consider  that  these  houses  were  the  great 
nurseries  of  superstition,  bigotry,  and  igno- 
rance ;  the  stews  of  sloth,  stupidity,  and 
perhaps  intemperance  :  when  we  consicler 
tliat  the  education  received  in  them  had 
not  the  least  tincture  of  useful  learning, 
good  manners,  or  true  religion,  but  tended 
rather  to  vilify  and  disgrace  the  human 
mind  ;  when  we  consider  tliat  the  pilgrims 
and  strangers  who  resorted  thither,  were 
idle  vagabonds,  who  got  nothing  abroad  that 
was  equivalent  to  the  occupations  they  left 
at  home ;  and  when  we  consider,  lastly, 
that  indiscriminate  alms-giving  is  not  real 
charity,  but  an  avocation  from  labour  and 
industry,  checking  every  idea  of  exertion, 
and  filling  the  mind  with  abji  ct  notions,  we 
are  led  to  acquiesce  in  tlie  fate  of  these 
f  undations.  and  view  their  ruins,  not  only 
with  a  picturesque  eye,  but  with  moral 
and  religious  satisfacti(jn,"  Gii/mi's  Obser- 
vations 071  the  IVestern  Parts  of  England^ 
p  138,  139.  liiglaiid's  Letters  on  Hist. 
p.  313. 

MONASTIC,  something  Ijelonging  to 
monks,  or  the  monkish  life. — The  monastic 
profession  is  a  kind  of  civil  death,  which  in 
all  worldly  matters  has  the  same  tflFtct  with 
the  natural  death.  The  council  of  Trent, 
&c.  fix  sixteen  yt  ars  the  age  at  which  a 
person  may  be  admitted  into  the  monastical 
state. 

St  Anthony  is  the  person,  who,  in  the 
fourth  Century,  first  instituted  the  monastic 
life  ;  as  St  Pachomius,  in  the  same  centu- 
ry, is  said  to  have  first  set  on  foot  the  cceno- 
:  bitic  life,  i.  e.  regular  communities  of  re- 
lligious.  In  a  short  time  the  deserts  of 
I  Egypt  became  inhabited  by  a  set  of  solitaries, 
!  who  took  upon  them  the  monastic  profes- 
j  sion.  St.  Basil  carried  the  monkish  humour 
iin  the  East,  where  he  composed  a  rule 
I  which  afterwards  obtained  through  a  great 
'  part  of  the  West. 

{  In  the  eleventh  century,  the  monastic 
I  discipline  was  grown  very  remiss,  bt  Oddo 
first  began  to  retrieve  it  in  the  monastery 
of  Cluny  :  that  mm  .stery,  by  the  C(  nditions 
of  its  er  ction,  w^is  put  under  the  inmiedi- 
ate  protection  of  the  hdy  see  ;  with  a  pro- 
hibition to  all  p'  wers,  both  secular  and  ec- 
clesiastical, to  disturb  the  monks  in  the  pos- 
session of  their  effects  or  the  election  of 
their  abbot.  In  virtue  hereof,  they  ple:u'ed 
an  exemption  from  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
bishop,  and  extended  this  privilege  to  all 
the  houses  dependent  on  Cluny.  This 
made  the  first  cr^ngregation  of  several 
houses  under  one  chief,  immediately  subject 
to  the  pope,  so  as  to  constitute  one  body,  or 
as  they  now  call  it,  one  religions  order.  Till 
then,  each  monastery  was  in^^ependent,  and 
sul)iect  to  the  bishop.     See  M<-nk 

MONK  anciently  denoted,  "  a  person 
who  retired  from  the  world,  to  give  himself 
wholly  to  God,  and  to  live  in  solitude  and 


MON 


334. 


M  O  N 


abstinence."  The  word  is  derived  from  the 
Latin  monachus,  and  that  from  tlie  Grtek 
ft«v5t;jjo5,  ■'  soHtary ;"  of  jitavo?,  solus, 
*'  asoiic." 

The  origin  of  monks  seems  to  have  been 
this:  rtie  persecutions  which  attended  tlit- 
first  ages  of  the  Gospel,  forced  some  Chris- 
tians to  rrtire  fr.^ri  the  world,  and  live  in 
drserts,  and  places  most  private  and  unfre- 
quented, in  hopes  of  fiii<iing  that  peace  and 
c -mfnit  among  beasts,  whicli  were  denied 
th.  in  among  men;  and  this  being  the  case 
of  some  very  extraordinary  persons,  their 
examples  gave  such  reputation  to  retire- 
ment, toat  the  practice  was  continued 
when  the  reason  of  its  c  unmencement 
ceased.  After  the  empire  became  Chris- 
tian, instances  of  this  kind  were  numerous  ; 
and  those  whose  security  had  obliged  them 
to  live  separately  and  apart,  became  af- 
terwards united  into  societies.  We  may 
also  add,  that  the  mystic  theology,  which 
gained  ground  towards  the  close  of  the 
third  century,  contributed  to  produce  the 
same  effect,  and  to  drive  men  into  solitude 
for  the  purposes  of  devotion. 

The  monks,  at  least  the  ancient  ones, 
were  distinguished  into  solitaries,  cano- 
bites,  and  sarabites. 

Thi  solitary  are  those  who  live  alone,  in 
places  remote  from  all  towns  and  habita- 
tions of  men,  as  do  still  some  of  the  hermits. 
The  cxnobites  are  those  who  live  in  com- 
munity with  several  others  in  the  same 
house  and  under  the  same  superiors.  The 
sarabites  were  strolling  monks,  having  no 
fixed  rule  or  residence 

I'ne  houses  of  monks,  again,  were  of  two 
kinds,  viz.  ?nonasteries  and  laiira. 

Those  who  are  now  called  monks,  are 
coenobites,  who  live  toj^fther  in  a  convent 
or  monastery,  who  making  vows  of  living 
according  to  a  certain  rule  established  iw 
the  founder,  and  wtar  a  habit  which  dis- 
tinguishes their  order. 

Those  that  are  endowed,  or  have  a  fixed 
revenue,  are  most  properly  called  monks, 
mo?iac/ii ;  as  the  Chartr<-aux,  Benedictines, 
Btrnardines,  &c.  The  Men-'icaiits,  nrthrse 
that  beg,  as  the  Capuchins  and  Francis- 
caiis,  are  more  properly  called  religious 
and./r'«7\9.  though  the  names  are  frcijuently 
confounded. 

The  first  monks  were  tliose  of  St  An- 
thony, who,  towards  the  close  f  f  tlie  fourth 
century,  formed  them  into  a  r.  eular  body, 
engaged  them  to  live  in  society  with  each 
other,  and  prescribed  to  them  fixed  rules 
for  the  direction  of  their  conduct.  These 
regulations,  which  Anthony  had  made  in 
Ei;ypt,  were  S'  on  introducfd  into  Palestine 
and  Syria,  by  his  disciple  Hilarion.  Almost 
about  the  same  time,  Aones,  or  Eugenius, 
with  their  Companions,  Gaddanas  an;!  Azy- 
zas,  in.stituted  the  monastic  order  in  Meso- 
potamia, and  the  adjacent  countries  ;  and 
their  ex-i  i  pie  was  followed  with  such  rapid 
succ  >-s,  that  in  a  short  time  the  whole 
East  was  filled  with  a  lazy  set  of  mortals, 


who,  abandoning  all  human  connections,  ad- 
vantages, pleasures,  and  concerns,  wore  out 
a  languishing  and  miserable  existence, 
amidst  the  hardships  of  want  and  various 
kinds  of  suffering,  in  order  to  arrive  at  a 
more  close  and  rapturous  communication 
with  G(>d  and  angels. 

From  the  East  this  gloomy  disposition 
passed  into  the  West,  and  first  into  Italy 
and  its  neighbouring  islands;  though  it  is 
uncertain  who  transplanted  it  thither.  St. 
Martin,  the  celebrated  bishop  of  Tours, 
erected  the  first  monasteries  in  Gaul, 
and  recommended  this  religious  solitude 
with  such  power  and  efficacy,  Doth  by 
his  instructions  and  his  example,  that  his 
funeral  is  said  to  have  been  attended  by  no 
less  than  two  thousand  monks.  From 
hence  the  monastic  discipline  extended  gra- 
dually  its  progress  through  the  other  pro- 
vinces and  countries  of  Europe.  There 
were,  besides  the  monk=  of  bt.  Basil :  (called 
in  the  East  Calog-tti.  from  »«Ao5  ye^uv,  "  a 
good  old  man,")  and  those  of  St.  Jeron-e, 
the  hermits  of  St.  Augustine,  and  after- 
wards those  of  St.  Benedict  and  St  Bernard: 
at  length  came  those  of  St.  Francis  and  St. 
Dominic,  with  a  legion  of  others:  ail  which, 
see  under  their  proper  heads. 

Towards  the  close  of  the  fifth  century,  the 
monks,  who  had  formerly  lived  only  for 
themselves,  in  solitary  retreats,  and  had 
never  thought  of  assuming  any  rank  among 
the  sacerdotal  order,  were  now  gradually 
distinguished  from  the  populace,  and  endow- 
ed with  such  opulence  and  honourable  privi- 
leges, that  they  found  themselves  in  a  ccn- 
dition  to  claim  an  eminent  station  among 
the  pillars  and  supporters  of  the  Christian 
community.  Tiie  fame  of  their  piety  and 
sanctity  was  so  great,  that  bishops  and  pres- 
bvters  wei'e  often  chosen  out  of  their  order  ; 
and  the  passion  of  erecting  edifices  and 
convents,  in  which  the  monks  and  holy 
virgins  might  serve  God  in  the  most  com- 
modious manner,  was  at  this  time  carried 
beyond  all  bounds.  However,  their  licen- 
tiousness, even  in  this  century,  was  become 
a  proverb;  and  they  are  said  to  have  ex- 
cited the  most  dreadful  tumults  and  sedi- 
tions in  various  places.  The  monastic  or- 
ders v/ere  at  first  under  the  immediate  ju- 
risdiction of  the  bishops,  from  which  they 
were  exempted  by  the  Koman  jxmtiff,  about 
tlie  end  of  the  seventh  century ;  and  the 
monks,  in  return,  devoted  themselves  whol- 
ly to  advance  the  interests,  and  to  maintain 
the  dignity  of  the  bishop  of  Rome.  This 
immunity  which  they  obtained,  was  a  fruit- 
ful source  of  licentiousness  and  disorder, 
and  occasioned  the  greatest  part  of  the 
vices  with  which  they  were  afterwards  so 
ju^tly  charged.  In  the  eighth  century,  the 
monastic  discipline  was  extremely  relaxed, 
both  in  the  eastern  and  western  provinces, 
and  all  efforts  to  restore  it  were  ineffectual. 
Nevertheless,  this  kind  of  institution  was 
in  the  highest  esteem  ;  and  nothing  could 
equal  the  veneration  that  was  paid  about 


M  ON 


335 


M    ON 


the  close  of  the  ninth  century,  to  such  as 
devoted  themselves    to  the  sacred    gloom 
and  indolence  of  a  convent.     This  venera- 
tion caused  several  kings  and  emperors  to 
call  them  to  their  courts  and  to  employ  them 
in  civil  aflairsof  the  greatest  moment.  Their 
reformation  was  attempted   by  Lcuis    die 
Meek,  but  the   effect  was  of  short  dura- 
tion.   In  the  eleventh  century   they  were  i 
exempted  by  the  popes  from  the  authority 
estabhshed  ;    insomuch,  that  in  the  cuuncil  j 
of   Lateran,    that    was   held    in    the   year  i 
1215,  a  decree  was  passed,  by  the  advice  of  j 
Innocent  III.  to  prevent  any  new  monastic 
institutions ;  and  several  were  entirely  sup- 
pressed.   In  the  iifteentli  and  sixteenth  cen- 
tui'ies,  it  appears,  from  the  testimony  of  the 
best  writers,  that  the  monks  were  generally  j 
lazy,    illitd'ate,   profligate,    and   licentious 
epicures,  whose  views  in  life  were  confined 
to  opulence,  idleness,  and  pleasure.    How- 
ever, the  reformation  had  a  manifest  in- 
fluence in   restraming   their   excesses,    and 
rendering  them  more  circumspect  and  cau- 
tious in  their  external  cunduct 

Monks  are  distinguished  by  the  colour  of 
their  habits,  into  black,  tvhite,  grey,  &c. 
Among  the  monks,  some  are  called  monks 
of  the  choir,  otliers  professed  monks,  and 
others  lay  monks  ;  which  last  are  destined 
for  the  service  of  the  convent,  and  have 
neither  clericate  nor  literature. 

Cloistered  monks  are  those  who  actually 
reside  in  the  house  ;  in  opposition  to  extra- 
monks,  who  have  benefices  depending  on 
the  monastery. 

Monks  are  also  distinguished  into  reform- 
ed, whom  the  civil  and  ecclesiastical  au- 
thority have  made  masters  of  ancient  con- 
vents, and  put  in  their  power  to  retrieve  the 
ancient  discipline,  w'lich  had  been  relaxed  ; 
and  ancient,  who  remain  in  the  convent,  to 
live  in  it  according  to  its  establishment,  at 
the  time  when  they  made  their  vows,  with- 
out obliging  themselves  to  any  new  re- 
form. 

Anciently   the    monks   were   all  laymen, 
and  were   only   distinguished  from  the  rest 
of  the  people  by  a  peculiar  habit,  and  an  ! 
extraordinary  devotion.  Not  only  the  monks  ; 
were  prohibited  the  priesthood,  but    even  j 
priests  were  expressly  prohibited  from  be- 
coming monks,  as  appears  from  the  letters ' 
of  St  Gregory.    Pope  Siricius  was  the  first  I 
who  called  them  to  the  clericate,  on  occa-  ' 
sion  of  some  great  scarcity  of  priests  that 
the  church  was  then  supposed  to  labour  un- 
der :  and  since  that  time  the  priesthood  has 
been  usually   united  to  the  monastical  pro- 
fession.    A>/c.  B7i(.    British  Monachism,  or 
jyianners  and  Customs  of  Monks  and  JVuns 
of  England  ;  Jllosheim's  Ecc.  Hist. 

MONOPHYSITES  (from  f^yoi,  solus, 
and  (pvFii,  natura,)  a  general  name  given 
to  all  those  sectaries  in  the  Levant,  who  on- 
ly own  one  nature  in  Jesus  Christ ;  and  who 
maintain  that  the  divine  and  human  nature 
of  Jesus  Christ,  were  so  united  as  to  form 
only  one  nature,  yet  without  any  change,  con- 
usion,  or  mi.xture  of  the  two  natures. 


The  Monofihysites,  however,  properly  so 
called,  are  the  fulli  wers  of  Severus,  a 
learnf-d  monk  of  Palestine,  who  was  creat- 
ed patriarch  of  Antioch  in  513,  and  Petrus 
FuUensis. 

Tlie  Monophysites  were  encouraged  by 
the  emperor  Anastasius,  but  supJ)res^-ed  by 
Justin  and  succeeding  emperors.  Howe\er, 
this  sect  was  restored  by  Jacob  Baradxus, 
an  obscure  monk,  insomuch,  that  when  he 
died  bishop  of  Edessa,  A.  D.  588,  he  left  it 
in  a  most  flourishing  state  in  Syria,  Meso- 
potamia, Armenia,  Egypt,  Nubia,  Abyssinia, 
and  other  countries.  The  laborious  efforts 
of  Jacob  was  seconded  in  Egypt  and  the 
adjacent  countries,  by  Theodosms,  bishop  of 
Alexandria;  and  he  became  so  famous,  that 
all  the  Monophysites  of  the  East  considered 
him  as  their  stcond  parent  and  founder,  and 
are  to  this  day  called  Jacobites,  in  honour 
of  their  new  chief.  Tlie  Monophysites  are 
divided  into  two  sects  or  parties,  the  one 
African,  and  the  other  Asiatic;  at  the  head  of 
the  latter,  is  the  patriarch  of  Antioch,  who 
resides  ff'r  the  most  part  in  the  monasieiy 
of  St  Athanias,  near  the  city  of  Mil  din; 
the  former  are  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
patriarch  of  Alexandria,  who  generally  re- 
sides at  Grand  Cairo,  and  are  subdivided 
into  Cophts  and  Abyssinians.  From  the 
fifteenth  century  downwards,  all  the  patri- 
archs of  the  Monophysites  have  taken  the 
name  of  Ignaiins,  in  order  to  shew  that 
they  are  the  lineal  successors  of  Ignatius, 
who  was  bishop  of  Antioch  in  the  first  cen- 
tury, and  consequently  the  lawful  patriarch 
of  Antioch.  In  the  seventeenth  century,  a 
small  body  of  Monophysites,  in  Asia,  aban- 
doned for  some  time  the  doctrir.e  and  in- 
stitution of  their  ancestors,  and  embraced 
the  comniuidcn  of  Rome ;  but  the  African 
Monophysites,  notwithstanding  that  poverty 
and  ignorance  which  exposed  them  to  the 
seductions  of  sophistry  and  gain,  stood  firm 
in  their  principles,  and  made  an  obstinate 
resistance  to  the  promises,  presents,  and  at- 
tempts employed  by  the  papal  missionaries, 
to  bring  them  under  the  Roman  yoke  ;  and 
in  the  eighteenth  century,  those  of  Asia  and 
Africa,  have  persisted  in  their  refusal  to  en- 
ter into  the  communion  of  the  Romisli 
church,  notwithstanding  the  earnest  entrea- 
ties and  alluring  offers  that  have  been  made 
from  time  to  time,  by  the  pope's  legates,  to 
conquer  th>  ir  inflexible  constancy. 

MONOTHELITES,,  (compounded  of 
.tiovs;,  "single,"  and  .9•=A-/;^^£«  B-iXu,  volo, 
"  I  will,"  an  ancient  sect,  which  sprung  out 
of  the  Eutycliians  ;  thus  called,  as  only  al- 
lowing of  one  will  in  Jesus  Christ. 

The  opinion  of  the  Monothelites  had  its 
rise  in  930,  and  had  the  emperor  Heraclius 
for  an  adherent :  it  was  the  same  with  that 
!of  the  acephalous  Severians. — They  allowed 
of  two  wills  in  Christ,  considered  with  re- 
gard to  the  two  natures ;  but  reduced  them 
to  one,  by  reascn  of  the  union  of  the  two 
natures,  thinking  it  absurd  that  there  should 
be  two  free  wills  in  one  and  the  same  per- 
son.   They  were  condemned  by   the  sixth 


M  OR 


336 


M  O  R 


general  council  in  680,  as  being  supposed 
ti)  destroy  the  perfection  of  the  humanity  of 
Jesus  Christ,  depriving  it  of  will  and  opera- 
tion. Their  sentinneuts  were  afterwards 
embraced  bv  the  Maroiiites. 

MONTA'NISTS,  a  sect  which  sprung 
up  about  the  year  171,  in  the  reign  of 
the  emperor  Marcus  Aurelius.  They  were 
so  called  from  their  leader,  Montanus,  a 
Phrygian  by  birth  ;  whence  they  are 
sometimes  called  Phrygians  and  Calafiliry- 
gians. 

Montanus,  it  is  said,  embraced  Christiani- 
ty in  hupt  s  of  rising  to  the  dignities  of  the 
church.  He  pretended  to  inspiration  ;  and 
gave  out  that  the  Holy  Ghost  had  instructed 
him  in  several  points  which  had  not  been 
revealed  to  the  apostles.  Priscilla  and 
Miximilla,  two  enthusiastic  women  ot 
Phrygia,  presently  b;:-came  his  disciples, 
and  in  a  short  time  he  had  a  great  number 
of  followers.  The  bi^.hops  of  Asia,  being 
assembled  together,  condemned  his  prophe- 
cies, and  excommunicated  those  that  dis- 
persed them  Afterwards  they  wrote  an 
account  of  what  had  passed  to  the  Avestern 
churches,  where  the  pretended  prophecies 
of  Montanus  and  his  followers  were  hkewise 
condemned. 

The  M(mtanist3.  finding  themselves  ex- 
posed to  the  censure  of  the  wliole  church, 
formed  a  schism,  and  set  up  a  distinct  so- 
ciety under  the  direction  of  those  who  called 
themselves  /iro/i/iets. — Montanus,  in  con- 
junction with  Priscilla  and  Maximilla,  were 
at  the  head  of  the  sect. 

These  sectaries  made  no  alteration  in  the 
creed.  They  only  held  that  tlie  Holy  Spirit 
made  Montanus  his  organ  for  delivering  a 
more  perfect  form  nf  discipline  than  what, 
■was  delivei'ed  by  his  apostles.  They  re- 
fused communion  f  r  ever  to  those  who 
■were  guilty  of  notorious  crimes,  and  be 
liev'ed  that  the  bishops  had  no  authoriiy  t 
reconcile  them.  They  held  it  unlawfut 
to  fly  ni  time  of  persecution.  Tiiey  con 
demned  second  marriages,  allowed  the  dis- 
solution of  marriage,  and  observed  three 
lents. 

MOR.VL,  relating  to  the  actions  or  con- 
duct of  life,  or  that  which  d*  bnmines  an 
action  to  be  good  or  virtuous. — 2  A  moral 
agent  is  a  being  that  is  capable  of  thrse 
actions  th:il  have  a  mt)ral  qua  ity,  and  whic! 
can  properly  be  denominated  good  o.r  evil 
in  a  moral  sense. — 3.  A  moral  certainty  is  a 
very  strong  probability,  and  is  used  in  con- 
tradistincti' n  to  mathematical  probability. 
—4.  Moral  ^fitness  is  the  agreement  of  tho 
actions  of  any  intelligent  being,  with  th< 
nature,  circumstances,  and  relation  of  things. 
~5.  A  7noral  impORdibUny  is  a  very  great 
or  insuperable  difficulty  ;  opposed  to  a 
natural  impossibility.  Si^e  Inability. — 
6.  A/oral  obligation  is  the  neci  ssity  of  doing 
or  omitting  any  action  in  order  to  be  happy 
and  good.  See  Obligation — 7.  Moral 
pkilosopliy  is  the  science  of  manners,  the 
knowledge  cf   our   dutv   and  felicitv.    See 


Philosophy — 8.  Moral  sense,  thit  where- 
by we  perceive  what  is  good,  virtuous,  and 
beautiful  in  actions,  manners,  and  chcuac- 
ttrs  ;  or  it  is  a  Kmd  of  satisfaciiou  in  the 
mind  arising  fr-.m  the  coniemplaliuu  of 
those  actions  of  rational  agents  which  we 
call  good  or  virtui-us  :  some  call  this  natural 
conscience,  others  intuitive  perception  of 
right  and  wrong,  &c.  ^ee  article  SsNSii. 
— 9.  Moral  law     bee  Law,  Evidence. 

MORALITY  is  that  relation  or  propor- 
tion wiiich  actions  bear  to  a  given  rule.  It 
is  generally  used  in  reterence  to  a  good 
life  Morality  is  distinguished  Irom  religion 
thus  :  "  Riiigion  is  a  studious  conformity  of 
our  actions  to  the  relations  in  whicli  we 
stand  to  e^ch  (ther  in  civil  s(;cifty.  Mora- 
lity comprehends  only  a  part  of  religion; 
but  reUgion  comprehends  the  whole  oi  mo- 
rality. Morality  finds  all  her  motives  here 
below;  religicjii  fttclies  all  her  niolivts 
from  above.  The  highest  principle  in 
murals  is  a  just  regard  to  tlie  lights  of 
men  ;  the  first  principle  in  religion  is  the 
love  cf  God."  l  he  various  duties  of  mora- 
lity are  considered  in  their  respective 
places  in  t:  s  work.  See  Bit.hop  I-Iur&hy's 
C  /large,  1790.  Foley's  and  Grove's  Moral 
Philosophy.  Beatie's  Elements  of  Moral 
Science.  £van's  Sermons  on  i  liri^tiun 
Temper.  Watcs*  Sivjnons  on  Lhritslian 
."^lorals.  Afaso?i's  Christian  Morals  H. 
Moore's  Hints,  v  I  ii  page  245.  Gisborne's 
Srnnons  de-'-  gnedto  Illustrate  and  Enforce 
Christian  Morality. 

MORAVL\NS,  a  sect  generally  said  to 
have  arisen  under  Nicholas  Lewis,  count  of 
Ziuzendorf,  a  German  nobleman  of  the  last 
century,  and  thus  called  because  the  first 
converts  to  their  system  were  some  Mora- 
vian families.  Acct-rding  to  the  society's 
own  account,  h.\^ev<jr,  they  derive  their 
origin  from  the  (ireek  church  in  the  ninth 
ce  ;tuvy,  whin,  by  t!.e  instrumer.tality  of 
Methodius  and  Cyrihus,  two  Greek  monks, 
the  kings  of  Bulgaria  and  Moravia  being 
converted  to  the  faith,  were,  together  with 
their  subjects,  united  in  communion  with 
tiie  Greok  cnurch.  Methodius  was  their 
first  bishop,  and  for  their  use  Cyrillus  trans- 
lated the  Scriptures  into  the  Sclavonian 
language. 

The  antipathy  of  the  Greek  and  Roman 
churches  is  well  known,  and  by  much  the 
greater  part  of  the  brethren  were  in  pro- 
cess of  time  compelled,  aiicr  many  strug- 
gles, to  submit  to  the  see  of  Rome.  A  few, 
'howevtr,  adhering  to  the  lights  cf  their 
mother  church,  united  themselves  in  1170 
to  the  Waldenses.  and  sent  missionaries 
into  many  countries.  In  1547  thev  were 
called  Fratris  Ugis  Chiisti,  or  Brethren  v\' 
the  Law  of  Christ:  because,  about  that 
period,  they  had  thrown  cff  all  reverence 
tor  human  compilations  of  the  faith,  pro- 
fessing simply  to  foll(.w  the  dcctrir.cs 
and  precepts  contained  in  the  Word  of 
God. 

There  being  at  this  time  no  bishops  in  the 


MOR 


337 


MOR 


Bohemian  church  who  had  not  submitted  to 
tho  papal  jurisdiction,  three;  priests  of   the 
society  of   Uiiiied  Brethren  wer^,  abaut  tiiu 
year  1467',  consecrated   by  Stephen,   bishup 
of  the    Waldciises,    in  Au!>tria    [see  VVal- 
DENSKS  ;]  and  these   prelates   on  tlieir  re- 
turn to  iheir  own   countiy,   consecrated  ten 
co-bishops,  or  co-seniors,  from   among  the 
rest  of  the  presbyters.     In  1523,  tlie  United 
Brethren  commenced  a  friendly  correspon- 
dence,  first   with  Luther,  and  afterwards 
with  Calvin  and  other  leaders  among  tlie 
reformers.       A    persecution,    which    was 
broughe  upon   them  on  this  account,    and 
some  religious   disputes    which   took    place 
among  themseives,    threatened,  for  awhile, 
the    society    witii    ruin :    but   the    disputes 
tvere,  in    1570,   put   an  end  to  by  a  synod, 
which  decreed  that  differences  about  non- 
essentials  should  not  destroy    their  union  ; 
and  the  persecution   ceased  in  1575,  when 
the  United  Brethren  obtained   an   edict  for 
the  public  exercise  of  their  relii;ion.     This 
toleration    was   renewed   in    1609,    and    li- 
berty granted  them  to  erect  nevv  churclies. 
But  a  civil  war,   which,    in  16r2,  broke  out 
in  Bohemia,  and  a  violent  persecution  which 
followed  it   in  1621,  occasioned  the  disp  r- 
sion   of  their  ministers,   and   brought  great 
distress  upon  the  brethren  in  general.  Somr 
of  them  fled  to   England,  oiliers  to  Saxony 
and  Brandenburg;   whilst  many,  overcome 
by  the  severity  of  the  persecution,  conform- 
ed to  the   rites    of  the  ciiurch   of  Rome. 
One  colony  of  these,  who  retained  in  purity 
their  original   principles  and  pracuce,  was, 
in    1722,  conducted   by    a    brotiier,    named 
Christian  David,  from  Fulneck,  in  Mcravia, 
to    Upper  Lusatia,   where  they   put  them- 
selves    under    the   protection    of  Nicholas 
Lewis,  count  of  Zinzendorf,  and  built  a  vil- 
lage on  his  estate  at  the  font  of  a  hill,  called 
Hutberg,  or  Watch  Hill.     The  count,  who, 
soon    after    their   arrival,    removed    fi-om 
Dresden  to  his  estate  in  the  country,  shew 
ed  every  mark  of  kindness  to  the  poor  emi- 
grants ;  but  being  a  zealous  member  of  tlie 
church  established  by  law,  he  endeavoured 
for   some  time   to    prevail    upon    them    to 
unite  themselves   with    it,    by  adopting  the 
Lutheran   faith   and   discipline,     'rhis  they 
declined  ;  and  the  count,  on  a  more  minute 
inquiry  into  their  ancient  history  and  distin- 
guishing  tenets,   not  only  desisted  from  his 
lirst  purpose,  but  became  himself  a  convert 
to  the   faith    and   discipline  of  the  United 
Brethren. 

The  synod  Avhich,  in  1570,  put  an  end 
to  the  disputes  which  then  tore  the  church 
of  the  Brethren  into  factions,  had  considered 
as  non-essentials  the  distinguishing  tenets 
of  their  own  society,  of  the  Lutherans,  and 
of  the  Calvinists.  In  consequence  of  this, 
many  "f  the  reformers  of  both  these  sects 
had  followed  the  Brethren  to  Herrnhut, 
and  been  received  by  them  into  communion; 
but  not  being  endued  with  the  peaceable 
spirit  of  the  church  which  they  harl  joined, 
thev  started  disputes    among   themselves, 

Uu 


which  threatened  the  destruction  of  the 
whole  establishment.  By  the  incief;itigable 
exertions  of  count  Zinzendorf  these  disputes 
Were  allayed  ;  and  statutes  being,  in  1727, 
drawn  up  and  agreed  to  for  the  regulation 
both  of  the  internal  and  of  the  external  con- 
cerns of  thcx  congregation,  brotherly  love 
and  union  was  established  ;  and  no  schism 
whatevtr,  in  point  of  doctrine,  has  since 
that  period  disturbed  the  church  of  the 
United  Brethren. 

In  1735,  the  count,  who,  unrler  God,  had 
been  the  instrument  of  renewing  the  Hre- 
thren's  church,  was  consecrated  one  of 
their  bishops,  having  the  year  before  been 
examined  and  received  into  the  clerical  or 
ders  by  the  Theological  Faculty  of  Tubin- 
gen. Dr.  Potter,  then  archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury, congratulated  him  upon  this  event, 
and  promised  his  assistance  to  a  church  of 
confessors,  of  whom  he  wrote  in  terms  of 
the  highest  respect,  for  their  having  main- 
tained the  pure  and  primitive  faith  and  dis- 
cipline in  the  midst  of  the  most  tedious  and 
cruel  persecutions.  That  his  Graci-,  who 
had  studied  tlie  various  controversies  about 
church  government  with  uncommon  success, 
admitted  the  Moravian  episcopal  succes- 
sion, we  know  irom  the  most  unquestionable 
authority  ;  for  he  communicated  his  senti- 
ments on  the  subject  to  Dr  Seeker,  while 
bishop  of  Oxf  re!.  In  conformity  with  these 
sentiments  of  the  archbishop,  we  are  assured 
that  the  parliament  of  Great  Britain,  after 
mature  investigation,  acknowledged  the  Uni~ 
tas  Fratnan  to  be  a  Protestant  episcopal 
church  ;  and  in  1794  an  act  was  certainly 
passed  in  their  favour. 

This  sect,  like  many  others,  has  been 
shamefully  misrepresented,  and  things  laid 
to  their  charge  of  which  they  never  were 
guilty.  It  must,  however,  be  acknowledged 
that  some  of  their  converts  having  pi'evious- 
ly  imbibed  extravagant  notions,  propagated 
them  with  zeal  among  their  new  friends 
in  a  phraseology  extremely  reprehensible  ; 
and  that  count  Zinzendorf  himself  some- 
times adopted  the  very  improper  language 
of  those  fanatics,  whom  he  wished  to  re- 
claim from  their  errors  to  the  soberness  of 
truth;  but  much  of  the  extravagance  and 
absurdity  which  has  been  attributed  to  the 
count  is  net  to  be  charged  to  -him,  but  to 
those  persons,  who,  v.'riting  his  extemfiore 
sermons  in  short  hand,  printed  and  pub- 
iished  them  without  his  knowledge  or  con- 
sent. 

This  eminent  benefactor  to  the  United 
Brethren  died  in  1760,  and  it  is  with  reason 
that  they  honour  his  memory,  as  having 
been  the  instrument  by  which  God  restored 
and  built  up  their  church.  But  they  do  not 
regai'd  him  as  their  head,  nor  take  his 
writings,  nor  the  writings  of  any  other  man, 
as  the  standard  of  their  doctrines,  whirh 
thev  profess  to  derive  immediately  from  the 
^N'^v^  of  God. 

It  has  been  already  observed,  that  the 
church  of  the  United  Brethren  is  episcopal  ; 


MOR 


338 


MO  11 


but  though  they  consider  episcopal  ordina- 
tion as  necessary  to  qualify  the  servants  of 
the  church  for  tlieir  respective  functions, 
tliey  allow  to  tlieir  bishops  no  elevation  of 
rank  or  pi-e-enainent  authority ;  their  church 
having  from  its  first  establishment  been 
governed  by  synods,  consisting  of  deputies 
from  ail  the  congregations,  and  by  other 
subordinate  bodies,  which  they  call  Con- 
ferences. The  synods,  which  are  generally 
held  once  in  seven  years,  are  called  together 
by  the  elders  who  were  in  the  former  synod 
appointed  to  superintend  the  whole  unity. 
In  the  first  sitting  a  president  is  chosen,  and 
these  elders  lay  down  their  office  ;  but 
they  do  not  withdraw  from  the  assembly  : 
for  they,  together  Avith  all  bishops,  seniores 
ch'iies,  or  lay  elders,  and  those  ministers 
■who  have  the  general  care  or  inspection  of 
several  congregations  in  one  province,  liavc 
seats  in  the  synod  without  any  particular 
election.  The  other  members  are,  one  or 
more  deputies  sent  by  each  congregation, 
and  such  ministers  or  missionaries  as  are 
particularly  called  to  attend.  Women,  ap- 
proved by  the  congregations,  are  also  ad- 
mitted as  hearers,  and  are  called  upon  to 
give  their  advice  in  what  relates  to  the  mi- 
nisterial labour  among  their  sex  ;  but  tlity 
have  no  decisive  vcite  in  trie  synod.  The 
voles  of  all  the  other  memoers  are  equal. 

In  questions  of  importance,  or  of  which 
the  consequences  cannot  be  foreseen ,  nei- 
ther the  majority  of  votes  nor  the  unani- 
mous consent  of  all  present  can  decide  : 
but  recourse  is  had  to  the  lot.  For  adopt- 
ing this  unusual  mode  of  deciding  in  eccle- 
siastical affairs,  the  Biethren  allege  as 
reasons  the  practices  of  the  ancient  Jews 
and  the  apostles  ;  the  insnfficii-ncy  of  the 
human  understanding  amidst  the  best  and 
purest  intentions  to  decide  fi  r  itstlf  in  what 
concerns  the  administration  of  Christ's  kiuL'-- 
dom  :  and  their  own  coiif.dent  reliance  on 
the  comfortable  promises  that  the  Lord 
Jesus  will  approve  himself  the  head  and 
ruler  of  his  church.  The  lot  j3  never  made 
use  of  but  after  mature  deliberatiin  and  fer- 
vent ])rayer  ;  nor  is  any  thing  submitted  to 
its  decision  which  does  not,  aft'.r  being  tho- 
roughly wei':ih(;d,  appear  to  the  assembly 
eligible  in  itself. 

in  every  synod  the  inward  and  outward 
state  of  the  unity,  and  the  concerns  of  the 
congregations  and  missions  are  taken  into 
consideration.  If  errors  in  doctrine  or  de- 
viations in  practice  have  crept  in,  the  sy- 
nod endeavours  not  only  to  remove  them, 
bv.it  by  salutary  regulations,  to  prevent  them 
for  the  future.  It  considers  how  many 
bishops  are  to  be  cons(  crated  to  fill  up  the 
vacancies  occasioned  by  death  ;  and  every 
member  of  tlie  synotl  gives  his  vote  for 
such  of  the  clergy  as  he  thinks  best  quali- 
fied. Those  who  have  the  majority  of  votes 
are  taken  into  the  lot,  and  they  who  are 
approved  are  consecratea accordingly  ;  but, 
by  consecrati(>n,  they  are  vested  with  no 
superiority  over  their  Bi'ethren,  since  it  be- 


hoves him  who  is  the  greatest  to  be  the 
servant  of  all. 

Towards  the  conclusion  of  every  synod  a 
kind  of  executive  board  is  chosen,  and  call- 
ed T/ie  Elders  Conference  of  the  Unity. 
At  present  it  consists  of  tliirteen  elders, 
and  is  divided  into  four  committees  or  de- 
partments.— 1.  The  JWssions'  department, 
which  superintends  all  the  concerns  of  the 
missions  into  Heathen  countries — 2.  The 
Hel/iers'  department,  which  watches  over 
the  purity  of  doctrine,  and  the  moral  con- 
duct of  the  different  congregations. — 3.  The 
Servants*  department,  to  which  the  econo- 
mical concerns  of  the  Unity  are  committed. 
4.  The  Overseers'  department,  of  waich  the 
business  is  to  see  that  the  constitution  and 
discipline  of  the  Brethren  be  every  where 
maintained  No  resolution,  however,  of  any 
of  these  departments  has  the  smallest  force 
till  it  be  laid  before  the  assembly  of  the 
whole  Elder's  Conference,  and  have  the 
approbation  of  that  body.  The  powers  of  the 
1 1  Elders'  Conference  are,  indeed,  veryexten- 
jisive:  besides  the  general  care  which  it  is 
;' commissioned  by  the  synods  to  take  of  all 
j  i  the  congregations  and  missions,  it  appoints 
I  land  removes  every  servant  in  the  Unity,  as 
I  circumstances  may  require;  authorises  the 
hishops  to  ordain  presbyters  or  deacons,  and. 
to  consecrate  other  bishops ;  and,  in  a  word, 
though  it  cannot  abrogate  any  of  the  con- 
stitutions of  the  synod,  or  enact  new  ones 
itself,  it  is  possessed  of  the  supreme  execu- 
tive power  over  the  whole  body  of  the  Uni- 
ted Brethren. 

Besides  this  general  Conference  of  Eldersy 
which  superintends  the  affairs  of  the  whole 
Unity,  there  is  another  conference  of  elders 
belonging  to  each  congregation,  which  di- 
rects its  affairs,  and  to  which  the  bishops 
and  all  other  ministers,  as  well  as  the  lay 
members  of  the  congregation,  are  subject, 
rhis  body,  which  is  called  the  Elders  Con- 
ference of  the  Co7igrcgations,  Crmsists,  1. 
Of  the  Minister,  as  president,  to  whom  the 
ordinary  care  of  the  congregation  is  com- 
mitted, except  when  it  is  very  numerous, 
and  then  the  general  inspection  of  it  is  en- 
trusted to  a  separate  person,  called  the  Con- 
gregation Helper. — 2.  Of  the  Warden, 
whose  office  it  is  to  superintend,  with  the 
aid,  of  his  council,  all  outward  concerns  of 
the  congregations,  and  to  assist  every  indi- 
vidual with  his  advice. — 3.  Of  a  Married 
Pair,  who  care  particularly  for  the  spiritu- 
al welfare  of  the  married  people. — 4.  Of  a 
Single  Clergyman,  to  whose  care  the  young 
men  are  more  particularly  committed. — 
And,  5.  Of  those  Women  who  assist  in 
caring  for  the  spiritual  and  temporal  wel- 
fare of  their  own  sex,  and  who  in  this  con- 
ference have  equal  votes  with  the  men.  As 
the  E.lders  Conference  of  each  Congrega- 
tion is  answerable  for  its  proceedings  to  the 
Elders  (  onference  of  the  Unity,  visitations 
from  the  latter  to  the  former  are  held  from 
time  to  time,  that  the  affairs  of  each  con- 
gregation, and  the  conduct  of  its  immediate 


MOR 


339 


MOR 


governors,  may  be  intimately  known  to  the 
supreme  executive  government  of  the  whole 
church. 

In  their  opinion,  espicopal  consecration 
does  not  confer  any  power  to  preside  over 
one  or  more  congregations;  and  a  bishop 
can  discharge  no  office  but  by  the  appoint- 
ment of  a  svnod,  or  of  the  Elders  Confer- 
ence of  the  Unity  Presbyters  among  them 
can  perform  every  function  of  the  bishop, 
except  ordination.  Deacons  are  assistants 
to  the  Presbyters  much  in  the  same  way  as 
in  the  church  of  England ;  and  in  the  Bre- 
thren's churches,  deaconesses  are  retained 
for  the  purpose  of  privately  admonishing 
their  own  sex,  and  visiting  them  in  their 
sickness ;  but  though  they  are  solemnly 
blessed  to  this  office,  they  are  not  permitted 
to  teach  in  public,  and  far  less  to  admi- 
nister the  sacraments.  They  have  likewise 
seniorea  civites,  or  lay  elders,  in  contra- 
distincti  n  to  spiritual  elders,  or  bishops, 
who  are  appointed  to  watch  over  the  con- 
stitution and  discipline  of  the  Unity  of  t\ii 
Brethren,  over  the  observance  of  the  laws 
of  the  Ciiuntry  in  which  congregations  or 
missions  are  '  stablished,  and  over  the  pi'ivi- 
leges  granted  to  the  Brethren  by  the  go- 
vernments under  which  they  live.  They 
have  economies,  or  choir  houses,  where 
they  live  together  in  community:  the  single 
men  and  single  women,  widows,  and  wi- 
dowers, apart,  each  under  the  superinten- 
dance  of  elderly  persons  of  their  own  class. 
In  these  houses  every  person  who  is  able, 
and  has  not  an  independent  support,  labours 
in  their  own  (>ccupation,  and  contributes  a 
stipulated  sum  for  their  maintenance.  Their 
children  are  educated  with  peculiar  care ; 
their  subjection  to  their  superiors  and  elders 
is  singular,  and  appears  particularly  strik- 
ing in  their  missions  and  marriages.  In  the 
former,  those  who  have  offered  themselves 
on  the  service,  and  are  approved  as  candi- 
dates, wait  their  several  calls,  referring 
themselves  entirely  to  the  decision  of  the 
lot ;  and,  it  is  said,  never  hesitate  when 
that  hath  decided  the  place  of  their  desti- 
nation. (See  p.  314.)  In  marriage,  they 
may  only  form  a  connection  with  tliose  of 
their  own  communion.  Tl.e  brother  wlio 
marries  out  of  the  congi'egations  is  imme- 
diately cut  oft"  from  church  fellowship 
Sometimes  si  sister,  by  express  licence  from 
the  Elders  Conference,  is  permitted  to  mar- 
ry a  person  of  approved  piety  in  another 
communion,  yet  still  to  join  in  their  church 
ordinances  as  before.  A  brother  may  make 
his  own  choice  of  a  partner  in  the  society : 
but  as  all  inf^rcourse  between  the  different 
sexes  is  carcfuhy  avoided,  very  few  oppor- 
tun  ties  of  forming  particular  attaclimen'? 
are  found,  and  they  usually  rather  refer 
their  choice  to  the  churcli  than  decide  for 
themselves.  And  as  the  lot  must  be  cast 
to  sanction  their  union,  each  receives  his 
partner  as  a  Di\ine  appointment ;  and,  how- 
ever strange  this  method  may  appear  t^ 
^•hose  who  consult  only  theiv  passions  or  their 


interest,  it  is  observable,  that  no  where  few  - 
er  unhappy  marriages  are  found  than  among 
the  Bretiirt-n.  But  what  characteiises  the 
Moravians  most,  and  holds  them  up  to  the 
attention  of  others,  is  their  missionaiy  zeal. 
In  this  they  are  superior  to  am  other  bnoy 
of  peopk  in  the  world.  "  Their  missiona- 
ries." a.s  fii'.e  observes,  "  are  all  of  them 
volunteers;  for  it  is  an  inviolable  maxim 
with  them  to  persuade  no  man  to  engage  in 
missions  Tluy  are  .ill  of  one  mind  as  to 
the  doctrines  thiy  teach,  ai  d  seldom  make 
an  attempt  wliere  tl'.ere  are  not  half  a  do- 
zen of  them  in  the  mission.  Their  zeal  is 
calm,  steady,  persevering.  They  would  re- 
form the  world,  but  are  careful  how  they 
quarrel  with  it.  They  carry  tiieir  point  by 
address,  and  the  insinuations  of  modesty  and 
mildnoss,  which  commend  them  to  all  men, 
and  give  offence  to  none.  The  habits  of  si- 
lence, quietness,  and  decent  resene,  mark 
their  character.  If  any  f'f  their  missi(ma- 
ries  are  carried  off  by  sick.;ess  or  casualty, 
men  of  the  same  stamp  are  ready  to  sup- 
ply their  place." 

As  they  stand  first  on  the  list  of  those 
who  have  engaged  in  missionary  exertions, 
we  shall  here  insert  a  farther  account  of 
them  and  their  missions,  with  which  I  have 
been  favoured  by  a  most  respectable  clergy- 
man of  their  denomination  :  "  When  bre- 
thren or  sisters  find  themselves  disposed 
to  serve  God  among  the  Heathen,  they 
communicate  their  wishes  and  views  to  the 
committee  appointed  by  the  synods  of  the 
Brethren  to  superintend  the  missions,  in  a 
confidential  letter.  If  on  particular  enquiry 
into  their  circumstances  and  connections,  no 
objection  is  found,  they  are  considered  as 
candidates.  As  to  mental  qualifications,  much 
erudition  is  not  required  by  the  Brethren. 
To  be  well  versed  in  the  sacred  scriptures, 
and  to  have  an  experimental  knowlt-dge  of 
ihe  truths  they  contain,  is  judged  indispensi- 
bly  necessary.  And  it  has  been  found,  by  ex- 
perience, that  a  good  understanding  joined 
to  a  friendly  disptjsition,  and,  above  all,  a 
heart  filled  with  the  love  of  God,  are  the 
best  and  the  only  essential  qualifications  of  a 
missionar}'.  Nor  are  in  general  the  habits 
of  a  student  so  well  calculated  to  form  his 
body  for  a  laborious  life  as  those  of  a  me- 
chanic. Yet  men  of  learning  are  not  exclu- 
ded, and  their  gifts  have  been  made  useful 
in  Aarious  ways.  When  vacancies  occur, 
or  new  missions  are  to  be  begun,  the  list  of 
candidates  is  examined  ;  and  those  v/ho  ap- 
pear snitabh  are  called  upon,  and  accept  or 
decline  the  call  as  they  find  themselves  dis- 
posed." 

"  The  folloAving  are  the  names  of  the  set- 
tlements of  the  United  Brethren  in  Heathen 
countries. 

"  Begun  in  1733,  in  the  Dan'sh  \Ver,t  India 
islands.  In  67.  Thomas;  New  Herrnluit,  Nis- 
ky. — In  Si.  Croix  ;  Frienenslierg,  Friedens- 
thal  In  St  Jan;  Bethany,  Emmaus.~In  1733: 
In  Greenland  ;  New  HeiTnhut,  Litrhtnfels, 
Lichtenau.— In    1734:    In  Xorth  America; 


MOR 


340 


MOR 


Fairfield  in  Upper  Canada,  Goshen  on  the 
river  Muskingum — In  1736 :  At  the  Cafie  of 
Good  Hope;  Bavians  Kloof  (rencv/ed  in  1792.) 
— In  1738:  In  South  America;  aninng  the  ne- 
gro slavi  s  at  Paramaribo  and  Soirmielsdyk  ; 
among  the  free  ncgtoes  at  Bambey,  on  the 
Sarameca ;  among  the  native  Indians  at 
Hope,  on  the  river  Corentyn — In  1754:  In 
Jamaica  ;  two  settlements  in  St.  Elizabeth's 
paviyi:. — In  1756;  \n  Antigua  ;  at  St.  John's 
Grace  Hill,  Grace  Baj .— In  J760:  Near 
Tranqucbar,  in  the  East  Indies ;  Breth- 
ren's Garden. — In  1764:  On  the  Coast  of 
Labrador;  Nain,  Okkak,  Hopedale. — In 
1765:  In  Bar  dadoes  ;  Sharon,  mar  Bridge- 
town.— In  1"65 :  In  the  Ihissfan  /lart  of 
Asia;  Sarepia. — In  1775:  In  St.  Kitts's  ;  at 
Basseterre — In  1789:  In  Tobago  ;  Signal 
Hill,  (renewed  in  179S.) 

"  The  Brethren  had  tliree  flourishing  set- 
tlements on  the  river  Muskingum,  Salenis 
Gvadenhuettcn,  and  Schoenbruna,  before 
the  late  American  war,  during  which  these 
places  were  destroyed,  and  the  inhabitants 
partly  murdered,  partly  dispersed.  The 
settlement  Fa  i-field,  in  Canada,  wa<^  made 
by  those  of  the  Indian  converts,  who  were 
again  collected  by  the  missionaries.  In  1798, 
a'  colony  of  Christian  Indians  went  from 
thence  to  take  possession  of  their  former 
settlements  on  the  Muskingum,  which  have 
been  given  to  them  by  an  act  of  congress, 
and  built  a  new  town,  called  Goshen.  Part 
of  the  Indian  congregation  will  remain  at 
Fairfield,  in  Canada,^  as  a  good  seed ;  our 
missionaries  entertaining  hopes  that  the  Gos- 
pel may  yet  find  entrance  among  the  wild 
Chippeway  tribe  mhabiting  those  parts. 

♦'  'i'he  mission  among  the  Hottentots  at 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  was  begun  in  1736, 
by  George  Schmidt,  a  man  of  remarkable 
zeal  and  courage,  who  lab(>ured  successfully 
among  these  people,  till  he  had  formed  a 
small  congregation  of  believers,  whom  he 
left  to  the  care  of  a  pious  man,  and  went  to 
Europe  with  a  view  to  represent  the  pro- 
mising state  of  the  mis  ion,  and  to  return 
with  assistants.  But,  to  his  inexpressible 
grief  and  disappointment,  he  was  net  per- 
mitted liy  the  Dutch  East  India  Company 
to  resume  his  labours;  srime  ignorant  peo- 
ple having  insinuated  that  the  propagation 
of  Christianity  among  the  Hottentots  would 
injure  the  interests  of  the  colony — Since 
tliat  time  to  the  year  1792  the  Brethren  did 
not  cease  to  make  application  to  the  Dutch 
government  for  leave  to  send  missionaries  to 
the  Cape,  especially  as  they  heard  that  the 
small  Hottentot  congregation  had  kept  toge- 
ther for  some  time,  in  earnest  expectation 
of  the  return  of  their  beloved  teacher.  He 
had  taught  some  of  them  to  read,  and  had 
left  a  Dutch  Bible  with  them,  which  they 
used  to  read  together  for  their  edification 
At  length,  in  1792,  by  the  mercy  of  God, 
and  the  kind  interference  of  friends  in  the 
Dutch  govcrment,  the  opposition  of  evil- 
minded  people  was  over-ruled  and  leave 
granted  to  send  out  three  missionaries,  who 


on  their  arrival,  were  willing,  at  the  desire 
of  the  governor,  to  go  first  to  Bavians  Kloof 
about  one  hundred  and  sixty  English  miles 
east  from  Capetown,  and  there  to  ccmmence 
their  labours  on  the  spot  where  George 
Schmidt  had  resided.— Their  instructions 
fiom  the  government  in  Holland  granted 
them  leave  to  choose  the  place  of  tlieir  re- 
sidence, wherever  they  might  find  it  most 
convenient ;  but  the  circumstances  of  the 
colony  at  that  time  would  not  acinriit  of  it. 
Since  the  English  have  made  themselves 
masters'  of  that  countiy,  they  have  built  a 
new  chapel ;  and  from  the  favour  and  pro- 
tection which  the  British  government  has 
uniformly  granted  to  the  Brethren's  mis- 
sions, we  have  the  best  hopes  that  they  will 
remain  undisturbed  and  protected  in  their 
civil  and  religious  liberty.  The  late  Dutch 
government  at  the  Cape  deserve  also  our 
warmest  thanks  for  the  kind  manner  in 
which  tiiey  received  and  protected  the  mis- 
sionariis,  promoting  the  views  of  the  mis- 
sion tn  the  utmost  of  their  power. 

"  When  the  missionaries  first  arrived  at 
Bavians  Kloof,  in  1792,  it  was  a  barren, 
uninhabited  place.  There  are  at  present 
[1811]  twelve  missionaries  residing  there 
and  in  the  neighbourhood,  and  about  1000 
Hottentots. 

"  The  settlement  near  Tranqucbar,  on 
the  coast  of  Crromandel,  was  m.ade  in  the 
year  1760,  at  the  desire  of  the  Danish  go- 
vernment, chi(  fly  with  a  view  to  bring  the 
Gospel  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  Niccbar 
islands.  After  a  persevering  but  fruitless 
attempt  to  form  an  establishment  at  Nanca- 
wery,  one  of  the  Nicobar  islands,  for  that 
purpose,  the  whole  plan  was  defeated  by  the 
fti'lowing  circums»'ances:  The  Danish  go- 
vrrnmcnt,  finding  the  advantage  gained  by 
their  Sfttlcment  on  these  islands  not  to  an- 
■swer  the  great  expence  attending  it,  with- 
drew their  people,  who  had  already  suffer- 
ed greatly  by  the  the  unwholesomeness  of 
the  climate ;  and  the  Brethren  residing 
there  being  left  alone,  and  all  communica- 
tion cut  off  between  Tranqurbar  and  the 
Nicobar  islands,  it  became  necessary  to  pur- 
cliase  a  vessel  to  convey  provisions  and  other 
necessaries  to  the  missionaries.  This  was 
done  with  great  expence  and  hazard  for 
some  years,  when,  in  the  American  war, 
the  vessel  was  taken  by  a  French  cruizer, 
though  belonging  to  a  neutral  state.  No 
redress  crmld  be  obtained  from  the  French, 
and  the  Brethren  at  Tranqu&bar  were  obli- 
ged immediately  to  procure  another  vessel, 
lest  the  missionaries  in  Nancawery  should 
be  left  destitute.  The  enormous  expence 
and  loss  incurred  by  these  events,  and  the 
sickly  state  of  the  missionaries,  made  it  ne- 
cessary to  recall  them  ;  ar.d  thus  not  only 
the  mission  in  these  islands,  but  the  first 
aim  of  the  Brethren's  settling  in  the  East 
Indies,  was  frustrated.  Since  that  time,  no 
succf  ss  has  attended  the  mission  near  Tran- 
quebar.  Some  brethren,  indeed,  went  to 
Serampore  and  Palna,  where  they  resided 


MOR 


341 


MOR 


for  a  time,  watching  an  opportunity  to  serve 
the  cause  of  God  in  thosf  places  :  but  vari- 
ous circumstances  occasioned  both  tliese 
settlements  to  be  relinquished.  By  a  late 
resolution,  the  East  India  mission  will  be 
suspended  for  the  present,  the  expences  at- 
tending it  having  of  late  years  far  exceeded 
our  ability. 

"  barepta,  near  Czarizin,  on  the  Wolga, 
in  Russian  Asia,  was  built  chiefly  with  a 
view  to  bring  tlie  Gospel  to  the  Calmuck 
Tartars,  and  other  Heathen  tribes  in  those 
vast  regions,  among  whom  an  opening  might 
be  found.  Hitherto  but  little  success  has  at- 
tended the  Brethren's  labours,  though  their 
exeitions  have  bten  great  and  persevering, 
and  equal  to  those  of  any  of  our  missiona- 
ries in  other  countries.  Some  Brethren 
even  resided  for  a  considerable  time  among 
the  Calmucks,  confttrnning  to  their  manner 
of  living  in  tents,  and  accompanying  them 
wherever  they  moved  their  camp  in  the 
Sttpfie  (immense  plains  covered  with  long 
grass.)  They  omitted  no  opportunity  of 
preaching  unto  them  Jesus,  and  directing 
them  from  their  numberless  idols  and 
wretched  superstitions,  to  the  only  true 
God,  and  the  only  way  of  life  and  happi- 
ness ;  but  though  they  were  heard  and 
treated  with  civility,  little  impressi(m  could 
be  made  upon  the  hearts  of  tnese  Heathen. 
Four  Kirgess  Tartar  girls  who  had  been  ran- 
somed and  educated  by  the  Brethren,  have 
been  baptised.  These,  and  one  Calmuck 
woman,  have  as  yet  been  all  the  fruits  of 
this  mission.  The  greatest  part  of  the 
Calmucks  have  qi|itted  those  parts.  The 
Brethren,  however  have  been  visited  by 
the  German  colonists  living  on  the  Wolga  ; 
and,  through  God's  blessing,  societies  have 
been  formed,  and  ministers  of  the  Gospel 
provided  for  most  of  the  colonies  by  their 
instrumentality.  Thus  the  mission  has  an- 
swered a  very  beneficial  purpose. 

"  The  most  flourishing  missions  at  present 
are  those  in  Greenland,  Antigua,  St.  Kitts, 
the  Danish  West  India  islands,  and  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope.  A  new  awakening 
has  appeared  of  late  among  the  Arawacks 
and  free  negroes  in  South  America,  the 
Esquimaux  on  the  coast  of  Labrador,  and  in 
Barbadoes ;  and  the  latest  accounts  give  us 
the  most  pleasing  hopes  of  success  in  those 
parts.  In  Jamaica  the  progress  of  the  mis- 
sions has  been  but  slow.  However,  of  late, 
some  of  the  most  considerable  planters  in 
that  island,  being  convinced  of  the  utility  of 
the  rnission,  generously  undertook  to  pro- 
vide for  the  support  of  more  missionaries, 
and  measures  have  been  adopted  accordingly 
to  which,  we  humbly  trust,  the  Lonl  will 
give  success  in  due  time.  Several  attempts 
to  carry  the  Gospel  into  other  parts  of  the 
earth  made  by  the  Brethren  have  not  suc- 
ceeded. In  1735,  missionaries  were  sent  to 
the  Laplanders  and  Samojedes ;  in  1737, 
and  again  in  1768,  to  the  coast  of  Guinea  ; 
in  1738,  to  the  negroes  in  Georgia  ;  in  1739, 
to  the  slaves  in  Algiers;  in  1740  to  Ceylon ; 


in  1747,  to  Persia  ;  in  1752,  to  Egypt :  of 
which  we  omit  any  particular  account  for 
brevity's  sake.  In  upper  Egypt  there  was 
a  prospect  of  their  being  useful  among  the 
Copts,  who  were  visited  for  many  years. 

"  A  society  for  the  furtherance  of  the 
Gospel  among  the  Heathen  was  instituted 
by  the  Brethren  in  London  as  early  as  the 
year  1751,  for  the  more  cflTectual  co-opera- 
tion with  and  assistance  of  the  said  mis- 
sions' department,  in  caring  for  those  mis- 
sionaries who  might  pass  through  London  to 
their  several  posts.  The  society  was,  after 
some  inteiTuption  in  their  meetings,  renew- 
ed in  1766,  and  took  the  whole  charge  of 
the  mission  on  the  coast  of  Labrador  upon 
themselves  ;  besides  continuing  to  as^sist  the 
other  missions  as  much  as  lay  in  their 
power,  especially  these  in  the  British  do- 
minions As  no  regular  communication  was 
kept  up  with  the  coast  of  Labrador  by 
government,  a  small  vessel  was  employed 
to  convey  the  necessaries  of  life  to  the  mis- 
sionaries once  a  year ;  and  here  we  cannot 
help  observing,  with  thanks  to  God,  that 
upwards  of  twenty  years  have  now  elapsed, 
durinu  which,  by  his  gracious  preservation, 
no  di.saster  has  befallen  the  vessel,  so  as  to 
interrupt  a  regular  annual  communication, 
th'-ugli  the  coast  is  very  rrcky  and  full  of 
ice,  and  the  whole  navigation  of  the  most 
dangerous  kind. 

"  In  Amsterdam  a  similar  society  was 
established  by  the  Brethren  -in  1746,  and 
renewed  in  1793,  at  Zeist,  near  Utrecht. 
This  society  took  particular  charge  of  the 
mission  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  ;  but 
the  late  troubles  in  Holland  have  rendered 
them  unable  to  lend  much  assistance  for 
the  present.  The  Brethren  in  North  Ame- 
rica established  a  society  for  propagating 
the  Gospel  among  the  Heathen  in  the  year 
1787,  which  was  incorporated  by  the  State 
of  Pennsylvania,  and  has  been  very  active 
in  assisting  the  missions  among  the  Indians. 
These  three  societies  do  all  in  their  power 
to  help  to  suppTt  the  great  and  accumula- 
ted burthens  of  the  above-mentioned  mis- 
sins'  department,  and  God  has  laid  a  bles- 
sing upon  their  exertions.  But  they  have 
no  power  to  begin  new  missions,  or  to  send 
out  missionaries,  which,  by  the  synods  of 
the  Brethren's  church,  is  vested  solely  in 
the  elders'  Conference  of  the  Unity  " 

The  number  of  converts  and  persons  un- 
der instruction  in  the  different  missions, 
amount  to  about  55,150,  and  the  number  of 
missionaries  about  163. 

As  to  the  tenets  of  the  Moravians,  though 
they  acknowledge  no  other  standard  of 
truth  than  the  sucred  Scriptures,  they  ad- 
here to  the  Augsburgh  confession  (see  that 
article  )  They  pr^^fess  to  believe  that  the 
kingdom  of  Christ  is  not  confined  to  any 
particular  party,  community,  or  church  ;  and 
they  consider  themselves,  though  united  in 
one  body,  or  visible  church,  as  spiritually 
joined  in  the  bond  of  Christian  love  to  all 
who  are  taught  of  God,  and  belong  to  the 


MO  S 


342 


MOT 


uuivevsal  church  of  Christ,  however  much 
they  may  differ  in  forms,  which  they  deem 
non-psseiitials. 

The  Moravians  are  called  Herrnhuters, 
from  Herrnhuth,  the  name  of  the  village 
"vMiere  they  were  first  stttled.  They  also 
go  by  the  name  of  Unitas  Fratrum,  or,  Uni- 
ted Brethren.  If  the  reader  wisli  to  have 
a  fuller  account  of  this  society,  he  may  con- 
sult CraJitz's  Ancitnt  and  Modern  Fnatory 
t)f  the  Church  of  the  United  Brefhreit,  1780 
Sjia?idenburg''s  Exfiositton  of  the  Chris. 
JJoccrine,  1784.  JJr  Haweis's  Chtirch 
JUstorif,  vol.  iii.  p.  184,  &c.  Crantz's  His- 
tory of  their  Minsion  in  Greenland.  The 
Periodical  Accounts  of  their  ^Missions. 
Loskifl's  History  of  the  jYorth  Ameiican 
Indian  AUssions ;  Oldendorfi's  History  of 
the  Bretliren''s  Missions  in  the  Danish 
West  Indian  Islands. 

MORNING  LECTURES.  See  Lec- 
ture. 

MORTALITY,  snlycction  to  death.  It  is 
a  term  also  used  to  signify  a  contagious  dis- 
ease which  destroys  great  numbers  of  either 
men  or  beasts.  Bills  of  Mortality  are  ac- 
counts or  registers  specifying  the  numbers 
born,  married  and  buried,  in  any  parisli, 
town,  or  district.  In  general,  thev  contain 
only  diese  riumbers,  and  even  when  thus 
limited  are  of  great  use,  by  shewing  the 
degrees  of  healthiness  and  prolificness,  and 
the  progress  of  population  in  the  place 
where  they  are  kept. 

MORTIFICATION,  any  severe  penance 
observed  on  a  religious  account.  The  mor- 
tification of  sin  in  btlievers  is  a  duty  enjoin- 
ed in  the  sacred  Scriptures,  Rom.  viii.  13. 
Col.  iii.  5.  It  consists  in  breaking  the  league 
with  sin ;  declaration  of  ojien  hostility 
against  it ;  and  strong  resistance  of  it,  Eph. 
vi.  10,  &c.  Gal.  v.  24.  Rom.  viii.  13.  The 
means  to  he  used  in  this  world  are,  not  ma- 
cerating the  body,  seclusion  from  society, 
our  ov/n  resolutions :  but  the  Holy  Spint  is 
the  chit-f  agtnt,  Rom.  viii.  13,  while  faith, 
prayer,  and  dejuvidcnce  are  subordinate 
means  to  this  end  The  evidences  of  morti- 
fculion  are,  not  the  ci  ssation  from  one 
sin,  f  r  that  may  be  only  exchanged  for  ano- 
ther ;  or  it  may  be  rfnounced  liecause  it  is 
a  gross  sin  ;  or  tht  re  may  not  be  an  occa- 
sion to  practise  it ;  but  if  sin  be  mortifed, 
we  shall  not  yif'd  tot  mpt-uinn  ;  our  minds 
will  be  more  spiritual  ;  we  shall  find  more 
happiness  in  spiritual  services,  and  bring 
forth  the  fruits  of  the  Spirit.  l)r  Onven  on 
MoriifcatiGn  and  on  the  Holy  Spirit,  ch. 
viii.  book  4.  Charnockh  IForfcs,  vol.  ii.  p. 
1313.  Bryson's  Sermons  on  Rom.  viii.  p. 
97,  &c. 

MOSAIC  DISPENSATION,  inferiority 
of  the,  to  the  Gospel  dispensation.  See 
Dispensation. 

MOSAIC  LAW,  or  the  law  of  Moses,  is 
the  mrst  ancii  nt  that  we  know  of  in  the 
world,  and  is  of  three  kinds  ;  the  moral  law, 
the  ct-remonial  law,  ard  the  judicial  iaw  See 
L.^w.  Some  observe,  thattlie  different  man- 


ner in  which  each  of  these  laws  was  diliver- 
ed  may  suggest  to  us  a  right  idea  of  tlieir 
different  natures.  The  moral  law,  or  ten 
commandments,  for  instance,  was  dtlivered 
on  the  top  of  the  mountain,  in  the  face  of 
the  whole  world,  as  being  of  universal  in- 
fluence, and  obligatory  on  all  mankind. 
The  ceremonial  was  received  by  Moses  in 
piivate  in  the  tabernacle,  as  being  of  pecu- 
liar concern,  belonging  to  the  Jews  only, 
and  destined  to  cease  when  the  tabernacle 
was  down,  and  the  veil  of  the  temple  rent. 
As  to  the  judicial  law,  it  was  neither  so 
publicly  nor  so  audibly  given  as  the  moral 
law,  nor  yet  so  privately  as  the  ct  remonial  ; 
this  kind  of  law  being  of  an  indifferent  na- 
ture, to  be  ob.served  or  not  observed,  as  its 
rites  suit  with  the  place  and  government  un- 
der which  we  live.  The  five  bcfks  of  Mo- 
ses called  the  Pentateuch,  are  frequertl/ 
styled,  by  way  of  emphasis  the  la\v.  'I'his 
was  held  by  the  Jews  in  such  veneration, 
that  they  would  not  allow  it  to  be  laid  uj)on 
the  bed  of  any  sick  person  lest  it  shi  nld 
be  polluted  by  touching  the  dead.  See 
Law. 

M(  )SQUE,  a  temple  or  place  of  religious 
\^orship  among  the  Mahometans.  All 
mosques  are  square  buildings,  generally 
constructed  of  stone.  Before  the  chief  pate 
there  is  a  square  court  paved  with  white 
marble,  and  low  galleries  round  it,  whose 
roof  is  supported  by  marble  pillars.  In  these 
t;alleries  the  Turks  wash  themselves  before 
they  go  into  m<^sqne.  In  each  mosque  there 
is  a  great  number  of  lamps ;  and  between 
these  hang  many  chrystal  rings,  ostrich's 
eggs,  and  other  curiosities,  which,  when 
tile  lamps  are  lighted,  make  a  fine  show. 
As  it  is  not  lawYul  to  enter  the  mosque 
with  stockings  or  shoes  on,  the  pavements 
are  covered  with  pieces  of  stuff  sewed  to- 
gether, each  being  wide  enough  to  hold  a 
row  of  men  kneeling,  sitting,  or  prostrate  : 
The  women  are  not  allowed  to  enter  the 
mosque,  liut  stay  in  the  porches  without. 
Abcut  every  mosque  there  are  six  high 
towers,  called  minarets,  each  of  which  has 
three  little  op^'n  galleries,  one  above  ano- 
ther :  these  towers,  as  well  as  the  mosques, 
are  covered  with  lead,  and  adorned  with 
gilding  and  oUier  ornaments;  and  from 
thence,  instead  of  a  bell,  the  people  are  call- 
ed to  prayers  by  certain  officers  appointed 
for  that  purpose.  Most  of  the  mosques  have 
a  kind  of  hospital,  in  which  travellers  of 
what  religion  soever  are  entertained  three 
davs.  Each  mosque  has  also  a  place  called 
tarhe,  which  is  the  burying  place  of  its 
founders:  within  which  is  a  tomb  six  or 
seven  feet  long,  covered  with  green  velvet 
or  satin  ;  at  the  ends  of  which  are  two 
tapers,  and  round  it  several  seats  for  those 
who  read  the  Koran,  and  pray  for  the  souls 
of  the  deceased. 

MOTIVE,  that  which  moves,  excites,  or 
invites  the  mind  to  volidon.  It  may  be  one 
thing  singly,  or  many  things  conjunctly. 
Some  call  it  a  faculty  of  the  mind,  by  which 


MUF 


34i 


MUR 


we  pursue  good  and  avoid  evil.  See  Will. 
Edwards  on  the  IVill,  p.  7,  8,  124,  239, 
384.  Tofi'ady's  IVorks,  vol.  ii.  p.  41,  42, 
MOURNING,  sorrow,  grief.  See  Sor- 
row. 

M(^QRNING,  a  particular  dress  or  ha- 
bit worn  to  signify  grief  on  some  melan- 
choly occasion,  particularly  the  death  of 
friends,  or  of  great  public  characters  The 
modes  of  mourning  are  various  in  various 
countries  ;  as  also  are  the  colours  that  ob- 
tain for  that  end.  In  Europe  the  ordinary 
colour  for  m  mrning  is  black;  in  China,  it  is 
white;  in  Turkey,  blue  or  violet  ;  in  Egypt, 
yellow ;  in  Ethiopia,  brown.  Each  people 
pretend  to  have  their  reasons  for  the  parti-  j 
cular  colour  of  their  mourning.  VVnite  is 
supposed  to  denote  purity ;  yellow,  that 
death  is  the  end  of  human  hopes,  as  leaves 
when  they  fall,  and  flowers  when  they  fade, 
become  yellow  ;  brown  denotes  the  earth, 
whither  die  dead  return ;  black,  the  priva- 
tion of  life,  as  being  the  privation  of  light ; 
blue  expresses  the  happiness  Avhich  it  is 
hoped  the  deceased  enjoys;  and  purple  or 
violet,  sorrow  on  the  one  side,  and  hope  on 
the  other,  as  being  a  mixture  of  black  and 
blue.  For  an  account  of  the  mourning 
of  the  Hebrews,  see  Lev.  xix.  and  xxi. 
Jer.  ( xvi.  6.  Numbers  xx.  Deuteronomy 
xxxiv.  8. 

MOVER'S  LECTURES,    a    course   of 
eight  sermons  preached  annually,   set  on 
foot   by  the   beneficence    of    Lady    Moyer, 
about  1720,   who  left  by  v/ill  a  rich  legacy, 
,as  a  foundation  for  the  ^me.  A  great  num- 
ber of  English  writers  having  endeavoured 
in  a  variety  of  ways,  to  invalidate  the  doc-  \ 
trine  of  the  Trinity,  this  opulent  and  ortho- 
dox lady  was   influenced  to  think  of  an  in- 
stitution which   should  produce  to  posterity 
an  ample  collection  of  productions   in  de- 1 
fence  of  this  branch  of  the  Christian  faith.  | 
— The  first  course;    of   these   lectures    was ! 
preached   by  Dr.  Waterland,   on   the   Di- 
vinity of  Christ,  and  are  well  worthy    of 
perusal.  . 

MUFTI,  the  chief  cf  the  ecclesiastical  or- 
der, or  primate  of  the  Mussulman  religion. 
The  authority  of  the  Mufti  is  very  great  in 
the  Ottoman  empire  :  for  even  the  sultan 
himself,  if  he  will  preserve  any  appearance 
of  religion,  cannot,  without  first  hearing  his 
opinion,  put  any  person  to  death,  or  so 
much  as  inflict  any  corporeal  punishment. 
In  all  actions,  and  especially  criminal  ones, 
his  opinion  is  required  by  giving  him  a 
writing  in  which  the  case  is  stated  under 
feigned  names,  which  he  subscribes  with 
the  words  Olour  or  Olmaz,  i.  e.  he  shall  or 
shall  not  be  punished. 

Such  outward  honour  is  paid  to  the  Muf- 
ti, that  the  grand  seignior  himself  rises  up 
to  him,  and  advances  seven  steps  towards 
him  when  he  comes  iuto  his  presence.  He 
alone  has  the  honour  of  kissing  the  sultan's 
left  shoulder,  whilst  the  prime  vizier  kisses 
only  the  hem  of  his  garment. 
When  the  grand  seignior  addresses  any 


writing  to  the  Mufti,  he  gives  him  the  fol- 
lowing titles  :  '*  To  the  esad,  the  wisest  of 
the  wise ;  instructed  in  all  knowledge  ;  the 
most  excellent  of  excellents ;  abstaining 
from  things  unlawful  ;  the  spring  of  virtue 
and  true  science  ;  heir  of  the  prophetic 
doctrines  ;  resolver  of  the  problems  of  faith; 
revealer  of  the  orthodox  articles ;  key  of 
the  treasin-i  s  of  truth  ;  the  light  to  doubt- 
ful allegories  ;  strengthened  with  the  grace 
of  the  Supreme  Legislator  of  Mankind. 
May  the  Most  High  God  perpetuate  thy 
favours." 

The  election  of  the  Mufti  is  solely  in  the 
Grand  Seignior,  who  presents  him  with  a 
vest  of  rich  sables,  and  allows  him  a  salary 
of  a  thousand  aspers  a  day,  which  is  about 
five  pounds  sterling.  Besides  this,  he  has 
the  disposal  of  certain  benefices  belonging 
to  the  royal  mosques,  which  he  makes  no 
scruple  of  selling  to  the  best  advantage  ; 
and,  on  his  admission  to  his  office,  he  is 
complimented  by  the  agents  of  the  bashas, 
who  make  him  the  usual  presents,  which 
generally  amount  to  a  very  considerable 
sum. 

Whatever  regard  was  formerly  paid  to 
the  Mufti,  it  is  now  become  very  little  more 
than  form.  If  he  interprets  the  law,  or 
gives  sentence  contrary  to  the  sultan's 
pleasure,  he  is  immediately  displaced,  and 
a  more  pliant  person  put  in  his  room.  If 
he  is  convicted  of  treason,  or  any  very  great 
crime,  he  is  put  into  a  mortar  kept  for  that 
purpose  in  the  seven  towers  of  Constantino- 
ple, and  pounded  to  death. 

MUGGLE TONIANS,  the  followers  of 
Ludovic  Muggleton,  a  journeyman  tailor, 
who,  with  his  companion  Reeves  (a  person 
of  equal  obscurity,)  set  up  for  great  pro- 
phets, in  the  time  of  Cromwell.  They  pre- 
tended t'j  absolve  cr  condemn  whom  .they 
pleased  ;  and  gave  out  that  they  were  the 
two  last  witnesses  spoken  of  in  the  Revela- 
tions, who  were  to  appear  previous  to  the 
final  destruction  of  the  world.  They  affirm- 
ed that  there  was  no  devil  at  all  without 
the  body  of  a  man  or  woman  ;  that  the 
devil  is  man's  spirit  of  unclean  reason  and 
cursed  imagination ;  that  the  ministry  in 
this  woi'ld,  whether  prophetical  or  minis- 
terial," is  all  a  lie  and  abomination  to  the 
Lord ;  with  a  variety  of  other  vain  and 
inconsistent  tenets. 

MURDER,  the  act  of  wUfully  and  feloni- 
ously killing  a  person  upon  malice  or  fore- 
thought. Heart  murder  is  the  secret  wish- 
ing or  designing  the  death  of  any  man  ; 
yea,  the  scripture  saith,  "  Whosoever  hat- 
eth  his  brother  is  a  murderer,"  1  Joh.n  iii. 
15.  We  have  instances  of  this  kind  of  mur- 
der in  Ahab,  1  Khigs  xxii.  9.  Jezebel,  2 
Kings  xix.  2.  The  Jews,  Mark  xi.  18. 
David,  1  Samuel  xxv.  21,  22.  Jonah,  ch. 
iv.  1,  4.  Murder  is  contraiy  to  the  autho- 
rity of  God,  the  .sovereign  disposer  of  life, 
Deut.  xxxii.  39;  to  the  goodness  of  God, 
who  gives  it,  Job  x.  12  ;  to  the  laAV  of  na- 
ture, Acts  xvi.  28  ;  to  the  love  a  man  owes 


M  YS 


544 


MS  Y 


to  himself,  his  neighbour,  and  society  at 
large.  Not  but  tliat  life  may  be  taken  away, 
as  in  lawful  war;  1  Cliron.  v.  22;  by  the 
hands  of  the  civil  magistrate  for  capital 
crimes,  Deut.  xvii.8,  10;  and  in  self-defence. 
See  Self-dekence. 

According  to  the  Divine  law,  murder  is 
to  be  punished  with  death,  Deut.  xix.  11, 12. 
1  Kings  ii.  28,  29.  It  is  remarkable  that 
God  often  gives  up  murderers  to  the  ter- 
rors of  a  guilty  conscience,  Gen.  iv.  13,  15, 
23,  24,  Such  are  followed  with  many  in- 
stances of  Divine  vengeance,  2  Sam.  xii. 
9,  10;  their  lives  are  often  shortened. 
Psalm  Iv.  22;  and  judgments  for  their  sin 
are  oftentimes  transmitted  to  posterity,  Gen. 
xlix.  7.    2  Sam.  xxi.  1. 

MUSSULMAN,  or  Musylman,  a  title 
by  which  the  Mahometans  distinguish  them- 
selves ;  signifying  in  the  Turkish  language, 
"  true  believer,  or  orthodox."  There  are 
two  kinds  of  Mussulmen  very  averse  to 
each  other ;  the  one  called  6on7iites,  and 
the  other  Shiites.  The  Sonnites  follow  the 
interpretation  of  the  Alcoran  given  by  Omar; 
the  Shiites  are  tlie  followers  of  Ali.  1  he 
subjects  of  the  king  of  Persia  are  Shiites, 
and  those  of  the  grand  seignior  Sonnites. 
See  Mahometans. 

MYSTERY,  fi.vir-^^iov,  secret  (from  f^veiv 
ra  i;Toft.x,  to  shut  the  mouth.)  It  is  taken, 
1.  for  a  truth  revealed  by  God  which  is 
above  the  ]iower  of  our  natural  reason,  or 
which  we  could  not  have  discovered  with- 
out revelation  :  such  as  the  call  of  the  Gen- 
tiles, Eph.  i,  9. ;  the  transforming  of  some 
without  dying,  &c.  1  Cor.  xv.  51. — 2.  The 
word  is  also  used  in  reference  to  things 
v/hich  remain  in  part  incomprehensible  after 
they  are  revealed  ;  such  as  the  incarnation 
of  Christ,  the  resurrection  of  the  dead, 
&c.  Some  critics,  however,  observe  that 
the  word  in  the  scripture  does  not  im- 
port what  is  incapable  in  its  own  nature 
of  being  understood,  but  barely  a  secret  ; 
any  thing  not  disclosed  or  published  to  the 
world. 

In  respect  to  the  mysteries  of  religion, 
divines  have  run  into  two  extremes.  "  Some," 
as  one  observes,  "  have  given  up  all  that 
was  mysterious,  thinking  that  they  were 
not  called  to  believe  any  thing  but  what 
they  could  compreiieud.  But  if  it  can  be 
proved  that  mysteries  make  a  part  of  a 
religion  coming  from  God,  it  can  be  no  part 
of  piety  to  discard  them,  as  if  we  vv^ere 
wiser  than  he."  And  besides,  upon  this 
principle,  a  man  must  believe  nothing :  tlie 
various  works  of  nature,  tlie  growth  of 
plants,  instincts  of  brutes,  union  of  body 
and  soul,  properties  of  matter,  the  nature 
of  spirit,  and  a  thousand  other  things  are 
all  replete  with  mysteries.  If  so  in  tlie 
common  works  of  nature,  we  can  hardly 
suppose  that  those  things  which  more  im- 
mediately relate  to  the  Divine  Being  him- 
self, can  be  without  mystery,  "  The  other 
extreme  lies  in  an  attempt  to  explain  the 


mysteries  of  revelation,  so  as  to  free  them 
from  all  obscurity — To  defend  religion  in 
this  manner,  is  to  expose  it  to  coniempt. 
The  following  maxim  points  out  the  proper 
way  of  defence,  by  wliich  both  extremes 
are  avoided.  Where  tiie  truth  of  a  doc- 
trine depends  not  on  the  evidence  of  the 
things  themselves,  but  on  the  authority  of 
him  who  reveals  it,  there  the  only  way  to 
prove  tlie  doctrine  to  be  true  is  to  prove 
the  testimony  of  him  that  revealed  to  be 
infallible.''  Dr.  South  observes,  that  the 
niysteriousness  of  those  parts  of  t!ie  Gospel 
Grilled  the  credenda,  (;r  matters  of  our 
faith,  is  most  subservient  to  the  great  and 
important  ends  of  religion,  and  that  upon 
these  accounts  :  First,  because  religion  in 
the  prime  institution  of  it  was  designed  to 
make  impressions  of  awe  and  reverential 
fear  upon  men's  minds. — 2.  To  humble  the 
pride  and  haughtiness  <:!'  man's  reason. — 3. 
To  engage  us  in  a  closer  and  more  dili- 
gent search  into  them. — 4.  That  the  full 
and  entire  knowledge  of  divine  things  may 
be  one  principal  part  of  our  felicity  here- 
after. Ro!nnso7i''s  Claude,  vol.  i.  p.  118, 
119,  304,  305  LarnfibeWs  Preliminary 
Dissertation  to  the  Gospels,  vol.  i.  p,  383. 
Stillingfleet's  Origines  Sacra,  vol  ii.  c  8. 
Ridgiey's  Div.  qu.  11.  Calmet's  Diet. 
Cruden's  Concordance.  Souih's  Serm.  ser. 
6.  vol.  iii. 

MYSTERIES,  a  term  used  to  denote  the 
secret  rites  of  the  Pagan  superstition,  which 
were  carefully  concealed  from  the  knowledge 
of  the  vulgar. 

The  learned  bishop  Warburton  supposed 
that  tlie  mysteries  of  the  Pagan  religion 
were  the  invention  of  legislator  and  other 
great  personages,  whom  fortune  or  their 
own  merit  had  placed  at  the  head  of 
those  civil  societies  which  were  fcnnned  in 
the  earliest  ages  in  different  parts  of  the 
world. 

Mosheim  was  of  opinion  that  the  myste- 
ries wgre  entirely  commemorative ;  that 
they  were  insiituted  with  a  view  to  pre- 
serve the  remembrance  of  heroes  and  great 
men  who  had  been  deemed  in  consideration 
of  their  martial  exploits,  useful  inventions, 
public  virtues,  and  especially  in  consequence 
of  the  benefits  by  them  conferred  on  their 
contemporaries. 

Others,  however,  suppose  that  the  myste- 
ries were  the  offspring  of  bigotry  and 
priestcraft,  and  that  they  originated  in 
Et^vpt,  the  native  land  of  Idolatry.  In 
that  country  tlie  priesthood  ruled  predo- 
minant. The  kings  were  engrafted  into 
their  body  btfure  they  could  ascend  the 
throne.  They  were  possessed  of  a  third 
part  of  all  the  land  of  Egypt.  I'he  sacer- 
dotal function  was  confined  to  one  tribe, 
and  was  transmitted  unalienably  from  fa- 
ther to  son.  All  the  orientals,  but  more 
especially  the  Egyptians,  delighted  in  mys- 
terious and  allegorical  doctrines.  Eveiy 
maxim  of  morality,  every  tenet  of  theolo- 


MY  S 


345 


M  YS 


gj',  even'  dogma  of  philnsopl.y,  was  wrapt 
up  in  a  Veil  of  allt-gory  and  mvbticisni. 
This  propensity,  no  doubt,  conspired  witli 
avarice  and  ambition  to  dispose  tiiem  to  a 
dark  and  mysterious  system  of  religion. 
Besides,  tlie  ligyptians  were  a  gloomy  i-ace 
of  men  ;  they  delij^iited  in  darkness  and 
solitude.  Their  sacred  rites  weie  generally 
celebrated  with  melancholy  airs,  weeping 
and  lamentation.  This  gloomy  and  unsocial 
bias  of  mind  must  have  stimulated  them  to 
a  congenial   mode  of  worship. 

MYSTICS,  a  sect  distinu,uished  by  their 
professing  pure,  sublime,  and  peifect  de- 
votion, with  an  entire  disinterested  love  of 
God,  free  from  all  selfish  considerations. — 
'i'he  authors  of  this  mystic  science,  which 
sjn'ung  up  towards  the  close  of  the  third 
centur)%  are  not  known  ;  but  the  pnnciples 
from  which'  it  was  foi'med  are  manifest. 
Its  fii'st  promoters  proceeded  from  the 
known  drctrine  of  tlie  Platonic  school, 
which  was  also  adopted  by  Origen  and  his 
disciples,  that  the  Divine  nature  was  tiiffu- 
sed  through  all  human  souls  ;  or  that  the 
faculty  of  reason,  frcni  which  proceed  the 
health  and  vigour  of  the  mind,  was  an 
emanation  from  God  into  the  human  soul, 
and  comprehended  in  it  the  principles  and 
elements  of  all  truth,  human  and  divine. 
They  denied  that  men  could,  by  labour  or 
fetudy,  excite  this  celestial  flame  in  their 
breasts ;  and  therefore  they  disapproved 
highly  of  the  attempts  of  those,  who,  by 
definitions,  abstract  tlieorems,  and  profound 
speculations,  endeavoured  to  form  di-tinct 
notions  of  truth,  and  to  discover  its  hidden 
nature.  On  the  contrary,  they  maintained 
that  Silence,  tranquillity,  repose,  and  soli- 
tude, accompanied  with  such  acts  as  might 
tend  to  extenuate  and  exhaust  the  body, 
were  the  means  by  which  the  hidden  and 
internal  word  was  excited  to  produce  its 
latent  virtues,  and  to  instruct  men  in  the 
knowledge  of  divine  things  For  thus  they 
I'easoned  : — Those  who  behold  with  a  noble 
contempt  all  human  affairs ;  who  turn 
away  their  eyes  from  terrestrial  vanities, 
and  shut  all  the  avenues  of  the  outward 
senses  again.st  the  contagious  influences  of  a 
material  world,  must  necessarily  return  to 
God  when  the  spirit  is  thus  disengaged 
from  the  impediments  that  prevented  that 
happy  union  ;  and  in  this  blessed  frame 
they  not  only  enjoyed  inexpressible  raptures 
fro'u  their  communion  with  the  Supreme 
Being,  but  also  invested  with  the  inestima- 
ble privilege  of  cnntemplating  truth  undis- 
guised and  uncorrupted  in  its  native  purity, 
while  others  behold  it  in  a  vitiated  and  de- 
lusive form. 

'I'he  number  of  the  Mystics  increased  iii 
the  fourth  century,  under  the  influence  of 
the  Grecian  fanatic,  who  gave  himself  out  11 
for  Dionysins  the  Areopagite,  disciple  ofi 
St.  Paul,"  and  profjably  lived  about  this  pe-! 
riod  ;  and  by  pretending  to  higher  degrees  j 
of  perfection  than  other  Christians,  andjl 
practising   greater    austerity,    their    cause  il 


gained  grourid,  especially  in  the  eastern 
l)roviiices,  in  the  filth  century.  A  coj)y  of 
the  pretended  works  of  Dionysius  wiis  sent 
by  Balbus  to  Lewis  the  Aleek,  in  the  year 
824,  which  kindled  the  only  flame  of  mys- 
ticism in  the  western  pro\inces,  and  hlled 
the  Latins  with  the  most  enthusiastic  ad- 
mirati(;n  of  this  new  religion.  In  the  twelfth 
century  these  Mystics  took  the  lead  in  their 
method  of  expounding  the  scrijitures.  la 
the  thirteenth  century  they  were  the  most 
formidable  antagonists  of  the  schoolmen ; 
and,  towards  the  close  of  the  fourteenth, 
many  of  tlu  m  resided  and  prcjpagated  their 
tenets  almost  in  every  part  of  Eui-ope. 
They  had,  in  the  fifteenth  century,  many 
persons  of  distinguished  merit  in  their  num- 
ber ;  and  in  the  sixteentii  century,  previous 
to  the  reformation,  if  any  sparks  of  real 
jnety  subsisted  under  the  despotic  empire 
of  sujjersiition,  they  were  only  to  be  found 
among  the  Mjstics.  I'he  celebrated  Ma- 
dam li^urignon,  and  the  amiable  Fenelon, 
arclibishop  of  Cambray,  were  of  this  sect. 
Dr  Haweis,  in  speakmg  of  the  Mystics, 
Church  History,  vol.  iii.  p.  47,  thus  observes: 
"  Among  those  calkd  iVIystics,  1  am  per- 
suaded some  were  found  who  loved  God  out 
of  a  pure  heart  fervently  ;  and  though  they 
were  ridiculed  and  reviled  for  proposing  a 
disinterestedness  of  love  without  other 
motives,  and  as  jjrofessing  to  feel  in  the 
enjoyment  of  the  temper  itself  an  abun- 
dant reward,  their  holy  and  heavenly  con- 
versation will  carry  a  stamp  of  real  religion 
upon  it. 

As  the  late  lleverend  William  Law,  who 
was  born  in  1687,  makes  a  distinguished 
figure  among  the  modern  Mystics,  a  brief 
account  of  the  outhncs  of  his  system  may, 
perhaps,  be  entertaining  to  some  readers  — 
He  supposed  that  the  material  world  was 
the  very  region  which  originally  belonged 
to  the  fallen  angels.  At  length  the  light 
and  spirit  of  G-  d  entered  into  the  chaos,  and 
turned  the  angel's  ruined  kingdom  into  a 
paradise  on  earth  God  tiien  created  man, 
and  placed  him  t'lere.  He  was  made  in 
the  image  of  the  Triune  God,  a  living  mir- 
ror of  the  Divine  nature,  formed  to  enjoy 
communion  with  Father,  Son,  and  Holy 
(iliost,  and  live  on  earth  as  the  angels  do 
in  heaven.  He  was  endowed  with  immoi'- 
tality,  so  that  the  elements  of  this  i^utvvard 
world  C'>uld  not  have  any  power  of  acting 
on  his  body  ;  but  by  his  fall  he  changed  the 
!ic,ht,  life,  and  spirit  of  God  for  the  light, 
life,  and  spirit  of  the  world.  He  died  the 
very  day  of  his  transgression  to  all  the  in- 
fluences and  operations  of  the  spirit  of  God 
upon  him,  as  we  die  in  the  influences  of 
this  wpi'ld  wiien  t'le  soul  leaves  the  bodv  ; 
and  all  the  influences  and  operatiotis  of  the 
elements  of  this  life  were  open  in  him,  as 
they  are  in  any  animal,  at  his  birth  into 
this  world:  he  became  an  earthly  creature, 
subject  to  the  dominion  of  this  outward 
world,  and  stood  only  in  the  highest  rank  of 
animals.    But  the  goodness  of  God  wculd 


N  A  T 


34.6 


NAT 


not  leave  man  in  tliis  condition  :  redemption  ' 
from  it  wris  immediately  i^i'antcd,  and  the 
bruiser  of  tlie  serpent  brought  the  life, 
light,  and  &])irit  of  lieaven,  once  more  into 
the  human  natrne.  All  men,  in  consequence 
of  the  redemption  of  Christ,  have  in  tliem 
the  first  spark,  or  seed,  of  the  Divine  life, 
as  a  treasure  hid  in  the  centre  of  our  souls, 
to  bring  forth,  by  degrees,  a  new  birth  of 
that  life  which  was  lost  in  paradise.  No 
son  of  Adam  can  he  lost,  only  by  tuming 
away  from  the  Saviour  Avithin  him.  T!ie 
only  religion  which  can  save  us,  must  be 
that  which  can  raise  the  light,  life,  and 
spirit  of  God  in  our  souls.  Nothing  can 
enter  into  tlie  vegetable  kingdom  till  it  have 
the  vegetable  life  in  it,  or  be  a  member  of 
the  animal  kingdom  till  it  have  the  animal 
life.  Thus  all  nature  joins  with  the  Gcs- 
pel  in  affirming  that  no  man  can  enter  into 
tlie  kingdom    of  heaven  till  the  heavenly 


^  life  is  born  in  him.  Nothing  can  be  our 
righteousness  or  recovery  but  the  divine  na- 
ture of  Jesus  Christ  derived  to  our  souls. 
Laiv's  Life  Lar/s  Spirit  of  Prayer  and 
Jpfieal.  Law's  S/iirU  ((f  Love,  and  on 
Rif^cneration. 

MYTHOLOGY,    in  its  original  import, 
signifies  any  kind  of  fabulous   doctrine.     In 
its  more  appropriated  sense,  it  means  those 
fabulous    details  concerning   the    objects  ol 
wovsliip,  which   were  invented  and  propa- 
;  gated  by  mrn  who  lived  in  the  early  ages 
:  of  the  world,  and   hy  them  transmitted  to 
1  succeeding    generations,    either   by  written 
j  records  or  by  oral  tradition.      See  articlet. 
jHkathkn,  Paganism,   and  Gale's  Court 
of  tlie  Gcnlilts,  a  work  calculated  to  shew 
I  that  the   Pagan   philosophers  derived  their 
I  most    sublime   sentiments    from   the    scrip- 
tures.     Bryant's  System  of  jincie?it  My' 
1  tholoi^v. 


N. 


NAME  OF  GOD.  By  this  term  we 
are  to  understand,  3.  God  himself,  Ps.  xx. 
1. — 2.  His  titles  peculiar  to  himself,  Exnd. 
iii.  13,  14. — 3  His  word.  Ps.  v.  11.  Acts 
ix.  15. — 4.  His  works,  Ps.  viii.  1. — 5.  His 
%vorship,  Exod.  xx.  24. — 6.  His  perfections 
and  excelli  ncies,  Exod.  xxxiv.  6.  John 
xvit  26  The  properties  or  qualities  of 
this  name  arc  these  ;  1  A  glorious  name, 
Ps.  Ixxii  17. — 2.  Transcendant  atid  incom- 
parable. Rev.  xix.  16. — 3  Powerful,  Phil.  ii. 
10. — 4.  Holy  and  reverend,  Ps.  cxi.  9 — .^f. 
Awful  to  the  wicked. — 6  Perpetvial,  Is.  Iv. 
13.  Crudeii's  Concorda^ice.  Hannam's 
Jnal   Comjx.  p.  20 

N.\TIVITY  OF  CHRIST.  The  birth 
of  our  Saviour  v/as  exactly  as  predicted  by 
the  prophecie.s  of  the  Okl  'i'esfamcnt,  Isa. 
vii.  14.  Jer.  xxxi.  22.  He  vvas  born  of  a 
virgin  of  the  house  of  David,  and  of  the 
tribe  of  Judah,  Matthew  i.  Luke  i.  27. 
His  coming  into  the  world  was  after  the 
manner  of  other  men,  th.ough  his  r;eneration 
and  conception  were  extraordinary.  The 
place  of  his  birth  was  Bethlehem,  Mic.  v. 
".  Matt,  ii  4,  6.  where  his  parents  v,-ere 
■•.vonderfully  conducted  in  providence,  Lnke 
ii.  1,  7.  The  time  of  his  birth  was  f  retold 
by  the  prophets  to  be  before  tlie  sceptre  or 
civil  government  departed  from  Judah,  Gen. 
xlix  10  Ma!  iii.  1.  Hag.  ii.  6.  7,  9.  D.in 
ix.  24  ;  but  the  exact  year  of  his  birth  is 
not  agreed  on  i)y  chronologers,  !nit  it  was 
a!)out  tlie  four  thousandth  j^ear  of  the  world; 
nor  ran  the  season  of  the  year,  the  month, 
and  day  in  which  he  was  born,  be  as- 
certained. The  Kt^vptians  placed  it  in  Jan- 
nary  ;  VVagenseil,  in  Ftbmary;  Pc  chart,  in 
?.!ai-ch;    some,   mentioned   by   Clement  of 


Alexandria,  in  April  ;  others,  in  May  ; 
Epiphanius  speaks  of  some  who  placed  it  in 
June,  and  of  others  who  .supposed  it  to  have 
been  in  July  ;  Wagenseil,  who  was  not  sure 
of  February,  fixed  it  probably  in  August  ; 
Lightfoot,  on  the  fifteenth  of  September ; 
Scaliger,  Casaubon,  and  Calvisius,  in  C)cto- 
ber;  others  in  November;  and  the  Latin 
church  in  December.  It  does  not,  how- 
ever appear  probable  that  the  vulgar  account 
is  right ;  the  circumstance  of  the  shep- 
herds watcliing  their  flocks  by  night,  agrees 
not  with  the  winter  season.  Dr.  Gill  thinks 
it  was  more  likely  in  Autumn,  in  the  month 
of  September,  at  the  feast  of  tabernacles, 
to  which  there  stems  some  reference  in 
John  i.  14.  The  scripture,  however,  as- 
sures us  that  it  was  in  the  "fulness  of  time"' 
(ial.  iv.  4 ;  and,  indeed,  the  wisdom  of 
God  is  evidently  displayed  as  to  the  time 
when,  as  well  as  the  end  for  which  Christ 
came. 

It  was  in  a  time  when  the  world  stood 
in  need  of  such  a  Saviom-,  and  was  best^ 
prepared  for  receiving  him.  "  About  the 
time  of  Christ's  appearance,"  says  Dr. 
Robertson.  "  there  prevailed  a  general  opi- 
nion that  the  Alinigiity  would  send  forth 
some  eminent  messenger  to  connnunicate 
a  more  perfect  discovery  of  Ins  will  to  nian- 
kin-l.  Tlie  dignity  of  Christ,  the  viitues 
of  his  charactor,  the  glory  of  his  kingdom 
and  the  .signs  of  his  coming,  were  described 
l)y  the  ancient  prophets  with  the  utmost 
perspicuity. — Guided  by  the  sure  word  of 
prophi'cv.  the  Jews  of  that  age  concluded 
the  period  predetermined  bv  God  to  !)e  then 
completed,  and  that  the  promised  Messiah 
would  suddenly  appear,  Luke  ii.   25  to  3^. 


NAT 


347 


NAT 


Xor  were  these  expectations  peculiar  to 
the  Jews.  By  their  dispersions  among  so 
many  nations,  by  their  conversation  with 
the  learned  men  among  the  lieathens,  and 
the  transhition  of  their  inspired  writings 
into  a  language  almost  nniversal,  the  prin- 
ciples dt"  their  religion  wt.iv  spread  all  over 
tile  East ;  and  it  b.-came  the  common  be- 
lief that  a  Prince  would  arise  at  that  time 
in  Jiidea,  who  should  cliangc  the  face  of  the 
world,  and  extend  its  emjjire  from  one  end 
of  t'ae  cartii  to  the  other.  Now,  had 
Christ  been  manifested  at  a  more  c;ir!y 
period,  the  world  would  not  have  been  ])re- 
pared  to  meet  him  with  the  same  fondness 
and  zea!  :  had  his  appearance  been  put  off 
for  any  considerable  time,  men's  expecta- 
tions would  have  begun  to  languisli,  and 
the  warmth  of  desire,  from  a  delay  tf 
gratification,  might  have  cooled  and  died 
away. 

"  I'he  birth  of  Christ  was  also  in  the  ful- 
ness of  time,  if  we  consider  the  tlien  pcti- 
deal  s'ate  of  the  world.  Tlie  world,  in  the 
most  early  ages,  was  divided  into  small  iu- 
dependent  states,  differing  from  each  other 
in  language,  manners,  laws,  and  religion. 
The  shock  of  so  many  opposite  interests, 
the  interfering  of  so  many  contrary  views, 
occasioned  the  most  violent  convulsions  and 
disorders  :  perpetual  discord  subsisted  be- 
tween these  rival  states,  and  hostility  and 
bloodshed  never  ceased.  Commerce  had 
not  hitherto  united  mankind,  and  opened 
the  communication  of  one  nation  with  ano- 
ther :  voyages  into  remote  countries  were 
very  rare  :  men  moved  in  a  narrow  circle, 
little  acquainted  with  any  thing  beyond  the 
limits  of  their  own  small  territory.  At 
last  the  Roman  ambition  undertook  the 
arduous  enterprise  of  conquering  the  world; 
Thfij  trod  down  the  kirigdoms,  according 
to  Daniel's  prophetic  description,  by  their 
exceeding  strengihj  they  devoured  the 
ivhole  earth,  Dan.  vii.  7,  23.  However,  by 
enslaving  tlie  world,  they  civilized  it,  and 
while  they  oppn  ssed  mankind,  they  united 
them  together:  the  same  laws  were  every 
were  established,  and  the  same  languages 
understood  ;  men  a])proached  nearer  to  one 
another  in  sentiments  and  manners,  and 
the  intercourse  between  the  most  distaiit 
corners  of  the  earth  was  rendered  secure 
and  agrcealile.  Satiated  with  victory,  the 
first  emperors  abandoned  all  thout^hts  of 
)iew  conquests  ;  peace,  an  unknown  blessing, 
was  enjoyed  through  all  that  vast  empire^; 
or  if  a  slight  war  was  waged  on  an  outly- 
ing and  barbarous  frontier,  far  from  dis- 
turbing the  tranquillity,  it  scarcely  drew 
the  attention  of  mankind.  The  disciples 
of  Christ,  thus  favoured  by  the  union  and 
I)eacc  of  the  Roman  empire,  executed  their 
comm.ission  with  great  advantage.  The 
success  and  raj/idity  witli  wliich  they  dif- 
fused the  knowledge  of  his  name  over  the 
world  are  astonishir.g.  Nations  were  now 
accessible  whicli  formerly  had  been  un- 
know.i.    Under  this  situation,    into   which 


the   providence   of  God  had  brought  the 
world,    the  joyful  sound  in   a  few    yeans 
reached  those  "remote  corners  of  the  earth 
into    which    it   Cuuld   not    otherwise    have 
perictrated  for  majiy  ages.    Thus  the   Ro- 
o'.an  Hiiibiti  n  and   br.ivviy  paved  the  way, 
aotl  prepared  the  world  for  the  reception  of 
i  the  Christian  doctrine." 
I      If   vve   consider  the   state    of  the  world 
wit!-,  regard  to  morals,  it  evidently  appears 
I  that  tiie  coming  of  Christ  was  at  the  most 
j  appi'cpriaie    time.     "  The    Romans,"   con- 
Uiiiues  our  author,  "  by  subduing  the  world, 
!  i'  St  their  own  liberty.     .M  jiy  vices,   engen- 
;  dered  or  nourislied  by  pni.spei'ity,  delivered 
ihem  over  iv  the  vilest  race  of  tyrants  that 
1  ever  afflicted  or   disgraced    human  nature. 
The  Colours  are  not   too  strong  which  the 
!  ap:stle  employs   in  drawing   the   character 
i  of  that  age.     See  Eph.  iv.  17,  19.      In  this 
'tinie  of   universal  corruption  did   the    wis- 
^  dom   of  (iod  manifest  the  Christian  reve- 
( lation  to  tlic  world.     What  the   wisdom  of 
i  men  could    do   for   tlu;   encouragement    of 
i  virtue  in  a  corri!])t  world   had  been  tried 
I  during  sever.  1  ages,  and  all  human  devices 
I  were    found  by  experience  to    be    of    very 
I  small  avail  ;  so  that  no  juncture   could   be 
I  more  proper  for  publishing  a  religion,  which 
indtpeiidm:  :f  human  laws  and  institution^ 
j  explains  the  princi])les  of  morals   with    ad- 
I  mirable  perspicuity,  and  enforces  the  prac- 
tice   of  them    by    most    persuasive    argu- 
I  ments." 

I      The  wisdom  of    God    will    still    farther 
I  appear  in  the  time   of  Christ's    coming,  if 
we   consider   the   world  with  regard  to  its 
relii^ioiis  state.     "  Th.e   Jews  seem  to  have 
been     deeply    tinctured    with    superstition. 
iDeligh.ted  with  the  ceremonial  prescription.s 
of  the  law,  they  utterly  neglected  the  mora!. 
1  While  the  Pharisees   undermined   religion, 
['on  the  one  hand,   by  their  vain   traditions 
land    wretched    in.terpretations  of  the    law. 
iidie   Sadducees  denied   the    immortality  of 
I  the  soul,  and  overturned  the  doctrine  of  fu- 
I  tare  rev.-ards  and  punishments  ;  so  tliat  be- 
tween them   the   knowledge   and   power  of 
I  true  religion  v/ere  entirely  destroyed.     But 
the    deplora!)le    situation    of    the    heathen 
world  called  still  more  loudly  for  an  imme- 
diate interpo.sal  of  the  divine  hand.     The 
chavucters  of  their  heathen  deities  were  in- 
famous,  and   their    religious    worship  con- 
sisted   fi'equently    in    t!ie    vdest    aiid    most 
shameful  rites.     According  to  the  apostle's 
observation,  they  -uerc  in  all  things  too  sii- 
fierstiiious.     iStately  temples,  expensive  sa- 
crifices,   pompous   ceremonies,   magnificent 
festivals,    with  ail  the  other  circumstances 
of   slicw  and    splendour,    were  the  obj-.-cts 
which  false  religion  i)resented  to   its  vota- 
ries :    but  just  notions  of  Ciod,  o'jedience  to 
I  his  moral  laws,  purity  of  heart,  and  sui.cti- 
ty  of  life,    wei-e  not  once  mentioned  as  in- 
gredients in  religious  service.    7?07ne  adopt- 
ed  the  gcds   of  almost  every  nation  wlmm 
she  had  conquered,  and  opened  her  tem.plcs 
to   the   grossest  superstitions  of  the   most 


NAT 


348 


IV  xV  z 


barbarous  people.  Her  foolish  heart  being 
darkened,  slie  changed  the  glory  t>t  the  in- 
corruptible God  into  an  image  made  like 
to  coniiptible  man,  and  to  birds,  and  fcur- 
"  footed  beasts,  and  creeping  things,  Rom.  i. 
21,  23.  No  period,  theref,  tl-,  can  be  men- 
tioned when  instructions  would  have  been 
more  seas(jnable  and  necessary;"  and  no 
wonder  that  those  who  were  looking  for  sal- 
vation should  joyfully  exclaim,  "  Bkssedbe 
the  Lord  G(,d  of  Israel,  for  he  hath  visited 
and  redeemed  his  people." 

The  nativity  of  Christ  is  celebrated 
among  us  on  tlie  twenty -fifth  day  of  Decem- 
ber, and  divine  service  is  performed  in  the 
church,  and  in  many  places  of  worship 
among  dissenters;  hut  alas'  t!ie  ;iay,  we 
fear,  is  nunv  generally  pn  faned  than  im- 
proved. Instead  of  being  a  season  of  real 
devodoji,  it  is  a  season  of  great  diversion. 
The  luxury,  extravagance,  intemperance, 
obscene  pk-asures,  and  drunkenness  that 
abound,  are  striking  proofs  of  the  immorali- 
ties of  the  age.  "  It  is  matter  of  just  com- 
plaint," says  a  divine,  "  that  sucli  irregu- 
lar and  extravagant  things  are  at  this 
time  commonly  done  by  many  who  call 
themselves  Christians;  as  if,  ixcause  the 
Son  of  God  was  at  this  time  made  7//ow,  it 
were  fit  for  men  to  make  themselves  dtasts.'^ 
Mmine's  Dissertation  on  the  Birth  of 
Christ.  Lardner^s  Cred.  page  i.  vol.  ii. 
page  796,  963.  Giirs  I iody  of  Divinity,  on 
Incarnation.  Hishofi  JLavj's  Theory  of  Re- 
ligion Dr.  Eobertson''s  admirable  Sermon 
on  the  situation  of  the  World  at  Christ's 
Afifiearance.  Edivards''  Redcriitiiion,  .113, 
316  liobinsofi's  Claude,  vol.  i.  page  276, 
317.  John  Edvards'  Survey  of  all  the 
Disfiensations  and  Alelhods  of  Religion, 
chap.  xiii.  vol.  i. 

NATURE,  the  essential  properties  of  a 
thing,  or  that  by  which  it  is  disUnguished 
from  all  others.  It  is  used  also,  for  the 
system  of  tiie  world,  and  tlie  Creator  of  it ; 
the  aggregate  powers  of  the  human  body, 
and  commi  n  sense,  Rom  i  26,  27.  1  Cor. 
xj.  14.  Tiie  w(.rd  is  also  used  in  reference 
to  a  variety  of  other  objects,  which  we 
shall  here  enumerate.  1.  The  divine  nature 
is  not  an  external  form  or  shape,  but  his  glc- 
ry,  excellency,  and  perfections,  peculiar  to 
himself — -2.  Human  nature  signifies  the 
state  properties,  and  jecu'i-Hritics  of  man. 
—3.  Good  nature  is  a  dis])nsition  to  please, 
and  is  cr.miJf.unded  of  kindness,  forbear- 
ance, forgiveness,  and  s;  If-denial. — 4.  T]ie 
lavj  of  nature,  is  the  will  of  God  relating 
to  human  yrtinns,  grovmded  in  the  moral 
differences  of  things.  Se.me  understand  it 
in  a  more  comprehensive  sense,  as  signify- 
ing those  stated  orders  tiy  which  all  the 
parts  of  tlie  material  world  are  governed 
in  their  sev-ral  motioris  and  operations. — 5. 
The  light  of  nuiure  docs  not  consist  merely 
in  those  ideas  which  heathens  have  iiCtnally 
attained,  but  those  which  are  prest  nted  to 
rnen  by  the  works  of  creation,  av,d  which, 
by  the  exertion  of  leasnn,  they  may  obtain, 


if  they  be  desirous  of  retaining  God  in  their 
inind  See  Religk^n. — 6.  By  the  dictates 
of  nature,  with  regard  to  right  and  wnmg, 
we  understand  tho^e  things  which  appear 
to  the  mind  to  be  natural,  fit,  or  reasona- 
l)le. — 7.  The  state  of  nature  is  that,  in 
whicii  men  have  not  by  nmtual  engage- 
ments, implicit  or  express,  entered  intocom- 
nnuiitics.  8.  Dtfiraved  nature  \^  ih^X.  Cdv- 
rupt  state  in  which  all  mankind  are  born, 
and  wliich  inclines  them  to  evil. 

N.\ZARENES,Christians converted  from 
Judaism,  whose  chief  error  consisted  in  de- 
fending the  necessity  or  exptditncy  of  the 
worksof  the  law,  and  who  obstinately  adhered 
to  the  practice  of  t!ie  Jewish  ceremonies. 
The  name  of  Nazarenes,  at  first,  had  iio- 
tliing  odious  in  it,  and  it  was  often  given  to 
tiie  first  Christians.  The  fathers  frequently 
mention  the  Gospel  of  the  Nazarenes, 
wliich  differs  nothing  from  tliat  of  St.  Mat- 
diew,  which  was  either  in  Hebrew  or  Sy- 
riac,  for  the  use  of  the  first  concerts,  but 
was  afterwards  corrupted  by  the  Ebionites. 
These  Nazarenes  preserved  this  first  Gos- 
pel in  its  primitive  purity.  Some  of  them 
were  still  in  being  in  the  time  of  St  Jerome, 
who  docs  not  reproach  them  with  any  er- 
rors. Tiiey  were  very  zealous  c)bservers  of 
tlie  law  of  Moses,  but  held  the  traditions 
of  the  Pharisees  in  very  great  contempt. 

The  word  J\'a-^arene  was  given  to  Jesus 
Christ  and  his  disciples ;  and  is  commonly 
taken  in  a  sense  of  derision  and  contempt 
in  such  authors  as  have  written  against 
Christianitv- 

NAZARITES.  those  under  the  ancient 
lav,'  who  made  a  vow  of  observing  a  more 
tlian  ordinary  degree  of  purity,  as  Samson 
and  Jolin  the  Baptist.  The  Nazarites  en- 
gaged by  a  \'0W  to  abstain  fi-om  wine  and 
all  intoxicating  liquors  :  to  let  their  hair 
grow  without  cutting  or  shaving  ;  not  to  en- 
ter into  any  house  that  was  polluted,  by 
having  a  dead  corpse  in  it ;  nor  to  be  pre- 
sent at  any  fimeral.  And  if  by  chance  any 
one  slinuld  have  died  in  their  jjresence,  they 
began  again  the  whole  certniony  of  their 
consccratien  and  Nazariteship — This  cere- 
mony generally  lasted  eight  days,  some- 
times a  month,  and  sometimes  their  whole 
lives.  When  the  time  of  their  Nazarite- 
ship was  accompli.'^hed,  the  priest  lirought 
the  ])ersnn  to  the  door  of  the  temple,  w!io 
there  offered  to  the  Lord  a  he-lamb  for  a 
burnt-iffering,  a  she-lamb  for  an  ex])iatory 
sacrifice,  and  a  ram  for  a  peace-offering. 
Thev  offend  likewise  loaves  and  cakes, 
v.'ith  wine  necessary  for  the  libations.  After 
all  this  was  sacrificed  and  offered  to  the 
Lord,  the  priest  or  some  other  person,  sha- 
ved the  head  of  the  Nazarite  at  the  door 
of  the  tabernacle,  and  burnt  his  hair,  throw- 
ing it  upon  tiie  fire  of  the  altar.  Then  the 
priest  put  into  the  hand  of  the  Nazarite 
the  shoulder  of  the  ram,  roasted,  with  a 
I'.nf  and  a  cake,  which  the  Nazarite  re- 
ti-i;;iig  into  the  hniu's  of  the  priest,  he  of- 
'fered  them  to  the  Lord,  lifting  them  up  in 


NEC 


349 


NEC 


the  presence  of  the  Nazarite.  And  h-om 
this  time  he  might  again  drink  wine,  his 
ISazarittship  being  now  accomplished. 
Numb.  vi.     Amns  ii.  11,  12. 

Those  tliat  made  a  vow  of  Nasaritcship 
out  of  Palestine,  and  could  not  come  to  the 
temple  when  their  vow  was  expired,  con- 
tented tlicmsflves  v^ith  obscrvinj?  the  ab- 
stinence required  bytlie  law,  and  after  that, 
cutting  their  hair  in  the  place  where  they 
were  :  as  to  tlie  nfferint^s  and  sacrifices  pre- 
scribed by  Aiosts,  which  were  to  be  of- 
fered at  the  temple  by  themselves,  or  by 
others  for  them,  they  deferred  this  till  they 
could  have  a  convenient  opportunity.  Hence 
it  was  that  St.  Paul,  being  at  Corinth,  and 
having  made  a  vow  of  a  Nazai'ite,  had  his 
hair  cut  off  at  Cenchrea,  and  put  off  fulfill- 
ing thf  rest  of  his  vow  till  he  siiould  ar- 
rive at  Jerusalem,  Acts  xviii.  IS.  When 
a  person  found  that  he  was  not  in  a  condi- 
tion to  make  a  vow  of  Nazariteship,  or 
had  not  Icisiu'e  to  perform  the  ceremonies 
belonging  to  it,  he  contented  himself  by  con- 
tributing to  the  expence  of  the  sacrifice 
and  offerings  of  these  that  had  made  and 
fullilied  this  vow;  and  by  this  means  he 
became  a  partaker  in  the  merit  of  such 
Nazariteship.  When  St.  Paul  came  to 
Jerusalem,  in  the  year  of  Christ  53,  the 
apostle  St.  James  the  Less  with  the 
other  hretliren,  said  to  him  (Acts  xxi.  23, 
24,)  that  to  quiet  the  minds  of  the  convert- 
ed Jews,  who  had  been  informed  that  he 
eveiy  where  preached  uj)  tlie  entire  aboli- 
tion of  the  law  of  Moses,  he  ought  to 
join  himself  to  four  of  the  faithful  who  had 
a  vow  of  Nazariteship  upon  them,  and  con- 
tribute to  the  charge  of  the  ceremony  at 
the  shaving  of  their  heads  ;  by  which  the 
new  converts  would  perceive  that  he  con- 
tinued to  keep  tlie  law,  and  that  what  tiicy 
had  heard  of  him  was  not  true : 

NECESSARIANS,  an  appellation  which 
may  be  given  to  all  who  maintain  that  mo- 
ral agents  act  from  necessity.  See  next  ar- 
ticle, and  Materialists. 

NECESSITY,  whatever  is  done  by  a 
cause  or  power  that  is  irresistible,  in  which 
sense  it  is  opposed  to  freedom.  Man  is  a 
ncci-'ssary  agent,  if  ail  his  actions  be  .so  de- 
termined by  the  causes  preceding  each 
action,  that  not  one  past  action  ould  possi- 
bly not  have  come  to  pass,  or  have  been 
otherwise  than  it  hath  been,  nor  one  future 
action,  can  possibly  not  come  to  pass,  or  be 
otherwise  than  it  shall  be.  On  tiir  other 
hand,  it  is  asserted,  that  he  is  a  fi  re  agent, 
if  he  be  able  at  any  time,  under  tlie  causes 
and  circumstances  he  then  is,  »  ;  do  diffe 
rent  things;  or,  in  otiier  words,  if  he  be  not 
unavoidably  determined  in  everv  p  'int  nl" 
time  by  the  circ\imstances  he  is  iii,'and  tht 
causes  he  is  under,  to  do  any  one  thing  he 
does,  and  not  possibly  to  do  any  ot\y>-  tiling. 
Whether  man  is  a  necessary  o!  i  free 
agent,  is  a  question  which  has  "been  deba- 
ted by  writers  of  the  first  eminence. 
Hobbes,  Collins,  Hume,    Leibnitz,  Kaims, 


Hartley,  Priestly,  Edwards,  Crumble,  Top- 
lady,  and  Beisiium,  have  written  on  tlie 
side  of  necessity  ;  while  Clarke,  King,  Law, 
Reid,  Butler,  Price,  Bryant,  WoUasloii, 
Hoisley,  Beattie,  Gregory,  and  liutterwoith, 
have  written  again.st  it.  To  state  all  their 
arguments  in  this  place,  would  take  up  too 
much  rn()m  ;  sufiice  it  to  say,  that  the  Anti- 
necessarians  suppi.se  that  the  doctrine  of 
necessity  ciiarges  God  as  the  author  of  sin  : 
that  it  takes  away  the  freedom  of  the  will, 
renders  man  unaccountable,  makes  sin  to 
be  no  evil,  and  morality  or  virtue  to  be  no 
good  ;  precludes  the  use  of  means,  and  is  of 
the  most  gloomy  tendency.  The  Necessari- 
ans deny  these  to  be  legitim.ate  consequen- 
ces, and  observe  that  tiie  Deity  acts  no 
more  immorally  in  decreeing  vicious  actions, 
than  in  permitting  all  those  irregulaiitie!^ 
which  he  could  so  easily  have  prevent- 
ed. The  difficulty  is  the  same  on  each 
hypothesis.  All  necessity,  say  they,  doth 
not  take  away  freedom.  The  actions  of  a 
man  may  be  at  one  and  the  same  time  free 
and  necessary  too.  It  was  infallibly  certain 
that  Judas  would  betray  Christ,  yet  he  did 
it  voluntarily.  Jesus  Christ  necessarily  be- 
came man,  and  died,  yet  he  acted  freely. 
A  good  man  doth  naturally  and  necessarily 
love  his  children,  yet  voluntarily.  It  is 
part  of  the  happiness  of  the  blessed  to  love 
God  unchangeably,  yet  freely,  for  it  would 
not  be  their  happiness,  if  done  by  compul- 
sion. Nor  does  it,  says  the  Necessarian, 
render  man  unaccountable,  since  the  Di- 
vine Being  does  no  injury  to  his  rational 
faculties  ;  and  man,  as  his  creature,  is  an- 
swerable to  him  ;  besides,  he  has  a  right  to 
do  what  he  will  with  his  own.  That  neces- 
sity doth  not  render  actions  less  morally- 
good,  is  evident ;  for  if  necessary  virtue  be 
neither  moral  nor  praise-worthy,  it  will  fol- 
low that  God  himself  is  not  a  moral  being, 
because  he  is  a  necessary  one ;  and  the  obe- 
dience of  Christ  cannot  be  good,  because  it 
was  necessary.  Farther,  say  they,  necessi- 
ty does  not  preclude  the  use  of  means  ;  for 
means  are  no  less  appointed  than  the  end. 
It  VN^as  ordained  that  ('hrist  should  be  de- 
livered up  to  death ;  but  he  could  not  have 
bef  n  betrayed  without  a  betrayer,  nor  cruci- 
fied without  criicifiers.  That  it  is  not  a 
gloomy  doctrine,  tliey  allege,  because  no- 
thing can  be  more  consolatory  than  to  be- 
lieve that  all  things  are  under  the  direction 
of  an  all-wise  Being  ;  that  his  kingdom  ru- 
leth  over  all,  and  that  he  doth  all  things 
well.  So  far  from  its  being  inimical  to  hap- 
piness, they  suppose  there  c;>.n  be  no  solid 
true  happiness  without  the  belief  of  it;  that 
it  inspires  gratitude,  excites  confidence, 
teaches  resignation,  produces  humility,  and 
dravv's  the  soul  to  God.  It  is  also  observed, 
that  to  deny  necessity  is  to  deny  the  fore- 
knowledge of  God,  and  to  wrest  the  scep- 
tre from  the  hand  of  the  Creator,  and  t 
place  that  capricious  and  undetin able  prir 
ciple — the  self-determining  power  of  man- 
upo.n  the  thrcne  of  the  universe.    Beside. 


NE  O 


350 


NEO 


say  they,  the  scripture  places  the  doctrine 
beyond  all  doubt,  Job  xxiii.  13,  14.  Job 
xxxiv.  29.  Prov.  xvi.  4,  Is.  xlv.  7.  Acts 
xiii.  48.  Eph.  i.  11.  1  Thess.  hi.  3.  Matt. 
X  29,  30.  JVIatt.  xviii.  7.  Luke  xxiv.  26. 
John  vi.  37.  See  the  works  of  the  above 
mentioned  writers  on  the  subject ;  and  ar- 
ticles Materialists,  and  Predestina- 
tion. 

NECROLOGY,  formed  of  v£y,/)os,  dead, 
and  A()"/«?>di.scourse,  or  enumeration  i  a  book 
anciently  kept  in  churches  and  monasteries, 
•vvhtrcin  were  registered  tli,e  benefactors  ri 
the  same,  the  time,  of  their  deaths,  and  the 
days  of  tlicir  commemoration  :  as  also  the 
deaths  of  the  priors,  aljbots,  relii^ious  canons, 
&c  This  was  otherwise  called  calendar 
and  obiluarif. 

NECROMANCY,  the  art  of  revealing 
future  events  by  conversing  with  the  dead. 
See  Divination. 

NEONOMIANS,  so  called  from  the  Greek 
via,  Titnv  and  v9,m,o5,  law  ;  signifying  a  iieiv 
law,  the  condiu(^n  whereof  is  imperfect, 
though  sincere  and  persevering  obedience. 
.  Neonomianism  seems  to  be  aTi  essential 
part  of  the  Arminian  system.  "  The  new 
covenant  of  grace,  which,  tlirough  the  me- 
dium of  Christ's  death,  the  Father  made 
with  men,  consists,  accordingto  this  system, 
not  in  our  being  justiiied  by  faith,  as  it  ap- 
prehends the  righteousness  of  Cl\rist ;  but  in 
this,  that  God,  abrogating  the  exaction  of 
perfect  legal  obedience,  reputes  or  accepts 
of  faith  itself,  and  the  impeifect  obedience 
of  faith,  instead  of  the  perfect  obedience  of 
the  law,  and  graciously  accounts  them  Avor- 
tliy  of  the  reward  of  eternal  life." — This 
opinion  was  examined  at  the  synod  of 
Drrt,  and  has  been  canvassed  between  the 
Calvinists  and  Arminians  on  various  occa- 
sions. 

Towards  the  close  of  the  seventeenth 
century,  a  controversy  was  agitated  amongst 
the  Englisli  Dissenters,  in  which  the  one 
side,  who  were  partial  to  the  writings  of 
Dr.  Crisp,  were  chinged  with  ylntlnomian- 
um,  and  the  other,  who  favoured  Mr.  Bax- 
ter, were  accused  of  Neonomianism.  Dr. 
Daniel  Williams,  who  was  a  principal  wri- 
ter on  what  was  called  the  Nconomian  side, 
after  many  things  had  been  said,  gives  the 
following  as  a  summary  of  his  faith  in  re- 
ference to  those  subjects. — "  1.  God  has 
eternally  elected  a  certain  definite  number 
of  men,  whom  he  will  infallibly  save  by 
Christ,  in  that  way  prescribed  by  the  Gos- 
pel.— 2.  These  very  elect  are  not  persona'ly 
justified  until  they  receive  Christ,  and  yield 
up  t!)emselves  to  him,  but  they  nmain  cen- 
deiTuied  whilst  unconverted  to  Christ. — 3 
By  the  ministry  of  the  Gospel,  there  is  a 
serious  ofler  of  pardon  and  Rlory,  u])on  t!ie 
terms  of  the  Gospel,  to  all  that  hear  it ;  and 
God  thert-Iiy  i-equires  them  to  comply  with 
the  said  terms — 4.  Ministers  ought  to  use 
these  and  other  Gospel  benefits  as  motives, 


assuring  men  that  if  they  belicA'e,  they  shall 
be  justified;  if  thuy  turn  to  God,  they  shall 
live  ;  if  they  repent,  their  sms  shall  be  blot- 
ted out;  and  whilst  they  neglect  these  du- 
ties, they  cannot  have  a  persoiidl  interest  in 
these  respective   benefu-s. — 5.  It  is  by  tiie 
power  of  the  Spirit  of  Christ  freely  exerted, 
and  not  by  the  power  of  free-will,   that  the 
Gospel  becomes  effectual  for  the  conversion 
of  any  soul  to  the  oljedience   (jf   faith. — 6. 
When  a  man  believes,  yet  is  not  that  very 
faith,   and    nmch  less  any  other  work,   tl.e 
matter  of  that  righteousness  for  which  a  sin- 
ner is  justified;  i.  e,  entitled  to  pardt^n,  ac- 
ceptance  as  rigliteous,   and  eternal  glory, 
betore  God ;  antl  it  is  the  imputed   righte- 
ousness of  Christ  alone,  for  which  the  Gos- 
pel gives  the  believer  a  right  to  these  and 
all  saving  blessings,  who  in  this  respect  is 
justified  by  Chri.st's  righteousness  alone.  By 
both  this  and  the  fifth  head  it  appears  that 
all  boasting  is  excluded,  and  we  are  saved 
by  free  grace. — 7.  Faith  alone  receives  the 
Lord  Jesus  and  his  righteousness,  and   the 
subject  of  this  faith  is  a  convinced,  penitent 
soul ;  hence  we  are  justified  by  faith  alone, 
and   yet  the  impenitent  are  not  forgiven.— 
8.  God  has  freely  promised  that  all  whom 
he  predestinated  to  salvation,  shall  not  only 
savingly  believe,   but  that  he  by  his  power 
shall  preserve  them  from  a  total  or  a  Jinal 
aposiacy. — 9.  Yet   the  believer,    whilst   he 
fives  in  this  world,  is  to  pass  the  time  of  his 
sojourning  here  with  fear,  because  his  war- 
fare is  not  accomplished,  and  that  it  is  true, 
that  if  he  draw  back,  God  will  have  no  plea- 
sure in  him.   Which  with  the  like  cautions, 
God  blesseth  as  means  to  the  saints'  perse- 
verance, and  these  by  ministers,   should  be 
so  urgeci. — 10.  The   laws  of  innocence,   or 
moral  law,  is  so  in  force  still,  as  that  every 
precept  thereof  ccjnstitutes  duty,  even  to  the 
believer;  every  breach  thereof  is  a  sin  de- 
serving of  death  :  this   law  binds  fleath  by 
its  curse  on  every  unbeliever,  and  the  righ- 
teousness for  or  by  which  we  are  justiiied 
before  God,   is  a   riglitecusness    (at   least) 
adequate  to  that  law  which  is  Christ's  alone, 
righteousness :  and  this  so  imputed  to  the 
believer,   as  that  God  deals  judicially  with 
him  according  thereto. — 1 1.  Yet  such  is  the 
grace  of  the  Gos])el,   that  it  promiseth   in 
and  by  Christ,  a  freedom   from  the  curse, 
forgiveness  of  sin,  and  eternal  life,  to  every 
sincere  behever ;  which  promise  God    will 
certainly     perform,      notv/ithstanding     the 
threatening  of  the  law." 

Dr.  W^illiams  maintains  the  conditionality 
of  the  covenant  of  grace  ;  but  adniits,  wrtJi 
Dr  Owen,  who  also  uses  the  term  f<57;(/;7?Vif, 
that  "  ("hrist  undertook  that  those  who 
were  to  be  taken  into  this  covenant,  slu'uld 
receive  grace,  enabling  them  tocomjily  with 
the  terms  of  it,"  fulfil  its  conditions,  and 
yield  the  obedience  which  God  required 
therein '' 

On  this  subject  Dr.  Wdliams  further  .says, 
"  The  question  is  not  whether  first  the  (viz. 


NE  O 


351 


NE  S 


regenerating)  grace,  by  wliich  we  are  enabled 
to  perform  tlie  coiuUtion,  he  abbcluttly  given. 
Tins  1  affirm,  thougli  that  be  dispensed  or- 
dinarily in  a  due  nse  of  means,  ar.d  in  a  way 
discountenancing  idleness,  ajid  P.t  encourage- 
ment given  to  tlip  use  of  means." 

The  following  objection  among  others,  was 
made  bv  several  ministers,  in  1692,  against 
Dr.  Williams'  Gos/nl  Truth  Stated,  cs'c. 
"■  'I'o  supply  the  room  of  the  moral  law,  va- 
cated by  him,  he  tm'ns  the  Gospel  into  a 
hew  law,  in  keeping  of  which  we  shall  be 
justified  for  the  sake  of  Christ's  rigliteous- 
uess,  making  qualifications  and  acts  of 
ours,  a  disposing  subordinate  righteousness, 
whereby  we  become  capable  of  being  justi- 
lierl  by  Christ's  righteousness." 

To  this  among  other  things  he  answers, 
"  The  difference  is  not,  1.  Whether  the 
Gospel  be  a  new  law  in  the  Socinian,  Po- 
pish, or  Arminian  sense  ?  This  I  deny.  Nor, 
2.  Is  faitli,  or  any  odier  grace  or  act  of  ours, 
any  atonement  for  sin,  satisfaction  to  justice, 
meriting  qualification,  or  any  part  of  that 
righteousness  for  which  we  are  justified  at 
God  our  Creator's  bar.  This  I  deny  in 
places  innumerable.  Nor,  3.  Whether  the 
Gospel  be  a  law  more  new  than  is  implied 
in  the  first  promise  to  fallen  Adam,  propos- 
ed to  Cain,  and  obeyed  by  Abel,  to  the  differ- 
encing him  from  his  unbelieving  brother  ? 
This  I  deny.  4.  Nor  whetl\er  the  Gospel 
be  a  law  that  allows  sin,  when  it  accepts 
such  graces  as  true,  though  short  of  perfec- 
tion, to  be  the  conditions  of  our  personal  in- 
terest in  the  benefits  purchased  by  Christ  ? 
This  I  deny.  5,  Nor  whetiier  the  Gospel 
be  a  law,  the  promises  whereof  entitle  the 
performers  of  its  conditions  to  the  benefits 
as  of  debt  .•'  This  I  deny. 

"  The  difference  is,  I.  Is  the  Gospel  a 
law  in  this  sense  ;  viz.  God  in  Christ  there- 
by commandeth  sinners  to  repent  of  sin,  and 
receive  Christ  by  a  true  operative  faith, 
pr  imising  that  thereupon  they  shall  be  uni- 
ted to  him,  justified  by  his  righteousness, 
pardoned,  and  adopted  ;  and  that,  persever- 
ing in  faith  and  true  holiness,  they  shall  be 
finally  saved :  also  threatening  that  if  any 
shall  die  impenitent,  unbelieving,  ungodly, 
rejecters  of  his  grace,  they  shall  perish 
without  relief,  and  endure  sorer  punishments 
than  if  these  offers  had  not  been  made  to 
them  ?— 2.  Hath  the  Gospel  a  sanction,  i.  e. 
doth  Christ  therein  enforce  his  commands 
of  faith,  repentance,  and  perseverance,  by 
the  aforesaid  prrimises  and  threatenings,  as 
motives  of  our  obedience .'  Both  tiiese  I  af- 
firm, and  they  deny;  saying  the  Gospel  in 
the  largest  sense  is  an  absolute  promise 
without  precepts  and  conditions,  and  a  Gos- 
pel threat  is  a  bull. — 3.  Do  the  Gospel  pro- 
mises of  benefits  to  certain  graces,  and  its 
threats  that  those  benefits  shall  be  withheld, 
and  the  contrary  evils  inflicted  for  the  ne- 
glect of  such  graces,  render  those  graces 
the  condition  of  our  personal  title  to  those 
benefits  ? — This  they  deny,  and  I  affirm," 
$cc. 


It  does  not  appear  to  have  been  a  ques* 
tion  in  this  controversy,  whether  God  in  his 
word  commands  sinners  to  rejjent  and  be- 
lieve in  Christ,  nor  whether  he  promises 
lifj  to  believers,  and  tlireatens  death  to  un- 
believers; !)ut  whether  it  be  tlie  Gospel 
under  the  form  of  a  new  law  that  thus 
commands  or  threaten*),  or  tiie  moral  law 
on  its  behalf,  and  whether  its  promises  to 
belie^ing  retider  such  believing  a  condition 
of  the  things  promised.  In  an(>t!ier  ccntro-i 
versy,  iiowever,  which  arose  about  forty 
years  afterwards  among  the  same  descrip- 
tion of  people,  it  became  a  question  ivhelher 
God  did  by  his  word  (call  it  law  or  Gospel) 
command  unregtnerate  dinners  to  repent 
and  believe  in  Christ,  or  to  do  any  thing 
which  is  spiritually  good.  Of  those  who 
took  the  affirmative  side  of  this  question, 
one  party  attempted  to  maintain  it  on  the 
ground  of  the  Gospel  being  a  new  law,  con- 
sisting of  commands,  promises,  and  threat- 
enings, the  terms  or  conditions  of  which 
were  repentance,  faith,  and  sincere  obedi- 
ence. But  those  who  first  engaged  in  the  con- 
troversy, though  they  allowed  the  encour- 
agement to  repent  and  believe,  to  arise 
merely  from  the  grace  of  the  Ciospel,  yet 
considered  the  formal  obligation  to  do  so  as 
arising  merely  from  the  moral  law,  which, 
requiring  supreme  love  to  God,  requires  ac- 
quiscence  in  any  revelation  which  he  shall 
at  any  time  make  known.  U'itsius'  Jreni- 
cum.  Edwards  on  the  Will,  p.  220.  Wil- 
liam's  Gospel  Truth'  Edwards'  L'rispian- 
ism  unmasked.  Chauncey's  J^eonomianism 
unmasked.     Adams'  View  of  Religions. 

NESTORIANS,  the  followers  of  Nesto- 
rius,  the  bishop  of  Constantinople,  who  lived 
in  the  fifth  century.  They  believed  that  in 
Christ  there  were  not  only  two  natures,  but 
two  persons,  or  if^rajTsts-f;? !  of  which  the 
one  was  diviiie,  even  the  eternal  word  ;  and 
the  other,  which  was  human,  was  the  man 
Jesus  ;  that  these  two  persons  had  only  one 
aspect  ;  that  the  union  between  the  Son  of 
God  and  the  son  of  man  was  formed  in  the 
moment  of  the  virgin's  conception,  and  was 
never  to  be  dissolved  ;  that  it  was  not,  how- 
ever, an  union  of  nature  or  of  person,  but 
but  only  of  will  and  affection ;  (Nestorius, 
however,  it  is  said,  denied  the  last  posi- 
tion :)  that  Christ  was  therefore  carefully 
j  distinguished  from  God,  Avho  dwelt  in  him 
I  as  in  his  temple  ;  and  that  Mary  was  to  be 
'  called  the  mother  of  Christ,  and  not  the 
i  mother  of  God. 

j     One  of  the  chief  promoters  of  the  Nesto- 
irian  cause  was  Barsumas,  ci'sated  bishop  of 
jNisibis,  A.  D.  435.    Such  v/as  his  zeal  and 
success,  that  the  Nestorians  who  still  remain 
in  Chaldea,  Persia,  Assyria,   and  the  adja- 
cent countries,  consider  him  alone  as  their 
parent  and  founder.     By  him  Pherozes,  the 
Persian  monarch,   was  persuaded  to  expel 
j!  those  Christians  wlio  adopted  the   opinions 
of  the  Greeks,  and  to  admit  the  Nestorians. 
in  their  place,  nutting  them  in  possession  of 
the  principal  beat  of  ecclesiastical  authority 


NE  S 


352 


NEW 


in  Persia,  tlie  see  of  Selucia,  which  the  pa- 
triarch of  the  Nestorians  has  always  filled, 
even  down  to  our  time  Barsumas  also  erect- 
ed a  school  at  Nisiljis,  from  which  proceed- 
ed those  Nestorian  doctors,  who,  in  the  fifth 
and  sixth  centuries,  spread  abroad  their 
tenets  through  Egypt,  Syria,  Arabia,  India, 
Tartary,  and  China. 

In  the  tenth  century,  the  Nestorians  in 
Chaldea,  whence  they  are  sometimes  called 
C/ialdeans,  extended  their  spiritual  conquests 
beyond  Mount  Imaus,  and  introduced  tlie 
Christian  religion  into  Tartary,  properly  so 
called,  and  especially  into  that  country  call- 
ed KuTity  bordering  on  the  northern  part  of 
China.  The  prince  of  that  country,  whom 
the  Nestorians  converted  to  tlie  Christian 
faith  assumiid,  accorrling  to  the  vulgar  tra- 
dition, the  name  of  Joh7i  after  his  baptism, 
to  which  he  added  the  surname  of  Presby- 
ter, from  a  principle  of  modesty  ;  whence, 
it  is  said,  his  successors  were  each  of  them 
called  Frest.tr  John,  until  the  time  of  Gen- 
vys,  Khan.  But  Mosheim  observes,  that  the 
famous  Prester  John  did  not  begin  to  reign 
in  that  part  of  Asia,  before  the  conclusion 
of  the  eleventh  century.  The  Nestorians 
formed  so  considerable  a  body  of  Christians, 
that  the  missionaries  of  Rome  were  indus- 
trious in  their  endeavours  to  reduce  them 
under  the  papal  yoke.  Innocent  IV.  in  1246, 
and  Nicholas  IV.  in  1278,  used  their  utmost 
efforts  for  this  purpose,  but  without  success. 
Till  the  time  of  Pope  Julius  III.  the  Nesto- 
rians acknowledged  but  one  patriarch,  who 
resided,  first  at  Bagdad,  and  afterwards  at 
Mousul ;  but  a  division  arising  among  them, 
in  1551,  the  patriarchate  became  divided, 
at  least  for  a  time,  and  a  new  patriarch  was 
consecrated  by  that  pope,  whose  successors 
fixed  their  residence  in  the  city  of  Ormus, 
in  the  mountainous  parts  of  Persia,  where 
they  still  continue,  distinguished  by  the 
name  of  Simeon  ;  and  so  far  down  as  the 
seventeenth  century,  these  patriarchs  per- 
severed in  theii"  commuiiion  with  the  church 
of  Rome,  but  seem  at  present  to  have  with- 
drawn themselves  from  it.  The  great  Nes- 
torian pontift's,  who  form  tlie  opposite  party, 
and  look  with  a  hostile  eye  on  this  little 
patriarch,  have,  since  the  year  1559,  been 
distinguished  by  tlie  general  denomination  of 
Elias,  and  reside  constantly  in  the  city  of 
Mouful  Their  spiritu:il  dominion  is  very 
extensive,  takes  in  a  great  part  of  Asia,  and 
comprehends  also  witiiiii  its  circuit  the 
Arabian  Nestorians,  and  also  the  Christians 
of  St.  Tliomas,  who  dwell  along  the  coast 
of  Malabar.  It  is  observed,  to  the  lasting 
honour  of  the  Nestorians,  that  of  all  the 
Christian  societies  established  in  the  East, 
they  have  been  the  most  careful  and  suc- 
cessful in  avoiding  a  multitude  of  supersti- 
tious opinions  arid  practices  that  have  in- 
fected the  Greek  and  Latin  cl-.urches. 
About  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury, the  Romish  missionaries  gained  over 
to  their  communion  a  small  number  (;f  Nes- 
torians, whom  they  formed  into  a  congrega- 


tion or  church  ;  the  patriarchs  or  bishops 
of  which  reside  in  the  city  of  Amida,  or 
Diarbeker,  and  all  assume  the  denomina:ii.n 
of  Joseph.  Nevertheless,  the  Nestorians  in 
general  persevere  to  (,ur  own  times  in  iheir 
refusal  to  enter  into  the  communion  of 
the  Romish  church,  notwithstanding  the 
earnest  enti'eaties  and  alluring  offers  that 
iiave  been  made  by  the  pope's  legate  to 
conquer   their  inflexible  constancv. 

NEW  JERUSALEM  CHURCH.  See 
Saved  ENBORGiANs. 

NEW  PLATONICS,  or  Aimmonians. 
so  called  from  Ammonius  Saccas,  who  taught 
with  the  higliest  applause  in  the  Alexandrian 
school,  about  the  conclusion  of  the  second 
century.  This  learned  man  attempted  a 
general  reconciliation  of  all  sects,  whether 
philosophical  or  religious.  He  maintained 
that  the  great  principles  of  all  philosophical 
and  religious  truth  were  to  be  found  equally 
in  all  sects,  and  that  they  differed  from  each 
other  only  in  their  method  of  expressing 
them,  in  some  opinions  of  little  or  no  im- 
portance ;  and  that  by  a  proper  interpreta- 
tion of  their  respective  sentiments  they  might 
easily  be  united  in  one  body. 

Ammonius  supposed  that  true  philosophy 
derived  its  origin  and  its  consistence  from 
the  eastern  nations,  that  it  was  taught  to  the 
Egyptians  by  Hermes,  that  it  was  brought 
from  them  to  the  Greeks,  and  preserved  in 
its  original  purity  by  Plato,  who  was  the  best 
interpreter  of  Hermes  and  the  other  oriental 
sages.  He  maintained  that  all  the  different- 
religions  which  prevailed  in  the  world  were 
in  their  original  integrity,  conformable  to  this 
ancient  philosophy ;  but  it  unfortunately 
happened,  that  the  symbols  and  fictions  under 
which,  according  to  the  ancient  manner,  the 
ancients  delivered  their  precepts  and  doc- 
trines, were  in  process  of  time  erroneously 
understood,  both  by  priests  and  people,  in  a 
literal  sense  ;  that  in  consequence  of  this, 
the  invisible  beings  and  demons  whom  the 
Supreme  Deity  had  placed  in  the  different 
parts  of  the  universe  as  the  ministers  of  his 
providence,  were  by  the  suggestions  of  super- 
stition, converted  into  gods,  and  worshipped 
with  a  multiplicity  of  vain  ceremonies.  He 
therefore  insisted  that  all  the  reUgions  of  all 
nations  should  be  restored  to  their  primitive 
standard:  viz.  The  ancient  philosophy  of 
the  east:  and  he  asserted  that  his  pi'cject 
was  agreeable  to  the  inteiitions  of  Jesus 
Christ,  whom  he  acknowledged  to  be  a  most 
excellent  man,  the  friend  of  God;  and  affirm- 
ed that  his  sole  view  in  descending  on  earth, 
was  to  set  bimnds  to  the  reigning  supersti- 
tion, to  remove  the  errors  which  had  crept 
into  the  religion  of  all  nations,  but  not  to 
abolish  the  ancient  theology  from  which  they 
were  derived. 

Taking  these  principles  for  granted,  Am- 
monius associated  the  sentiments  of  the 
Egyptians  with  the  doctrines  of  Plato;  and 
to  finish  this  conciliatory  scheme,  he  so  in- 
u-rpreted  the  dcctrines'of  the  other  philo- 
sophical and  rehgious  sects,  by  art,  invendon, 


NON 


353 


NON 


and  allegoiy,  that  they  seemed  to  bear  some 
semblance  to  the  Egyptian  and  Platonic 
systems. 

With  regard  to  moral  discipline,  Ammo- 
nius  permitted  tlie  people  to  live  according 
to  the  law  ot  tlieir  countiy,  and  the  dictates 
ot"  nature  :  but  a  more  sublime  rule  was  laid 
down  ior  tiie  wise.  They  were  to  raise  above 
all  terrestrial  things,  by  the  towering  efforts 
of  holy  contemplation,  tliose  souls  whose 
origin  was  celestial  and  divine.  They  were 
ordered  to  extenuate  by  hunger,  thirst,  and 
other  mortifications,  the  sluggish  body, 
which  restrains  the  liberty  of  tlie  immortal 
spirit,  that  in  this  life  they  might  enjoy  com- 
munion with  the  Supreme  Being,  and  ascend 
after  death,  active  and  unencumbered,  to 
the  universal  Parent,  to  live  in  his  presence 
for  ever. 

NEW  TESTAMENT.  See  Inspira- 
tion, and  Scripture. 

NICENE  CREED.    See  Creed  . 

NICOLAITANS,  heretics  who  assumed 
this  name  from  Nicholas  of  Antioch;  who, 
being  a  Gentile  by  birth,  first  embraced 
Judaism  and  then  Christianity ;  when  his 
zeal  and  devotion  recommended  him  to  the 
church  of  Jerusalem,  by  whom  he  was 
chosen  one  of  the  first  deacons.  Many  of  tiie 
primitive  writers  believed  that  Nicholas  was 
rather  the  occasion  than  the  author  of  the 
infamous  practices  of  those  who  assumed  his 
name,  who  were  expressly  condemned  by  the 
Spirit  of  God  himself.  Rev  ii  6.  And,  indeed, 
their  opinions  and  actions  were  highly  ex- 
travagant and  criminal.  They  allowed  a 
community  of  wives,  and  made  no  distinction 
between  ordinary  meats  and  those  offered  to 
idols.  According  to  Eusebius,  they  subsisted 
but  a  short  time  ;  but  TertuUian  says,  that 
they  only  changed  their  name,  and  that  their 
heresies  passed  into  the  sect  of  the  Cainites. 

NOETIANS,  Christian  heretics  in  the 
third  century,  followers  of  Noetius,  a  philo- 
sopher of  Ephesus,  who  pretended  that  he 
was  another  Moses  .sent  by  God,  and  that  his 
brother  was  a  new  Aaron.  His  heresy  con- 
sisted in  affirming  that  there  was  but  one 
person  in  the  Godhead  ;  and  that  the  Word 
and  the  Holy  Spirit  were  but  external  de- 
nominations given  to  God  in  consequence  of 
different  operations ;  that,  as  Creator,  he  is 
called  Father;  as  incarnate.  Son;  and  as 
descending  on  the  apostles.  Holy  Ghost. 

NONCONFORMISTS,  those  who  refuse 
to  join  the  established  church.  Nonconfor- 
mists in  England  may  be  considered  of  three 
sorts.  1.  Such  as  absent  themselves  from 
divine  worship  in  the  established  church 
through  total  irreligion,  and  attend  the  ser- 
vice of  no  other  persuasion. — 2.  Such  as 
absent  themselves  on  the  plea  of  conscience  ; 
as  Presbyterians,  Independents,  Baptists, 
&c. — 3  Internal  Nonconformists,  or  un- 
principled clergymen,  who  applaud  and 
propagate  doctrines  quite  iiconsistent  with 
several  of  those  articles  they  promised  on 
oath  to  defend.  The  word  is  generally  used 
ia  reference  to  those  ministers  who  were 


^ejected  from  their  livings  by  the  act  of  Uni- 
formity, in  1662.  'ihe  number  ot  these  was 
about  two  thousand.  However  some  affect 
to  treat  these  men  with  indifference,  and 
suppose  that  their  consciences  were  more 
tender  than  they  need  be,  it  must  be  re- 
membered, that  they  were  men  of  as  ex- 
tensive learning,  great  abilities,  and  pious 
conduct,  as  ever  appeared.  Mr  Locke,  if  his 
opinion  have  any  weight,  calls  them  "  wor- 
thy, learned,  pious,  orthodox  divines,  who 
did  not  throw  themselves  out  of  service,  but 
were  forcibly  ejected."  Mr.  Bogue  thus 
draws  their  character:  "  As  to  their  public 
ministration"  he  says,  "they  wei'e  orthodox, 
experimental,  serious,  affectionate,  regular, 
faithful,  able,  and  popular  preachers.  As  to 
their  moral  qualities^  they  were  devout  and 
holy  ;  faithful  to  Christ"  and  the  souls  of 
nien ;  wise  and  prudent ;  of  great  liberality 
and  kindness ;  and  strenuous  advocates  for 
hberty.  civil  and  religious  As  to  their  in- 
tellectual qualities,  they  were  learivcd,  emi- 
nint,  and  laborious."  These  men  were 
driven  from  their  houses,  from  the  society 
of  their  friends,  and  exjjosed  to  the  great- 
est difficulties.  Their  burdens  were  great- 
ly increased  by  the  Conventicle  act,  where- 
by they  were  prohibited  from  meeting  for  any 
exercise  of  religion  (above  five  in  number) 
in  any  other  manner  than  allowed  by  the 
liturgy  or  practice  of  the  church  of  England. 
F'.r  the  first  offence  the  penalty  was  three 
months  imprisonment  or  pay  five  pounds ; 
for  the  second  offence,  six  months  imprison- 
ment, or  ten  pounds  ;  and  for  the  third  of- 
fence, to  be  banished  to  some  of  the  Ameri- 
can plantations  for  seven  years,  or  pay  one 
hundred  pounds ;  and  in  case  they  return, 
to  suffer  death  without  benefit  ot  clergy. 
By  virtue  of  this  act,  the  gaols  were 
were  quickly  filled  with  dissenting  Protes- 
tants, and  the  trade  of  an  informer  was 
very  gainful.  So  great  was  the  severity  of 
these  times,  says  Neale,  that  they  were 
afraid  to  pray  in  their  families,  if  above 
four  of  their  acquaintance,  who  came  only 
to  visit  them,  were  present ;  some  families 
scrui)led  asking  a  blessing  on  their  meat,  if 
five  strangers  were  at  table. 

But  tnis  was  not  all  (to  say  nr  thing  of  the 
Test  act ;)  in  1665,  an  act  was  brought  into 
the  House  to  banish  them  from  their  friends, 
commonly  called  the  Oxford  Five  Mile  Act, 
by  which  all  dissenting  ministers,  on  the 
penalty  of  forty  pounds,, who  Avould  not  take 
an  oath  (that  it  was  not  lawful,  upon  any 
pretence  ivhate-ver,  to  take  arms  against 
the  king,  &c  )  were  prohibited  from  com- 
ing within  five  miles  of  any  city,  town 
corporate,  or  borough,  or  any  place  where 
they  had  exercised  their  ministry,  and  from 
teaching  any  school.  Some  few  took  the 
oath ;  others  could  not,  consequently  sufter- 
ed  the  penalty. 

In  1673,  "  the  mouths  of  the  high  church 
pulpiters  were  encouraged  to  open  as  loud 
as  possible.  One,  in  his  sermon  before  the 
House  of  commons,  told  them,   that  tbe 


NON 


354 


NOV 


Nonconformists  ought  not  to  be  tolerated, 
but  to  be  cured  by  vengeance.  He  urged 
them  to  set  fire  to  the  faggot,  and  to  teach 
them  by  scourges  or  scorpions,  and  open 
their  eyes  with  gall." 

Such  were  the  dreadful  consequences  of 
this  intolerant  spirit,  that  it  is  supposed 
near  eight  thousand  died  in  prison  in  the 
reign  of  Charles  II.  It  is  said,  that  Mr. 
Jeremiah  White  had  carefully  collected  a 
list  of  those  who  had  suffered  between 
Charles  II,  and  the  revolution,  which 
amounted  to  sixty  thousand.  The  same 
persecutions  were  carried  on  in  Scotland : 
and  there,  as  well  as  in  England,  many,  to 
avoid  persecution,  fled  from  their  country. 

But,  notwithstanding  all  these  dreadful 
and  furious  attacks  upon  the  Dissenters, 
they  were  not  extirpated.  Their  very  per- 
secution was  in  their  favour.  The  infamous 
characters  of  their  informers  and  persecu- 
tors; their  piety,  zeal,  and  fortitude,  no 
doubt,  had  influence  on  considerate  minds ; 
and,  indeed,  they  had  additions  from  the 
established  church,  which  "  several  clergy- 
men in  this  reign  deserted  as  a  persecuting 
church,  and  took  their  lot  among  them."  In 
addition  to  this,  king  James  suddenly  altered 
his  measures,  granted  a  universal  toleration, 
and  preferred  Dissenters  to  places  of  trust 
and  profit,  though  it  was  evidently  with  a 
view  to  restore  popery. 

King  William  coming  to  the  throne,  the 
famous  Toleration  act  passed,  by  which 
they  were  exempted  from  suffering  the 
penalties  above-mentioned,  and  permission 
given  them  to  worship  God  accoi'ding  to 
the  dictates  of  their  own  consciences.  In 
the  latter  end  of  queen  Anne's  reign  they 
began  to  be  a  little  alarmed.  An  act  of 
parliament  passed,  called  the  Occasional 
Conformity  Bill,  which  prevented  any  per- 
son in  office  under  the  government  entering 
into  a  meeting-house  Another,  called  the 
Schism  Bill,  had  actually  obtained  the  roval 
assent,  which  sufft  red  no  Di&senters  to  edu- 
cate their  own  children,  but  required  them, 
to  be  put  iiito  the  hands  of  Conformists  ; 
and  which  forbade  all  tutors  and  school- 
masters being  present  at  any  conventicle 
or  dissenting  place  of  worship ;  but  the 
Teiy  day  this  iniquitous  act  was  to  have 
taken  place,  the  queen  died  (August  1,  1713.') 

But  his  majesty  king  George  I,  being  ful- 
ly satisfied  that  these  hardships  were 
brought  upon  the  Dissenters  for  their  steady 
adherence  to  the  Protestant  succession  in 
his  illustrious  house,  against  a  tory  and 
Jacobite  ministry,  who  were  paving  the  way 
for  a  popish  pretender,  procured  the  repeal 
of  them  in  the  fifth  year  of  his  reign  ; 
though  a  clause  was  left  that  forbade  the 
mayor  or  other  magistrate  to  go  into  any 
ineeting  for  religicius  worship  with  the  en- 
rsigns  of  his  office.  See  liogue's  Charge  at 
Air.  Krig/il^s  Orclifiation.  J^Teale^s  History 
of  ihf^  Furitana.  De  Laune''s  Plea  for 
ht  J\'a7icon/ortnisfs-    Palmer's  J\/o?icon/or- 


7msts  Mem.  Martin's  Letters  on  JVoncon* 
Jormity.  Robinso7i^  Lectures.  Cornish's 
History  of  Konconforvuty .  Ltr.  C  alamy's 
Life  of  tiaxter.  Pierce's  Vindication  of 
the  Dissenters.  Bogue  and  Bennet's  His- 
tory of  the  Dissenters 

NO>J  JURORS,  those  who  refused  to  take 
the  oaths  to  government,  and  who  were  in 
consequence  under  certain  incapacities,  and 
liable  to  certain  severe  penalties.  It  can 
scarcely  be  said  that  there  are  any  Nonju- 
rors now  in  the  kingdom ;  and  it  is  well 
known  that  all  penalties  have  been  remov- 
ed both  from  Papists  and  Protestants,  for- 
merly of  that  denomination,  as  well  in  Scot- 
land as  in  England. — The  members  of  the 
episcopal  church  of  Scotland  have  long  been 
denominated  Nonjurors  ;  but  perhaps  they 
are  now  called  so  improperly,  as  the-  ground 
of  their  difference  from  the  establishment 
is  more  on  account  of  ecclesiastical  than  po- 
litical principUs 

NON-RESIDENCE,  the  act  of  not  resi- 
ding on  an  ecclesiastical  benefice  Nothing 
can  reflect  greater  disgrace  on  a  clergyman 
of  a  parish,  to  receive  the  emolument  with- 
out ever  visiting  his  parishioners,  and  being 
unconcerned  for  the  welfare  of  their  souls  ; 
yet  this  has  been  a  reigning  evil  in  our  land, 
and  proves  that  there  are  too  many  who 
care  little  about  the  flock,  so  that  they  may 
but  live  at  ease.  Let  such  remember  what 
an  awful  account  they  will  have  to  give  of 
talents  misapplied,  time  wasted,  souls  ne- 
glected, and  a  sacred  office  abused. 

NOVATIANS,  Movaiiani,  a  sect  of  an- 
cient heretics  that  arose  towards  the  close 
of  the  third  century ;  so  called  from  Nova- 
tian,  a  priest  of  R'  me.  They  were  called 
also  Cathari,  from  Kuiu^o^,  pure,  q.  d.  Pu- 
ritans. 

Novatian  first  separated  from  the  com- 
munion of  pope  Cornelius,  on  pretence  of 
his  being  too  easy  in  admitting  to  rep  nt- 
ance  those  who  had  fallen  off  in  tinits  of 
persecution.  He  indtilged  his  inclination  to 
severity  so  far,  as  to  deny  that  such  as  had 
fallen  into  gross  sins,  especially  those  who 
had  apostatized  from  the  tairh  under  the 
persecution  set  on  foot  by  Decius,  were  to  be 
again  received  into  the  bosom  of  the  church  ; 
grounding  his  opinion  on  that  of  St  Paul  : 
"  It  is  impossible  for  those  who  were  once  en- 
lightened, and  have  tasted  of  the  heavenly 
gift.  &c  if  they  shall  fall  away,  to  renew 
them  again  unto  repentance."  Heb.  vi, 
4—6. 

The  Novatians  did  not  deny  but  a  person 
falling  into  any  sin,  how  grievous  soever, 
might  obtain  pardon  by  repentance ;  for  they 
themselves  recommended  repentance  in  the 
strongest  terms :  but  their  doctrine  was, 
that  the  church  had  it  not  in  its  power  to 
receive  sinners  into  its  communion,  as  hav- 
ing no  way  of  remitting  sins  but  by  bap- 
tism ;  which  once  received,  could  not  be 
repeated. 

In  process  of  time,  the  J^ovatians  soften- 


1 


OAT 


355 


OAT 


ed  and  moderated  the  rigour  of  their  mas- 
ter's doctnne,  and  only  refused  absolution  to 
very  great  sinners. 

Tiie  two  leaders,  Novatian,  and  Novatus, 
were  proscribed  and  declared  heretics,  not 
for  excluding  penitents  from  communion, 
but  for  dt-nying  that  the  chuich  had  the 
power  of  remitting  sins. 

NOVITI.\'I'E,  a  year  of  probation  ap- 
pointed for  the  trial  of  religious,  whether 
or  no  they  have  a  vocation,  and  the  neces- 
sary qualities  f  r  living  up  to  the  rule,  the 
observation  whereof  they  are  to  bind  them- 
selves to  by  vow.  The  novitiate  lasts  a 
year  at  least ,  in  some  houses  more.  It  is 
esteemed  the  bed  of  the  civil  death  of  a 
novice,  who  expires  to  the  world  by  pro- 
fession. 

NUN,  a  woman  in  several  Christian 
countries,  who  devotes  herself,  in  a  cloister 
or  nunnery,  to  a  religious  life.  See  article 
Monk. 

There  were  women  in  the  ancient  Chris- 
tian church,  who  made  ])ublic  profession  of 
virginity  before  the  monastic  life  was  known 
in  the  world,  as  appears  from  the  writings 
of  Cyprian  and  Tertullian.  These,  for  dis- 
tinctio'i's  sake,  are  sometimes  called  ecclesi- 
astical virgins,  and  were  commonly  enrolled 
in  the  canon  or  matricula  of  the  church. 
They  differed  from  the  monastic  virgins 
chiefly  in  this,  that  they  lived  privately  in 
their  father's  houses,  whereas  the  others 
lived  in  communities  ;  but  their  profession 
of  virginity  was  not  so  strict  as  to  make  it 
criminal  for  them  to  marry  afterwards,  if 
they  thought  fit.  As  to  the  consecration  of 
virgins,  it  had  some  things  peculiar  in  it  : 
it  was  usually  performed   publicly  in  the 


church,  by  the  bishop.  The  virgin  made  a 
public  profession  of  her  resolution,  and  then 
the  bishop  put  upon  her  the  accustomed 
habit  of  sacred  virgins.  One  part  of  this 
habit  was  a  veil,  called  the  sacrum  velar- 
men  ;  another  was  a  kind  of  mitre  or  coro- 
net worn  up>on  the  head.  At  present,  when 
a  woman  is  to  be  made  a  nun,  the  habit, 
veil,  and  ring  of  the  candidate  are  carried 
to  the  altar  ;  and  she  herself,  accompanied 
by  her  nearest  relations,  is  conducted  to  the 
bishop,  who,  after  mass  and  an  anthem 
(the  subject  of  which  Ts,  '•  that  she  ought 
to  have  her  lamp  lighted,  because  the  bride- 
groom is  coming  to  meet  her,")  pronounces 
the  benediction  :  then  she  rises  up,  and  the 
bishop  consecrates  the  new  habit,  sprinkling 
it  with  hnly  water.  When  the  candidate 
has  put  on  her  religious  habit,  she  presents 
herself  before  the  bishop,  and  sings  on  her 
knees  Aiicilla  Christi  sum,  &c.  then  she 
receives  the  veil,  and  afterwards  the  ring, 
by  which  she  is  married  to  Christ ;  and 
lastly,  the  crown  of  virginity.  When  she 
is  crowned,  an  anathema  is  denounced 
r.gainst  all  who  shall  attempt  to  make  her 
break  her  vows.  In  some  few  instances, 
p>erhaps,  it  may  have  happened  that  nunne- 
ries, monasteries,  &c.  may  have  been  useful 
as  well  to  morality  and  religion  as  to  lite- 
ratui'e ;  in  the  gross,  however,  they  have 
been  highly  prejudicial ;  and  however  well 
they  might  be  supposed  to  do  when  viewed 
in  theory,  in  fact  they  are  unnatural  and 
impious.  It  was  surely  far  from  the  inten- 
tion of  Providence  to  seclude  youth  and 
beauty  in  a  cloister,  or  to  deny  them  the  in- 
nocent enjoyment  of  their  years  [and  sex. 
See  Monastery. 


0< 


OATH,  a  solemn  affirmation  wherein 
■we  appeal  to  God  as  a  witness  of  the  truth 
of  what  we  say,  and  with  an  imprecation 
of  his  vengeance,  or  a  renunciation  of  his 
favour,  if  what  we  affirm  be  false,  or  what 
we  promise  be  not  ])erformed. 

"  T/ie  forms  of  oaths,"  says  Mr.  Paley, 
"  like  other  religious  ceremonies,  have  in 
all  ages  been  various  ;  consisting,  however, 
for  the  most  part,  of  some  bodily  action, 
and  of  a  prescribed  form  of  words.  Am.ongst 
the  Jews,  the  juror  held  up  his  right  hand 
towards  heaven,  Psal.  cxliv.  8.  Rev.  x.  5. 
(The  same  form  is  retained  in  Scotland  still.) 
Amongst  the  Jews,  also,  an  oath  of  fidelity 
was  taken  by  the  servant's  putting  his  hand 
under  the  thigh  of  his  lord.  Gen.  xxiv.  2. 
Amongst  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  the  form 
varied  with  the  subject  and  occasion  of  the 


oath :  in  private  contracts,  the  parties  took 
hold  of  each  other's  hand,  whilst  they  swore 
to  the  performance  ;  or  they  touched  the 
altar  ot  the  gotl  by  whose  divinity  they 
swore.  Upon  more  solemn  occasions  it  was 
the  custom  to  slay  a  victim,  and  the  beast 
being  struck  down,  with  certain  ceremo- 
nies and  invocations,  gave  birth  to  the  ex- 
pression, re/itveiv  opKov  ferire  fiactum  ;  and 
to  our  English  phrase,  translated  from 
these,  of  '  striking  a  bargain.*  The  forms 
of  oaths  in  Christian  countiies,  are  also  very 
different ;  but  in  no  country  in  the  world 
worse  contrived,  cither  to  convey  the  mean- 
ing, or  impress  the  obligation  of  an  oath, 
than  in  our  own.  The  juror  with  us,  after 
repeating  the  promise  or  affirmation  which 
the  oath  is  intended  to  confirm,  adds,  '  So 
help  me  God ;'  or  more  frequently  the  sub- 


OAT 


556 


OBE 


fitance  of  the  oath  is  repeated  to  the  juror 
by  the  mat;is>trate,  who  adds  in  the  conclu- 
sion, '  So  help  you  God.'    The    energy  of 
the  sentence  rt- sides  in  the  particle  so  ;  so, 
that    is,    hac    lege,    upon    condition    of   my 
speaking  the  truth,  or  performing  this  pro- 
mise, and  not  otherwise,  may  Gd  help  me. 
The  juror,  whilst  he  hears  or  repeats  the 
•words  of  the  oath,    holds  his   right  hand 
upon  the  Bible,  or  other  bcok  containing  the 
four  Gospels,  and  at  the  conclusion  kisses 
the  book.    This  obscure  and  elliptical  form, 
together  with  the  levity  and  frequency  with 
"which  it  is  administered,  has  brought  about 
a  genei'al  inadvertency  to  the  obligation  of 
nalhs,  which  both  in  a  religious  and  political 
view  is  much  to  be  lamented ;  and  it  merits 
public  consideration,"  cfintinues  Mr.  Paley, 
*'  whether  the  requiring  of  oaths  on  so  many 
frivolous   occasions,   especially   in   the  cus- 
toms, and  in  the  qualification  for  petty  of- 
fices,  has  any  other  effect  than  to  make 
them  cheap   in  the    minds  of  the   people. 
A  pound  of  tea  cannot  travel  rtgularty  from 
the  ship   to   the  consumer   without   costing 
half  a  dozen  oaths  at  least ;  and  the  same 
security  for  the  clue  discharge  of  their  of- 
ftce,  namely,  that  of  an   oath,   is  required 
from  a  church  warden  and  an  archbishop  ; 
from  a  petty  constable  and  the  chief  justice 
of  England.      Oaths,  however,  are  laivfuli 
and  whatever  be  the  form,  the  signification 
is  the  same."     It  is  evident  that  so  far  as 
atheism  prevails,    oaths  can  be  of  no  use. 
*'  Remove    God  once  out  of  heaven,    and 
there  will   never  be  any  gods  upon  earth. 
If  man's  nature  had  not  something  of  sub- 
jection in  it  to  a  Supreme  Being,  and  inhe- 
rent principles,  obliging  him  iiow  to  behave 
himself  toward  God  and  toward  the  rest  of 
the  world,   Government  could  never  have 
been  introduced,  nor  thought  of.    Nor  can 
there  be  the  least  mutual  security  between 
governors  and  governed,  where  no   God  is 
admitted.  For  it  is  acknowledging  of  God  in 
his  supreme  judgment  over  the  world,  that 
is  the  ground  of  an  oath,   and  upon  which 
the  validity  of  all  human  engagements  de- 
pend."   Historians    have  justly  remarked, 
that  when  the  reverence  for  an  oath  began 
to  be  diminished  among  the  Romans,  and 
the  loose  Epicurean  system,  which  discard- 
ed the  belief  of  Providence,  was  introduced, 
the  Roman  honour  and  prosperity  from  that 
period  began  to  decline.     '*  The  Quakers 
refuse  to  swear  upon  any  occasion,  found 
ing  their  scruples  concerning  the  lawfulness 
of    oaths   upon    our    Saviour's    prohibition, 
*  Swear  not  at  all,'   Matt.   v.   34,     But  it 
seems  our   Lord  there  referred  to  the  vi- 
cious, wanton  and  unauthorised  swearing  in 
common  discourse,  and  not  to  judicial  oaths, 
for  he  himself  answered  when  interrogated 
upon  oath.  Matt.  xxvi.  63,  64.    Mark  xiv. 
61.     The  apostle  Paul  also  makes  use  of  ex 
pressions  which  contain  the  nature  of  oaths, 
Rom.  i.  9.     1    Cor.   xv.    51      2   Cor.  i.  18. 
Gal.  i.  20.     Heb.  vi.  13,  17.    Oath.-,  are  nu- 
gatory, that  is,  carry  with  them  no  proper 


force  or  obligation,  unless  we  believe  that 
God  will  punish  false  swearing  with  more 
severity  than  a  simple  lie  or  breach  of  pro- 
mise ;  for  which  belief  there  are  the  follow- 
ing reasons:  1.  Perjuiy  is  a  sin  of  greater 
deliberation. — 2  It  violates  a  superior  con- 
fidence— 3  God  directed  the  Israelites  to 
swear  by  his  name,  Deut.  vi  13.  Ch  x  20. 
and  was  pleased  to  confirm  his  covenant 
with  that  people  by  an  oath  ;  neither  of 
which  it  is  probable  he  would  have^done, 
had  he  not  intended  to  represent  oaths  as 
having  some  meaning  and  effect  beyond  the 
obligation  of  a  bare  promise. 

"  Fromissory  oaths  are  not  binding  where 
the  promise  itself  would  not  be  so.  See 
Promises  As  oaths  are  designed  for  the 
security  of  the  imposer,  it  is  manifest  that 
they  must  be  interpreted  and  performed  in 
the  sense  in  which  the  imposer  intends 
them."  Oaths,  also,  must  never  be  taken 
b\it  in  matters  of  importance,  nor  irreve- 
rently, and  without  godly  fear.  Paley's 
Moral  Philosophy,  chapter  16,  vol.  i.  Grot, 
clc  Jure,  1.  1 1.  c.  13  §  21.  Rai'roiv^s  Works, 
vol  i.  sermon  15.  Btirnefs  Exposition  of 
the  39th  Article  of  the  Church  of  England. 
Herfiot's  Essay  on  Truths  of  Importance^ 
and  Doctrines  of  Oaths,  Doddridge's  Lec- 
tures, lee.  189.  Tillotson's  22d  Sermon. 
IVolsely's  Unreasonableness  of  Atheism,  p. 
152. 

Oath  of  allegiance  is  as  fellows:  "  I,  A. 
B.  do  sincerely  promise  and  swear,  that  I 
will  be  faithful,  and  bear  true  allegiance  to 
his  Majesty,  King  George.  So  lielp  me 
God."  This  is  taken  by  Protestant  dissent- 
ing ministers,  when  licensed  by  the  civil 
magistrate  ;  as  is  also  the  following : 

Oath  of  supremacy  ;  I,  A.  B.  do  swear, 
that  I  do  from  my  heart  abhor,  detest,  and 
abjiu'e,  as  impious  and  heretical,  that  damn- 
able doctrine  and  position,  that  princes  ex- 
communicated or  deprived  by  the  Pope, 
or  any  authority  of  the  see  of  Rome,  may  be 
deposed  or  murdered  by  their  subjects,  or 
any  other  whatsoever.  And  I  do  declare, 
that  no  foreign  prince,  person,  prelate,  state, 
or  potentate,  hath,  or  ought  to  have,  any 
jurisdiction,  power,  pre-eminence,  or  autho- 
rity, ecclesiastical  or  spiritual,  within  this 
realm.     So  help  me  God." 

OBEDIENCE,  the  performance  of  the 
commands  of  a  superior.  Obedience  to  God 
may  be  considered,  1.  As  virtual,  which 
consists  in  a  belief  of  the  Gospel,  of  the  ho- 
liness and  equity  of  its  precepts,  of  the  truth 
of  its  promises,  and  a  true  repentance  of  all 
our  sins. — 2.  Actual  obedience,  which  is  the 
practice  and  exercise  of  the  several  graces 
and  duties  of  ('hristianity. — 3.  Perject  obe- 
dience, which  is  the  exact  ronformity  of  our 
hearts  and  lives  to  the  law  of  God,  without 
the  least  imperfection.  This  last  is  only 
peculiar  to  a  glorified  state.  The  obligatiori 
we  are  under  to  obedience  arises,  1.  From 
the  relation  we  stand  in  to  God  as  creatures, 
Psal.  xcv.  6. — 2.  From  the  law  he  hath  re- 
vealed to  us  in  his  word,  Ps.  cxix.  3.  2  Pet. 


OBE 


357 


OEC 


i,  5^  7. — 3.  From  the  blessings  of  his  provi- 
dence we  are  constantly  receiving.  Acts  xiv 
17  Psal.  cxlv. — 4.  From  the  love  and  good- 
ness of  God  in  the  grand  work  of  redemp- 
tion, 1  Cor.  vi.  20.  As  to  the  nature  of  his 
obedience,  it  must  be,  1.  Relive,  not  only 
avoiding  what  is  prohibited,  but  performing 
what  is  commanded.  Col.  iii.  8,  10. — J.  Per- 
sonal; for  though  Christ  has  obeyed  the  law 
for  us  as  a  covenant  of  works,  yet  he  hath 
not  abrogated  it  as  a  rule  of  life,  Rom.  vii. 
22.  Rom.  iii.  3l. — 3.  Sincere,  Psal.  li.  6.  1 
I'im.  i.  5. — 4.  Affectionate,  springing  from 
love,  and  not  from  terror,  1  John  v.  19.  1  John 
ii.  5.  2  Cor.  v.  14. — 5.  Diligent,  not  sloth- 
fully,  Gal.  i.  16.  Psal.  xviii.  44.  Rom.  xii. 
11. — 6,  Cojispiciwus  and  open,  Phil,  ii  1.5 
Matt.  v.  16 — 7.  Universal;  not  one  duty, 
but  all  must  be  performed,  2  Prt.  i.  5.  10. — 
8.  Per/ietiial,  at  all  times,  places,  and  occa- 
sions, Rom.  ii.  7.  Gal.  vi.  9.  The  advanta- 
ges of  obedience  are  these,  1.  It  adorns  the 
gospel,  Tit.  ii.  10. — 2.  It  is  evidential  of 
grace,  2  Cor.  v.  17. — 3.  It  rejoices  the  hearts 
of  the  ministers  and  people  of  God,  3  John 

2.  2  Thess.  i.  19,  20. — 4  It  silences  gain- 
sayers,  2  Pet.  i.  11,  12. — 5.  Encourages  the 
saints,  while  it  reproves  the  lukewarm. 
Matt.  V.  16. — 6.  Affords  peace  to  the  subject 
of  it,  Psal.  XXV.  12,  13.  Acts  xxiv.  16 — 7. 
It  powerfully  recommends  religion,  as  that 
which  is  both  delightful  and  practicable, 
Col.  i.  10.— 8.  It  is  the  forerunner  and  evi- 
dence of  eternal  glory,  Rom.  vi.  22.  Rev. 
xxii.  14.  See  Holiness,  Sanctifica- 
TiON  ;  ( harnock's  Works,  vol.  xi.  page 
1212.  Tillotsons'  Sermons,  sermon  122, 
123.  Saurin's  Sermons,  vol.  i.  sermon  4. 
Hidgeley^s  Body  of  Divinity,  qu.  92. 

OBEDIENCE  OF  CHRIST  is  generally 
divided  into  active  and  passive.  His  acthie 
obedience  implies  what  he  did ;  his  passive 
what  he  suffered.  Some  divines  distinguish- 
ed these.  They  refer  our  pardon  to  his 
passive,  and  our  title  to  glory  to  his  active 
obedience  :  though.  Dr.  Owen  observes,  that 
it  cannot  be  clearly  evinced  that  there  is 
any  such  thing  in  propriety  of  speech  as 
passive  obedience:  obeying  is  doing,  to  which 
passion  or  suffering  doth  not  belong.  Of  the 
active  obedience  of  Christ  the  scriptures 
assure  us  that  he  took  upon  him  tlie  form 
of  a  servant,  and  rr-ally  Ijecame  one.  Is.  xlix. 

3.  Phil,  ii  5.  Heb,  viii.  He  was  subject 
to  the  law  of  God  **  He  was  made  under 
the  law ;"  the  judicial  or  civil  law  of  the 
Jews;  the  ceremonial  law,  and  the  moral 
law.  Matt,  xvii,  24,  27.  Luke  ii.  22.  H.s. 
xl.  7,  8.  He  was  obedient  to  the  law  of  na- 
ture :  he  was  in  a  state  of  subjection  to  his 
parents;  and  he  fulfilled  the  commands  of 
his  heavenly  Father  as  it  respected  the  first 
and  second  table.  His  obedience,  1.  Was 
voluntary,  Psal.  xl.  6. — 2.  Complete,  1  Pet. 
ii.  2?. — .3.  Wrought  oat  in  the  room  and 
stead  of  his  people,  Rom.  x.  4.  Rnm.  v.  19 
—-4  Well  pleasing  and  acceptable  in  the 
sight  of  God.  See  Atonement  ;  Death 
and  Sufferings  of  Christ. 

OBLATI,  secular  persons  who  devoted 


themselves  and  their  estates  to  some  mo- 
nastery, into  which  they  were  admitted  as  a 
kind  of  lay  brothers.  The  form  of  their  ad- 
mission was  putting  the  bell  ropes  of  the 
church  round  their  necks,  as  a  mark  of  ser- 
vitude. Tliey  wore  a  religious  habit,  but 
different  from  that  of  the  monks. 

OBLIGATION  is  that  by  which  we  are 
bound  to  the  performance  of  any  action.  1. 
Rational  obligation  is  that  which  arises 
from  reason,  abstractly  taken,  to  do  or  for- 
bear certain  actions. — 2.  Authoritative  obli- 
gation is  that  ^xhich  arises  from  the  com- 
mands of  a  superior,  or  one  who  has  a  right 
or  authority  to  prescribe  rules  toothers. — 3. 
Moral  obligation  is  that  by  which  we  are 
bound  to  perform  that  which  is  right,  and 
to  avoid  that  which  is  wrong.  It  is  a  moral 
necessity  of  doing  actions  or  forbearing  them; 
that  is,  such  a  necessity  as  whoever  breaks 
through  it,  is,  i/iso  facto,  worthy  of  blame 
for  so  doing.  Variiius  however,  have  been 
the  opinions  concerning  the  ground  of  mor- 
al obligation,  or  what  it  arises  from  One 
says,  from  the  moral  fitness  of  things  ;  ano- 
ther, because  it  is  conformable  to  reason  and 
nature  ;  another,  because  it  is  conformable 
to  truth;  and  another,  because  it  is  expedient, 
and  promotes  the  public  good.  A  late  wri- 
ter has  defined  obligation  to  be  "  a  state  of 
mind  perceiving  the  reasons  for  acting,  or 
forbearing  to  act."  But  I  confess  this  has  a 
difficulty  in  it  to  me ;  because  it  caiTies  with 
it  an  idea  that  if  a  man  should  by  his  habi- 
tual practice  of  iniquity  be  so  hardened  as  to 
lose  a  sense  of  duty,  and  not  perceive  the 
reasons  why  he  should  act  morally,  then  he 
is  under  no  obligation-  And  thus  a  deprav- 
ed man  might  say  he  is  under  no  obligation 
to  obey  the  laws  of  the  land,  because, 
through  his  desire  of  living  a  licentious  life, 
he  is  led  to  supp'  se  that  there  is  none.  In 
my  opinion,  a  difference  should  be  made  be- 
tween obligation  and  a  sense  of  it.  Moral 
obligation,  I  think,  arises  from  the  will  of 
G'd,  as  revealed  in  the  light  and  law  of 
nature,  and  in  his  word.  This  is  binding 
upon  all  men,  because  there  is  no  situation 
in  which  mankind  have  not  either  one  or  the 
other  of  these.  We  find,  howeve\  that  the 
generality  of  men  are  so  far  sunk  in  depra- 
vity, that  a  sense  of  obligation  is  nearly  or 
quite  lost.  Still,  however,  their  losingthe  sense 
does  not  render  the  obligation  less  strong. 
"  Obligation  to  virtue  is  eternal  and  immu- 
tab'e.  but  the  sense  of  it  is  lost  by  sin."  See 
U'arburton's  Legation,  voli.  p.  38,  46,  &c. 
Paleu's  Mor.  Phil.  p.  54.  vol.  i.  Robinson's 
Preface  to  the  Fourth  Volume  of  Saurin's 
Sermons-  Mason's  Christian  Morals,  ser. 
23.  p.  256.  vol  ii.  Doddridge's  Lect.  lect. 
52     Grove's  Phil  vol.  ii.  p.  66 

OBSERVATION.  See  Mind. 

CECONOMY     See  Dispensation. 

OECONOMTSTS,  a  sect  of  philosophers 
in  France,  who  have  made  a  great  noise  in 
Europe,  and  are  generally  supposed  to  have 
been  unfriendly  to  religion.  The  founder  of 
this  sect  was  Dr.  Duquesnoi,  who  had  so 


OMN 


358 


ORA 


■well  insinuated  himself  into  the  favour  of 
Louis  XV  that  the  king  ustd  to  call  him 
his  Thinker.  The  sect  was  called  (Econo- 
•mists,  because  the  occonomy  and  order  to  be 
introduced  into  the  finances,  and  other  means 
of  alleviating  the  distresses  of  the  people, 
were  perpetually  in  their  mouths.  The 
abbe  Barruel  admits  that  there  may  have 
been  some  fi'w  of  them  who  directed  their 
speculations  to  no  other  object ;  but  he 
brings  veiy  sufficient  pronf  that  the  aim  of 
the  Tiiajority  of  the  sect  was  to  distribute 
the  writings  of  Voltaire,  Diderot,  and  others, 
and  thus  to  eradicate  from  the  minds  of  the 
people  all  rcverenc"  for  Divine  revelation, 
bee  Philosophists. 

OFFERING,  or  Oblation,  denotes 
whatever  is  sacrificed  or  consumed  in  the 
worship  of  God.  For  an  account  of  the  va- 
rious »tF'^'rings  undtr  the  law,  the  reader  is 
referred  to  the  book  of  Leviticus.  See  also 
Sacrifice 

OFFICERS  CHURCH  See  Church, 
Deacon,  Elder 

OFFICES  OF  CHRIST  are  generally 
considered  as  threefold.  1  A  prophet  to 
enlighten  and  instruct,  Johnvi.  14.  John  iii. 
2. — 2.  A  priest  to  mak^-  atonement  for  his 
people,  Isaiah  liu.  Heb.  vii. — 3.  A  king  to 
reign  in,  and  rule  over  them,  Z'T.h.  xi  9. 
Psal.  ii.  6,  See  articles  Intercession, 
Mediator,  &c 

OMEN  is  d  word  wliich,  in  its  prop>er 
sense,  signifies  a  sign  or  indication  of  some 
future  evtnt,  especially  of  an  alarming  na- 
ture. Against  the  belief  of  omens,  it  is  ob- 
served, that  it  is  contrary  to  every  princi- 
ple of  sound  philosophy ;  and  whoever  has 
studied  the  writi-.gs  of  St.  Paul  must  be  con- 
vinced that  it  is  inconsistent  with  tiie  spirit 
of  genuine  Christianity.  W-^  cannot  pre- 
tend to  discuss  the  subject  here,  but  will 
present  the  reader  with  a  quotation  on  the 
othi-r  side  fif  the  question.  "  Though  it  be 
true,"  says  Mr  Toplady,  "  that  all  omens 
are  not  worthy  of  <'b.servation ;  and  though 
they  should  never  be  so  regarded  as  to  shock 
our  fortitud  .  or  diminish  our  confidence  in 
G'ld,  still  they  arc  not  to  be  constantly  de- 
spised. Small  incidents  have  sometimes  been 
prelusive  to  great  events ;  nor  is  there  any 
superstition  in  noticing  these  apparent  prog- 
nostications, though  there  may  be  much  su- 
f)erstition  in  being  either  too  indiscriminate- 
y  or  too  deeply  swayed  by  them." — Tojila- 
dy't!  IVorks,  vol.  iv.  p,  192. 

OMNIPO  FENCE  OF  GOD  is  his  al- 
mighty power  This  is  essential  to  his 
nature  as  an  infinite,  independent,  and  per- 
fect Being.  The  power  of  God  is  divided 
into  absolute,  ordinate^  or  actual.  Ab(,olute 
is  that  whereby  God  is  able  to  do  that  which 
he  will  not  do,  but  is  possible  to  be  done. 
Ordinate  is  that  whereby  he  doth  that  whi-h 
he  hath  decreed  tf)  do.  The  power  of  God 
may  be  more  especially  seen,  1.  In  creation, 
Kom.  i.  20  Genesis  i  — 2.  In  the  preserva- 
tion of  his  creatures,  Heb.  i  3.  Col.  i.  16,  17. 
Job  xxvi. — 3.  In  the  redemption  of  men  by 


Christ,  Luke  i.  35,  37.  Eph.  i.  19.— 4.  In 
the  conversion  of  sinners,  rsal.  ex.  3.  2  Cor. 
iv.  7.  Rom.  i.  16. — 5  In  the  continuation 
and  success  of  the  Gospel  in  the  world. 
Matt.  xiii.  31,  32  — 6.  In  the  final  perseve- 
rance of  the  saints,  1  Pet  i  5  — 7.  In  the  re- 
surrection of  the  dead,  1  Cor.  xv — 8.  In 
making  the  righteous  happy  for  ever,  and 
punisl  ing  in  the  wicked,  Pnil  iii  21  Matt. 
XXV.  34,  &c.  See  Gill's  Body  of  I nv.  vol. 
i.  oct.  edit  p.  77.  Charnock's  Works^  vol. 
ij)  423.  Saurin's  Sermons,  vol.  i.  p.  157. 
Tillotsons''  Sermons,  ser   152. 

OMNIPRESENCE  OF  GOD  is  his  ubi- 
quity, or  his  being  present  in  every  place. 
This  may  be  argued  from  his  infinity,  Ps. 
rxxxix  ;  his  power,  which  is  every  where, 
Heb  i  3 ;  his  providence.  Acts  xvii.  27,  28, 
whtch  supplies  all  As  he  is  a  spirit,  he  is 
so  omnipresent  as  not  to  be  mixed  with  the 
creature,  or  divided,  part  in  one  place,  and 
part  in  another  ;  nor  is  he  multiplied  or  ex- 
tended, but  is  essentially  present  every 
where.  From  the  consideration  of  this 
attribute  we  should  learn  to  fear  and  reve- 
rence God,  Psal  Ixxxix.  7.  To  derive 
consolation  in  the  hour  of  distress.  Is.  xliii. 

2.  Ps.  xlvi.  1.  To  be  active  and  diligent  in 
holy  services,  Psal.  cxix  168.  See  Char- 
nock's  Works,  vol  i.  p  240.  Abemethy''s 
Sermons,  ser.  7.  Howe''s  IVorks,  vol.  i  p. 
108,    110.      Saurin's    SermoTis,  vol.   i.   ser. 

3.  Giirs  Body  of  Div-  b  1.  Sfiect  vol. 
viii.  No.  565,  571.  Tillotson's  Sermons, 
ser.  154 

OMNISCIENCE  OF  GOD  is  that  per- 
fection  by  which  he  knows  all  things,  and 
is,  1.  Infinite  knowledge.  Ps.  cxlvii.  5 — 2. 
Eternal,  generally  called  foreknowledge, 
.\cts  XV.  18.  Isa.  xlvi  10.  Eph.  i.  4.  Acts 
ii.  23 3.  Universal,  extending  to  all  per- 
sons, times,  places,  and  things,  Heb.  iv. 
13.  Psalm  1.  10,  &c — 4.  Perfect,  relating 
to  what  is  past,  present,  and  to  come. 
He  knows  all  by  his  own  essence,  and  not 
derived  from  any  other ;  not  successively, 
as  we  do,  but  independently,  distinctly,  in- 
faUibly,  and  perpetually,  Jer.  x.  6,  7.  Rom. 
xi.  33 — 5.  This  knowledge  is  peculiar  to 
himself,  Mark  xiii.  32.  Job  xxxvi.  4.  and 
not  communicable  to  any  creature. — 6.  It  is 
incomprehensible  by  us  how  God  knows  all 
things,  yet  it  is  evident  that  he  does :  for  to 
suppose  otherwise  is  to  suppose  him  an  im- 
perfect Being,  and  diiectly  contrary  to  the 
revelation  he  has  given  of  himself,  1  John 
iii.  20.  Jol)  xxviii.  24.  Job  xxi.  22.  See 
C/iarnock's  IVorks,  vol.  i.  p.  271.  Aberne- 
thy's  Sermons,  vol.  i.  page  290,  306.  Howe's 
IVorks,  vol.  i.  p.  102,  103.  Gill's  IJiv. 
vol   i  p.  85.  oct. 

OPHITES.    See  Serpentinians. 

OPINION  is  that  judgment  which  the 
mind  forms  of  any  proposition,  for  the 
truth  or  falsehood  of  which  there  is  not 
sufficient  evidence  to  produce  absolute  be- 
lief 

ORACLE,  among  the  Heathens,  was  the 
answer  which  the  gods  were  supposed  to 


ORA 


359 


ORA 


give  to  those  who  consulted  them  upon  any 
affair  of  impr.rtance  Jt  is  also  used  fur  the 
god  who  was  thought  to  give  tlie  answer, 
and  for  the  place  where  it  was  given. 
Learned  men  are  much  divided  as  to  the 
source  of  these  oracles.  Some  suppose 
that  they  were  only  the  invention  of  priests  ; 
while  others  conceive  that  there  was  a  dia- 
bolical agency  employed  in  the  business. 
There  ai'e,  as  one  observes,  several  circum- 
stances leading  to  the  former  hypothesis ; 
such  as  the  gloomy  solemnity  with  which 
many  of  them  were  delivered  m  caves  and 
subterraneous  caverns :  tlie  numerous  and 
disagreeable  ceremonies  enjoined,  as  some- 
times sleeping  in  the  skins  of  beasts,  bath- 
ing, aad  expensive  sacrifices  ;  the  ambigu- 
ous and  unsatisfactory  answers  frequently 
returned :  these  look  very  much  like  the 
contrivances  of  artful  priests  to  disguise 
their  villany  ;  the  medium  of  priests,  speak- 
ing images,  vocal  groves,  &c.  seem  much 
to  confirm  it.  On  the  other  hand,  if  we 
may  credit  the  relation  of  ancient  writers, 
either  among  Heathens  or  Christians,  this 
hypothesis  will  hardly  account  for  many  of 
the  instances  they  mention  And  since  it 
cannot  be  proved  either  impossible  or  un- 
scriptural,  is  it  not  probable  that  God 
might  sometimes  permit  an  intercourse  with 
internal  spirits  with  a  design,  in  the  end,  to 
turn  this  and  every  other  circumstance  ti' 
his  own  glory  P 

Resprcting  the  cessation  of  these  oracles, 
there  have  been  a  variety  of  opinions.  It 
has  been  generally  held,  indeed,  that  ora- 
cles ceased  at  the  birth  of  Jesus  Christ ; 
yet  some  have  endeavoured  to  maintain 
the  contrary,  by  shewing  that  they  were  in 
being  in  the  days  of  Julian,  commonly  called 
the  apostate,  and  that  this  emperor  him- 
self consulted  them  ;  nay,  farther,  say  they, 
history  makes  mention  of  several  laws 
published  by  the  Christian  emperors,  Theo- 
dosius,  Gratian,  and  Valentinian,  to  punish 
persons  who  interrogated  them,  even  in  their 
days ;  and  that  the  Epicureans  were  tlie 
first  who  made  a  jest  of  this  superstition, 
and  exposed  the  roguery  of  its  priests  to 
the  people. 

But  on  the  other  side  it  is  oliserved,  1. 
That  the  question,  properly  stated,  is  not, 
Whether  oracles  became  extmctimmediale- 
ly  upon  the  birth  of  Christ,  or  from  the 
very  moment  he  was  born  ?  but.  Whether 
they  fell  gradually  into  disesteem,  and 
ceased  as  Christ  and  his  Gospel  became 
known  to  mankind  ^  And  that  they  did  so 
is  most  certain  from  the  concurrent  testi- 
monies of  the  fathers,  which,  whoever 
Would  endeavour  to  invalidate,  may  equally 
give  up  the  most  respectable  traditions  and 
relations  of  every  kind. 

2dly,  But  did  not  Julian  the  apostate  con- 
sult these  oracles  ?  We  answer  in  the  ne- 
gative :  he  had,  indeed,  recourse  to  magical 
operations,  but  it  was  because  oracles  had 
already  ceased  ;  for  he  bewailed  the  loss  of 
them,  and  assigned  pitiful  reasons  for  it ; 


which  St.  Cyril  has  vigorously  refuted 
saying,  that  he  never  could  have  offered 
such,  but  from  an  unwiUingness  to  acknoiv- 
Ifdge,  that,  when  the  world  had  received  the 
light  of  L  hrist,  the  dominion  of  the  devil 
was  at  an  end. 

3dly,  The  Christian  emperors  do  indeed, 
seem  to  condemn  the  superstition  and  idola- 
tiy  of  those  who  were  still  for  consulting 
oracles  ;  but  the  edicts  of  those  princes  do 
not  jn'ove  that  oracles  actually  existed  in 
their  times  any  more  than  that  they  ceased 
in  C(nisequence  of  their  laws  It  is  certain 
that  they  were  for  the  most  part  extinct 
before  the  conversion  of  Constantine. 

4th ly.  Some  Epicureans  might  make  a 
jest  of  this  superstition ;  however,  the 
Epicurean  philosopher  Celsus,  in  the  se- 
cond century  of  the  church,  was  for  crying 
up  the  excellency  of  several  oracles,  as  ap- 
pears at  large  from  Origen's  seventh  book 
against  him. 

Among  the  Jews  there  were  several  sorts 
of  real  oracles.  They  had,  first,  oracles 
that  were  delivered  viva  voce  ;  as  when 
God  spake  to  Moses  face  to  face,  and  as 
one  friend  speaks  to  another.  Numb.  xii.  8. 
Secondly,  Prophetical  dreams  sent  by  God; 
iis  the  dreams  which  God  sent  to  Joseph, 
and  wliich  foretold  his  future  greatness. 
Gen.  xxvii.  5,  6.  Thirdly,  Visions  ;  as 
when  a  prophet  in  an  ecstacy,  being  neither 
pr.  iperly  asleep  nor  awake,  had  supernatu- 
ral revelations.  Gen.  xv,  1.  Gen  xlvi.  2. 
F'urthly,  The  oracie  of  the  Urim  and 
Thummim,  which  was  accompanied  with 
rhe  ephod.  or  the  pectoral  worn  by  the 
hiy;h  priest,  and  which  God  had  endued 
with  the  gift  of  foretelling  things  to  come. 
Numb.  xii.  6  Joel  ii.  28.  This  manner  of 
enquiring  of  the  Lord  was  often  made  use 
of,  from  Joshua's  time  to  the  erection  of  the 
temple  at  Jerusalem.  Fifthly,  After  the 
building  of  the  temple,  they  generally  con- 
sulted the  prophets,  who  were  frequent  in 
the  kingdoms  of  Judah  and  Israel.  From 
Haggai,  Zechariah,  and  Malachi,  who  are 
the  last  of  the  prophets  that  have  any  of 
their  writings  remaining,  the  Jews  pretend 
that  God  gave  them  what  they  call  Bath- 
kol,  the  Daughter  of  the  Voice,  which  was 
a  supernatural  manifestation  of  the  will  of 
God,  which  was  performed  either  by  a 
strong  inspiration  or  internal  voice,  or  else 
by  a  sensible  and  external  voice,  which  was 
heard  by  a  number  of  persons  sufficient  to 
bear  testimony  of  it.  For  example,  such 
was  the  voice  that  was  heard  at  the  bap- 
tism of  Jesus  Christ,  saying.  This  is  my  be- 
loved Son,  &c.  Matt.  iii.  17. 

The  scripture  affords  us  examples  like- 
wise, of  profane  oracles.  Balaam,  at  the 
instigation  of  his  own  spirit,  and  urged  on 
by  his  avarice,  fearing  to  lose  the  recom- 
pence  that  he  was  promised  by  Balak,  king 
of  the  Moabites,  suggests  a  diabolical  expe-- 
dient  to  this  prince  of  making  the  Israelites 
tnll  into  idolatry  and  fornication,  (Numb, 
xxiv.  14.    Numb.  x«xi.  16.)  by  which  he 


ORA 


360 


ORD 


assures  him  of  a  certain  victory,  or  at  least 
of  considerable  advantage  against  the  peo 
pie  of  God, 

Micaiah,  the  son  of  Imlah,  a  prophet  of 
the  Lord,  says  (1  Kings  xxii.  21,  &c.)  that 
he  saw  the  Almighty  sitting  upon  his  throne, 
and  all  the  host  of  heaven  round  about  him; 
and  the  Lord  said,  Who  shall  tempt  Ahab, 
king  of  Israel,  that  he  mi-^ht  go  to  war 
with  RamothjGilead,  and  fall  in  the  battle  ? 
One  answered  after  one  manner,  and  ano- 
ther in  another.  At  the  same  time  an  evil 
spirit  presented  himself  before  the  Lord, 
and  said,  I  will  seduce  him.  And  the 
Lord  asked  him.  How  >  To  which  Satan 
answed,  I  will  go  and  be  a  lying  spirit  in 
the  mouth  of  his  prophets.  And  the 
Lord  said,  Go,  and  thou  shalt  prevail. 
This  dialogue  clearlv  proves  these  two 
things  :j^rst,  that  the  devil  could  do  nothing 
by  his  own  powtr ;  and,  secondly,  that, 
with  the  permission  of  God,  he  could  in- 
spire the  false  prophets,  sorcerers,  and 
magicians,  and  make  them  deliver  false 
oracles.  See  Vandale  and  Fontenell  s  His- 
iory  de  Orac.  Poller's  Greek  Jnliquiiies, 
vol.  i  book  ii.  chap.  vii.  Edward's  His- 
tory of  Red.  page  408.  Farrner  on  Mir. 
page  281,  285.  Fnc.  Brit,  article  Ora- 
cle. 

ORAL,  delivered  by  the  mouth,  not  writ- 
ten.   See  Tradition. 

ORATORY,  a  name  given  by  Christians 
to  certain  places  of  religious  worship. 

In  ecclesiastical  antiquity,  the  term 
eiKOi  evx.T>jpioi,  houses  of  prayer,  or  ora- 
tories, is  frequently  given  to  churches  in 
general,  of  which  there  are  innumerable 
instances  in  ancient  Christian  writers.  But 
in  some  canons  the  name  oratory  seems 
confined  to  private  chapels  or  places  of 
worship  set  up  for  the  convenience  of  pri- 
vate families,  yet  still  depending  on  the 
parochial  churches,  and  differing  from  them 
in  this,  that  they  were  only  places  of  pray- 
er, but  not  for  celebrating  the  communion  ; 
for  if  that  were  at  any  time  allowed  to 
private  famihes,  yet,  at  least,  upon  the 
great  and  solemn  festivals,  they  were 
to  resort  for  communion  to  the  parish 
churches. 

Oratory  is  used  among  the  Romanists  for 
a  closet,  or  little  apartment  near  a  bed- 
chamber, furnished  with  a  little  altar,  cru- 
cifix, &c   for  jirivate  devotion. 

Oratory,  Priests  of  the.  There  were 
two  congregations  of  religious,  one  in  Italy, 
the  other  in  France,  which  were  called  by 
this  name. 

The  Priests  of  the  Oratory  in  Italy  had 
for  their  founder,  St.  Philip  de  Neri,  a 
native  of  Florence,  who,  in  the  year  1548, 
founded  at  Rome  the  Confraternity  of  the 
Holy  Trinity.  This  society  originally  con- 
sisted of  but  fifteen  poor  persons,  who  as- 
sembled in  the  church  of  St.  Saviour,  in 
cam/io,  every  first  Sunday  in  the  month,  tn 
practice  the  cxtrcises  of  piety  described 
by  the   holy  founder.    Afterwards,    their 


number  increasing  by  the  addition  of  seve- 
ral persons  of  distinction  to  the  society,  St. 
Philip  proceeded  to  establish  an  hospital 
for  the  reception  of  poor  pilgrims,  who, 
coming  to  Rome  to  visit  the  tombs  of  St. 
Peter  and  St.  Paul,  were  obliged,  for  want 
of  a  lodging,  to  lie  in  the  streets  and  at 
the  doors  of  churches-.  For  this  charitable 
purpose,  pope  Paul  IV.  gave  to  the  society 
the  parochial  church  of  St.  Benedict,  close 
by  which  was  built  an  hospital,  so  large 
that  in  the  jubilee  year  1600,  it  received 
444,500  men.  and  25,500  women,  who  came 
in  pilgrimage  to  Rome. 

The  Priests  of  the  Oratory  in  France 
were  established  on  the  model  of  those  in 
Italy,  and  owe  their  rise  to  cardinal  Be- 
rulle,  a  native  of  Champagne,  who  resolv- 
ed upon  this  foundation  in  order  to  revive 
the  splendour  of  the  ecclesiastical  state, 
which  was  greatly  sunk  through  the  mise- 
ries of  the  civil  war,  the  increase  of  here- 
sies, and  a  general  coiTuption  of  manners. 
To  this  end  he  assembled  a  community  of 
ecclesiastics,  in  1611,  in  the  suburb  of  St. 
James.  They  obtained  the  king's  letter  pa- 
tent for  their  establishment ;  and,  in  1613, 
pope  Paul  V.  approved  this  congregation, 
under  the  title  of  the  Oratory  of  Jesus. 

This  congregation  consisted  of  two  sorts 
of  persons  ;  the  one,  as  it  were,  incorpora- 
ted ;  the  other  only  associates :  the  former 
governed  the  houses  of  this  institute ;  the 
latter  were  only  employed  in  forming  them- 
selves to  the  life  and  manners  of  ecclesias- 
tics. And  this  was  the  true  spirit  of  this 
congregation,  in  which  they  taught  neither 
human  learning  nor  theology,  but  only  the 
virtues  of  tiie  ecclesiastical  life. 

ORDER,  method  ;  the  established  man- 
ner of  performing  a  thing.  Nothing  can  be 
more  beautiful  in  religion  and  morals  than 
order.  The  neglect  of  it  exposes  us  to  the 
inroads  of  vice,  and  often  brings  upon  us  the 
most  perplexing  events  Whether  we  con- 
sider it  in  retVrence  to  ourselves,  our  fami- 
lies, rv  the  church,  it  is  of  the  greatest  im- 
portance. As  to  the  frst,  order  should  be 
attended  to  as  it  respects  our  principles  Heb. 

jxiii  ^.    Jamts  i.  8.  our  tempers,   Prov.  xvii. 

'  14   Eph.  iv.  31    our  conversation.  Col.  iv.  6. 

lour  business,   Prov.   xxii.  29.   our  time,  Ps. 

I  xc.  12-  Eccl,  iii.  1.  our  recreations,  and  our 
gi-neral  conduct,  Phil.  i.  27.   2  Pet.  i.  5,  &c. 

I — 2.     ./is  it    regards    our  families,     there 

j  should  be  order ;  as  to  the  economy  or  ma- 

I  nagement  of  its  concerns.  Matt.  xii.  25.  as 

I  to  devotion,  and  the  time  of  it.  Josh.  xxiv.  15. 

I  as  to  the   instruction   thereof.    Eph.  vi.   1. 

I  Gen.  xviii.  19.  2  Tim.  i.  5. — 3.  In  respect 
to  the  church,  order  should  be  observed  as 
to  the  admission  of  members,  2  Cor.  vi.  15. 
as  to  the  administration  of  its  ordinances,  1 
Cor.  xiv.  33,  40 ;  as  to  the  attendance  on  its 
worship,  Ps.  xxvii.  4  ;  as  to  our  behaviour 
therein.  Col.  i.  10.  Matt.  v.  16.  To  excite 
us  to  the  practice  of  tliis  duty,  we  should 
consider  that  God  is  a  God  of  order,  1  Cor. 
xiv.  53;    h;s  works   are   in   tlie  exactesU 


ORD 


361 


ORD 


order,  Eph.  i.  11.  Psal.  civ.  25.  Eccl.  iii.  11 ; 
heaven  is  a  place  of  order,  Rev.  vii.  9.  Jesus 
Christ  was  a  most  beautiful  exuinple  of 
regularity.  Tiie  advantages  of  order  are 
ijunieroub.  "  The  observance  of  it,"  says 
Dr.  Blair,  "  serves  to  correct  that  negligence 
■which  makes  us  omit  some  duties,  and  that 
hurry  and  precipitancy  which  makes  us 
perform  others  imperfectly.  Our  attention 
is  thereby  directed  to  its  proper  objects. 
We  follow  the  strait  path  which  Providence 
has  pointed  out  to  us;  in  the  course  of  which 
all  the  difterent  business  of  life  presents 
itself  regularly  to  us  on  every  side."  Sermon 
vii.  page  23. 

ORDERS,  by  way  of  eminency,  or  holy 
QTders,  denote  a  character  peculiar  to  ec- 
clesiastics, whereby  they  are  set  apart  for 
the  ministry.  This  the  Romanists  make 
their  sixth  sacrament.  In  no  reformed 
church  are  there  more  than  three  orders, 
viz.  bishops,  priests,  and  deacons.  In  the 
Romish  church  there  are  seven,  exclusive 
of  the  episcopate :  all  which  the  council 
of  Trent  enjoins  to  be  received  and  believed 
on  pain  of  anathema.  They  are  distinguish- 
ed into  petty  or  secular  order,  and  major  or 
sacred  orders.  Orders,  the  petty  or  minor, 
are  four,  viz.  those  of  door-keepers,  exorcist, 
reader,  and  acolyth.  Sacred,  or  major,  are 
deacon,  priest,  and  bishop. 
ORDERS  RELIGIOUS,  are  congrega- 
tions or  societies  of  monasterits  living  un- 
der the  same  superior,  in  the  same  manner, 
and  wearing  the  same  habit.  Religious  or- 
ders may  be  reduced  to  five  kinds,  viz. 
monks,  canons,  knights,  mendicants,  and 
regular  clerks.  White  order  denotes  the 
order  of  regular  canons,  of  St.  Augustine. 
Slack  order  denoted  the  order  of  St  Bene- 
dictine. Orders  religious  military  are  those 
instituted  in  defence  of  tlie  faith,  and  privi- 
leged to  say  mass,  and  who  are  prohibited 
marriage,  &c.  Of  this  kind  are  the  knights 
of  Malta,  or  of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem.  Such 
also  were  the  knights  templars,  the  knights 
of  Calatrave,  of  St.  Lazarus,  Teutonic 
knights,  6cc. 

ORDINx\NCES  OF  THE  GOSPEL, 
are  institutions  of  Divine  authority  relating 
to  the  woi'ship  of  God;  such  as  baptism, 
Matt,  xxviii.  19 — 2.  The  Lrird's  supper,  1 
Cor.  xi.  24,  &c. — 3.  Public  ministry,  or 
preaching  and  reading  the  word,  Rom.  x.  15. 
Eph.  iv.  13.  Mark  xvi.  15. — 4.  Hearing  the 
Gospel,  Mark  iv.  24.  Rom.  x.  17— 5.  I'ub- 
lic  prayer,  1  Cor.  xiv.  15,  19.  Matt.  vi.  6. 
Psal.  V.  1,  7. — 6.  Singing  of  psalms.  Col.  iii. 
16.  Eph.  V.  19. — 7.  Fasting,  James  iv.  9. 
Matt.  ix.  15.  Joel  ii.  12 — 8.  Solemn  thanks- 
giving, Ps.  1.  14.  1  Thess.  v.  18. — See  these 
different  articles;  also  Mkans  of  Grace. 
ORDINATION,  the  act  of  conferring 
holy  orders,  or  of  initiating  a  person  into 
I  the  priesthood  by  prayer  and  the  layiiig  on 
\  of  hands.  Among  the  DLssenters,  ordina- 
tion is  the  public  setting  apart  of  a  minister 
to  his  work,  or  over  the  people  whose  call 
he  has  accepted.  In  the  church  of  England, 

Z  z 


ordination  has  always  been  esteemed  the 
principle  prerogative  of  bishops,  and  they 
still  retain  the  function  as  a  mark  of  dieir 
spiritual  sovereignty  in  their  diocese.  With- 
out t)rdination  no  person  can  receive  any 
benefice,  parsonage,  vicarage.  Sec.  A  per- 
son must  be  twenty-three  years  of  age,  or 
near  it,  before  he  (;;  n  be  ordained  deacon, 
or  have  any  share  in  the  ministry ;  and  full 
twenty  four  before  he  can  be  ordained 
piiest,  and  by  that  means  be  permitted  to 
administer  the  holy  communion.  A  bi&hop, 
on  the  ordination  of  clergymen,  is  to  ex- 
amine them  in  the  presence  of  the  miiiis- 
ters,  who,  in  the  ordination  of  priests,  but 
not  of  deacons,  assist  him  at  the  imposition 
of  hands  ;  but  this  is  only  done  as  a  mark 
of  assent,  not  because  it  is  thought  necessa- 
ry. In  case  any  crime,  as  drunkt-nness, 
perjury,  forgery,  6cc.  is  alleged  against  any 
one  that  is  to  be  ordained  either  priest  or 
deacon,  the  bishop  ought  to  desist  from  or- 
daining him.  The  person  to  be  ordained 
is  to  bring  a  testimonial  of  his  life  and  doc- 
trine to  the  bishop,  and  to  give  account 
of  his  faith  in  Latin  ;  and  both  priests  and 
deacons  are  obliged  to  subscribe  the  tiiirty- 
iiine  articles.  In  the  ancient  disciplire 
there  was  no  such  thing  as  a  vague  and 
abs'.lute  ordination;  but  every  one  was  to 
have  a  cliurch,  win  reof  he  was  to  be  or- 
(laiiied  clerk  (ir  priest.  In  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury they  grew  more  remiss,  and  ordained 
without  any  title  or  benefice.  The  council 
of  'I  rent,  however,  restored  the  ancient 
discipline,  an  i  appi  int  d  that  none  sliould 
be  ordained  but  those  who  were  invwided 
with  a  lenef'ice ;  which  practice  still  ob- 
tains hi  England.  The  times  .  f  or^lni.  tion 
are  the  four  Sundays  immediately  tolhwing 
the  Ember  weeks ;  being  the  sec  nd  Sun- 
day in  Lent,  Trinity  Sunday,  and  the  Sun- 
days following  the  first  Wednesday  after 
September  14  and  December  13.  I'hese 
are  the  stated  times ;  but  ordination  may  take 
place  at  any  other  time,  according  to  the 
discretion  of  the  bishop,  or  circumstances  of 
the  case.  Among  Seceders  or  Dissenters. 
ordinations  vary  In  the  establishment  of 
Scotland,  where  there  are  no  bishops,  the 
powtr  of  ordination  is  lodged  in  the  presby- 
tery. Among  the  Calvinistic  Mftbodists, 
ordination  is  performed  by  the  sanction  and 
assistance  of  their  own  ministers.  Among_ 
the  Independents  and  Baptists,  the  power  of 
ordination  lies  in  the  suffrage  of  the  people. 
The  qualifications  of  the  candidate  are  first 
known,  tried,  and  approved  by  the  church. 
After  which  trial,  the  church  proceeds  to 
give  him  a  call  to  be  their  minister ;  which 
he  accepting,  the  public  acknowledgment 
thereof  is  signified  by  ordination,  the  mode 
of  which  is  so  well  known,  as  not  to  need 
recital  here. 

Though  the  Dissenters  practice  ordina- 
tion, we  find  they  are  not  agreed  respecting 
it.  Some  contend  for  the  power  of  ordina- 
tion as  belonging  to  the  people  ;  the  exer- 
cise of  which  right  by  them  constitutv?  » 


ORD 


362 


ORD 


minister,  and  confers  validity  on  his  public 
ministrations.  Others  suppose  it  belongs  to 
those  who  are  already  in  office.  Without 
pretending  to  determine  the  question,  we 
shall  here  give  an  outline  of  the  arguments 
on  both  sides. 

According  to  the  former  opinion,  it  is 
argued  that  the  word  ordain,  was  originally 
equal  to  choose  or  appoint ;  so  that  if  twen- 
ty Christians  nominated  a  man  to  instruct 
tliem  once,  the  man  was  appointed  or  or- 
dained a  preacher  for  the  time.  1  he  es- 
sence of  oi'dination  lies  in  the  voluntary 
choice  and  call  of  the  people,  and  in  the 
voluntary  acceptance  of  that  call,  by  the 
person  chosen  and  called ;  for  this  affair 
must  be  by  mutual  consent  and  agreemeHt, 
which  joins  them  together  as  pastor  and 
people.  And  this  is  to  be  done  among 
themselves :  and  public  ordination,  so  called, 
is  no  other  than  a  declaration  of  that.  Elec- 
tion and  ordination  are  spoken  of  as  the 
same  ;  the  latter  is  expressed  and  explain- 
ed by  the  former.  It  is  said  of  Christ,  that 
he  ordained  twelve,  Mai'k  iii.  14,  that  is, 
he  chose  them  to  the  office  of  apostleship,  as 
he  himself  explains  it,  John  vi.  70.  Paul  and 
Barnabas  are  said  to  ordain  elders  in  every 
church,  (Acts  xiv.  23,)  or  to  choose  them  ; 
that  is,  they  gave  orders  and  directions  to 
every  church  as  to  the  choice  of  elders 
over  them  :  for  sometimes  persons  are  said 
to  do  that  which  they  gave  orders  and  di- 
rections for  doing  ;  as  Moses  and  Solomon, 
with  I'espect  to  building  the  tabernacle  and 
temple,  though  done  by  others  ;  and  Moses 
particularly  is  said  to  choose  the  judges, 
Exod.  xviii.  25.  the  choice  being  made  un- 
der his  direction  and  guidance.  The  word 
that  is  used  in  Acts  xiv.  23,  is  translated 
chosen  in  Cor.  ii.  8,  19,  where  the  apostle 
speaks  of  a  brother,  y^n^oron-'^iii,  i^t-'ho 
ivas  chosen  of  the  churches  to  travel  ivith 
us,  and  is  so  rendered  when  ascribed  to 
God,  Acts  X.  41.  This  choice  and  ordina- 
tion, in  primitive  times,  was  made  two 
ways ;  by  casting  lots  and  giving  votes,,  sig- 
nified by  stretching  out  of  hands.  Matthias 
was  chosen  and  ordained  to  be  an  apostle 
in  the  room  of  Judas  by  casting  lots :  that 
being  an  extraordinary  office,  required  an 
immediate  interposition  of  the  Divine  Being,  a 
lot  being  nothing  more  nor  less  than  an  appeal 
to  God  for  the  decision  of  an  aff"air.  But 
ordinary  officers,  as  elders  and  pastors  of 
churches,  were  chosen  and  ordained  by  the 
votes  of  the  people,  expressed  by  stretching 
out  their  hands  ;  thus  it  is  said  of  the  apos- 
tles. Acts  xiv.  25,  When  they  had  ordain- 
ed them  eiders  in  every  church  p^ci^orovij- 
e-ctvT£<;,  by  taking  the  suff'rages  and  votes  of 
the  members  of  the  churches,  shewn  by  the 
stretching  out  of  their  hands,  as  the  word 
signifies  ;  and  which  they  directed  them  to, 
and  upon  it  declared  the  elders  duly  elected 
"\nd  ordained. 

.  .Some,  however,  on  this  side  of  the  ques- 
^'V  do  not  go  so  far  as  to  say,  that  the  es- 
seti\  of  ordination  lies  in  the  choice  of  the 


people,  but  in  the  solemn  and  fiublic  separa- 
tion to  office  by  prayer;  still,  h(,wever,  they 
think  that  oi-dination  by  either  bishcjjjs, 
presbyters,  or  any  superior  character,  can- 
not be  necessary  to  make  a  minister  or  or- 
dain a  pastor  in  any  particular  church  ; 
for  Jesus  Christ,  say  they,  would  never  leave 
the  subsistar.ee  of  his  churches,  or  the  effi- 
cacy of  his  word  and  sacraments,  to  depend 
on  the  uninterrupted  succession  of  any  (ffice 
or  officer ;  for  then  it  would  be  impossible 
for  any  church  to  know  whether  they  ever 
had  any  authentic  minister  ;  for  we  could  ne- 
ver be  assured  that  such ordinati'.ns had  been 
rightly  transmitted  through  1700  years.  A 
whole  nation  might  be  corrupted,  and  every 
bishop  and  elder  thereui  nught  have  aposta- 
tised from  the  faith,  as  it  was  in  England 
in  the  days  of  popery.  To  say,  therefore, 
that  the  right  of  ordaining  lies  in  men  who 
are  already  in  office,  w,  uld  drive  us  to 
hold  the  above-mentioned  untenable  position 
of  uninterrujited  succession- 

On  the  other  side  it  is  observed,  that,  al- 
though Christians  have  the  liberty  of  choos- 
ing their  own  pastor,  yet  they  have  no  pow- 
er or  right  to  confer  the  office  itself  Scrip- 
ture represents  ordination  to  be  the  setting 
apart  of  a  person  to  the  holy  ministry,  by 
the  authority  of  Jesus  himself  acting  by  the 
medium  of  me7i  m  office;  and  this  solemn 
investing  act  is  necessary  to  his  being  law- 
fully accounted  a  minister  of  Christ.  The 
original  word.  Acts  vi.  3.  is  xo7«sT;j(r»^£», 
which  according  to  Scapula,  and  the  best 
writers  on  the  sacred  language,  signifies  to 
put  one  in  rule,  or  to  i;ive  him  authority. 
Now  did  this  power  lodge  in  the  people, 
how  happens  it  that  in  all  the  epistles,  not  a 
single  word  is  to  be  found  giving  them  any 
directions  about  constituting  ministers  ?  On 
the  other  hand,  in  the  epistles  to  Timothy 
and  Titus,  who  were  persons  in  office,  we 
find  particular  instruction  given  them  to  lay 
hands  suddenly  on  no  man,  to  examine  his 
qualifications  before  they  ordain  him,  and  to 
take  care  tliat  they  commit  the  office  only 
to  faithful  men,  who  shall  be  able  to  teach 
others  also,  Titus  i.  5.  2  Tim.  iv.  14.  Acts 
xiv.  23. 

Besides,  it  is  said,  the  primitive  Chris- 
tians evidently  viewed  this  matter  in  the 
same  light.  There  is  scarcely  a  single  ec- 
clesiastical writer  that  does  not  expressly 
mention  ordination  as  the  work  of  the  el- 
ders, and  as  being  regarded  as  a  distinct  thing 
from  the  choice  of  the  people,  and  subse- 
quent to  it. 

Most  of  the  foregoing  remarks  apply 
chiefiy  to  the  supposition,  that  a  person 
cannot  be  ordained  in  any  other  way  than 
as  a  fiastor  over  a  church.  But  hear,  also, 
we  find  a  difference  of  opinion.  On  the  one 
side  it  is  said,  that  there  is  no  scriptue  au- 
thority whatever  for  a  person  being  ordain- 
ed without  being  chosen  or  ncniinated  to 
the  office  of  a  minister  by  a  church.  Elders 
and  bishops  were  ordained  in  every  church, 
not  ^v•ithout  any  church.    To  ordain  a  man 


ORD 


36^ 


ORI 


originally,  says  Dr.  Campbell,  was  nothing 
else  but  in  a  solemn  manner  to  assign  him 
a  pastoral  charge  To  give  him  no  charge, 
and  not  to  ordain  him,  were  perfectly  iden- 
tical. On  the  other  side  it  is  contended, 
that  from  these  words,  "  Go  ye  into  all  the 
world,  and  preacli  the  Gospel  to  every  crea- 
ture ;  and,  lo,  I  am  with  you  always,  even 
unto  the  end  of  tlie  world,"  it,  is  evident  that 
inisionaries  and  itinerants  must  be  employed 
in  the  important  work  of  the  ministry  ;  that, 
as  such  cannot  be  ordained  over  any  parti- 
cular church,  tht-rc  cannot  be  the  least  im- 
propriety in  ordaining  them  for  the  churcli 
nni-versal.  Allowing  that  they  have  all 
those  talents,  gifts,  and  grace,  that  consti- 
tute a  minister  in  the  sight  of  God,  who 
will  dare  say  they  should  n(>t  be  designated 
by  their  brethren  for  the  administration  of 
those  ordinances  Christ  has  appointed  in 
the  church  ? — Without  allowing  this,  how 
many  tliousands  would  be  destitute  of  these 
ordinances  ?  B^-sides,  these  are  the  very 
men  whom  God  in  general  honours  as  the 
first  instruments  in  raising  churches,  over 
which  stated  pastors  are  afterwards  fixed. 
The  separation  of  Saul  and  Barnabas,  say 
they,  was  an  ordination  to  missionary  work, 
including  the  administration  of  sacraments 
to  the  converted  Heathen,  as  well  as  pub- 
lic instruction,  Acts  xiii  1.  3.  So  Timothy 
was  ordained,  1  Tim.  iv.  14.  Acts  xvi.  3. 
and  there  is  equal  reason,  by  analogy,  to  sup- 
pose that  Titus  and  other  companions  of 
Paul  were  similarly  ordained,  without  any 
of  them  having  a  particular  church  to  take 
under  his  pastoral  care.  So  that  they  ap- 
pear to  have  been  ordained  to  the  work  of 
the  Christian  ministry  at  large. 

On  reviewing  the  wliole  of  this  contro- 
versy, I  would  say  with  Dr.  Watts,  "  that 
since  there  are  some  Texts  in  tlie  New 
Testament,  wherein  single  persons,  either 
apostles,  as  Paul  and  Barnabas,  ordained 
minist(?rs  in  the  churches ;  or  evangelists, 
as  Timothy  and  Titus,  and  since  other  mis- 
sions or  ordinations  are  intimated  to  be  per- 
formed by  several  persons,  viz  prophets, 
teachers,  elders,  or  a  presbytery,  as  in 
Acts  xiii.  1.  and  1  Tim.  iv.  14.  since  there 
is  sometimes  mention  made  of  the  imposi- 
tion of  hands  in  the  mission  of  a  minister, 
and  sometimes  no  mention  of  it;  and  since 
it  is  evident  that  in  some  cases  popular  or- 
dinations are  and  must  be  valid  without  any 
bishop  or  elder,  I  think  none  of  tliese  dif- 
ferences should  be  made  a  matter  of  violent 
contest  among  Christians  ;  nor  ought  any 
words  to  be  pronounced  against  each  other 
by  those  of  the  episcopal,  presbyterian,  or 
independent  way.  Surely,  all  may  agree 
thus  far,  tliat  various  forms  or  modes,  seem- 
ing to  be  used  in  tlie  mission  or  ordination 
of  ministers  in  primitive  times,  may  give  a 
reasonable  occasion  or  colour  for  sincere  and 
honest  searchers  after  tnith  to  follow 
different  opinions  on  this  head,  and  do  there- 
fore demand  our  candid  and  charitable  sen- 
timents concerning  those  who  differ  from 


us."  See  articles  Episcopacy,  Imposi- 
tion OF  Hands,  Independents,  and 
Ministerial  Call,  in  this  •wov)s.;  James 
Owen's  Plea  for  Hcrijiture  Orcliiiation. 
Ooddridge't)  Tracts,  v.  ii.  page  253 — 257. 
L)r.  Oiven's  True  Nature  (f  a  Gos/iel 
Church,  page  78,  83.  Brckell's  Essay  on 
Ordination.  Watts'  Rational  Foundation- 
of  a  Lhristian  Church,  sec.  3.  Dr.  Camfi- 
belL's  Lectures  on  Ecclesiastical  History, 
vol.  i.  page  345.  Giirs  Body  of  Divinity^ 
page  246,  vol.  iii.  8vo.  edition.  Theological 
Magazine  fir  1802,  page  33,  90,  167. 
Ewing's  Reinarks  on  Dick's  Sermon, 
fjrcaclitd  before  the  Edingburgh  Missionary 
Society  in  1801. 

ORiGENlSTS,  a  denomination  which 
appeared  in  the  third  century,  who  derived 
their  opinions  from  the  writings  of  Origen, 
a  presbyter  of  Alexandria,  and  a  man  of 
vast  and  uncommon  abilities,  who  interpret- 
ed the  divine  truths  of  rehgion  according 
to  the  tenor  of  the  Platonic  philosophy.  He 
alleged  that  the  source  of  many  evils  lies 
in  adhering  to  the  literal  and  external  part 
of  scripture  ;  and  that  the  true  meaning  of 
the  sacred  writtrs  was  to  be  sought  in  a 
mysterious  and  hidden  sense,  arising  from 
the  nature  of  things  themselves. 

The  principal  tenets  ascribed  to  Origen, 
together  with  a  few  of  the  reasons  made 
use  of  in  their  defence,  are  comprehended 
in  the  following  summar}'  : — 

1.  That  there  is  a  pre-existent  state  of 
human  souls  For  the  nature  of  the  soul  is 
such  as  to  make  her  capable  of  existing  eter- 
nally, backward  as  well  as  forward,  because 
her  spiritual  essence,  as  such,  makes  it  im- 
possible that  she  should,  eitiier  through  age 
or  violence,  be  dissolved  ;  so  that  nothing  is 
wanting  to  her  existence  l)ut  the  good  plea- 
sure of  Him  from  whom  all  tilings  proceed. 
And  if,  according  to  the  Platonic  scheme, 
we  assign  the  production  of  all  things  to 
the  exuberant  fulness  of  life  in  the  Deity, 
which,  through  the  blessed  necessity  of  his 
communicative  nature,  empties  itself  into 
all  possibilities  of  being,  as  into  so  many  ca- 
pable receptacles,  we  must  suppose  her  ex- 
istence in  a  sense  necessary,  and  in  a  d<;gree 
co-eternal  with  God. 

2.  That  souls  were  condemned  to  animate 
mortal  bodies,  in  order  to  expiate  faults 
they  had  committed  in  a  pre-existent  state  ; 
for  we  may  be  assured,  from  the  infinite 
goodness  f)f  their  Creator,  that  they  were  at 
Hrst  joined  to  the  purest  matter,  and  pl.^ced 
in  those  regions  of  the  universe  which  were 
most  suitable  to  the  purity  of  essence  they 
then  possessed.  For  that  the  souls  of  men  are 

ian  order  of  essentially  incorporate  spirits, 
their  deep  immersion  into  terrestrial  matter, 
the  modification  of  all  their  operations  by 
it,  and  the  heavenly  body  promised  in  the 
Gospel,  as  the  highest  perfection  of  our  re- 
newed nature,  clearly  evince.  I'herefore  if 
our  souls  existed  before  they  appeared  inha- 
bitants of  the  earth,  they  were  placed  in  a 
purer  element,  and  enjoyed  far  greater  dc- 


ORI 


364 


O  RT 


gr^es  of  happiness.  And  certainly  he,  whose 
overflowing  goodness  brought  them  into  ex- 
istrnce,  wuuld  not  deprive  them  of  tlieir  fe- 
licity, till  by  their  mutability  they  I'endered 
themselves  less  pure  in  the  whole  extent  of 
their  powers,  and  became  disposed  for  th<- 
susception  of  such  a  degree  of  corporeal 
life  as  was  exactly  answerable  to  their  pre- 
sent dispositicn  of  spirit.  Hence  it  was  ne- 
cessary that  they  should  become  terrestrial 
men. 

3.  That  the  soul  of  Christ  was  united  to 
the  Word  before  the  incarnation.  For  the 
scriptures  teach  us  that  the  soul  of  the 
Mesbiah  was  created  bffore  the  beginning 
of  the  world,  Piiil  ii  5,  7.  This  text  must 
be  understood  of  Christ's  human  soul,  be- 
cause it  is  unusual  to  propound  the  Deity 
as  an  example  of  humility  in  scripture. 
Though  t!ie  humanity  of  Christ  was  so  God- 
like, be  emptied  himself  of  this  fulness  of 
life  and  glory,  to  take  upon  him  the  form  of 
a  servant.  It  was  this  Messiah  who  con- 
versed with  the  patriarchs  under  a*  human 
form  :  it  was  he  who  appeared  to  Moses 
upon  the  Holy  Mount :  it  was  he  v;ho  spoke 
to  the  prophets  under  a  visible  appearance  : 
and  it  is  he  who  will  at  last  come  in  tri- 
umph upon  the  clouds  to  rest  -re  the  uni- 
niverse  to  its  primitive  splendour  and  feli- 
city. 

4.  That  at  the  resurrection  of  the  dead 
■^ve  shall  be  clothed  with  ethereal  bodies. 
For  the  elements  of  our  terrestrial  compo- 
sitions are  such  as  almost  fatally  entangle 
us  in  vice,  passion,  and  misery.  The  purer 
the  vehicle  the  soul  is  united  with,  the  more 
perfect  is  her  life  and  operations.  Besides, 
the  Supreme  Goodness  who  made  all  things, 
assures  us  he  made  all  things  best  at 
first,  and  therefore  his  recverj-  of  us  to  rur 
lost  happiness  (wliich  is  the  design  of  the 
Gospel,)  must  restore  us  to  our  better  bo- 
dies and  happier  habitations,  which  is  evi- 
dent from  1  Cor.  xv.  49,  2  Cor.  v.  1.  and 
other  texts  of  scripture. 

5.  That,  after  long  periods  of  time  the 
damned  shall  be  released  from  their  torment- 
and  restored  to  a  new  state  of  probation 
For  the  Deity  has  such  reserves  in  his  gra- 
cious providence,  as  will  vindicate  his  sove- 
reign goodness  and  wisdom  from  all  dispa- 
ragement. Exp:atory  pains  are  a  part  of  his 
adorable  plan  ;  for  this  sharper  kind  of  favour 
has  a  righteous  place  in  such  creatures  as  are 
by  nature  mutable.  Though  sin  hasextinguisl  - 
ed  or  silenced  the  divine  life,  yet  it  has  not 
df  strnyed  the  faculties  of  reason  and  under- 
standing, consideration  and  memory,  which 
will  serve  the  life  which  is  most  powerful 
If,  therefore,  the  vigorous  attraction  of  the 
sensual  nature  be  abated  by  a  ceaseless  pain, 
these  pmvers  may  resume  the  seeds  of  a 
better  life  and  nature.  As  in  the  material 
system  there  is  a  gravitation  of  the  less  bo- 
dies towards  the  greater,  there  must  of  ne- 
cessity be  something  analogous  to  this  in  the 
inteil'  ctu'.l  system  ;  and  since  the  spirits 
created  by  God  are  emanations  and  streams 


from  his  own  abyss  of  being,  and  as  self- 
existent  power  must  needs  subject  all  beings 
to  itself,  the  Deity  could  not  but  impress 
upon  her  intimate  natures  and  substances  a 
central  tendency  towards  himself;  an  es- 
sential principle  of  re-union  to  the  great  ori- 
ginal. 

6  That  the  earth  after  its  conflagration 
shall  become  habitable   again,  and  be  the 
I  mansion  of  men  and  animals,   and   that   in 
eternal  vicissitudes.     For  it  is  thus  expres- 
sed in  Isaiah  :  Behold  J  make  new  heavens, 
and  a  ne^iv  earth,  &c.  and  in  Hub.  i.  10  12. 
Thou,   Lord,  in  the  beginning  ha&t  laid  the 
fonndations    of  the  earih ;   as    a    vesture 
shalt    thou   change   them,    and    they   shall 
be  cha.ng^d,  &c.      Where    there   is   only  a 
change  the  subst.^nce  is  not  dtstroved,  this 
change  beii  g  only  as  that  of  a  garment  worn 
out    and    decaying.      The    fashion    of    the 
worid  passes  away  like  a  turning  scene,   to 
exhibit  a   fresh  and   new    representation  of 
thitigs ;  and  if  only  the  present  dress   and 
appearance  of  things  go  off,  the  substance 
is  supposed  to  I'emain  entire. 
ORIGINAL  SIN.    See  Fall,  Sin. 
ORIGIN  OF  EVIL.     See  Sin. 
OiiTHODOXY,  sfiundness  of  doctrine  or 
opinion  in  matters  of  religion.  The  doctrines 
which  are  generally  considered  as  orthodox 
among  us,  are  such  as  were   generally  pro- 
fessed at  the  time  of  the  reformation,   viz. 
the    fall   of  man,  regeneration,  atonement, 
repentance,  justification  by  free  grace,  &c. 
Some  have  thought,  that,  in  order  to  keep 
error  out  of  the  church,   there  should   be 
some  human  form  as  a  standard  of  ortho- 
doxy, wherein  certain    disputed   doctrines 
shall    be  expressed    in    such    determinate 
phrases  f)s  may  be  directly  levelled  against 
such  errors  as  shall   prevail    from   time   to 
time,  requiring  those  especially  who  are  to 
be  public  teachers  in  the  church  to  subscribe 
or  virtually  to  declare   their   assent  to  such 
formularies.     But,    as   Dr.   Drddridge    ob- 
serves, 1   Had  this  been  requisite,  it  is  pro- 
bable that  the  scriptures  would  have  given 
ns  some  such  formularies  as  these,  or  some 
directions  as  to  the  manner  in  which  they 
should  be  drawn  up.  proposed,  and  receiv- 
ed.— 2.  It  is  impossible  that  weak  and  pas- 
sionate men,  who  have  perhaps  been  heated 
in    the    very    controversy     thus     decided, 
should  express  themselves  with  greater  pro- 
priety than  the  apostles  did. — 3.  It  is  plain, 
in  fact,  that  this  practice  has  been  the  cause 
of  great  contention  in  the  Christian  church, 
and  such  formularies  have   been   the  gra;  d 
engine  of  dividing  it,   in  propurticn  to  the 
degree  in  which  thty  have  been  multiplied 
and  urged  — 4.  This  is  laying  a  great  temp- 
tation in  the  way  of  such  as  desire  to  under- 
take the  office  of  teachers  in   the    church, 
and  will  be  most  likely  to  deter  and  afflict 
those  who  have  the  greatest  tenderness  of 
conscience,  and  therefore  (aet.  fiar  J  best 
deserve  encouragement. — 5.  It  is  not  likely 
to  answer  the  end  proposed,    viz.  the  pre- 
serving an  uaiformity  of  opinion,  since  per- 


P  A  C 


365 


P  AC 


sons  of  little  integrity  may  satisfy  their 
consciences,  in  subscribing  what  they  do 
not  at  all  believe  as  articles  of  peace,  or  in 
putting  the  most  unnatural  sense  on  the 
words  And  whereas,  in  answer  to  all  these 
inconveniences,  it  is  pleaded,  that  such 
forms  are  necessary  to  keep  the  cnurch 
from  heresy,  and  it  is  better  there  should 
be  some  hypocrites  under  such  forms  of  or- 
tliodoxy,  than  that  a  freedom  of  debate  and 
opinion  should  be  allowed  to  all  teachers  ;  the 
answer  is  plain,  that,  when  any  one  begins 
to  preacli  doctrines  which  appear  to  those 
■who  attend  upon  !iim  dangei'ous  and  sub- 
versive of  Christianity,  it  will  be  time 
enough  to  proceed  to  such  animadversion 
as  the  nature  of  his  error  in  their  apprehen- 
sion will  require,  and  his  relation  to  them 
will  admit.  See  articles  Establishment 
and  Subscription.  Doddridge's  Lec- 
tures, lecture  174.  Watts'  Orthodoxy  and 
Charity  United 

OSIANDRIANS,  a  denomination  among 
the  Lutherans,  which  was  founded  in  the 
year  1550,  by  Andrew  Osiander,  a  celebra- 
ted German  divine,  whose  docti'ine  amount- 
ed to  the  following  propositions  : — 

1.  That  Christ,  considered  in  his  human 
nature  only,  could  not,  by  his  obedience  to 


the  divine  law,  obtain  justification  and  par- 
don for  sinnei  s  ;  neither  can  we  be  justi-» 
tied  before  God,  by  embracing  and  applying 
to  ourselves,  through  faith,  the  righteous- 
ness and  obedience  of  the  man  Christ.  It 
is  only  through  that  eternal  and  essential 
righteousness  which  dwells  in  Christ,  con- 
sidered as  God,  and  which  resides  in  his 
divine  nature,  that  is  united  to  the  human, 
that  mankind  can  obtain  complete  justifi- 
cation. 

2.  That  man  becomes  a  partaker  of  this 
divine  righteousness  by  faith,  since  it  is  in 
consequence  of  this  uniting  principle  that 
Christ  dwells  in  the  heart  of  man  with  his 
divine  righteousness  Now,  wherever  this 
divine  righteousness  dwells,  there  God  can 
behold  no  sin  ;  therefore,  when  it  is  present 
with  Christ  in  the  hearts  of  the  regenerate, 
they  are  on  its  account  considered  by  the 
Diity  as  righteous,  although  they  be  sin- 
ners. Moreover,  this  divine  and  justifymg 
righteousness  of  Christ  excites  the  faithful 
to  the  pursuit  of  holiness,  and  to  the  prac- 
tice of  virtue. 

OSSENIANS,  a  denomination,  in  the 
first  century,  which  taught  that  faith  may 
and  ought  to  be  dissembled. 


P. 


PACIFICATION,  edicts  of,  were  de- 
crees, granted  by  the  kings  of  France  to  the 
Protestants,  for  appeasing  the  troubles  oc- 
casioned by  their  persecution.  The  first 
JEdict  of  Pacification  was  granted  by  Charles 
IX  in  January  1562,  permitting  the  free  ex- 
ercise of  the  reformed  religion  near  all  the 
cities  and  towns  of  the  realm.  March  19, 
1563,  the  same  king  granted  a  second  Edict 
of  Pacification,  at  Amboise,  permitting  the 
free  exercise  of  the  reformed  religion  in  the 
houses  of  gentlemen  and  lords  high  justicia- 
ries (or  those  that  had  the  power  of  life 
and  death,)  to  their  families  and  dependents 
only  ;  and  allowing  other  Protestants  to  have 
their  sermons  in  such  towns  as  they  had 
them  in  before  tiie  seventh  of  March  ;  oblig- 
ing them  withal  to  quit  the  churches  they 
had  possessed  themselves  of  during  the  trou- 
bles. Another,  called  the  Edict  of  Lonju- 
meau,  ordering  the  execution  nf  that  of  Am- 
boise, was  published  March  27,  1558,  after 
a  treaty  of  peace.  This  pacification  was 
but  of  short  continuance  ;  for  Charles  ])ei'- 
ceiving  a  general  insurrection  of  the  Hugue- 
nots, revoked  the  said  edicts  in  September, 
1568,  forbidding  the  exercise  of  the  Protes- 
tant religion,  and  commanding  all  the  min- 
isters to  depart  the  kingdom  in  fifteen  days. 
But  on  the  eighth  of  August,  1570,  he  made 
peace  with  them  again,  and  published  an 


edict  on  the  eleventh,  allowing  the  lords 
high  justiciaries  to  have  sermons  in  their 
houses  for  all  comers,  and  granting  other 
Protestants  two  public  exercises  in  each  go- 
vernment. He  likewise  gave  them  four  cau- 
tionary towns,  viz.  Rochel,  Montaiibon, 
Cognal,  and  La  Charite,  to  be  places  of  se- 
curity for  them  during  the  space  of  two 
years. 

Nevertheless,  in  August,  157-',  he  author- 
ised the  Bartholomeio  massacre,  and  at  the 
same  time  issued  a  declaration,  forbidding 
the  exercise  of  the  Protestant  religion. 

Henry  III,  in  April  1576,  made  peace 
with  the  Protestants  ;  and  the  Edict  of  Pa- 
cification was  published  in  parliamt-nt,  May 
14,  permitting  them  to  build  churches  and. 
have  sermnns  where  they  pleased.  The 
Guisian  faction,  enraged  at  this  general  li- 
berty, began  the  famous  league  fur  defence 
of  the  Catholic  religion,  which  became  so 
formidable,  that  it  obliged  the  king  to  as- 
semb  e  the  states  of  the  kingdoin  at  B'mis, 
in  Decemlier,  1.576,  where  it  wHscnor.ted  that 
there  should  be  but  one  re'ii-if  n  in  France, 
and  that  the  Protestant  ministers  shi  old  be 
all  banished  In  1577,  the  king,  t<i  pacifv  the 
troubles,  published  an  edict  in  parliament, 
October  8th,  granting  the  same  libf-ny  to 
the  reformed  which  they  had  before  How- 
ever, in  July  1585,  the  league  obliged  him  to 


PAG 


366 


PAN 


publish  another  edict,  revoking  all  former 
edicts  granted  to  the  Protestants,  and  or-, 
dering  them  to  depart  the  kingdom  in  six 
months,  or  turn  Papists.  This  edict  was  fol- 
lowed by  more  to  the  same  purpose. 

Henry  IV  coming  to  the  crown,  publish- 
ed a  declaration  July  4,  1591,  abolishing  the 
edicts  against  the  Protestants.  This  edict 
was  vertfied  in  the  Parliament  of  Chalons  ; 
but  the  troubled,  prevented  the  verification 
of  it  in  the  parliaments  of  the  other  provin- 
ces ;  so  that  the  Protestants  had  not  the  free 
exercise  of  their  religion  in  any  place  but 
where  they  were  masters,  and  had  banishc  d 
the  Religion.  In  April  1598,  the  king  pub- 
lished a  new  Edict  of  Pacification  at  Nantz, 
granting  the  Protestants  the  free  exercise  of 
their  religion  in  all  places  where  they  had 
the  same  in  1596  and  1597,  and  one  exercise 
in  each  bailiwick. 

Tl\is  Edict  ofXantz  was  confirmed  Lewis 
XIII.  in  1610,  and  by  Lewis  XIV.,  1652  But 
tills  latter  abolished  it  entirely  in  1685.  See 
Huguenots,  and  Persecution. 

PiEDOBAPTISTS,  those  who  baptize 
their  children  The  word  comes  fmm  wuk?, 
infant,  and  BxTrliifMi,  baptism.     See  Bap 

TISM. 

PAGANISM,  the  religious  worship  and 
discipline  of  Pagans,  or  the  adoration  of 
idols  and  false  gods.  The  theology  of  the 
Pagans,  according  to  themselves,  as  Scsevola 
and  Varro,  was  of  three  sorts.  The  first 
of  these  may  well  be  calleil  fabulous,  as 
treating  of  the  theology  and  genealogy  of 
their  deities,  in  whicli  they  say  such  things 
as  are  unworthy  of  deity  ;  ascribing  to  them 
thefts,  murders,  adulteries,  and  all  manner 
of  crimes  ;  and  therefore  this  kind  of  theolo- 
gy is  condemned  by  the  wiser  sort  of  hea- 
thens as  nugatory  and  scandalous:  the  wri- 
ters of  this  sort  of  theology  were  Sanchonia- 
tho.  the  Phoenician  ;  and  of  the  Grecian, 
Orpheus,  Hesiod,  Pherecyde,  &c.  The  se- 
cond snit,  ca'l'.'d  /i/ii/sic,  or  natuial,  was  stu- 
died and  taught  by  the  phiks'  phers,  who, 
rejecting  the  multiplicity  of  gods  introduced 
by  the  poets,  brought  their  thee  !(>gy  t(>  a  more 
natural  and  rational  form,  and  supposed  that 
there  was  but  one  Supreme  God,  which  they 
commonly  make  to  be  the  sun,  at  least,  an 
entblem  of  him,  but  at  to  great  a  distance  to 
mind  the  aff  lirs  of  the  world,  and  therefore 
devised  certain  demons,  wliich  they  consid- 
ererl  as  mediators  between  the  Supreme  God 
and  man  ;  and  the  doctrines  of  these  de- 
mons, to  which  the  apostle  is  thought  to  al- 
lude in  1  Tim.  iv.  1.  were  what  the  philoso- 
phers had  a  concern  with,  and  who  treat  of 
t"  eir  n\ture,  >  ffice,  and  regard  to  men  ;  as 
did  Thales,  Pythagirus,  Plato,  and  the  Stoics. 
The  third  part,  called  /lolitic,  or  civil,  was 
in.stituted  by  legislat 'rs,  statesmen,  and  po- 
liticians :  the  first  among  the  Romans  was 
Nu-na  Pompilius :  this  chiefly  respected 
ther.-  gods,  tem])les,  altars,  sacrifices,  and 
rites  of  worship,  and  was  properly  their 
idolatry,  the  care  of  which  belonged  to  the 
priests;  and  this  was  enjoined  tlie  common 


people,  to  keep  them  in  obedience  to  tiie 
civil  state.  Thus  things  continued  in  the 
Gentile  world,  vmtil  the  light  of  the  Gospel 
was  sent  among  them :  the  times  belore 
were  times  of  ignorance,  as  the  apostle  calls 
them  :  they  were  ignorant  of  the  true  God, 
and  of  the  worship  of  him  ;  and  of  the  Mes- 
siah, and  salvation  by  him.  Their  state  is 
truly  described,  Eph.  ii.  12.  that  they  were 
then  luithout  Christ ;  aliens  from  the  com- 
monivealth  of  Israel ;  strangers  from  the 
covenants  offiromise;  having  no  he/ie,aJid 
without  God  in  the  world ;  and,  consequent- 
ly, their  theology  was  insufficient  for  salva- 
tion. The  reader  will  find  some  admirable 
reflections  on  the  growth  of  heathenism 
among  modern  Christians,  in  tlie  3d  volume 
of  the  Rev  W.  Jones's  Works.  See  Hea- 
thens, Idolatry,  Polytheism. 

PAGODA,  or  Pagod,  a  name  given  by 
the  East  Indians  to  their  temples,  where 
they  worship  their  gods. 

PALM  SUND.\Y,  the  Sunday  next  before 
Easter,  so  called  from  palm  branches  being 
strewed  on  the  road  by  the  multitude,  when 
our  Saviour  made  his  triumphal  entry  into 
Jerusalem. 

PANTHEISM,  a  philosophical  species  of 
idolatry,  leading  to  atheism,  in  which  the 
universe  was  considered  as  the  Supreme 
God  Who  was  the  inventor  of  this  absurd 
system,  is,  perhaps,  not  known,  but  it  was  of 
early  origin,  and  diflferently  modified  by  dif- 
ferent philosophers.  Some  held  the  universe 
to  be  one  immense  animal,  of  which  the  in- 
corporeal soul  was  properly  their  god,  and 
the  heavens  and  the  earth  the  body  of  that 
god ;  whilst  others  held  but  one  substance, 
partly  active  and  partly  passive,  and  there- 
tore  looked  upon  the  visible  universe  as  the 
only  Acumen.  The  earliest  Grecian  pantheist 
of  whom  we  read  was  Orpheus,  who  called 
the  world  the  body  of  God,  and  its  several 
parts  of  its  members,  making  the  whole 
universe  one  divine  animal.  According  to 
Cudworth,  Orpheus  and  his  followers  be- 
lieved in  the  immaterial  srul  of  the  wi  rid  : 
therein  agreeing  with  Aristotle,  who  cer- 
tainly held  that  God  and  matter  are  co-eter- 
nal ;  and  that  there  is  some  such  union  be- 
tween them,  as  subsists  between  the  souls  and 
bodies  of  men.  An  institution,  imbibing  sen- 
timents nearly  of  this  kind,  was  set  on  foot 
ab(mt  eigthty  or  ninety  years  ago,  in  this  king- 
dom, by  a  society  of  philos' phical  idolaters, 
who  called  themselves  Pantheists,  because 
they  professed  the  worship  of  All  Nature  as 
tiieir  deity.  They  had  Mr.  John  Toland  for 
their  secretary  and  chaplain.  Their  liturgy 
was  in  Latin;  an  English  translation  was  pub- 
lished in  1751,  from  which  the  following  senti- 
ments are  extracted :  '■  The  etherial  fire  en- 
virons all  things,  and  therefore  supreme  The 
ether  is  a  reviving  fire  :  it  rules  all  things, 
it  disposes  all  things.  In  it  is  soul,  mind, 
prudence.  This  fire  is  Horace's  particle  of 
divine  breath,  and  Virgil's  itiwardly  nour- 
ishing spirit.  All  things  are  comprised  in 
an  intelligent  nature."  'This  force  they  call 


PAR 


367 


PAR 


the  soul  of  the  world  ;  as  also,  a  mind  of 
perfect  wisdom,  and,  consequently,  God- 
Vanini  the  Italian  philosopher,  was  nearly 
of  this  opinion  :  his  god  was  nature.  Some 
very  learned  and  excillent  rtmarks  are 
made  on  this  error  by  Mr,  Boyle,  in  his  dis- 
course on  the  vulgarly  received  notion  of 
nature.  See  Jones'  of  J^'ayland's  Works, 
vol.  ix.  p.  50,  and  article  Spinosisim. 

PANTHEOLOGY,  the  whole  sum  or 
body  of  divinity. 

PAPIST,  out  who  adheres  to  the  com- 
munion of  the  pope  and  church  of  Rome 
See  Pope,  and  Popery. 

PARABLE,  a  fable  or  allegorical  insti-uc- 
tion,  founded  on  something  real  or  apparent 
in  nature  or  history,  from  which  a  moral 
is  drawn,  by  comparing  it  with  something 
in  which  the  people  are  more  immediately 
concerned :  such  are  the  parables  of  Dives 
and  Lazarus,  of  the  prodigal  son,  of  the  ten 
virgins,  &c.  Dr  Blair  observes,  that  "  of 
parables,  which  form  a  part  of  allegory,  the 
prophetical  writings  are  full ;  and  if  to  us 
they  sometimes  appear  obscure,  we  must  re- 
member, that,  in  those  early  times,  it  was 
universally  the  mode  throughout  all  the  eas- 
tern natio!)s,  to  convey  sacred  truths  un- 
der some  mysterious  figures  and  represen- 
tations." 

PARACLETE,  an  advocate  or  comfor- 
ter ;  generally  applied  to  the  third  person 
in  the  Trinitv,  John  xv.  26. 

PARADISE,  the  garden  of  Eden,  in 
which  Adam  and  Eve  were  placed  It  is 
also  used  to  denote  heaven,  Luke  xxiii.  44. 
As  to  the  terrestrial  paradise,  there  have 
been  many  inquiries  abriut  its  situation.  It 
has  been  placed  in  the  third  heaven,  in  the 
orb  of  the  moon,  in  the  moon  itself,  in  the 
middle  region  of  the  air,  above  the  earth, 
under  the  earth,  in  the  place  possessed  by 
the  Caspian  sea,  and  under  the  arctic  pole. 
The  learned  Huetius  places  it  upon  the 
river  that  is  produced  by  the  conjunction  of 
the  Tigris  and  Euphrates,  now  called  the 
river  of  the  Arabs,  between  this  conjunction, 
and  the  division'  made  by  the  same  river  be- 
fore it  falls  into  the  Persian  sea.  Other 
geographers  have  placed  it  in  Armenia,  be- 
tween the  sources  of  the  Tigiis,  the  Euph- 
rates, the  Araxes,  and  the  Phasis,  which 
they  suppose  to  be  the  four  rivers  described 
by  Moses.  But  concerning  the  exact  place, 
■we  must  necessarily  be  very  uncertain,  if, 
indeed,  it  can  be  thought  at  all  to  exist  at 
present,  considering  the  many  changes  which 
have  taken  place  on  the  surface  of  the  earth 
since  the  creation.    See  Man. 

PARAPHRASE,  an  explanation  of  some 
text  in  clearer  and  more  ample  terms, 
wherein  more  regard  is  had  to  an  author's 
meaning  than  his  words.  See  Commen- 
tary. 

PARDON,  the  act  of  forgiving  an  offen- 
der, or  removing  the  guilt  of  sin,  that  the 
punishment  due  to  it  may  not  be  inflicted. 
Of  the  nature  of  pardon  it  may  be  observed, 
that  the  scripture  represents  it  by  various 


phrases :  a  lifting  up,  or  taking  away, « 
Psa!.  xxxii.  1 ;  a  covering  of  it,  Psal. 
;xxxv.  2  ;  a  non  imputation  of  it,  PsaL 
xxxii.  2;  a  blotting  it  out,  Psal.  xliii.  25; 
H  non-remembrance  of  it,  Heb.  viii.  12. 
Is.  xliii.  25.  1.  It  is  an  act  of  free  grace, 
Ps.  h  1.  Isa.  xiiii.  25 — 2.  A  point  of  jus- 
tice, God  having  received  satisfaction  by  the 
blood  r,t  Christ,  1  John  i.  9. — 3  A  complete 
act,  a  forgiveness  of  all  tlie  sins  of  his  people, 
1  John  i.  7.  Psal.  ciii.  2,  3  — 4.  An  act  that 
will  never  be  repealed,  Mic.  vii.  19.  The 
author  or  cause  of  pardon  is  not  any  crea- 
ture, angel,  or  man  ;  but  God-  Ministers 
are  said  to  remit  sin  declaratively,  but  not 
authoritively  ;  that  is,  they  preach  and  de- 
clare that  there  is  remission  of  sins  in 
Christ .  but  to  pretend  to  absolve  men  is  the 
height  of  blabphemy,  1  Thess.  ii.  4.  Rev. 
xiii.  5,  6.  See  Absolution,  Indulgen- 
ces. There  is  nothing  that  man  has,  or 
can  do,  by  which  pardon  can  be  procured: 
wealth  cannot  buy  pardon,  Prov.  xi.  4; 
human  works  or  righteousness  cannot  merit 
it,  Rom.  xi.  6  ;  nor  can  water  baptism  wash 
away  sin.  It  is  the  prtrogative  of  God 
al(jne  to  fr.rgive,  Mark  ii.  7  ;  the  first  cause 
of  which  is  his  own  sovereign  grace  and 
mercy,  Eph.  i.  7.  The  meritorious  cause  is 
the  blood  of  Christ,  Heb.  ix.  14.  1  John 
i.  7  Pardon  of  sin  and  justification  are  con- 
sidered by  some  as  the  same  thing :  and  it 
must  be  confessed  that  there  is  a  close  con- 
nection ;  in  many  parts  they  agree,  and  it 
is  without  doubt  that  eveiy  sinner  who 
shall  be  found  pardoned  at  the  great  day, 
will  likewise  be  justified ;  yet  they  have 
been  distiiiguished  thus:  1.  An  innocent 
person,  when  falsely  accused  and  acquitted, 
is  justified,  but  not  pardoned ;  and  a  cri- 
minal may  be  pardoned,  though  he  cannot 
be  justified  or  declared  innocent.  Pardon 
is  of  men  that  are  sinners,  and  who  remain 
such,  though  pardoned  sinners ;  but  justifi- 
cation is  a  pronouncing  persons  righteous, 
as  if  they  had  never  sinned. — 2.  Pardon 
frees  from  punishment,  but  does  not  entitle 
to  everlasting  life ;  but  justification  does, 
Rom.  V.  If  we  were  only  pardoned,  we 
should  indeed,  escape  the  pains  of  hell,  but 
could  have  no  claim  to  the  joys  of  heaven  ; 
for  these  are  more  than  the  most  perfect 
works  of  man  could  merit :  therefore  they 
must  be  what  the  scriptures  declare — "  the 
gift  of  God." 

After  all,  however,  though  these  two 
may  be  distinguished,  yet  they  cannot  be 
separated  ;  and  in  reality,  one  is  not  prior 
to  the  other  ;  for  he  that  is  pardoned  by  the 
death  of  Christ,  is  at  the  same  time  justi- 
fied by  his  life,  Rom.  v.  10.  Acts  xiii.  38, 
59.  See  Grace,  Mercy,  Charnock's 
Works,  vol  ii.  p.  101.  Gill's  Bodyof  Div. 
art.  Pardon.  Oiven  on  Psalm  cxxx-  Htr- 
vey's  Works,  vol.  ii.  p   352. 

PARENTS,  a  name  appropriated  to  im- 
mediate progenitors,  as  father  and  mother. 
The  duties  of  parents  to  children  relate 
to  their  health,   their  maintenance,  theii' 


PAtt 


368 


PAS 


education,  and  morals.    Many  rules  have 
been    delivered    respecting   the    health    of 
cliildren,  which  cannot  be  inserted  here  ; 
yet  we  shall  just  observe,  that,  if  a  parent 
wishes  to  see  his  progeny  healtliy,  he  must 
not  indulge  them  in   every  thing  their  httle 
appetites  desire;  not  give  them  too  much 
sleep,   nor    ever  give  them  strong   liquors. 
He  must  accustom  them  to  industry  and 
moderate  exei'cise,     Their  food  and  cloth- 
ing should  be  rather  light.     They  should 
go  to  rest  soon,  and  rise  early  ;  and,  above 
all   should,  if  possible,  be   inspired  with  a 
love  of  cleanliness.     As  to   their  mainten- 
ance,  it  is  the    parent's   duty  to    provide 
every  thing    for   them    that    is   nt'cessary 
until    they    be    capable    of   providing   for 
themselves.     They,  thei'efore,  who  live  in 
habits  of  idleness,  desert  their  families,  or 
by  their  negligent  conduct  reduce  them  to 
a  state  of  indigence  a: id  distress,  are  vio- 
lating the  law  of  nature  and  of  revelation, 
1  Tim.  v.  8.     In  respect  to  their  education 
and  morals,    great  care   should  be    taken. 
As   it  relates  to  the  present  life,  habits  of 
courage,  application,  trade,   prudence,    la- 
bour,    justice,    contentment,    temperance, 
truth,  benevolence,    8tc.   should  be  formed. 
Their  capacities,    age,    temper,    strength, 
inclination,  should  be  consulted,  and  advice, 
given  suitable  to  these.     As  it  relates  to  a 
future  life,  their  minds  should  be  informed 
as  to  the    being  of  God,    his  perfections, 
glory,    and  the  mode  of  salvation  by  Jesus 
Christ.    They  should  be  catechised  ;  allur- 
ed  to    a    cheerful    attendance    on  Divine 
worship ;  instructed  in  the  scriptures  ;  kept 
from  bad  company ;  prayed  with  and  for  ; 
and,  above  all,  a  good  example  set  them, 
Pi'ov.  xxii.  6.    Eph.  vi.  1,  2.    Nothing  can 
be    more    criminal    than    the   conduct    ofj 
some  parents  in  the  inferior  classes  of  the ' 
community,  who  never  restrain  the  desires  ' 
and  passions  of  their  children,  suffer  them  ! 
to  live  in  idleness,  dishonesty  and  profana- 
tion of  the  Lord's  day,  the  consequence  of 
which   is   often    an   ignominious   end     So, 
among  the  great,  permitting  their  children 
to  spend   their    time    and    their    money  as 
they  please  ;    uidulging   them   in  perpetual 
public  diversions,  and  setting  before    ihem 
awful    examples    of    gambling,     indolence, 
blasphemy,     drinking,     and    almost    every 
other  vice  ;    what  is  this  but   ruinint?  their 
children,    and    bequeathing    to   posterity  a 
nuisance  ?"    But,  while  we  would  call  upon 
parents  to  exercise  their  authority,  it  must 
not  be  understood  that  children   are    to   be 
entirely  at  (heir  disposal  under  all  circum- 
stances,   especially   when    they    begin    to 
think  for  themselves       Though   a    parent 
has  a  right  over  his  children,    yet  he  is  not 
to  be  a  domestic  tyrant,  consulting  his  own 
will  and    passions    in    preference  to    their 
interest.     In  fact,  his  right  over  them  is  at 
an  end  when  he  goes  bevond   his  duty  to 
them.     "  For  parents,"    as  Mr.  Paky  ob- 
serves, "  have  no  natural    right  over  the 
lives  of  their  Children,   as  was  absm'dly  al- 


lowed to  Roman  fathers  ;  nor   any  to  exer- 
cise  unprofitable   severities ;    nor  to  com  • 
mand  the  commission  of  crimes;  for  th'-se 
rights  can  never  be  wanted  for  the  purposes 
of  a  parent's  duty.     Nor  have  parents   any 
right  to  sell   their  children  into  slavery ; 
to  shut  up  daughters   and  younger  sons  in 
nunneries  and  monasteries,  in  order  to  pre- 
serve entire  the  estate  and  dignity  of  the 
family  ;  or  to  use  any  arts,  either  of  kind- 
ness or  uiikindness,  to  induce  them  to  make 
choice  of  this  way  of  life  themselves  ;  or, 
in  countries  where  the  clergy  are  prohibited 
from  marriage,  to  put  sons  into  the  church 
for  the  same  end,   who  are  never  likely  to 
do  or  receive   any   good   in  it  sufficient   to 
compensate  for  this  sacrifice;  nor  to  urge 
children  to  marriages  from  which  they  are 
averse,  with  the  view  of  exalting  or  enrich- 
ing the  family,  or   for  the    sake    of   con- 
necting estates,  parties,  or  interests  ;  nor  to 
oppose  a  marriage  in  v,/hich  the  child  would 
probably  find  his  happiness,  from  a  motive 
of  pride  or  avarice,  of  family  hostility  or 
personal  pique  "  Paleifs  Moral  Philosophy ^ 
vol.  i.  p.  345 — 370.     Stcnnett''s  Discourses 
on  Domestic  Duties,  dis.  5.     Beattie's  Ele- 
ments of  Moral  Science,  vol.  ii.  p.  139,  148. 
Doddridge's  lectures,  lee  74.       Sauriti's 
Sermoris,  Jiobin&on's    Translation,    vol.  v. 
ser.  1.     Searle's  Christian  Parent. 
PARSIMONY,  covetousness.  See  Covet- 

OUSNESS. 

PARSON,  (liersona  ecclesix,)  one  that 
hath  full  possession  of  all  the  rights  of  a 
parochial  church.  He  is  called  parson 
(persona,)  because  by  his  person  the 
church,  which  is  an  invisible  body,  is  repre- 
sented, and  he  is  in  himself  a  body  corporate, 
in  order  to  protect  and  defend  the  rights  of 
the  church,  which  he  personates.  There 
are  three  ranks  of  clergymen  below  that 
of  a  dignity,  viz.  parson,  vicar,  and  cu- 
rate Parson  is  the  first,  meaning  a  rec- 
tor, or  he  who  receives  the  great  tithes  of 
a  benefice.  (lergijmen  may  imply  any 
person  '.rdained  to  serve  at  the  aHar.  Par- 
sons are  always  priests,  whereas  clergy- 
meyi  are  only  deacons-  See  Clergy,  Cu- 
rate. 

1  PASAGINIANS.  a  denomination  which 
arose  in  the  twelfdi  century,  known  also 
by  the  name  of  the  Circumcised.  Their 
distinguishing  tenets  were  these,  1,  That 
the  observation  of  the  law  of  Moses  in 
every  tiling  except  the  offering  of  sacrifices 
!  was  obligatory  upon  Christians.  In  con- 
'  sequence  of  which,  they  circumcised  their 
I  followers,  abstained  from  those  meats  the 
use  of  which  was  prohibited  under  the  Mo- 
saic oeconomy.  and  celebrated  the  Jewish 
sabbath. — 2.  Tiiat  Christ  was  no  more  than 
the  first  and  purest  creature  of  God.  This 
denomination  had  the  utmost  aversion  to 
the  doctrine  and  discipline  of  the  church  of 
Rome. 

PASSALORYNCHITES,  a  branch  of 
the  Montanists.  They  held  that,  in  order 
to  be  saved,  it  was  necessary  to  observe  « 


PA  S 


369 


PAS 


perpetual  silence ;  wherefore  they  kept 
their  tiiintr  Cuiistantiy  oil  their  mouth, 
and  cUivd  nut  open  it ;  even  to  say  their 
prayeia  Their  name  is  derived  from  the 
Greek  TTxriruXoi,  a  vail,  and  ^'v,  a  tiosiril, 
because,  when  they  put  their  finger  to  their 
ninuth,  they  touched  their  nose. 

PASSINE  OBEDIENCE  OF  CHRIST. 
See  Obedience,  and  Sufferings  of 
Christ. 

PASSIVE  PRAYER,  among  the  mystic 
divines,  is  a  total  suspension  or  ligature  of 
the  intellectual  faculties,  in  virtue  whereof 
the  soul  remains  of  itself,  and,  as  to  its 
own  power,  impotent  with  regard  to  the 
producing  of  any  effects.  The  passive 
slate,  according  to  Fenelon,  is  only  passive 
in  the  same  sense  as  contemplation  ;  i.  e.  it 
does  not  exclude  peaceable  dibinterested 
acts,  but  only  unquiet  ones,  or  such  as  tend 
to  our  own  interest.  In  the  passive  state 
the  soul  has  not  properly  any  activity,  any 
sensation  of  its  own.  It  is  a  mere  inflexi- 
lyllity  of  the  soul,  to  which  the  feebkst 
impulse  of  grace  gives  motion.  See  Mys- 
tic. 

Px\SSION,  in  its  general  import,  signifies 
every  feeling  of  the  mind  occasioned  by  an 
extrinsic  cause.  It  is  used  to  describe  a 
violeiit  commotion  or  agitation  of  the  mind; 
emotion,  zeal,  ardour,  or  of  ease  wherein 
a  man  can  conquer  his  desires,  or  hold 
t<iem  in  su'.jjection.  I.  As  to  the  number  of 
the  passions,  Le  Brun  makes  them  about 
twenty.  1.  Attention  ;  2.  admiration  ;  3.  as- 
tonishment ;  4.  veneration  ;  5.  rapture  ;  6. 
joy,  with  tranquillity  ;  7.  desire  ;  8.  laugh- 
ter;  9.  acute  pain  ;  10.  pains,  simply  bodily  ; 
11.  sadness;  12.  weeping;  13  compassion; 
14.  sc(,rn  ;  15.  horror;  16  tern -r  ct  fright ; 
17.  anger  ;  18.  hatred  ;  19.  jealousy  ;  20. 
despair.  All  these  may  be  represented  on 
canvass  by  the  pencil.  Some  make  their 
number  greater,  adding  aversion,  love, 
emulation,  &c.  Sec.  these,  however,  may  be 
considered  as  included  in  the  above  list 
They  are  divided  by  some  into  public  and 
private;  proper  and  improper  ;  social  and 
selfish  pas,si()ns. — 2.  The  ori^val  of  the 
passions  are  from  impressions  on  the  senses; 
from  the  operations  of  reason,  by  which 
good  or  evil  are  fcjreseen  ;  and  from  the  re- 
collections of  memory — 3  The  objects  of 
the  passions  are  mostly  things  sensiljie,  on 
account  (.'f  their  near  alliance  to  the  body  ; 
but  objects  of  a  spiritual  nature  also,  though 
invi.sibie,  have  a  tendency  to  excite  the 
passions :  such  as  the  love  of  God,  heaven, 
hell,  eternity,  &:c. — 4.  As  to  the  innocency 
of  the  passions  :  in  themselves  they  are 
neither  good  nor  evil,  but  according  to  tl.e 
goofl  or  ill  use  that  is  made  of  tliem,  and 
the  degrees  to  which  thev  rise. — 5.  The 
usefulness  of  the  passions  is  considerable, 
and  were  given  us  for  a  kind  of  spring  or 
elasticity  to  correct  the  natural  sluggishness 
of  the  coporeal  part.  They  gave  birth  to 
poetry,  science,  painting,  music,  and  ail  the 
pdite   arts,   v/hich    minister  to    pleasure; 


nr.r  are  they  less  serviceable  in  tiie  cause 
of  religifji  and  truth. — "They,"  says  Dr. 
Watts,  *'  when  sanctified,  set  the  powers 
of  the  understanding  at  work  in  the  searcli 
of  divine  truth  and  religious  duty;  they 
keep  the  soul  fixed  to  divine  things-,'  render 
the  duties  of  holiness  much  easier,  and 
temptations  to  sin  much  weaker ;  and  ren- 
der us  more  like  Cluist,  and  fitter  for  his 
presence  and  enjoyment  in  heave  i." — 6- 
As  to  the  regulation  of  the  pasLijiis :  to 
know  whether  they  are  under  due  restraints, 
and  directed  to  proper  objects,  we  must 
enquire  whether  they  influence  our  opinions; 
run  before  the  understanding,  engaged  iu 
trifling  and  neglectful  of  important  objects; 
ex])rtss  themselves  in  an  indecent  manner, 
and  whether  they  disorder  our  conduct.  If 
this  be  the  case,  they  are  not  of  their  due 
bounds,  and  will  become  sources  of  trial 
rather  than  instruments  of  good.  To  have 
them  properly  regulated,  we  should  possess 
knowledge  cf  our  duty,  take  God's  word 
f ( r  our  rule,  be  much  in  prayer  and  de- 
pendence on  the  Divine  Being. — 7.  Lastly, 
we  should  study  the  passions.  To  examine 
them  accurately,  indeed,  requires  much 
skill,  patience,  observation,  and  judgment; 
but  to  form  any  proper  idea  of  the  human 
mind,  and  its  various  operations;  to  dttect 
the  errors  that  arise  from  heated  temper- 
ament and  intellectual  excess;  to  know- 
how  to  touch  their  various  strings,  and  to 
direct  and  employ  them  in  the  best  of  all 
services  ;  I  say,  to  accomplish  these  ends, 
the  study  of  the  passions  is  of  the  greatest 
consequence. 

"  .\  midst  the  numerous  branches  of  know- 
ledge," savs  Mr  Cogan,  "  which  claim  the 
attention  of  the  human  mind,  no  one  can  be 
more  important  than  this.  Whatever  most 
intimately  concerns  ourselves  must  be  of 
the  first  mriment.  An  attention,  therefore, 
to  the  w.-rkings  of  our  own  minds  ;  tracing 
the  power  which  external  objects  have 
"ver  us  :  discovering  the  nature  cf  our  emo- 
tions and  affections  ;  and  comprehending 
the  reason  of  our  being  affected  in  a  particu- 
lar manner,  must  have  a  direct  influence 
upon  our  pursuits,  our  characters,  and  our 
happiness.  It  may  with  justice  be  advan- 
ced, that  the  happiness  of  ourselves  in  this 
department  is  (f  much  greater  utility  than 
abstruser  speculations  concerning  the  nature 
of  the  human  soul,  or  even  the  most  accu- 
rate knowledge  of  its  intellectual  powers  ; 
for  it  is  according  ai  the  passions  and  affec- 
tions are  excited  and  directed  towards  the 
objects  investigated  by  our  intellectual  na- 
tures that  we  become  useful  to  ourselves  or 
others  :  that  we  rise  into  respectability,  or 
sink  into  contempt ;  that  we  diffuse  or  enjoy 
happiness,  diffuse  or  suffer  miseiy.  Aa 
accurate  analysis  of  these  passions  ani 
.affections,  tlierefore,  is  to  the  moralist  what 
the  science  of  anatomy  is  to  the  surgeon.  It 
constitutes  the  first  principles  of  rational 
practice  ;  it  is,  in  a  moral  view,  the  ana- 
tomy of  the  heart ;  it  discovers  K'/ry  It  beat  3, 


PAS 


370 


PAT 


and  hont)  it  beats  ;  indicates  appearances  in 
a  sound  and  healthy  state  ;  detects  diseases 
with  their  causes,  and  it  is  infinitely  more 
fortunate  in  the  power  it  communicates  of 
apjjlying  suitable  remedies." 

bee  Hutclieson,  Watts,  Le  Brun,  Cogan, 
and  Davan  oji  the  Passions.  Grove's 
Moral  Philoso/ihijy  vol.  i.  ch.  7.  Reid's 
.Active  Pavers  of  Man.  Fordyce^s  Ele- 
ments of  Mor.  Phil.  Uurke  on  the  Sub- 
lime and  Beautiful,  p.  50. 

PASSOVER,  a  solemn  festival  of  the 
Jews,  instituted  in  commemoration  of  their 
coming  out  of  Egypt ;  because,  the  night 
before  their  departure,  the  destroying  an- 
gel, who  put  to  death  the  first-born  of  the 
Egyptians,  passed  over  the  houses  of  tbe 
Hebrews,  without  entering  therein  ;  because 
they  were  marked  with  the  blood  of  the 
lamb,  which  was  killed  the  evening  before, 
and  which  for  this  reason  was  called  the 
paschal  lamb.  See  Exodus  xii.  Brown's 
Diet,  article  Feast;  and  Mc'Ewen  on  the 
Tyfies,  p.  172. 

PASTOR,  literally  a  shepherd  ;  figura- 
tively a  stated  minister  appointed  to  watch 
over  and  n)stvuct  a  congregation.  On  the 
qualifications  of  ministers  we  have  already 
made  some  remarks  under  that  article  ;  but 
the  following,  taken  from  the  works  of  a 
spiritual  and  useful  writer,  we  hope  will 
not  be  found  superfluous.  Jesus  Christ's 
description  of  an  evangelical  pastor,  Matt. 
xxiv.  45,  includes  two  things,  faithfulness 
and  firude7ice.  *'  If  a  minister  be  faithful, 
he  deceives  not  others .  and  if  he  be  pru- 
dent, he  is  not  apt  to  be  deceived  himself. 
His  prudence  suffers  not  deceivers  easily  to 
impose  upon  him ;  and  his  faithfulness  will 
not  suffer  him  knowingly  to  impose  upon 
his  people.  His  prudence  will  enable  him 
to  discern,  and  his  faithfulness  oblige  him  to 
distribute  wholesome  food  to  his  flock.  But 
more  particularly, 

*'  1.  Ministerial  faithfulnesf,  includes  pure 
and  spiritual  aims  and  intentions  for  God, 
Phil.  ii.  20,21 — 2.  Personal  sincerity,  or  in- 
tegrity of  heart,  Neh.  ix.  8.  1  Cor.  li.  12. 
— 3.  Diligence  in  the  discharge  of  duty, 
Mat.  XXV.  21.  1  Tim.  iv.  2. — 4.  Impar- 
tiality in  the  administrations  of  Christ's 
house,  1.  Tim.  v.  21. — 5.  An  unshaken 
constancy  and  perseverance  to  the  end, 
Kev.  ii.  10.  But  the  Lord's  servants  must 
not  only  be  faithful,  but  prudent,  discreet 
and  wise.  Fidelity  and  honesty  make  a 
p;ood  Christian  ;  but  the  addition  of  pru- 
dence to  fidelity  make  a  good  steward. 
FaHU fulness  will  fix  the  ej'e  upon  the  right 
end  ;  but  it  is  pruc'.cnce  must  direct  to  tlie 
jM'oper  means  of  attaining  it.  The  use  of 
prudence  to  a  minister  is  unspeakably  great : 
it  ufit  only  gives  clearness  and  perspicacity 
to  the  mind,  by  freeing  it  fi'om  passions  and 
corporeal  im]M'essions,  enabling  thereby  to 
apprehend  what  is  best  to  be  done,  but  ena- 
bles it  in  its  deliljerations  about  tiie  means 
to  make  choice  of  the  most  apt  and  pro- 
per; and  (luvcts  the   apv/iication  of  them 


in  the  fittest  season,  without  precipitation 
by  too  much  waste,  or  hazard  by  too  tedious 
delay. 

"  1.  Prudence  will  direct  us  to  lay  a  good 
foundation  of  knowledge  in  our  people's 
souls  by  catechizing  and  instructing  them  in 
the  principles  of  Christianity,  without  which 
we  labour  in  vain. — 2.  Ministerial  prudence 
discovers  itself  in  the  choice  of  such  sul> 
jects,  as  the  needs  of  our  people's  souls  do 
most  require  and  call  for. — 3.  It  will  not 
only  direct  us  in  the  choice  of  our  subjects, 
but  of  the  langviage,  too,  in  which  we  dress 
and  deliver  them  to  our  people. — 4.  It  will 
shew  us  of  what  great  use  our  own  affec- 
tions are  for  the  moving  of  others ;  and 
will  therefore  advise  us,  that,  if  ever  we 
expect  the  truths  we  preach  should  operate 
upon  the  hearts  of  others,  we  must  first 
have  them  impressed  on  our  fiwn  hearts, 
Phil.  iii.  18. — 5.  It  will  direct  us  to  be  care- 
ful, by  the  strictness  and  gravity  of  our  de- 
portment, to  maintain  our  esteem  in  the 
consciences  of  our  people. — 6  It  wi.l  excite 
us  to  seek  a  blessing  from  God  upon  our  stu- 
dies and  labours,  as  knowing  all  our  ministe- 
rial success  entirely  depends  thereupon." 
1  Cor.  iii  7.  See  Flavel's  Character  of 
an  Evangelical  Pastor,  in  the  second  Vo- 
lume of  his  Works,  p.  763,  fol.  ed.  and 
books  under  article  Ministry. 

PATIENCE,  that  calm  and  unruffled  tem- 
per with  which  a  good  man  bears  the  evils 
of  life.  "  Patience,"  says  an  eminent  wri- 
ter, "  is  apt  to  be  ranked  by  many  among 
the  more  humble  and  obscure  virtues,  be- 
longing chiefly  to  those  who  groan  on  a  sick, 
bed,  or  who  languish  in  a  prison  ;  but  in 
every  circumstance  of  life,  no  virtue  is  more 
important  both  to  duty  and  to  happiness.  It 
is  not  confined  to  a  situation  of  continued 
adversity:  it  principafly,  indeed,  regards  the 
disagreeable  circumstances  which  are  apt 
to  occur  :  but  prosperity  cannot  be  enjoyed, 
any  more  than  adversity  supported  without 
it.  It  must  enter  into  the  temper,  and 
form  the  habit  of  the  soul,  if  we  would  pass 
through  the  world  with  tranquillity  and  hon- 
our." "  Christian  patience,"  says  Mason,  "  is 
essentially  different  from  insensibility,  whe- 
ther natural,  artificial,  or  acquired.  This, 
indeed,  sometimes  passes  for  patience, 
though  it  be  in  reality  quite  another  thing ; 
for  fiatience  signifies  suffci'ing.  Now  if  you 
inflict  ever  so  much  pain  (;n  the  body  of  ano- 
ther, if  he  is  not  sensible  of  it,  it  is  no  pain 
to  him  ;  he  suffers  nothing :  consequently 
calmness  under  it  is  no  patience.  This  in- 
sensibiHty  is  sometimes  natural.  Some,  in 
the  native  tem])erament  of  their  mind  and 
body,  are  much  less  susceptible  of  pain  than 
others  are. — There  are  different  degrees  of 
insensibility  in  men,  both  in  their  animal 
and  mental  frame  ;  so  that  the  same  event 
may  be  a  great  exercise  of  patience  to  one 
man,  which  is  none  at  all  to  another,  as  the 
latter  feels  little  or  no  pain  from  that  wound 
inflicted  on  the  body  cr  mind,  which  gives 
tlie  most  exquisite  anguish  to  the^  former. 


PAT 


571 


PAT 


Again :  there  is  an  artificial  insensibility  : 
such  as  is  pncured  by  opiates,  which  blunt 
the  ed;.i;e  of  pain  ;  and  there  is  an  acquired 
insensibility ;  or  that  which  is  attained  by 
the  force  of  principles  strongly  inculcated, 
or  by  long  custom  Such  was  the  apathy  of 
the  Scoics,  who  obstinately  maintained  that 
pain  was  no  evil,  and  therefore  bore  it  with 
amazing  firmness,  which,  however,  was 
very  different  from  the  virtue  of  Christian 
patience,  as  appears  from  the  principles 
from  which  tiiey  respectively  proceeded ; 
the  one  springing  from  pride,  the  other 
from  humility."  Christian  patience,  then, 
is  something  different  from  all  these.  "  It 
is  not  a  careless  indolence,  a  stupid  insensi- 
bility, mechanical  bravery,  constitutional  for- 
titude, a  daring  stoutness  of  spirit,  resultmg 
from  fatalism,  philosophy,  or  pride : — it  is 
derived  from  a  divine  agency,  nourished  by 
heavenly  truth,  and  guided  by  scriptural 
rules." 

"  Patience,"  says  Mr  Jay,  "  must  be  dis- 
played under  provocations.  Our  opinions, 
reputation,  connectior.s,  offices,  business, 
render  us  widely  vulnerable  The  charac- 
ters of  men  are  various  :  their  pursuits  and 
their  interests  perpetually  clash  :  some  try 
us  by  their  ignf)rance,  some  by  their  folly  ; 
some  by  their  perverseness ;  some  by  their 
malice.  Here,  then,  is  an  opportunity  for 
the  triumph  of  patience — We  are  very 
susceptive  of  irritation  ;  anger  is  eloquent ; 
revenge  is  sweet :  but  to  stand  calm  and 
collected ;  to  suspend  the  blow  which  pas- 
sion was  urgent  to  strike ;  to  drive 
the  reasons  of  clemency  as  far  as  they 
■will  go ;  to  bring  forward  fairly  in  view 
the  circumstances  of  mitigation;  to  dis- 
tinguish between  surprise  and  delil)eration, 
infirmity  and  crime ;  or  if  infliction  be 
deem.-d  necessary,  to  leave  God  to  be  both 
the  judge  and  the  executioner  ;  this  a  Chris- 
tian should  labour  after  :  his  peace  requires 
it.  People  love  to  sting  the  passionate:  they 
"who  are  easily  provoked,  commit  their  re- 
pose to  the  keeping  of  their  enemies  ;  they 
lie  down  at  their  feet,  and  invite  them  to 
strike.  The  man  of  temper  places  him- 
self beyond  vexatious  interruption.  '  He 
that  hath  no  rule  over  his  own  spirit,  is  like 
a  city  that  is  broken  down,  and  without 
Thralls,'  into  which  enter  over  the  ruins,  ser- 
pents, vagrants,  thieves,  enemies ;  while  the 
man  who  in  patience  possesses  his  soul,  has 
the  command  of  himself,  places  a  defence 
all  around  him,  and  forbids  the  entrance  of 
such  unwelcome  company  to  offend  or  dis- 
compose. His  tvisdom  requires  it.  '  He 
that  is  slow  to  anger  is  of  great  understand- 
ing ;  but  he  that  is  hasty  of  spirit,  exalteth 
folly.'  Wisdom  gives  us  large,  various, 
comprehensive  views  of  things ;  the  very 
exercise  operates  as  a  diversion,  affords  the 
mind  tiirie  to  cool,  and  furnishes  numberless 
circumstances  tending  to  soften  severity. 
His  dignity  requires  it  '  It  is  the  glory  of 
a  man  to  pass  by  a  transgression.'  The  man 
provoked  to  revenge  is  conquered,  and  loses 


the  glory  of  tlie  stiniggle  ;  while  he  who  for- 
bears   comes  off  victor,    crowned  with  no 
common  laurels.    A  flood  assails  a  rock,  and 
rolls  off  unable  to  make  an  impression ;  while 
straws  and  boughs  are  borne  off  in  triumph, 
earned  down  the  stream,  driven  and  tossed. 
Examples   require  it.     What   j^rovocations 
had  Josejjh  received  from  his  brethren  ?  but 
he  scarcely   mentions  the  crime ;  so  eager 
is  he  to  announce  the  pardon.    David  says, 
'  They  rewarded  me  evil  for  good  ;  but  as  for 
me,  when  they  were  sick,  my  clothing  was 
sackcloth.'    Stephen  dying  under  a  shower 
of  stones,  prays  for  his  enemies  :  '  Lord,  lay 
not  this  sin  to  their  charge.'     But  a  greater 
than    Joseph,    or     David,   or    Stephen,    is 
here.    Go  to  the  foot  of  the  cross,  and  be- 
hold   Jesus   suffering    for  us.     Every   thing 
conspired  to  render  the  provocation  heinous  ; 
the  nature  of  the  offence,  the  meanness  and 
obligation  of  the  offenders,  the  righteousness 
of  bis  cause,   the   grandeur  of  his  person  ; 
and  all  these  seemed  to  call  for  vengeance. 
The  creatures  were  eager  to  punish.  Peter 
drew  hs  sword  :  tlie  sun  resolved  to  shine 
on  such  criminals  no  longer ;  the  rocks  ask- 
ed to  crush  them  ;  the  earth   trembles  un- 
der the  sinfid   load  ;  the  veiy  dead   cannot 
remain  in  their  graves.     He  suffers  them  all 
to  testify  their  sympathy,  but  forbids  their 
revenge ;  and,  iest  the  Judge  of  all  should 
pour  forth  his  fury,  he  cries,  '  Father,  for- 
give them,  for   they  know  not  what    they 
do  !' — 2   Patience  is  to  be  displayed  in  suffer- 
ing affliction.  This  is  another  field  in  which 
patience  gathers  gloiy.    Affliction  comes  to 
exercise  our  patience,  and  to  distinguish  it. 
'  The  trial  of  your  faith  worketh  patience,* 
not  only  in  Consequence  of  the  divine  blessing, 
but   by  the  natural  operation  of  things  :  use 
makes  perfect ;  the  yoke  is  rendered  easy 
by  being  worn,  and  those  parts  of  the   body 
which  are  most  in  action  are  the  most  strong 
and  solid  ;  and,  therefore,  we  are  nrt  to  ex- 
cuse improper  dispositions  under  affliction, 
by  saying,  '  It  was  so  trying,  who  could  help 
it  ?'    This  is  to  justify  impatience,  by  what 
God  sends  on  purjjose  to  make  you  ])atient. 
— 3.  Patience  is  to  be  exercised  under  ds- 
laijs.     We   as   naturally  pursue   a   desired 
good  as  we  shun  an  apprehended  evil:  the 
want  of  such  a  good  is  as  grievous    as   the 
pressure  of   such   an  evil  ;    and    an  ability 
to  bear  the  one  is  as  needful   a  qualification 
as  the  fortitude  by  which    we   endure  the 
other.     It  therefore  equally  belongs  to  pa- 
tience  to  wait,  as  to  suQer.     God  does   not 
always  immediately  indulge  us  with  an  an- 
swer to  our  prayers.    He  hears,  indeed,  as 
soon  as  we  knock  ;  but  he  does  not  open  the 
door ;    to   stand   there  resolved  not  to   go 
without  a  blessing,  requires  patience;  and 
patience  cries,  '  Wait   on   the   Lord  ;  be  of 
good  courage,  and  he  shall  strengthen  thine 
heart :  wait,  I  say,  on  the  Lord.' 

We  have,   however,   the   most   povv'erful 
motives  to  excite  us  to  the  attainment  of  this  • 
grace.     1.  God   is  a  God  of  patience,  Rom. 
XV'.  5- — 2.  It  is  enjoined  by  the  Gospel,  Rom. 


PAT 


572 


PAT 


rVi.  12.  Luke  xxi.  19. — 3.  The  present  slate 
(i  man  renders  the  practice  of  it  absolutely 
necessary,  Heb.  x.  36. — 4.  The  manifold  in- 
convenience cf  impatience  is  a  strong  mo- 
tive, John  iv.  Psal.  cvi. — 5.  Eminent  ex 
umples  cf  it,  Heb.  xii.  2.  Heb.  vi.  13.  Jrb 
i.  22. — 6.  Reflect  that  all  our  trials  will  ter- 
minate in  triumph,  James  v.  7,  8.  Rom.  ii. 
7.  narrow's  fror^s,  vol.  iii.  ser.  10.  Jay's 
Sermons,  ser.  2.  vol.  i.  Alason's  Christian 
Morals,  vol.  i.  ser.  3.  filuir's  SermoTis,  vol. 
iii.  ser.  11.  Bishofi  Home's  Discourse.^,  vol. 
ii.  ser.  10.  Bis/io/i  Ho/ikins'  Death  disarm- 
ed, p.  1,  i':o. 

PATIENCE  OF  GOD  is  his  long  suffer- 
ing or  forbearance.     He  is  called  the  God  of 
patience,  not  only  because  he  is  the  author 
and  object  of  the  grace  of  patience,  but  be- 
cause he  is  patient  or  long  suffering  in  him- 
self, and  towards  his  creatures.    It  is  not 
indeed,  to  be  considered  as  a  quality,  acci- 
dent passion,  or  affection  in  God  as  in  crea- 
tures,  but   belongs   to  the  very  nature  and 
essence  of  God,  and  springs  from  his  good- 
ness  and  mercy.  Rom.  ii.  4.    It  is  said  to  be 
»'xercised  towards  his  chosen  people,  2  Pet 
iii.  9.    Rom.  iii.  25.    Isa.  xxx.  18.     1  Tim. 
i.  16.  and  towards  the  un;.};odly,   Rom.  ii,  4. 
Ecc.  viii.  11.     Tlie  end  of  l\is  forbearance 
to  the  wicked,  is,  that  they  may  be  without 
excuse ;  to  make  his  power   and   goodness 
visible ;  and  partly  for  the  sake  of  his  own 
people.  Gen.  xviii  3J.     Rev.  vi.  11.     2  Pet. 
iii.  9,     His  patience  is  manifested  by  giving 
warnings  of  judgments  bef'Te  he  executes 
them,   Hos    vi.  5.     Amos  i.  1.     2  Pet.  ii.  5. 
In  long  delaying  his  jii-lgments,   Eccl.  \iii 
11.  In  often  mixing  mercy  with  them.  Tliere 
are  many  instances  of  his  patience  recorded 
in  the  scriptures;  with  the  old  world.  Gen. 
vi.  3  ;  the  inhal)itants  of  Sodom,  Gen.  xiii  ; 
in  Pharaoh,   Exod.  v;  in  the  people  of  Is- 
rael in  the  wilderness,  Acts  xiii.  18;  in  tlie 
Amorites  and  Canaanites,  Gen.  xv.  15.  Lev 
xviii.  28  ;  in  the  Gentile   world.   Acts  xvii. 
.'',0 ;  in  fruitless  professors,   Luke  xiii  6,  9  ; 
in  Antichrist,  Rev.  ii.  21.     (,'h.  xiii.  6.     Ch. 
xviii.  8.     See  Charnock's  Works,  vol.   i.  p 
780.     Gill's  Bodij  of  Dnmity,  vol.  i.  p.  130. 
*-aurin's  Sermons,   vol.   i.   ser.    10  and  11 
148.  149.     Tillot son's  Sermons. 

PATRIARCHS,  heads  of  families;  a 
name  applied  chiefly  to  those  who  lived 
before  Moses,  who  were  both  priests  and^ 
princes,  without  peculiar  places  fitted  for 
worship,  Acts  ii.  29.  Ch.  vii.  8,  9,  Heb. 
vii.  4. 

Patriarchs  among  Christians,  are  ecclesi- 
p.svical  dignitaries,  cr  bishops,  so  called  from 
their  paternal  authority  in  the  church.  The 
power  of  patriarchs  was  not  the  same  in  all 
but  differed  according  to  the  different  cus- 
toms of  countries,  or  the  pleasures  of  kings 
and  couTicils.  Thus  the  patriarch  of  Con- 
stantinople grew  to  be  a  patriarch  over  the 
patriarchs  of  Ephesus  and  Cxsarea,  and 
was  called  the  (Ecumenical  and  Universal 
Patriarch;  and  the  i)atriarch  of  Alexan- 
dria had  some  prerogatives  which  no  other 


I  patriarch  but  himself  enjoyed  ;  such  as  the 
right  of  consecrating  and  approving  of  every 
I  single  bishop  under   his  jurisdiction.     The 
patriarchate  has  ever  been  esteemed  the 
supreme  dignity  in  the  church :  the   bishop 
had  only  under  him  the  territory  of  the  city 
of  which   he  was  bishop;  the   metropolitan 
I  superintended  a  province,   and  had  for  suf- 
I  fragans  the  bislinps  of  his  province  ;  the  pri- 
'  mate  was  the  chief  of  what  was  then  called 
a   diocese,   and   had   several    metrop.>litnns 
under  him  ;  and  the  patriarch  had   under 
him  several  dioceses,  composing  one  exar- 
chate, and   the  primates  themselves  were 
under  him.     Usher,  Pagi,  De  Marca,  and 
Morinus,  attribute  the  establishment  of  the 
grand  patriarchates  to  the  apostles   them- 
selves, who,  in  their  opinion,   according  to 
the  description  of  the  world  then  given  by 
geographers,  pitched  on  three  principal  cities 
in  the  three  parts  of  the  known  world,  viz. 
Rome  in  Europe,  Anti:  ch  in  Asia,  and  Alex- 
andria in  Africa  :  and  thus  formed  a  trinity 
of   patriarchs     Others  maintain,    that  the- 
name  patriarch  was  unknown  at  the  time 
of  the  council  of  Nice ;  and  tliat  for  a  long 
time  afterwards,    patriarchs   and  primates 
v/<  re  confounded  together,  as  being  all  equal- 
ly chiefs  of  dioceses,  and  equally  superior  to 
metropolitans,  who  were  only  chiefs  of  pro- 
V  nces.     Hence  Socrates  gives  the  title  pa- 
triarch to  all  the   chiefs  of  diocesfs,   and 
reckons  ten  of  them.    Indeed,  it  does  not 
appear  that  the  dignity  of  patriarch  was  ap- 
propriated to  the  five  grand  sees  of  Rome, 
Constantinople,   Alexandria,  Antioch,    and 
Jerusalem,  till  after  the  council  of  Chalcedon, 
in  451  ;  for  when  the  council  of  Nice  regu- 
lated the  limits  and  prerogatives  of  the  three 
jiatriarchs  of  Rome,  Antioch.   and  Alexan- 
dria,  it  did   not  give  them   the  title  of  pa- 
triarchs:  though   it  allowed  them   the  pre- 
eminence and  privileges  thereof :  thus  when 
the  council  of  ('onstantinople,  adjudged  the 
second  place  to  the  bishop   of  Constantino- 
ple, who,  till  then,   was  oTily  a  suffragan  of 
Heraclea,  it  said  nothing  of  the  patriarchate. 
N-  r  is  the  term  patriarch  found  in  the  de- 
cree of  the  council  of  Chalcedon,  whereby 
the  fifth  place  is  assigned  to  the  bishop  of 
Jerusalem ;    nor   did   these   five  patriarchs 
govern  Jill  the  churches. 

There  were  besides  many  independent 
chiefs  of  dioceses,  who,  far  fn^m  owning  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  grand  patriarchs,  called 
themselves /m^r/orr/w,  such  as  thatof  Aqui- 
leia  ;  nor  was  Carthage  ever  subject  to  the 
patriarch  of  Alexandria.  Mosheim  {Tkclrs. 
Hist.  vol.  i.  p.  -84.)  imagines  that  the  bish- 
ops who  enjoyed  a  certain  degree  of  pre-- 
eminence  oxer  the  rest  of  their  order,  were 
distinguished  by  the  Jewish  title  of  patri- 
archs in  the  fourth  century.  The  authority 
of  the  patriarchs  gradually  increa.sed  till 
aliout  the  close  of  the  fifth  century :  all  af- 
fairs of  moment  within  the  compass  of  their 
patriarchates  came  befoi-e  them,  either  at 
first  hand,  or  by  appeals  from  the  metropo- 
litans.    They  consecrated  bishops;  asscm- 


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bled  yearly  in  council  the  clergy  of  their  re- 
spective districts;  pronounced  a  decisive 
judgment  in  those  cases  where  accusatioiis 
were  brought  against  bishops ;  and  appoint- 
ed vicars  or  deputies,  clothed  with  their 
authority,  for  the  preservation  of  order  and 
tranquillity  in  rtie  remoter  provinces  In 
shoit,  nothing  was  done  without  consulting 
them,  and  their  decrees  were  executed  with 
the  same  regularity  and  respect  as  those  of 
the  i)nnces. 

It  deserves  to  l)e  remarked,  however,  that 
the  authority  of  the  patriarchs  was  not  ac- 
knowledged through  all  the  provinces  with- 
out exception.  Several  districts,  both  in  the 
eastern  and  western  empires,  were  exempt- 
ed from  their  junsdiction.  The  Latin  church 
had  no  patriarchs  till  the  sixth  century  ;  and 
the  churches  of  Gaul,  Britain,  &c.  were 
never  subject  to  the  authority  of  the  patri- 
arch of  Rome,  wliose  authority  onlv  extend- 
ed to  the  suburbicary  provinces.  There  was 
no  primacy,  no  exarchate,  no  patnarchate, 
owned  here ;  but  the  bishops,  with  the  me- 
tropolitans, governed  the  church  in  common. 
Indeed,  after  the  name  patriarch  became 
frequent  in  thf  West,  it  was  attributed  to 
the  bishop  of  Bourges  and  Lyons  ;  but  it  was 
only  in  the  first  signification,  viz.  as  heads 
of  dioceses.  Du  Cange  says,  that  there  have 
been  some  abbots  who  have  borne  the  title 
of  patriarchs. 

PATRICIANS,  ancient  sectaries  who 
disturbed  the  peace  rf  the  church  in  the 
beginning  of  tlie  third  century ;  thus  called 
from  their  founder  Fatricius,  preceptor  of  a 
marcionite  called  Symmachus.  His  distin- 
guishing tenet  was,  that  i!ie  substance  of  the 
flesh  is  not  the  work  of  God,  but  that  of  the 
devil ;  on  wliich  account  his  adherents  bore 
an  implacable  hatred  to  their  own  flesh, 
which  sometimes  carried  them  so  far  as  to 
kill  thems(-lves. 

PATRIPASSIANS,  a  sect  that  appeared 
about  tlie  latter  end  of  the  second  century  ; 
so  called  from  their  ascribing  the  passion  or 
sufferings  of  Christ  to  the  Father  ;  for  they 
asserted  the  unity  of  God  in  such  a  manner 
as  to  destroy  all  distinctions  of  persons,  and 
to  make  the  Father  and  Son  precisely  th".- 
same  ;  in  which  they  were  followed  by  the 
Sal^ellians  and  others.  The  author  and  head 
of  the  Patripassians  was  Praxeas,  a  philoso- 
pher of  Phrygia,  in  Asia. 

PA  TRONAGE,  or  Advowson,  a  sort 
of  incorporeal  hereditament,  consisting  in 
the  right  of  presentation  to  a  church,  or  ec- 
clesiastical benefice.  Advowson  signifies  the 
taking  into  protection,  and  tlierefnre  is  sy- 
nonimous  witli  patronage ;  and  he  who  has 
the  right  of  advowson  is  called  the  patron  of 
the  church. 

PAULIANISTS,  a  sect  so  called  from 
their  founder,  Paulus  Samosateneus,  a  native 
of  Samosata,  elected  bishop  of  Antioch,  in 
262.  His  doctrine  seems  to  have  amounted  to 
this;  that  the  Son  and  the  Holy  Ghost  exist 
in  God  in  the  same  manner  as  tlie  faculties 
■of  reason  and  activity  d(^  in  man  ;  that  Christ 


was  bom  a  mere  man  ;  but  that  the  reason 
or  wisdom  of  the  Father  descended  into 
him,  ai  d  by  him  wrought  miracles  upon 
earth,  and  instructed  the  natirns  ;  and,  final- 
ly, that  on  account  of  this  unifjn  of  tiie  di- 
vine word  with  the  man  Jesus,  Christ  might, 
though  improperly,  be  called  God.  It  is 
also  said  that  he  did  not  baptize  in  t'lie  name 
^'f  the  Father  a)id  the  S^  n,  &c  ;  for  which 
reason  the  council  of  Nice  ordered  those 
biptized  by  him  to  be  rebaptizcd.  Being 
condemned  by  Dinnysius  Alexandrinus  in  a 
council,  he  abjured  his  errors  to  avoid  de- 
position;  but  soon  after  he  resumed  them, 
and  was  actually  deposed  by  another  coun- 
cil in  269.  He  may  be  considered  as  the 
father  of  the  modern  Socinians ;  and  his 
errors  are  severely  condemned  by  the  coun- 
cil of  Nice,  whose  creed  differs  a  httle  from 
that  now  used  under  the  same  name  m  the 
church  of  England.  The  creed  agreed  upon 
by  the  Nicene  fathers  with  a  view  to  the  er- 
rors of  Paulus  Samosatenus  concludes  thus  ■■ 
"  But  those  who  say  there  was  a  time  when 
he  was  not,  and  that  he  was  not  before  he 
was  bom,  the  catholic  and  ap'Stolic  church 
anathematize." 

PAULICIANS,  a  branch  of  the  ancient 
M;inichees;  so  called  from  their  founder, 
one  Paulus,  an  Armenian,  in  the  seventh 
century,  who  with  his  bnther  John,  both  of 
Samosata,  formed  this  sect ;  though  others 
are  of  opinion  that  they  were  thus  called 
from  another  Paul,  an  Armenian  by  birth, 
who  lived  under  the  reign  of  Justinian  II. 
In  the  seventh  century,  a  zealot,  called  Con- 
stantine,  revived  this  drooping  sect,  which 
had  suffered  much  from  the  violence  of  its 
adversaries,  and  was  ready  to  expire  under 
the  severity  of  the  imperial  edicts,  and  that 
zeal  with  which  they  were  carried  into  ex- 
ecution. The  Paulicians,  however,  by  their 
number,  and  the  continuance  of  the  empe- 
ror Nicephnrus,  became  formidable  to  all 
the  East.  But  the  cruel  rage  of  persecution, 
which  had  for  some  years  beeti  suspended, 
broke  forth  with  redoubled  violence  under 
the  reigns  of  Michael  Curopalates,  and  Leo 
the  Armenian,  who  inflicted  capital  punish- 
ment on  such  of  the  Paulicians  as  refused  to 
return  into  the  bosom  of  the  Church.  The 
emi)re5S  Theodora,  tutoress  of  the  emperor 
Michael,  in  845,  would  oblige  them  either  to 
be  converted,  or  to  quit  the  empire;  upon 
which  several  of  them  were  put  to  death, 
and  more  retired  among  the  Saracens;  but 
they  were  neither  all  exterminated  nor  ba- 
nished. 

Upon  this  they  entered  into  a  league  with 
the  Saracens,  and,  choosing  for  their  chief 
an  officer  of  the  greatest  resolution  and  va- 
lour, whose  name  was  Carbeus,  tley  declar- 
ed against  the  Greeks  a  war,  which  was 
carried  on  fifty  years  with  the  greatest  ve- 
hemence and  fury.  During  these  commo- 
tions, some  Paulicians,  towards  the  conclu- 
sion of  this  century,  spread  abroad  their 
doctrines  among  tl.e  Bulgarians;  many  of 
them,  either  from  a  principle  of  zeal  for  tlie 


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374 


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propagation  of  their  opinions,  or  from  a  na- 
tural desire  of  flying  from  the  persecution 
■which  they  suffered  under  the  Grecian  yoke, 
retired  about  the  close  of  the  eleventh  cen- 
tury from  Bulgaria  and  Thrace,  and  form- 
ed settlements  in  other  countries  Their  first 
migration  was  into  Italy ;  -wht  nee,  in  process 
of  time,  they  sent  colonies  into  almost  all 
the  other  provinces  of  Europe,  and  formed 
gradually  a  considerable  number  of  religious 
assemblies,  who  adhered  to  their  doctrine, 
and  who  were  afterwards  persecuted  with 
the  utmost  vehemence  by  the  R^man  pon- 
tiffs: 111  Italy  they  were  called  Patarini, 
trom  a  certain  place  called  Pataria,  being 
a  part  of  the  cily  of  Milan  where  th^v  held 
their  assemblies ;  ,  and  Gathari  or  Gazari, 
from  Gezaria,  or  the  Less'  r  Tartary.  In 
France  they  were  called  Jlbi^enses,  though 
their  faith  differt-d  widely  from  that  of  the 
Albigenses  whom  Protestant  writers  gene- 
rally vindicate,  (See  Albigenses  )  '  The 
first  religious  assembly  the  Paulicians  had 
formed  in  Europe,  is  said  to  have  been  dis- 
covered at  Orleans  in  1017,  under  the  reign 
of  Robert,  when  many  of  them  were  con- 
demned to  be  burnt  alive  The  ancient  Pau- 
licians, according  to  Phntius,  expressed  the 
utmost  abhorrence  of  Manes  and  his  doctrine. 
The  Greek  writers  comprise  their  errors 
under  tie  six  following  particulars  :  1.  They 
denied  that  this  inferior  and  visible  world  is 
the  production  of  the  Supreme  Being;  and 
they  distinguish  the  Creator  of  the  world 
and  of  human  bodies  from  the  Mo«;t  High 
God  who  dwells  in  the  heavens:  and  hence 
some  have  been  led  to  conceive  that  they 
were  a  branch  of  the  Gnostics  rather  than 
of  the  Manicheans.— 2  Thev  treatrd  con- 
temptuously the  Virgin  MaiT,  or,  ace  rrling 
to  t'le  usual  manner  of  speaking  amone:  the 
Greeks,  they  refused  to  adore  and  wnrshin 
lier. — 3.  Th(y  refusrd  to  ce'chmte  the  in- 
stitution of  the  Lonl's  supper.— -4.  Th-v 
loaded  the  cross  of  Christ  with  contempt 
and  reproach,  by  which  we  are  onlv  to  un- 
derstand that  thfv  refus<-d  to  follow  the  ah- 
surd  and  superstitious  practice  of  the  Greeks, 
who  paid  to  the  pretended  wood  of  the  ctss 
a  certain  sort  of  religious  homag<  — 5  T'vv 
rejected,  after  th.e  example  of  the  greatest 
part  of  the  Gnostics,  the  books  of  the  O'ri 
Testament ;  and  looked  upon  the  writers  of 
that  sacred  liistory  as  inspired  bv  the  Crea- 
tor of  this  world,  and  not  by  the  Sunrene 
God. — 6.  They  excludfd  presbvters  nnd  el- 
ders from  all  parts  in  the  administration  of 
the  church 

PEACE,  that  state  of  mind  in  w^hich  per- 
sons are  exposed  to  no  open  violence  to  in- 
terrupt their  tranqui'lity.  1.  Social  p race  is 
mutual  agreement  one  with  another  where- 
by we  forbear  injuring  one  another.  Psalm 
xxxiv.  14.  Psalm  cxxxii.— 2  Ecclesiastical 
peace  is  freedom  from  contenti'  ns,  and  rest 
from  persecutions,  Isaiah  xi.  l.S.  xxxii.  17. 
Rev.  xii.  14 — 3.  Sjiiritual peace  is  deliver- 
ance from  sin,  by  wiiich  we  were  at  enmity 
with  Sod,  Rom.  v.  1 ;  the  result  of  which 


is  peace  in » the  conscience,  Heb.  x.  S**. 
This  peace  is  the  gift  of  God  through  Jesus 
Christ,  2  Thess  iii.  16.  It  is  a  blessing  of 
great  importance.  Psalm  cxix.  165.  It  is 
denominated  perfect,  Isaiah  xxvi.  3.  Inex- 
pressible, Phil.  iv.  7.  Permanent,  Job  xxxiv. 
29  John  xiv.  22.  Eternal,  feaiah  Ivii.  2.  Heb. 
iv.  9.    See  Happiness. 

PELAGIANS,  a  sect  who  appeared 
about  the  end  of  the  fourth  century.  They 
maintained  the  following  doctrines ;  1 .  Tiiat 
.\dam  was  by  nature  mortal,  and,  whether 
he  had  sinned  or  not,  would  certainly  have 
died. — 2.  That  the  consequences  of  Adam's 
sin  were  confined  to  his  own  person. — 3. 
That  new  born  infants  are  in  the  same 
situation  with  Adam  before  the  fall — 4. 
That  the  law  qualified  men  for  the  king- 
dom of  heaven,  and  was  founded  upon  equal 
promises  with  the  Gospel. — 5.  That  the 
gential  resurrection  of  the  dead,  does  not 
follow  in  virtue  of  <\ir  Saviour's  resuiTec- 
tion  — 6.  That  the  grace  of  God  is  given 
according  to  our  merits. — 7.  That  this 
grace  is  not  granted  for  the  performance  of 
every  moral  act ;  the  liberty  of  the  will 
and  information  in  points  of  ^uty  being  suffi- 
cient. 

The  founder  of  this  sect  was  Pelagius,  a 
native  of  Great  Britain.  He  was  educated 
in  tho  monastery  of  Banchor,  in  Wales,  of 
which  he  became  a  monk,  and  afterwards 
an  abbot.  In  the  early  part  of  his  life  he 
went  over  to  France,  and  thence  to  Rome, 
where  he  and  his  friend  Celestius  propa- 
gated their  opinions,  though  in  a  private 
manner.  Upon  the  approach  of  the  Goths, 
A.  D.  410,  they  retired  from  Rome,  and 
went  first  into  Sicily,  and  afterwards  into 
Africa,  where  they  published  their  doc- 
trines with  more  freedom.  From  Africa, 
Pelagius  passed  into  Palestine,  while  Celes- 
'ius  remained  at  Carthage,  with  a  view  to 
preferment,  desiring  to  be  admitted  among 
the  presbyters  of  that  city.  But  the  dis- 
C(>very  of  his  opinions  having  blasted  all 
his  hopes,  and  his  errors  being  condemned 
in  a  council  held  at  Carthage,  A.  D.  412,  he 
departed  from  that  city,  and  went  into  the 
East.  It  was  from  this  time  that  Augustin, 
the  famous  bishop  of  Hip])o,  began  to  at- 
tack the  tenets  of  Pelagius  and  Celestius 
in  his  learned  and  elegant  writings ;  and 
to  him,  indeed,  is  principally  due  the 
glory  of  having  suppressed  this  sect  in  its 
very  birth. 

Things  went  more  smoothly  with  Pela- 
gius in  the  East,  where  he  enjoyed  the 
protection  and  favour  of  John,  bishop  of 
Jerusalem,  whose  attachment  to  the  senti- 
ments of  Origen  led  him  naturally  to  coun- 
tenance those  of  Pe'agius,  on  account  of  the 
conformity  that  there  seemed  to  be  between 
these  two  systems.  Under  the  shadow  of 
this  powerful  protecti-n.  Pelagius  made  a 
public  profession  of  his  opinions,  and  form- 
ed disciples  in  several  places.  And  though, 
in  tlie  year  415,  he  was  accused  by  Oro- 
sius,  a  Spanish  presbyter,   whom  Augustin 


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had  sent  into  Palestine  for  that  purpose, 
before  an  assembly  of  bishops  met  at  Jeru- 
salem, yet  he  was  dismissed  without  the 
least  censure ;  and  not  only  so,  but  was  soon 
after  fully  acquitted  of  all  errors  by  the 
council  of  DiospoUs. 

This  controversy  was  brought  to  Rome, 
and  referred  by  Celestius  and  Pelagius  to 
the  decision  of  Zozimus,  who  was  raised  to 
the  pontificate,  A.  D  417.  The  new  pon- 
tiff, gained  over  by  the  ambiguous  and 
seemingly  orthodox  confession  of  faith  that 
Celestius,  wiio  was  now  at  Rome,  had  art- 
fully drawn  up,  and  also  by  the  letters  and 
protestations  oi  Pelagius.  pronounced  in 
favour  of  these  monks,  declared  them  sound 
in  the  faith,  and  unjustly  persecuted  by 
their  adversaries.  The  African  bishops, 
with  Augustin  at  their  head,  little  affected 
with  this  declaration,  continued  obstinately 
to  maintain  the  judgment  they  had  pro- 
nounced in  this  matter,  and  to  strengthen 
it  by  their  exhortations,  their  letters,  and 
their  writings.  Zozimus  yielded  to  the 
perseverance  of  the  Africans,  changed  his' 
mind,  and  condemned,  with  the  utmost  se- 
verity, Pelagius  and  Celestius,  whom  he  had 
honoured  with  his  approbation,  and  covered 
with  his  protection.  This  was  followed  by 
a  train  of  evils,  which  pursued  these  two 
monks  without  interruption  They  were 
condemned,  says  Mosheim.  by  that  same 
Ephesian  council  which  had  launched  its 
thunder  at  the  head  of  Nestorius.  In  short 
the  Gauls,  Hrit<-ns,  and  Africans,  by  their 
councils,  and  emperors,  by  their  edicts  and 
penal  laws,  demohshed  this  sect  in  its  infan- 
cy, and  suppressed  it  entirely  before  it  had 
acquired  any  tolerable  degree  of  vigour  or 
consistence. 

PENANCE,  a  punishment  either  volun- 
tary, or  imposed  by  authority,  for  the  faults 
a  person  has  committed.  Penance  is  one  of 
the  seven  sacraments  of  the  Romish  church. 
Besides  fasting,  alms,  abstinence,  and  the 
like,  which  are  the  general  conditions  of 
penance,  there  are  others  of  a  more  parti- 
cular kind  ;  as  the  repeating  a  certain 
number  of  avemarys,  paternosters,  and  cre- 
dos ;  wearing  a  hair  shift,  and  giving 
oneself  a  certain  number  of  stripes.  In  Italy 
and  Spain  it  is  usual  to  see  Christians 
almost  naked,  loaded  with  chains,  and 
lashing  themselves  at  every  step.  See 
Popery. 

PENITENCE  is  sometimes  used  for  a 
state  of  repentance,  and  sometimes  for  the 
act  of  repenting.  It  is  also  used  for  a  dis- 
cipline or  punishment  attending;  repentance, 
"more  usually  called  penance-  It  also  gives 
title  to  several  religiours  orders,  consisting 
either  of  converted  debauchees  and  reform- 
ed prostitutes,  or  of  persons  who  devote 
themselves  to  the  office  of  reclaiming  them. 
See  next  article. 

Order  of  penitents  of  St.  Magdalen  was 
established  about  the  year  1272,  by  one 
Bernard,  a  citizen  of  Marseilles,  who  de- 
voted himself  to  the  work  of  converting  the 


courtezans  of  that  city.  Bernard  was  se^' 
conded  by  several  others,  who,  foi-ming  a 
kind  of  society,  were  at  length  erected  into 
a  religious  order  by  pt.pe  Nicholas  III. 
under  the  inile  of  St.  Augustine,  F.  Ges- 
ney  says,  they  also  made  a  religious  order 
of  the  penitents,  or  women  they  converted, 
giving  them  the  same  rules  and  observances 
which  they  themselves  kept. 

Congrrganon  of  Penitents  of  St.  Magda- 
len, at  Paris,  owed  its  rise  to  the  preach- 
ing of  F.  Tisseran,  a  Franciscan,  who  con- 
verted a  vast  number  of  courtezans,  about 
th(-  year  1492.  Louis,  duke  of  Orleans, 
gave  them  liis  house  for  a  monastery ;  or 
rather  as  appears  by  their  constitution, 
Charles  \III,  gave  them  the  hotel  called 
Bochaigne,  whence  they  were  removed  to 
St  Giorge's  Chapel,  m  1572.  By  virtue  of 
A  brief  of  pcpe  Alexander,  Simon,  bishop 
of  Paris,  in  1497,  drew  them  up  a  body  of 
statutes,  and  gave  them  the  rule  of  St. 
Augustine.  It  was  necessary  before  a 
woman  could  be  admitted,  that  she  had 
first  committed  the  sin  of  the  flesh.  None 
were  admitted  who  were  above  thirty-fiv^e 
years  of  age.  Since  its  reformation  by 
Mary  Alvequin,  in  1616.  ncne  have  been  ad- 
mitted but  maids,  who,  however,  still  retain 
the  ancient  name,  penitents 

PENl  TEN  rS,  an  appellation  given  to 
certain  fraternities  of  penitents,  distinguish- 
ed by  the  different  shape  and  colour  of 
thtir  habits.  These  are  secular  soc  eties, 
who  have  their  rules,  statutes,  and  church- 
es, and  make  public  processions  under  their 
particular  crosses  or  banners.  Of  these, 
it  is  said,  there  are  more  than  a  hundred, 
the  most  considerable  of  which  are  as  fol- 
low :  Die  White  Penitents,  of  which  there 
are  several  different  sorts  at  Rome,  the 
most  ancient  of  which  was  constituted  in 
1264 :  the  brethren  of  this  fraternity  every 
year  give  portions  to  a  certain  number  of 
young  girls,  in  order  to  their  being  married: 
their  habit  is  a  kind  of  white  sackcloth,  and 
on  the  shoulder  is  a  circle,  in  the  middle  of 
which  is  a  red  and  white  cross.  Black 
Penitents,  the  most  considerable  of  which 
are  the  Brethren  of  Mercy,  instituted  in 
1488  by  some  Florentines,  in  oi'der  to  assist 
criminals  during  their  imprisonment,  and  at 
the  time  of  their  death.  On  the  day  of 
execution  they  walk  in  procession  before 
them,  singing  the  seven  penitential  psalms, 
and  the  iitanies  ;  and  after  they  are  dead, 
they  take  tliem  down  from  the  gibbet, 
and  bury  them  :  their  habit  is  black  sack- 
cloth. There  are  others  whose  business  it 
is  to  bury  such  persons  as  are  found  dead  in 
the  streets  :  these  wear  a  death's  head  on 
one  side  of  their  habit.  There  are  also 
blue,  gray,  red,  green,  and  violet  peni- 
tents, all  which  are  remarkable  for  little 
else  besides  the  different  colours  of  their 
habits. 

Penitents,  or  Converts  of  the  name  of 
Jesus,  a  congregation  of  religious  at  Seville, 
in  Spain,  consisting  of  women  who  have  led 


PE  N 


276 


PEN 


a  licentious  life,  founded  in  1550-  This 
monastery  is  divided  into  three  quarters  : 
one  for  professed  religious  ;  another  for 
novices ;  a  third  for  those  who  are  under 
correction.  When  these  last  give  signs  of 
a  real  repentance,  they  are  removed  into 
the  quarter  of  the  novices,  where,  if  they 
do  not  behave  themselves  well,  they  are  re- 
manded to  their  correction.  They  observe 
the  rule  of  St.  Augustine. 

Fenitents  of  Oi-vieto,  are  an  order  of 
nuns  instituted  by  Antony  Simoncelli,  a 
gentleman  ot  Orviei.,  in  Italy.  The  monas- 
tery he  built  was  at  tirst  designed  for  the 
reception  of  poor  girls  abandoned  by  their 
parents,  and  in  dangtrof  losing  their  virtue. 
In  1662  it  was  erected  into  a  monastery, 
for  the  reception  of  such  as  having  aban- 
doned themselves  to  impurity,  were  willing 
to  take  up,  and  consecrate  themselves  to 
God  by  solemn  vows.  Their  rule  is  that  of 
the  Carmelites. 

PENITENTIAL,  an  ecclesiastical  book 
retained  among  the  Romanists,  in  which 
is  prescribed  what  I'elates  to  the  imposition 
of  penance,  and  the  reconciliation  of  pe- 
nitents. There  are  various  penitentials, 
as  the  Roman  penitential ;  that  of  the  vene- 
rable Bede;  that  of  pope  Gregory  the  Third, 
Sec 

PENITENTIARY,  in  the  ancient  Chris- 
tian church,  a  name  given  to  certain  pres- 
byters or  priests,  appointed  in  every  church 
to  receive  the  private  confessions  of  the 
people,  in  order   to   facilitate  public  disci- 

Eline,  by  acquainting  them  what  sins  were  to 
e  expiated  by  public  penance,  and  to 
appoint  private  penance  for  such  private 
crimes  as  were  not  proper  to  be  publicly 
censured. 

Penitentiary,  also,  in  the  court  of  Rome, 
is  an  office  in  which  are  examined  and 
delivered  out  the  -secret  bulls,  dispensa- 
tions, &c.  Penitentiai'y  is  also  an  officer 
in  some  cathedrals  vested  with  power  from 
the  bishop  to  absolve  in  cases  referred  to 
him. 

PENTATEUCH,  from  ^revA  five,  and 
r['jx,®^<  an  instrument  or  volume,  signifies 
the  collection  of  the  five  instruments  or 
books  of  Moses,  which  are  Genesis,  Exo- 
dus, Leviticus,  Numbers,  and  Deuteronomy. 
Some  modern  writers,  it  seems,  liave  as- 
serted that  Moses  did  not  compose  tlie 
Pentateuch,  because  the  author  always 
speaks  in  the  third  person  ;  abridges  his 
narration  like  a  writer  who  Cfiliected  from 
ancient  memoirs  ;  sometimes  interiiipts  the 
thread  of  his  discourse,  for  example,  Gen. 
iv.  23  ;  and  because  of  the  account  i^f  the 
death  of  Moses  at  the  end,  &c  It  is  ob- 
served, also,  in  the  te.xt  of  the  Pentateuch, 
that  there  are  some  places  that  are  defec- 
tive :  for  example,  in  Exod.  xii.  8.  we  see 
Moses  speaking  to  Pharaoh,  where  the 
author  omits  the  beginning  of  his  discourse. 
The  Samaritan  inserts  in  the  same  place 
what  is  wanting  in  the  Hebrew.  In  other 
places  the  same  SamaritJin  copy  adds  ■svhac 


is  deficient  in  the  Hebrew;  and  what  is 
contained  more  than  the  Hebrew  seems  so 
well  connected  with  the  vest  if  the  dis- 
course, that  it  would  be  difficult  to  separate 
tht-m.  Lastly,  they  think  they  observe 
certain  strokes  in  the  Pentateuch  which  can 
hardly  agree  with  Moses,  who  was  born 
and  bred  in  Egypt ;  as  what  he  says"  of  the 
earthly  paradise,  of  the  rivers  that  watered 
it  and  ran  through  it ;  of  the  cities  of  Baby- 
lon, Erech,  Resen,  and  Calneh  ;  of  the  gold 
of  Pison;  of  the  bdellium,  of  the  stone  of 
Sohem,  or  onyx  stone,  which  was  to  be 
found  in  that  country. — These  particulars, 
observed  with  such  curiosity,  seem  to  ])rove 
that  the  author  of  the  Pentateuch  lived  be- 
yond the  Eujjlirates.  Add  what  he  says  con- 
cerning the  ark  of  Noah,  of  its  crmstruction, 
'  f  the  place  where  it  rested,  of  tiie  wood 
wherewith  it  was  built,  of  the  bitumen  of 
Babylon,  Sec.  But  in  answer  to  all  these  ob- 
jections it  is  justly  observed,  that  these  book.s 
ai-e  by  the  most  ancient  writers  ascribed  to 
Moses,  and  it  is-confirmed  by  the  authority 
ijf  heathen  writers  themselves,  that  they  are 
his  writing:  besides  this,  we  have  the 
unanimous  testimony  of  the  whole  Jewish 
nation  ever  since  Moses's  time.  Divers 
texts  of  the  Pentateuch  imply  that  it  was 
written  by  him  ;  and  the  book  of  Joshua  and 
other  parts  of  Scripture  import  as  n)uch  : 
and  though  some  passages  have  been  thought 
to  imply  the  contrary,  yet  this  is  but  a  late 
opinion,  and  has  been  sufficiently  confuted 
by  several  learned  men.  It  is  probable, 
however,  that  Ezra  published  a  new  edi- 
tion of  the  books  of  Muses,  in  which  he 
might  add  those  passages  that  many  sup- 
pose Moses  did  not  write. 

The  Abb^  Torne,  in  a  sermon  preached 
before  the  French  king  in  Lent,  1761,  makes 
the  following  remarks  :  "  The  Legislator  of 
the  Jews  was  the  author  of  the  Pentateuch  ; 
an  immorta!  Wurk,  wherein  he    paints   the 
marvels  of  his  reign  with  the  majestic  ]jic- 
ture  of  the  government  and   religii  n  which 
he    established  !      Who  before  our  modern 
infidels  ever  ventured  to  obscure  this  incon- 
testible    fact .'     Who  ever  sprang  a  doubt 
about  this  among    the     Hebrews? — Wiiat 
greater  reasons  have  there  ever  betn  to  at- 
tribute to  Mohammed  his  Alcoran,  to  Plato 
his  Rey)ublic,or  to  liomev  his  sul)lime  Pot  nis  J 
Rather  let  us  say.  What  work  in   any  age 
ever  appeared  more  trulv  to  bear  the  name 
of  its  red  author?     It   is  not  an   ordinary 
book,  which,  hke  many  others,  may  be  easi- 
ly hazarded  under  a  lictitinus  name.    It  is  a 
sacred   book,   which  the  Jews  have  always 
read  with   a  veneration,  that  remains  after 
seventeen  hundred  years  exile,  calamities, 
and  reproach.    In  this  book   the  Hebre^yb 
1  included  all  their  science  ;  it  was  their  civil, 
;  political,  and  sacred   code,  their  only  tna- 
■  sure,  tlieir  calendar,  their  annals,  the   only 
]  title    of  their   sovertigiis    and   pontiff's,    the 
i  alone  rule  if  polity  and  worship:  by  conse- 
!  quence  it  must  be  formed    with   their  mo- 
Inarchy,    aid  necessarily    have  the    same 


PER 


srr 


PER 


epoch  as  their  government,  and  religion, 
&c — Moses  speaks  only  truth,  though  infi- 
dels charge  hini  with  imposture.  But,  great 
God !  what  an  impostor  must  he  be,  who 
first  spoke  of  the  divinity  in  a  manner  si 
sublime,  tliat  no  one  since,  during  almost 
four  thousand  years,  has  been  able  to  sur- 
pass him  ?  What  an  impostor  must  he  be 
whose  writings  breathe  only  virtue  ,  whose 
style  equally  simple,  affecting,  and  sublime, 
in  spite  of  the  rudeness  of  those  first  ages, 
openly  displays  an  inspiration  altogether  di- 
vine !"  bee  jiinsivorth  and  Kidder  on  th:- 
Pentateuch.  Prideaux's  Con.  vol.  i.  p.  342, 
345,  573,  575.  Marsh's  .Authenticity  of  the 
Five  Books  of  Moses  considered.  IVar- 
burton^s  Divine  Legation.  Dr.  Grave's 
Lectures  on  the  last  four  Books  in  the  Old 
Test.  Jenkins'  Reasonableness  of  Chris- 
tianity. IVatson's  Afiology,  let.  .2  and  3. 
Tabor's  Hor<e  Mosaicte,  or  a  View  of  the 
JSIo^aical   Records. 

PENTECOSr,  a  solemn  festival  of  the 
Jews,  so  called,  because  it  was  celelnated 
fifty  days  alter  the  feast  of  the  passover, 
Lev.  xxiii.  15.  It  corresponds  with  the 
Christians'  W'hitsuntide,  for  which  it  is 
sometimes  used. 

PERFECTION,  that  state  or  a  quality 
of  a  thing,   in  which  it  is  free  from  defect 
or  redundancy.     According    to    some,  it  is 
divided  luto  /ihy.'iical  or  natural,  whereby  a 
thing   has    all   its   powers    and    faculties ; 
moral,  or  an  eminent   degree  of  gootlness 
and  piety:  and  metaphysical  or  transcendent 
is  tlie  possession  of  all  the  essential    attri- 
butes or  parts  necessaiy  to  the   integrity  of 
a  substaiice  ;  or  it  is  that  wherebv  a  thing 
has  or  is  provided  of  every  thing  belonging 
to  its  nature  ;  such  is  the  perfection  of  God. 
— The  term  perfection,  sh\s  the  great  Wit- 
sius,  is  not  always   used  in  the  same   sense 
in  the  scriptures.     1.  There  is  a  perfection 
of   sincerity,   wlierel>y  a    man    serves  God 
without   hypocrisy,   Job  i.   1.    Is.  xxxviii.  3. 
— 2.     There  is  a  perfection   of  parts,  sub- 
jective with   respect  to  the  whcjle    man,  1 
Thess.  v.  23    and  objective  with  respect  to 
the    whole  law,   when   all  the  duties  pre- 
scribed by  God  are  observed,  Ps.  cxix.  128 
Luke  i.  6 — 3.    There  is  a  com/iarative  per- 
fection ascribed  to  those  who  are  advanced 
in   knowledge,  faith,   and  sanctification,    in 
comparison  of  those  who  are  still  infants  and 
untaught,   1  John  ii.   13>    1  Cor.  ii   6.   Piiil 
iii    15. — 4.  There  is  an  evangelical  perfec- 
tion.    The    righteousness  of   Christ    being 
imputed  to  the   believer,  he  is  complete  in 
him,    and    accepted   of     God    as    perfect 
through   Christ,   Col.  ii.    10.     Eph.    v.    27 
2  Cor.  V.  21. — 5.  There  is   also  a  perfection 
of  degrees,   by  which  a  person  performs  all 
the  commands  of  God  with   the  full  extor- 
tion of  all  his  powers,  without  the  least  defect. 
This  is  what  the  law  of  God    requires,  but 
■what  the  saints  cannot  attain  to  in  this  lite. 


Dei,  lib.  iii.  cap.  12,  §  124  ;  Pates'  Worka^ 
p.  557,  &c.  Laii)  and  IVe&ley  on  Perfec- 
tion.   Doddridge's  Lectures,  lee.  181. 

PERFECTIONS  OF  GOD.  See  Attri- 
butes 

PERJURY  is  the  taking  of  an  oath,  in 
ord^r  to  tell  or  confirm  a  falsehood.  This 
is  a  very  heinous  crime,  as  it  is  treating  the 
Almigluy  with  irreverence  ;  denying,  or  at 
least  discarding  his  omniscience  ;  prof-ming 
his  name,  and  violating  truth.  It  has  always 
been  esteemed  a  veiy  detestable  thing,  and 
these  who  have  been  proved  guilty  of  it  have 
been  looked  upon  as  the  pests  of  society. 

^Pf*    C^  A  X  H 

PERMISSION  OF  SIN.  See  Sin. 
PERSECUnON,  is  any  pain  or  afflic- 
tion which  a  person  designedly  inflicts  upon 
another ;  and,  in  a  more  restrained  sense, 
;he  sufferings  of  Christians  on  account  of 
their  religion.  Persecution  is  threefold  1. 
Mental,  when  the  spirit  of  a  man  rises  up 
and  opposes  another. — 2.  Verbal,  when  men 
give  hard  words  and  deal  in  uncharitable 
censures. — 3.  Actual  or  ojien,  by  the  hand, 
such  as  the  dragging  of  innocent  persons  be- 
fore the  tribunal  of  justice.  Matt.  x.  18.  The 
unlawfulness  of  persecution  for  conscience 
sake  must  appear  plain  to  every  one  tliat 
possesses  the  least  degree  of  thought  or  of 
teeling.  "  To  banish,  imprison,  plunder, 
j  starve,  hang  and  burn  men  for  religion,"  says 
the  shrewd  Jortin,  "  is  not  the  Gospel  of 
Christ ;  it  is  the  Gospel  of  the  Devil.  VN'here 
persecution  begins,  Christianity  ends.  Christ 
never  used  any  thing  that  looked  like  force 
or  violence,  except  once  ;  and  that  was  to 
drive  bad  men  out  of  the  temple,  and  not 
to  drive  th;  m  in." 

We  know  the  origin  of  it  to  be  from  the 
prince  of  darkness,  who  began  the  dread- 
ful practice  in  the  first  family  on  earth,  and 
who,  more  or  less,  has  been  carrv'ing  on 
the  sau;e  work  ever  since,  and  that  almost 
among  all  parties.  "  Persecution  for  con- 
I  science  Jake,"  says  Dr.  Doddridge,  "  is  eve- 
i  ry  way  inconsistent,  because,  1.  It  is  founded 
j  on  an  absurd  supposition,  that  C'ne  man  has 
a  right  to  judge  for  another  in  matters  of 
I  religion. — 2  It  is  evidently  opposite  to  that 
fundamental  princi])le  of  mrrality,  that  we' 
should  do  to  others  as  we  could  reasonably 
desire  they  should  do  to  us. — 3.  It  is  by  rio 
means  calculated  to  answer  the  end  which 
its  patrons  profess  to  intend  by  it  —4.  It 
evidently  tends  to  produce  a  great  deal  of 
mischief  and  confusion  in  t!.e  world. — 5. 
The  Christian  religion  must,  humanly 
speaking,  be  not  only  obstructed,  but  de- 
stroyed, should  persecuting  principles  uni- 
versally prevail. — 6  Persecution  is  so  far 
from  beinp;  required  or  encouraged  by  the 
Gospel,  that  it  is  most  directly  contran,'  to 
many  of  its  precepts,  and  indeed  to  the 
whole  of  it." 

The  chief  objects  who  have  fell   a  prey 


though  we  willingly  allow  them  all  the  other  to  this  diabolical  spirit  have  been  Chris- 
kinds  above-mentioned,  Rom.  vil.  24  Phil,  iii  Ij  tians  ;  a  short  account  of  whose  sufferings 
12.  1  John  i.  8.    Witsn  (Economia  Fad/rum^'  \ie  shall  here  give,  as  persecuted  by  the 

3    B 


PER 


378 


PEU 


Jews,  Heathens,  and  those  of  the  same 
name. 

Persecution  of  Christiaiis  by  the  Jews. 
Here  we  need  not  be  copious,  as  the  New 
Testament  will  inform  the  reader  move 
particularly  liow  the  first  Chi'istians  suffs.-r- 
ed  for  thii  cause  of  truth.  Jesus  Clirist 
himself  Avas  exposed  to  it  in  the  greatest 
degree.  The  four  evangeUsts  record  the 
dreadful  scenes  which  need  not  here  be  en- 
laru;ed  on.  After  his  death,  the  apostles 
suffered  every  evil  which  the  malice  of  the 
Jews  could  invent,  and  their  mad  zeal  exe- 
cute. They  who  read  the  acts  of  the 
Apostles  v^ill  find  that,  like  their  Master, 
they  were  despised  and  rejected  of  men, 
and  treated  with  the  utmost  indignity  and 
contempt. 

n.  Persecution  of  Christiayis  by  the  Hea- 
then. Historians  usually  reckon  ten  gene- 
ral persecutions,  the  iivst  of  Avhich  was  un- 
der the  emperor  Nero,  thirty -one  years  after 
our  Lord's  ascension,  when  that  emperor, 
having  set  fire  to  tlie  city  of  Rome,  tlirew 
the  odium  of  that  execrable  action  on  the 
Christians.  First  those  were  apprehend- 
ed who  openly  avowed  themselves  to  be  of 
that  sect ;  then  by  them  -were  discovered 
an  immense  multitude,  all  of  whom  were 
convicted.  Their  death  and  tortures  were 
aggravated  by  cruel  derision  and  sport  : 
for  they  were  either  covered  with  the  skins 
of  wild  beasts  and  torn  in  pieces  by  devour- 
ing dogs,  or  fastened  to  crosses  and  Avrap- 
ped  up  in  combustible  garments,  tliat,  wlien 
the  day-light  failed,  they  might,  like  torch- 
es, serve  to  dispel  the  darkness  of  the 
night.  For  this  tragical  spectacle  Nero  lent 
his  own  gardens ;  and  exhibited  at  the 
same  time  the  public  diversions  of  the  cir- 
cus ;  sometimes  driving  a  chariot  in  person, 
and  sometimes  standing  as  a  spectator, 
«vhile  the  shrieks  of  women  burning  to 
ashes  supplied  music  for  his  ears. — 2. 
The  second  general  persecution  was  under 
Domitian,  in  the  year  95,  when  40,000 
were  supposed  to  have  suffered  martyrdom. 
— 3.  The  third  began  in  the  third  year  of 
Trajan,  in  the  year  100,  and  was  carried  on 
with  great  violence  for  several  years. — 4 
The  fourth  was  under  Antonius,  when  the 
Christians  were  banished  from  their  houses, 
forbidden  to  shew  their  Ijeads,  reproached, 
beaten,  hurried  from  place  to  place,  plun- 
dered, imprisoned,  and  stoned  — 5.  The 
fifth  began  in  the  year  127,  under  Severus, 
when  great  cruelties  were  committed.  In 
this  reign  happened  the  martyrdom  of  Per- 

?etua  and  Felicitas,  and  their  companions 
erpetua  had  an  infant  at  the  breast,  and 
Felicitas  was  just  deHvered  at  the  time  of 
their  being  put  to  deatli.  These  two  beau- 
tiful and  amiable  young  women,  modiers  of 
infant  children,  after  suff  ring  much  in  pri- 
son, were  exposed  before  an  insulting  mul- 
^tude,  to  a  wild  cow,  who  mangled  their 
bodies  in  a  most  horrid  manner  ;  after  which 
tluy  were  carried  to  a  conspicuous   place, 


and  put  to   death   by   the  sword 6.  The 

sixth  began  with  the  reign  of  Maximinus,  in 
235. — 7.  Tile  seventh,  which  was  the  most 
dreadful  ever  known,  began  in  250,  under 
the  emperor  Decius,  when  the  Christians 
were  in  all  places  driven  from  their  habita- 
tions, stripped  of  their  estates,  tormented 
with  racks,  &c — 8.  The  eighth  began  in  257 
under  Valerian.  Both  men  and  women  suffer- 
ed death,  some  by  sc' urgint^  seme  by  the 
sword,  andsnme^by  fire. — 9  Thenuith  was 
under  Aurelian,  in  274;  but  tliis  was  incen- 
siderahle,  compared  with  the  others  i)efore- 
nientioned. — 10.  The  tenth  began  in  the 
nineteenth  year  of  Dieclesian,  303.  In  this 
dreadful  persecution,  which  lasted  ten  years, 
houses  filled  with  Christians  were  set  on 
fire,  and  whf)le  droves  were  tied  trgether 
with  ropes,  and  thrown  into  the  sea.  It  is 
related  that  17,000  were  s'ain  in  rne 
month's  time  ;  and  that,  during  the  continu- 
ance of  tliis  persecution,  in  the  province  of 
Egypt  alone,  no  less  than  144,000  Christians 
died  by  the  violence  nf  their  persecutors; 
besides  700,000  that  died  througli  the  fa- 
tigues of  banishment,  or  the  jiublic  works 
tu  which  they  were  condemned. 

III.  Persecution  of  Christians  by  those 
of  the  same  name.  Numerous  were  the 
persecutions  of  different  sects  from  Constan- 
tine's  time  to  the  reformation  ;  but  when 
the  famous  Martin  Luther  arose,  and  oppo- 
sed the  errors  and  ambition  of  the  church 
of  Rome,  and  the  sentiments  of  this  good 
man  began  to  spread,  the  pope  and  his 
clergy  joined  all  their  forces  to  hinder  their 
progress.  A  general  council  of  the  clergy 
was  called  ;  this  was  the  famous  couv.cil  of 
Trent,  which  was  held  for  near  eighteen 
successive  years,  for  the  purpose  of  esta- 
blishing popery  in  greater  splendour,  and 
preventing  the  reformation.  The  friends 
to  the  reformation  were  anathematized  and 
excommunicated,  and  the  life  of  Luther 
was  often  in  danger,  thouph  at  last  he  died 
on  the  bed  of  peace.  From  time  to  time  in- 
rium.erable  schemes  were  suggested  to  over- 
throw the  reformed  church,  and  wars  were 
set  on  foot  for  the  same  purjK  se.  The  invin- 
cib'e  armada,  as  it  was  vainly  called,  had  the 
.same  end  in  view.  The  inquisition  which 
was  established  in  the  twelfth  century  against 
the  Vv'aldensps  (See  Inquisition)  was 
now  more  effectually  set  to  work.  Ter- 
rible perse  cutions  were  carried  on  in  various 
parts  of  Germany,  and  even*  in  Bohemia, 
which  continued  about  thirty  years  and  the 
blood  of  the  saints  was  said  to  flow  like  ri- 
vers of  water.  The  countries  of  Poland, 
Lithuania,  and  Hungaiy.  were  in  a  similar 
manner  deluged  with  Protestant  blood  — 
In 

HOLLAND, 
and  in  the  other  low  countries,  for  many  years 
the  most  amazing  cruelties  were  exercised 
under  the  merciless  and  unrelenting   hands 
of  the  Spaniards,  to  whom  the  inhabitants 


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37^ 


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of  that  part  of  the  world  -were  tlien  in  sub- 
jection. Father  Paul  observes,  tliat  tliesc 
Belgic  martyrs  \vt;re  50,000;  but  (ir<itius 
and  utli"  rs  cibserve,  tbat  tlieie  were  100,000 
wlio  suftVred  by  the  liand  of  the  execution- 
er. Heroin,  liowever,  Satan  and  his  agents 
failed  of  their  purpose  ;  for  in  the  issue  great 
part  of  the  Netlienands  siiook.  olf  tlie  Si)anish 
yoke,  and  erected  themselves  into  a  separate 
and  independent  state,  whicii  has  ever  snice 
been  considered  as  one  of  the  principal  Pro- 
testant countries  of  the  universe. 

FRANCE. 
No  country,  perliaps,  has  ever  produced 
more  martyrs  than  this.  After  many  cru- 
elties had  been  exercised  against  the  Protes- 
tants, tlici'e  was  a  most  violent  periecu'.it.n  of 
tliem  in  tlie  year  1572,  in  the  reign  of 
Charles  IX.  Many  of  the  j)rincipal  Pmtcs 
tants  wei'e  invited  to  Paris  under  a  solemn 
oatli  of  safety,  upon  occasion  of  tlie  mar- 
riage of  the  king  of  Na\a-re  witli  the 
Fiench  king's  sister.  The  queen  dowagev 
of  Navarre,  a  zealous  Pi-otesiant,  however, 
was  poisoned  by  a  pair  of  glovis  befoie  the 
marriage  was  solemnized  Coligni,  admiral 
of  France,  was  basely  murdered  in  his  own 
house,  and  then  thrown  out  of  the  windnw 
to  gratify  the  malice  of  the  Duke  of  Guise  : 
his  head  was  afcerwards  cut  off",  am'  sent  ti 
the  king  and  queen-niuther  ;  and  his  body, 
after  a  thuu.sand  indignities  offered  to  i', 
hung  by  the  feet  on  a  gibbet  Aftt  r  this, 
the  murderers  ravaged  the  whole  city  of 
Paris,  and  butchered,  in  three  days,  above 
ten  thousand  lords,  gentlemen,  ]jresidents 
and  people  of  all  ranks.  An  horrible  scene 
of  things,  says  Thuarius,  wlien  the  very 
streets  and  [)?issages  resouvi'Ied  with  the 
noise  of  those  that  met  together  for  murder 
and  pUmder :  the  groans  of  these  who  were 
dying,  and  tiie  shrieks  of  sucii  as  were  just 
going  to  be  butchered,  were  every  where 
heard  ;  the  bodies  of  the  slain  thi'own  out  of 
the  windows ;  the  courts  and  chambers  of 
the  houses  filled  with  tliem  ;  the  dead 
bodies  of  othei^s  dragg'ed  through  the  streets; 
their  blood  running  through  the  channels  in 
such  plenty  that  torrents  seemed  to  empty 
thems;>es  in  the  neighbouring  river:  in  a 
word,  an  innumerable  multitude  of  men, 
wo;nen  with  child,  maidens,  and  children, 
were  all  involved  in  one  coinm.on  destruc- 
tion; and  the  gates  and  entranccj  (.f  the  king's 
palace  all  besmeared  wiih  th(  ir  blood. 
From  tl»e  city  of  Paris  the  massacre  spread 
througiutut  the  whole  kingdom.  In  the  city 
df  Meaux  they  threw  above  two  hundred 
into  gaol ;  and  after  they  had  ravished  and 
killed  a  great  number  of  women,  and  plun- 
dered the  houses  of  the  Protestants,  tliey 
executed  their  fury  on  those  they  had  im- 
})i'is!)ned  ;  and  calling  them  one  by  one, 
iliey  were  killed,  as  Thuanus  expresses, 
like  sheep  in  a  market.  In  Orleans  they 
murdered  above  hve  hundred,  men,  women, 
and  children,  and  enriched  themselves  with 
the  spcjil.  The  same  cruelties  were  prac- 
•.issd    at    Atisers,   Troyes,    Bourges,    La 


Charite,  and  especially  at  Lyons,  where 
liiey  inhumanly  destroyed  above  eight  hun- 
dred Protestants  :  children  hanging'^on  their 
parent's  necks  ;  parents  embracing  their 
ehildren  ;  jiutting  ropes  about  the  necks  of 
some,  dragging  them  through  the  streets, 
a  ,d  throwing  them,  mangled,  torn,  and  half 
dead,  into  the  river.  According  to  Thua- 
!ius,  above  30,000  Protestants  were  de.stroy- 
ed  in  thi'i  massacre  ;  or,  as  others  affirm, 
above  100,000.  But  what  aggravated  these 
scenes  \sitii  still  greater  wantonness  and 
cruelty,  was,  the  manner  in  wiiich  the  news 
was  received  at  Rome,  When  the  letters 
of  th.e  pope's  legate  were  read  in  the  assem- 
bly of  the  cardinals,  by  which  he  assured 
the  ])ope  that  all  was  transacted  by  the 
express  will  and  command  of  the  king,  it 
was  innne{:i.ilely  decreed  that  the  pope 
should  march  with  his  cardinals  to  the 
church  of  St.  Mark,  and  in  the  most  solemn 
maniier  give  thanks  to  God  for  so  great  a 
blessing  conferred  on  the  see  of  Rome  and 
the  Christian  world :  and  that,  on  the  Mon- 
day after,  solemn  mass  should  be  celebrated 
in  the  church  of  Minerva,  at  wnich  the 
pope,  Gregory  XIII.  and  cardinals  were 
present;  and  that  a  jubilee  should  be  pub- 
lished throughout  the  whole  Chrisliaii 
world,  and  the  cause  of  it  declared  to  be,  to 
return  thanks  to  God  for  tht  extirpation  of 
the  enemies  of  the  truth  and  chureh  iu 
France.  In  the  evening  the  cannon  of  St. 
Angelo  were  fired  to  testify  the  public  joy  ; 
the  whole  city  illuminated  with  bmifires: 
and  no  one  sign  of  rejoicing  omitted  that 
was  usually  made  for  the  greatest  victories 
obtained  in  favour  of  the  Roman  church  ! !  ! 
But  all  these  persecutions  were,  however, 
far  exceeded  in  cruelty  by  those  which 
took  place  in  the  time  of  Louis  XIV.  It 
cannot  be  pleasant  to  any  man's  feeUng-s, 
wiio  has  the  least  humanity,  to  recite  these 
dreadful  scenes  of  horror,  cruelty,  and  de- 
vastation ;  but  to  shew  what  superstition, 
bigotry,  and  fanaticism,  are  capable  of  pro- 
ducing, and  for  the  purpose  of  holding  up 
the  spirit  of  persecution  to  contem.pt,  we 
shall  here  give  as  concise  a  detail  as  possi- 
ble. The  troopers,  soldiers,  and  dragoons, 
went  into  the  Protestants'  houses,  where 
they  marred  and  defaced  their  household 
stuff;  broke  their  looking-glas.ses  and  ether 
uter.sils  ;  threw  abe.ut  their  corn  and  wine; 
sold  what  they  could  not  destroy  ;  and  thus, 
in  fi  ur  or  five  days,  tlie  Protestants  were 
stripped  of  above  a  million  of  money.  But 
this  was  not  the  worst :  they  turned  the 
dining  rooms  of  gentlemeii  into  stables  for 
hor.ses,  and  treated  the  owners  of  the 
houses  where  they  quartered  with  the 
greatest  cruelty,  lashing  them  about,  not 
suffering  them  lo  eat  or  drink.  When  they 
saw  the  blood  and  sweat  run  down  their 
faces,  they  sluiced  them  with  water,  and 
putting  ever  their  heads  kettle-drums  turned 
upside  down,  they  made  a  ccjntinual  din 
upon  them  till  these  unhappy  creatures 
lost  their  senses.    At  Negreplisse,  a  town 


PER 


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PER 


near  Montaubon,  they  hung  up  Isaac  Favin,  / 
a  Protestant  citizen  of  that  place,  by  his  I 
arm-pits,  and  tormented  him  a  whole  night ; 
by  pinching  and  tearing  off  his  flesh  with  | 
pincers.  They  made  a  great  fire  round  | 
about  a  boy,  twelve  years  old,  who  with 
hands  and  eyes  lilted  up  to  heaven,  cried' 
out,  "My  God,  help  me!"  and  when  they  | 
found  the  youth  resolved  to  die  rather  than  i 
renounce  his  relig  on,  they  snatched  him  1 
from  the  fire  just  as  he  was  on  the  point  of  j 
being  burnt  In  several  places  the  soldiers  i 
applied  red  hot  irons  to  the  hands  and  feet  j 
of  men,  and  the  breasts  of  women.  At' 
Nantes,  they  hung  up  several  women  and 
maids  by  their  feet,  and  others  by  their  arm- 
pits, and  thus  exposed  them  to  public  view 
stark-naked.  They  bound  mothers,  that 
gave  suck,  to  posts,  and  let  their  sucking 
infants  lie  languishing  in  their  sight  for 
several  days  and  nights,  crying  and  gasping 
for  life.  Sume  they  bcund  before  a  great 
fire,  and,  being  half  roasted,  let  them  go; 
a  punishment  worse  than  death.  Amidst  a 
thousand  hideous  cries,  they  hung  up  men 
and  women  by  tlie  hair,  and  some  by  their 
feet,  on  hooks  in  chimnies,  and  smoked 
them  wiih  wisps  of  wet  hay  till  they  were 
suffocated.  They  tied  some  under  the  arms 
•with  ropes,  and  plunged  them  again  and 
again  into  wtHs ;  they  bound  others,  put 
them  to  the  tr^rture,  and  with  a  funnel  fille.' 
them  with  wine  till  the  fuiTies  of  it  tff)k 
away  their  reason,  wiieii  they  macije  them 
say  they  consented  to  "be  Catholics.  Th'  y 
stripped  them  n^lked,  and,  after  a  thousai.r 
indignities,  stuck  them  with  pins  and 
needles  from  head  to  foot.  In  some  placf-s 
they  tied  fathers  and  husbands  to  their  bed- 
posts,yand,  before  their  eyes,  ravished  tlieir 
Aviv^  and  daughters  with  impunity.  They 
blew  lip  men  and  women  with  bellows  tii' 
they  burst  the  m.  If  any,  to  escape  these 
ba^arities,  endeavoured  to  save  themselves 
by*ttight,  they  pursued  them  into  the  fields 
a'.|d  woods,  wliere  they  shot  at  them  like 
wild  beasts,  and  prohibited  them  from  de- 
parting the  kingdi  m  (a  cruelty  never  prac- j 
tfeed  by  Nero  or  Diociesian,)  upon  pain  of! 
confiscation  of  effrcts,  ihc-  galiies,  the  lash,  I 
and  perpettial  imprisonment.  With  these  | 
scenes  of  dcsolatirti  and  horror  the  popish 
clergy  feasted  their  eyes,  and  made  only ' 
mattefeHaughter  and  sport  of  them  !  !  !  } 
ENGLAND  , 

has  also  been  the  seat  of  much  persecution  i 
Though  Wickliffe,  the  first  reformer,  died  i 
peaceably  in    his    bed,    yet   such    was    the  i 
malice  and  spirit  of  ])er.secutitig  Rome,  that 
his  bones   wi  re  ordered  to  be  dug  u]),  and  . 
cast  upon  a  dunghill.     The  remains  of  this} 
excellent  man  were  accordingly  dug  cut  of  i 
the  grave,  where  they  had  lain  undistuibed' 
four-and-forty  years.    His  bones  weie  burnt, } 
and  the  ashes  cast  into  an  adjoining  brook. 
In  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  Bilney,  Bayman, 
and  many  other  reformers  were  burnt;  but 
when  queen  Mary  came  to  the  throne,  thej 
Thost  severe  pcTsecutions  took  place.  Hoop- 1 


er  and  Rogers  were  burnt  in  a  slow  fire. 
Saunders  was  cruelly  tormented  a  long 
time  at  the  stake  before  he  expired  Tay- 
lor was  put  into  a  barrel  of  pitch,  and  fiie 
set  to  it.  Eight  illustrious  persons,  among 
whom  was  Ferrar,  bishop  of  St.  David's, 
were  sought  out,  and  burnt  by  the  infamous 
Bonner  in  a  few  days.  Sixty-seven  persons 
were  this  year,  A.  D.  1555,  burnt,  amongst 
whom  were  the  famous  Protestants.  Brad- 
ford, Ridley,  Latimer,  and  Philpot.  Iii  the 
following  year,  1556,  eighty-five  persons 
were  burnt.  VVomen  suffered ;  and,  one,  in 
the  flames,  which  burst  her  womb,  being 
near  her  time  of  delivery,  a  child  fell  from 
her  into  the  fire,  which  being  snatched  rut 
by  some  of  the  observers  more  humane  than 
the  rest,  the  magistrate  ordered  the  babe 
to  be  again  thrown  into  the  fire,  and  burnt. 
Thus  even  the  unborn  child  was  burnt  for 
heresy  '  O  God,  what  is  human  nature  when 
left  to  itself!  Alas  !  dispositions  ferocious  as 
infernal  then  reign  and  usurp  the  heart  of 
man !  The  queen  erected  a  commission 
court,  which  was  followed  by  the  destruction 
of  near  eighty  more.  Upon  the  whole,  the 
number  of  those  who  suftt  red  death  for  the 
reformed  religion  in  this  rt  ign  were  no  less 
than  two  hundred  and  seventy-seven  per- 
sons; of  whom  were  five  bishops,  twenty- 
one  clergymen,  ei^^jht  gentlemen,  eighty-four 
tradesmen,  one  hundred  husbandmen,  la- 
bourers, and  servants,  fifty-five  women,  and 
four  children.  Besides  these,  there  were 
fifty-four  more  under  prosecution,  seven  of 
vvliom  were  whipped,  and  sixteen  perished 
in  pr'son  Nor  Avas  the  reign  of  Elizabeth 
free  from  this  persecuting  spirit.  If  any 
c  ne  refused  to  consent  to  the  least  ceremony 
Ml  w  rship,  he  was  cast  intc  prison,  where 
many  of  the  most  excellent  men  in  the  land  dj 
perished.  Two  Protestaiit  Anabaptists  were  ^ 
burnt,  and  many  banished.  She  also,  it  is 
said,  put  two  Brownists  to  death ;  and 
though  her  whoie  reign  was  distinguished 
for  its  political  prosperity,  yet  it  is  evident 
that  she  did  not  understand  the  rights  of 
conscience  ;  for  it  is  said  that  more  sangui- 
nary laws  were  made  in  her  reign  than  in 
any  of  her  j)redecessors,  and  her  hands 
were  stained  with  the  blo<  d  both  of  Papists 
and  Puritans.  James  1.  succeeded  Eliza- 
beth :  he  published  a  proclamation,  C(  m- 
manding  all  Protestants  to  conform  stiictly, 
and  without  any  exception  to  all  the  rites 
and  ceremonies  of  the  church  of  England- 
Above  five  hundred  clergy  were  immedi- 
ately silenced,  or  degraded,  for  not  comply- 
ing Some  were  excoinnuinicated,  and  Sfmi? 
banished  the  country.  The  Dissenters  were 
distressed,  censured,  and  fined,  in  the  Star 
chamber.  Two  persons  were  burnt  for 
heresy,  one  at  Smithfield,  and  the  other  at 
Litchfield  Wcrn  cut  with  endless  vexa- 
tions, and  unceasing  persecutions,  many 
retired  into  Holland,  and  from  thence  to 
America.  It  is  witnessed  by  a  judicious 
historian,  that,  in  this  and  some  following 
reignsy  22,000  persons  were  banished  from 


PER 


381 


PE  li 


England  by  persecution  to  America.  In 
Charles  the  First's  time  arose  the  perse- 
cuting Laud,  who  was  the  occasion  of  dis- 
tress to  numbers.  Dr.  Leighton,  for  writ- 
ing a  book  against  the  hierarchy,  was  fined 
ten  thousand  pounds,  perpetual  imprison- 
ment, and  wliipping.  He  was  whipped,  and 
then  placed  in  the  pillory ;  one  of  his  ears 
cut  off;  one  side  of  his  nose  slit ;  branded 
on  the  cheek  widi  a  red  hot  iron,  with  the 
letters  S.  S  ;  whipped  a  second  time,  and 
placed  in  the  pillory.  A  fortnight  after- 
wards, his  sores  being  yet  uncured,  he  had 
the  other  car  cut  off,  the  other  side  of  his 
nose  slit,  and  the  other  cheek  branded.  He 
continued  in  prison  till  the  long  parliament 
set  him  at  liberty.  About  four  years  after- 
wards. William  Prynn,  a  birrister,  for  a 
book  he  wrote  against  t!ie  sjioria  on  the 
Lord's  day,  was  deprived  from  practising 
at  Lincoln's  Inn,  degraded  from  his  degree 
at  Oxford,  set  in  the  pillory,  had  his  ears 
cut  off,  imprisoned  for  life,  and  fined  five 
thousand  pounds.  Nor  were  the  Presbyte- 
rians, when  their  government  came  to  be 
established  in  England,  free  from  the  charge 
ef  persecution.  In  1645  an  ordinance  was 
published,  subjecting  all  who  preached  or 
wrote  against  the  Presbyterian  directory  ff  r 
public  worship  to  a  fine  not  exceeding  fifty 
pounds;  and  imprisonment  for  a  year,  f ( r 
the  third  offence,  in  using  the  episcopal  book 
of  common  prayer,  even  in  a  private  family. 
In  the  following  year  the  Presbyterians  ap 
plied  to  Parliament,  pressing  them  to  en- 
force uniformity  in  religion,  and  to  extir- 
pate popery,  prelacy,  lieresy,  schism,  Sec. 
but  their  petition  was  rejected;  yet  in  1648 
the  parliament,  ruled  by  them,  published  an 
ordinance  against  heresy,  and  determined 
that  any  person  who  maintained,  published, 
or  defended  the  following  errors,  should  suf- 
fer death.  These  errors  were,  1.  Denying 
the  being  of  a  God. — 2.  Denying  his  omni- 
presence, omniscience,  &c — 3.  Denying  the 
Trinity  in  any  way. — i.  Denying  that  Christ 
had  two  natures — 5  Denying  the  resurrec- 
tion, the  atonement,  the  scriptures.  In 
Charles  the  Second's  reign  the  act  of  uni- 
formity passed,  by  which  two  thousand  cler- 
g'ymen  were  deprived  of  their  benefices. 
Then  followed  the  conventicle  act,  and  the 
Oxford  act,  under  which,  it  is  said,  eight 
thousand  persons  were  imprisoned  and  re- 
duced to  want,  and  many  to  the  grave. 
In  this  reign,  also,  the  Quakers  were  much 
persecuted,  and  numbers  of  them  imprison- 
ed. Thus  v/e  see  how  England  has  bled 
under  the  hands  of  bigotry  and  i)ersecution  ; 
nor  was  toleration  enjoyed  until  William 
III.  came  to  the  throne,  who  shewed  him- 
self a  warm  friend  to  the  rights  of  conscience. 
The  accession  of  the  present  royal  family 
was  auspicious  to  religious  liberty ;  and  as 
their  majesties  have  always  befriended  the 
toleration,  the  spirit  of  persecution  has  been 
long  curbed. 

IRELAND 
has  likewise  been  drenched  with  the  blood 


of  the  Protestants,  forty  or  fifty  thousand  of 
whom  were  cruelly  murdered  in  a  few  days, 
in  different  parts  of  the  kingdom,  in  the 
reign  of  Charles  I.  It  began  on  the  23d  of 
Octvber,  1641.  Having  secured  the  princi- 
pal gcntlenicn,  and  seized  their  effects,  they 
murdered  the  common  people  in  cold  blood, 
forcing  many  thousands  to  fly  from  their 
houses  and  settlements  naked  into  the  bogs 
and  wootls,  where  they  perished  with  hun- 
ger and  ci  id.  Soa.e  they  whipped  to  death, 
others  they  stript  naked,  and  exposed  to 
shame,  and  then  drove  them  like  herds  of 
swine  to  pt-rish  in  the  mountains:  many 
hundreds  were  drowned  in  rivers,  some  had 
their  thn  ats  cut,  others  were  dismember- 
ed. With  some  the  execrable  villains  made 
themselves  sport,  tr\ii!g  who  could  hack 
the  deepest  into  an  Englishman's  flesh; 
wives  and  young  virgins  abused  in  the 
presence;  of  their  nearest  relations ;  nay, 
they  taught  their  children  to  strip  and  kill 
tiie  children  of  the  English,  and  dash  cut 
tiieir  brains  against  the  stones.  Thus  many 
thousands  were  massacred  in  a  few  days, 
wit!ifut  distinction  of  age,  sex,  or  quality, 
before  thty  suspected  their  danger,  or  had 
time  to  provide  for  their  defence. 
SCOTLAND,  SPAIN,  &c. 

Besides  the  above-mentiftned  persecutions, 
there  have  been  several  others  carried  on  in 
different  parts  (f  the  world.  Scotland  for  many 
yeara  together  has  been  the  scene  ( f  cruel- 
ty and  blood-shed,  till  it  was  delivered  by 
the  monarch  at  the  revolution.  Spain,  Italy, 
and  the  valley  of  Piedmont,  and  odier  place's, 
have  been  the  seats  of  much  persecution. 
Popery,  we  see,  has  had  the  greatest  hand 
in  this  miscliievous  work.  It  has  to  answer, 
also,  for  the  lives  of  millions  of  Jews,  Mo- 
liammedans,  and  barbarians.  When  the 
Moors  conquered  Spain,  in  the  eighth  cen- 
tuiy,  they  allowed  the  Christians  the  free 
exercise  of  their  religion ;  but  in  the  fif- 
teenth century,  when  the  Mcors  wore  over- 
come, and  Ferdinand  subdued  the  Moris- 
coes,  the  descendants  of  the  above  Moors, 
many  diousands  were  forced  to  be  baptized, 
or  burnt,  massacred,  or  banished,  and  Uieir 
children  sold  for  slaves;  besides  innumera- 
ble Jews,  who  shai-ed  the  same  cruelties, 
chitfiy  by  means  of  the  infernal  courts  of 
inquisition.  A  worse  slaughter,  if  possible, 
was  made  amorg  the  natives  of  Spanish 
America,  where  fifteen  millions  are  said  to 
have  been  sacrificed  to  the  genius  of  popery 
in  about  forty  years.  It  has  been  computed 
that  fifty  miilions  of  Protestants  have  at  dif- 
ferent times  been  the  victims  of  the  perse- 
cutions of  the  Papists,  and  i)ut  to  death  for 
their  religious  opinions.  Well,  therefore, 
might  the  inspired  penman  say,  that  at  mys- 
tic Babylon's  destruction  '  was  found  in  her 
the  blood  of  prophets,  of  saints,  and  of  all 
that  was  slain  upon  the  earth,'  Rev.  xviii. 
24. 

To  conclude  this  article,  Who  can  peruse 
the  account  here  given  without  feeling  the 
most  painful  emotions,  and  dropping  a  tear 


PER 


382 


PER 


over  the  madness  and  depravity  of  mankind  ? 
JJoes  it  not  shew  us  what  human  bemgs  are 
capable  oi'  ^vhcn  influenced  by  superstition, 
bigotry,  and  prejudice  ?  Have  not  these 
baneful  principles  metamorphosed  men  into 
internals;  and  entirely  extinguished  aU  the 
feelings  of  humanity,  tlie  dictates  of  con- 
science, and  the  voice  of  reason  ?  Alas!  what 
has  sin  done  to  make  mankind  such  curses 
to  one  another  ?  Merciful  God  !  by  thy  great 
jiower  suppress  this  woi'st  of  all  evils,  and 
let  truth,  and  love,  meekness  and  forbear- 
ance universally  prevail !  Limborch's  Intro- 
duction to  his  History  of  the  Infjnisit'on. 
Memoir^  of  the  Persecutions  of  the  Protes- 
tants in  France,  by  Lavis  JJe  E7iarollcs- 
Lombcr's  Nistitry  of  the  Parisian  Alassacrc 
of  at.  Bartholomew,  yi.  Robinson's  Hifsto- 
ry  of  Persecution.  Locfcmayi's  History  of 
Po/iish  Persec.  ilark's  Looking  Glass 
for  Persecutors  Doddria'ife's  Sermon  on 
Persecution.  Jortin's  ditto,  ser.  9.  vol.  iv. 
Bovjer^a  JLives  of  the  Popes.  Fox^s  Mar- 
tyrs. Woodrow's  History  of  the  Suffer- 
ings of  the  Church  of  Scotland.  Aral's 
History  of  the  Puritans,  and  of  jYeiv  Eng- 
land. History  of  the  Bohemia7i  Persecu- 
tions. 

PERSEVERANCE  is  the  continuance  in 
any  design,  state,  opinion,  or  course  of  ac 
tion.  The  perseverance  of  the  saints  is  \ 
their  continuance  in  a  state  of  grace  to  a 
state  of  glory.  This  doctrine  has  afforded 
considerable  matter  for  controversy  between 
the  Calvinists  and  Arminians.  We  shall 
briefly  here  state  the  argimients  and  objec- 
tions. And,  first,  the  fierfections  of  G<>d  are 
considered  as  strong  arguments  to  pr')\'e 
this  doctrine.  God,  as  a  Being  possessed  of 
iniinite  love,  faithfulness,  wisdom,  and  pow 


then  this  choice,  this  union,  his  death  and 
intercession,  may  all  be  ui  vain,  and  render- 
ed aborlive  ;  an   idea   as   den  gatoiy  to  the 
Divine  glory,  and  as  dishonourable  to  Jesus 
Christ,  as  possibly  can  be. — 3.  It  is  argued, 
from  the  nvork  of  the  Spirit,    which   is  to 
communicate   grace   and   strength  equal  to 
the  day,  Phil.  i.  6      2  Cor.  i.  21,  22.     If,  in- 
deed,  divine   grace  weie  dependent  on  the 
will  of  man,   if  by  his  own  power  he   had 
brought  himself  into  a  state  of  grace,   then 
it  miglit  follow  that  he  might   relapse  into 
an   opposite  state  when  that  power  at  any 
time    was   weakened  ;     but   as   die    perse- 
verance eif  the  saints  is  not  produced  by  any 
native  principles  in  themselves,  but  by  the 
agency  of  the  Holy  Sjjirit,  enlightening,  ccn- 
fifming,   and   estabiisiiiiig   them,   of  cotnse, 
they  nuist  persevere,  or  otherwise   it  woukl 
be  a  rtllectic^n  em  this  Divine  Agent,  Rt.m, 
viii.  9.     1  Cor.  vi.  11.     John  iv.   14.  xvi.  14. 
— 4.  Lastly,  the  declarations  and  promises 
e>f  scripture  are  very  numeioiis  in  favour  of 
this  doctrine,    Job  xvii.   9.     Psal.   xciv.  14. 
Psal.  cxxv.    Jer.  xxxii.  40.  John  x.  28.  John 
xvii   12.     1  Cor.  i.  8,  9.     1  Peter  i.  5.   Prov. 
iv.  18.  all  which  could  not  be    true,  if  this 
doctrine  Avere  false      Tliere  are  objections, 
however,   to  this  doctrine,   which  we  must 
state. — 1.   Tiiere   are   varienis   threatenings 
denounced    against    those    who    apostatize, 
Ezek.   iii.  20.     Heb,  vi.  3,  6.     Psa!.  cxxxv. 
3 — 5.     Ezek.  xviii.  24.    To  this  it  is   an- 
swered, that  some  of  these  texts  do  not  so 
much  as  suppose  the  falling  away  of  a  truly 
goe)d  man  ;  and  to  all  of  them,  it  is  said,  that 
they  <,n'y  shew  what  would   be  the   conse- 
(juence  //"such  should  fall  away;  but  cannot 
prove  that  it  ever  in  fact  happeris. — 2.  It  is 
fcTctolii  as  a  future  event  that  some   should 


er,  can  hardly  be  supposeel  to  sufFn*  any  of  i  fall  away.  Matthew  xxiv.  12,  13.     Jeihn  xv. 


his  people  finally  to  fall  into  perdition.   I'his 
would  be  a  rejection  on  his  attributes,  and  j 
argue  him  to  be  worse   than   a   common  fa-  I 
ther  of  his  family.     His  love  to  his  people  is  j 
unchangeable,  and  thereff,re  they  cannot  be  j 
the  objects  of  it  at  one  time  and  not  at  ano- 1 
ther,  John  xiii.  1.    Zeph.  iii.  17.    Jer.  xxxi.  j 
3.    li\h faithfulness  to  them  anel  to  his  pro- 
mise is  not  founeleel  upon  tlieir  mei'it,   but 
his  own  will   aiid  goodness ;  this,  therefore, 
camiot  be  violated,  Mai.  iii.  6.   Numb,  xxiii. 
19.     His  ivisdoin  foresees  every  ojjstac'.e  in 
the  way,  and  is  capable  of  removing  it,  and 
directing  them  into  the  right  path.  It  would 
be  a  vei^ection  on  1. is  wisdom,  after  choo^i!ng 
a  right  t  tid,   not  to  choose  right  means  in 
accomplishing  the  san.e,   Jer.   x.  6,  7.     His 
power  is  insuperable,  and  is  absolutely  and 
perpetually  displayeel  in   their  preservation 
and  protection,    1   Peter  i.  5. — 2.   Another 
argument  to  pre)ve   this  doctrine  is  their 
i.:7iion  to  Christ,  anel  wiiat  he  has  dotie  for 
them._    They  are  said  to  he  chosen  in  him, 
Eph.  i.  4.  united  to  him,  Eph.  i.  23.  t!ie  pur- 
chase of  his  death,  Rom.  viii.  34.    Tit.  ii. 
14;  the  objects  of  his  intercession,  Rom.  v. 
10.    Rom.  viii.  34.     l  John  ii.  1,  2.     Now  if 
there  be  a  possibility  of  their  finally  failing, 


6.  Matt.  xiii.  20,  21  To  the  first  of  these 
passages  it  is  answered,  that  their  love  might 
be  said  to  wax  cold  without  totally  ceasing  ; 
or  there  might  have  been  an  outward  zeal 
and  shew  of  love  where  there  never  was  a 
true  faith.  To  the  second  it  is  answei'ed, 
that  persejns  ma\-  be  said  to  be  in  Christ  only 
by  an  external  profession,  ormero  vriembers 
ef  the  visible  church,  Jc^hn  xv.  2.  Matt.  xiii. 
47,  43.  As  to  Matthew,  ch.  xiii.  5,  20,  21. 
it  is  replied,  that  this  may  refer  to  the  joy 
with  wl;ich  some  may  entertain  the  (fiersof 
pai-elon,  who,  never,  after  all,  attentively  con- 
sidered them  — 3.  It  is  objected  that  many 
have  in  fact  fallen  away,  as  David,  Solomon, 
Peter,  Alexander,  Hymeneus,  &c.  To  which 
it  is  answered,  that  David,  Solnmon,  and 
Peter's  fall,  were  not  total ;  and  as  to  the 
others,  there  is  no  proof  of  their  ever  being 
true  Christians. — 4.  It  is  urged,  that  this 
doctrine  supersedes  the  use  of  means,  and 
renelers  exhortations  unnecessary.  To  which 
it  ma/  be  answered,  that  ])erseverance  it- 
self implies  the  use  of  means,  and  that  the 
means  are  equally  appointed  as  well  as  the 
etid :  nor  has  it  ever  been  found  that  true; 
Christians  have  rejected  them.  They  con- 
siclcr  exhortations  and  admonitions  to  be  some 


PET 


383 


PHA 


of  the  means  they  are  to  attend  to  in  order 
to  promote  their  holiness :  Christ  and  his 
ap<ist]es,  iliougli  they  often  asserted  this 
doctrine,  yet  reproved,  exhorted,  and  made 
use  of  means.  See  Exhortation,  Means. 
— 5.  Lastly,  it  is  objected  that  this  doctrine 
gives  great  cncom'agement  to  canial  securi- 
ty and  presuniptuous  sin.  To  ■which  it  is 
answered,  that  this  doctrine,  like  many 
others,  may  be  abused  by  hyp'^crites,  but 
cannot  be  so  by  those  v/ho  are  truly  serious 
)t  Ijeing  the  very  nature  of  grace  to  lead  to 
righteousness,  Tit.  ii.  10,  12.  Their  know- 
ledge leads  to  veneration ;  their  love  ani- 
mates to  duty  ;  their  faith  purifies  the  heart; 
their  gratitude  excites  to  obt-dience ;  yea, 
all  their  principles  liave  a  tendency  to  set 
before  them  tlie  evil  of  sin,  and  the  beauty 
of  holiness.  See  JVhitby  a7id  Gill  on  the 
Five  Points.  Cole  on  the  Sovereignty  oj 
God.  Doddridge^s  Lectures,  lee.  179.  Tur- 
redtii  Comfi.  T/ieologia,  lee.  14.  p  156. 
(Econoinia  JVitsii,  lib.  iii.  c.  13.  To/dady'i- 
Works,  p.  476,  vcl.  v.  Ridgely^s  Body  oJ 
£)iv.  qu.  79. 

PERSON,  an  individual  substance  of  a 
rational  intelligent  nature.  Some  have  been 
offended  at  the  term  persons  as  applied  tf 
the  Trinity,  as  unwarrantable.  The  term 
person,  when  applied  to  Deity,  is  certainiy 
used  in  a  sense  somewhat  different  from  that 
in  which  we  apply  it  to  one  another ;  but 
when  it  is  considered  t'.iat  the  Greek  words 
T5r9?T«r<5  and  'npoiT-uTov,  to  which  it  an- 
swers, are,  in  the  New  Testament,  applied 
to  the  Father  and  Son,  Heb.  i.  3.  2  Cor.  iv 
6.  and  that  no  single  term,  at  least,  can  be 
found  more  suitable,  it  can  hardly  be  con- 
demned as  unscriptural  and  improper.  There 
have  been  v,  trm  debates  between  the  (ireek 
and  Latin  churches  about  the  words  hypos- 
tasis and  persona  ;  the  Latin  concluding 
that  the  word  liyfiostasis  signified  substance 
or  essence,  thought  that  to  assert  that  there 
were  three  divine  hypostases  was  to  say 
that  there  were  three  Gods.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  Greek  church  thought  that  the 
word/! er .son  did  not  snfiiciently  guard  against 
the  Sabellian  notion  of  the  same  individual 
Being  sustaining  three  relations  ;  whereupon 
each  part  of  the  church  was  ready  to  brand 
the  other  witli  heresy,  till  by  a  free  and  mu- 
tual conference  in  a  synod  at  Alexandria,.  A. 
D.  362,  they  made  it'appear  thai  it  was  but 
a  mere  contention  abnut  the  grammatical 
sense  of  a  word  ;  and  then  it  was  allowed 
by  men  of  temper  on  both  sides,  that  either 
of  the  two  words  might  be  indifferently  usp<-'. 
See  Marci  Medulla,  1  5.  §  3.  Fidglry's 
Divinity,  qu  11.  Hurrion  on  the  Spirit,  p. 
140.  Doddridge's  Lectures,  lee.  159.  Gill 
on  the  Trinity,  p.  93.  Watts'  Works,  vol. 
V.  p.  48,  208.  GilVs  Body  of  Divinity .  vol. 
i.  p.  205,  Svo.  Edwards'  History  of  Re- 
demption, p.  ol,  note.   Horx  Sol    vol.  ii  p. 

20. 

PERSUASION,  the  act  of  influencing 
the  judgment  and  passions  by  arguments 


'  or  motives.  It  is  different  from  Conviction. 
{  Conviction  affects  the  understanding  only  ; 
!  persuasit  n  the  will  and  the  practice.  It 
I  may  be  cinsidered  as  an  assent  to  a  propo- 
I  sition  not  sufficiently  proved.  It  is  more 
( extensively  used  than  conviction,  which 
I  .'ast  is  f.iunded  on  demonstration  natural 
or  super! iatural  But  idl  things  of  which 
I  we  may  be  persuaded,  are  not  capable  of 
{demonstration.  See  Blair's  Rhetoric,  \u\.  ii. 
Ip    174. 

I  PETER-PENCE  was  an  annual  tribute 
|f:f  one  [jenny  paid  at  Rome,  out  of  every 
famtly  at  the  feast  of  St.  Peter.  This,  Ina, 
the  Saxon  king,  when  he  went  in  pilgrimage 
to  Rome  abrut  the  year  740,  gave  to  the 
pope,  partly  as  alms,  and  pai'tly  in  recom- 
pence  of  a  house  erected  in  Rome  for 
Eng  isii  pilgrims.  It  continued  to  be  paid 
<;enerally,  until  the  time  of  king  Henry 
VIII.  when  it  was  enacted,  that  henceforth 
no  persons  shall  pay  any  pensions,  peter- 
peiice,  or  other  impr,>itions,  to  the  use  of 
the  bishop  and  see  of  R 'me. 

PETITION,  accordiuK'  to  Dr.  Watts, 
is  the  fourth  part  of  prayer,  and  includes  a 
desire  of  deliverance  from  evil,  and  a  re- 
quest of  good  things  to  be  bestowed.  On 
buth  these  accounts,  petitions  are  to  be  of- 
fVred  up  to  God,  not  only  for  ourselves,  bivt 
t  r  our  fellow  creatures  also.  This  part 
of  prayer  is  frequently  called  intercession. 
See  Prayer. 

PETROERUSSIANS,  a  sect  founded 
about  tlie  year  1110,  in  Languedcc  and 
Province,  by  Peter  de  Bruys,  wl.o  made 
tlip  most  laudable  attempts  to  reform  the 
abuses,  and  to  remove  the  superstitions  that 
disfi.^ured  the  beautiful  simplicity  of  the 
Gospel  ;  though  not  with<  ut  a  mixture  of 
fanaticism.  Tiie  fiiUowiiig  tenets  were  held 
by  him  and  his  disciples:  1.  That  no  per- 
sons whatever  were  to  be  baptized  before 
they  were  come  to  the  full  use  of  their 
reason. — 2.  That  it  was  an  idle  superstition 
to  build  churches  for  the  service  of  God, 
who  will  accept  of  a  sincere  w^orsliip  where- 
ever  it  is  rffered  :  and  that,  thei^efore,  such 
chiuxhes  as  had  already  been  erected  were 
to  be  pulled  down  and  destroyed. — S.  That 
the  crucifixes,  as  instruments  of  superstition, 
deserved  the  same  fate. — 4.  That  the  real 
body  and  blood  of  Christ  were  net  exhibited 
in  the  eucharist,  but  were  merely  repre- 
senterl  in  that  ordinance — 5.  That  the  ob- 
latioiis,  prayers,  and  gc^od  works  of  the 
living.  C'uld  be  in  no  respect- advantageous 
to  the  dead  The  founder  of  this  sect,  after 
a  laborious  ministry  of  twenty  years  was 
bunit  in  the  year  1130,  by  an  enraged  po- 
pulace, set  on  by  the  clerg\',  whf:se  trafSc 
was  in  danger  from  the  enterprising  spirit 
of  this  new  reformer 

PETROJOANNITES  were  followers  of 
Peter  John,  or  Peter  Joarnis,  that  is,  Peter 
the  son  of  John,  who  flourished  in  the 
twelfth  century  His  doctrine  was  not 
known  till  after  his  death,  when   his  body 


PH  A 


384 


PHI 


was  taken  out  of  his  grave,  and  burnt. 
His  opinions  were,  that  he  alone  had  the 
knowledge  of  the  true  sense  wherein  the 
apostles  preached  the  Gospel  ;  that  the 
reasonable  soul  is  not  the  form  of  man ; 
that  there  is  no  grace  infused  by  baptism  ; 
and  tliat  Jesus  Christ  was  pierced  with  a 
lance  on  the  cross  before  he  expired, 

PHARISEES,  a  famous  sect  of  the  Jews, 
who  distinguished  themselves  by  their  zeal 
for  the  tradition  of  the  elders,  whicli  they 
derived  from  tlie  same  fountain  with  tlie 
written  word  itself;  pretending  that  l)oth 
were  delivered  to  Moses  frdrn  Mount  Sinai, 
and  were  therefore  both  of  equal  authority. 
From  their  rigorous  observance  of  these 
traditions,  they  looked  upon  themselves  as 
more  holy  than  other  men,  and  therefore 
separated  tliemselves  from  those  whom 
tliey  thought  sinners  or  profane,  so  as  not 
to  eat  or  drink  with  them  ;  and  hence  from 
the  Hebrew  word  fiharis,  which  signifies' 
"  to  separate,''  they  had  the  name  of  Plia\ 
risecs  or  Sefiai-atists.  \ 

This  sect  was  one  of  the  most  ancient 
and  most  considerable  among  the  Jews, 
but  its  original  is  not  very  well  known  ; 
however,  it  was  m  great  repute  in  the 
time  of  our  Saviour,  and  most  probably 
had  its  original  at  the  same  time  with  the 
traditions. 

The  extraordinary  pretences  of  the  Pha- 
risees to  righteousness,  drew  after  them  tlie 
common  people,  who  held  them  in  the 
highest  esteem  and  veneration.  Our  Sa- 
viour frequently,  however,  charges  them 
with  hypocrisy,  and  making  the  law  of 
God  of  no  effect  through  their  traditions. 
Matt.  ix.  12.  Matt.  xv.  1,  6,  Matt,  xxiii. 
13,  33.  Luke  xi.  39,  52.  Several  of  these 
traditions  are  particularly  mentioned  in  the 
Gospel ;  but  they  had  a  vast  number  more, 
which  may  be  seen  in  the  Talnmd,  the 
whole  subject  whereof  is  to  dictate  and  ex- 
plain those  traditions  wliich  this  sect  im- 
posed to  be  believed  and  observed. 

The  Pharisees,  cositrary  to  the  opinion 
of  the  Sadducees,  htld  a  resurrection  from 
the  dead,  and  the  existence  of  angels  and 
spirits.  Acts  xxiii.  ch.  viii.  But,  accord- 
ing to  Josephus,  tins  resurrection  of  theirs 
was  no  more  than  a  Pythagorean  resurrec- 
tion, that  is,  of  the  soul  only,  by  its  trans- 
migration into  anotlier  body,  and  being- 
born  anew  with  it.  From  this  resurrection 
tiiey  excluded  all  who  were  notoriously 
wicked,  being  of  opinion  that  the  souls  of 
such  persons  were  transmitted  into  a  state 
of  everlasting  woe.  As  to  lesser  crimes, 
they  h(-M  tliey  were  punished  in  the  bodies 
which  the  souls  of  those  who  committed 
them  were  .lext  sent  into. 

Josephus,  however,  either  mistook  the 
faith  of  his  countrymen,  or  which  is  moi-e 
probable,  wilfully  misrepresented  it,  to  ren- 
der their  opinions  more  resyjpcted  by  the 
Roman  philosophers,  whom  he  ai)pears  to 
have,  on  every  occasion,  been  desirous  to 
please.    The   Pharisees  had  many  Pagan 


notions  respecting  the  soul ;  but  Bishop 
Bull,  in  his  Harmonia  ^fiostolica,  has 
clearly  proved  that  they  held  a  resurrec- 
tion of  the  body,  and  that  they  supposed  a 
certain  bone  to  remain  uncorrupted,  to 
furnish  the  matter  of  which  the  resurrec- 
tion body  was  to  be  formed.  They  did  not, 
however,  believe  tliat  all  mankind  were 
to  be  raised  from  the  dead.  A  resurrec- 
tion was  the  privilege  of  the  children  of 
Abraham  alone,  who  were  all  to  rise  on 
Mount  Zion ;  their  uncorruptible  hones, 
wherever  they  might  be  buried,  being  car- 
lied  to  that  mountain  below  the  surface  of 
the  earth.  The  state  of  future  felicity  in 
which  the  Pha/isees  believed  was  very 
gross :  they  imagined  that  men  in  the  next 
world,  as  well  as  in  the  present,  were  to 
eat  and  drink,  and  enjoy  the  pleasures  of 
love,  each  being  re-united  to  his  former 
wife.  Hence  the  Sadducees,  who  believed 
in  no  resurrection,  and  supposed  our  Saviour 
to  teach  it  as  a  Pharisee,  very  shrewdly 
urged  the  difficulty  of  disposing  of  the  wo- 
man who  had  in  this  world  been  the  wife  of 
seven  husbands.  Had  the  resurrection  of 
Christianity  been  the  Pharisaical  resurrec- 
tion, this  difficulty  would  have  been  insur- 
mountable ;  and  accordingly  we  find  the 
people,  and  even  some  of  the  Pharisees 
themselves,  struck  with  the  manner  in  which 
our  Saviour  removed  it. 

Tins  sect  seems  to  have  had  some  con- 
fused notions,  probably  derived  from  the 
Chaldeans  and  Persians,  respecting  thepre- 
existence  of  souls  ;  and  hence  it  was  that 
Christ's  disciples  asked  him  concerning  the 
Wind  man,  John  ix.  2.  "  Who  did  sin,  this 
man,  or  his  parents,  that  he  was  born 
blind  ?"  And  wlien  the  disciples  told  Christ 
that  some  said  he  was  Elias,  Jeremias,  or 
one  of  the  prophets,  Matt.  xvi.  14.  the  mean- 
ing can  only  be,  that  they  thought  he  was 
come  into  the  world  with  the  soul  of  Elias, 
Jeremias,  or  some  other  of  the  old  prophets 
transmigrated  into  him.  With  the  Essenes 
they  held  absolute  predestination,  and  with 
the  Sadducees  freewill ;  but  how  they  re- 
conciled these  seemingly  incomjjatible  doc- 
trines is  no  where  sufficiently  explained. 
The  sect  of  the  Pharisees  was  not  extin- 
guished by  the  ruin  of  the  Jewish  common- 
wealth. The  greatest  part  of  the  modern 
Jews  are  still  of  this  sect,  being  as  much  de- 
voted to  traditions,  or  the  oral  law,  as  their 
ancestors  were 

PHILADELPHIAN  SOCIETY,  a  sect 
or  society  of  the  seventeenth  century  ;  so 
called  from  an  English  female,  whose  name 
was  Jane  Leadley.  She  embraced,  it  is 
said,  the  same  views  and  the  same  kind  of 
religion  as  Madam  Bourignon  (see  Boijrig- 
NONiSTS.)  She  was  of  opinion  that  all  dis- 
sentions  among  Christians  would  cease,  and 
the  kingdom  of  the  Redeemer  beconrie,  even 
here  below,  a  glorious  scene  of  charity,  con- 
cord, and  felicity,  if  those  who  bear  the 
nrmie  of  Jesus,  without  regarding  the  forms 
of  doctrine  or  discipline   that   distinguish 


PHI 


385 


PHI 


particular  communions,  would   all  join  in  i 
committing  their  souls  to  the  care  of  the  | 
internal  guide,  to  be  instructed,  governed,  | 
and  formed  by  his  divine  impulse  and  sug-  j 
gestions.     Nay,  she  went  still  farther,  and  . 
declared,  in  the   name  of  the  Lord,  that  j 
this  desirable  event  would  actually  come  to ; 
pass,  and  that  she  had  a  divine  commission  j 
to  proclaim  the   approach  of  this  gloricusi 
communion  of  saints,  who  were  to  be  gath- 1 
ered  in  one  visible  universal  church  or  king-  j 
dom  before  the  dissolution  of  this   earthly 
globe.     This  prediction  she  delivered  with 
a  peculiar  degree  of  confidence,  from  a  no- 
tion   that    her    Philadelphian    society    was 
the  true  kingdom  of  Christ,  in  which  alone 
the  Divine  Spirit  resided  and  reigned.    She 
believed,  it  is  said,  the  doctrine  of  the  final 
restoration  of  all  intelligent  beings  to  perfec- 
tion and  happiness 

PHILANTHROPY,  compounded  of  <^<Ao? 
and  uiSpuTTOi,  which  signify  the  love  of  man- 
kind. It  diiFers  from  benevolence  only  in 
this :  that  benevolence  extends  to  every 
being  that  has  life  and  sense,  and  is  of 
course  susceptible  of  pain  and  pleasure ; 
whereas  philanthropy  cannot  comprehend 
more  than  the  human  raee.  It  diifers  from 
friendship,  as  this  affection  subsists  only 
between  a  few  individuals,  whilst  philan- 
thropy comprehends  the  whole  human  spe- 
cies. It  is  a  calm  sentiment,  which  per- 
haps hardly  ever  rises  to  the  warmth  of 
affection,  and  certainly  not  to  the  heat  of 
passion. 

PHILLIPISTS,  a  sect  or  party  among 
the  Lutherans,  the  followers  of  Philip  Me- 
lancthon.  He  had  strenuously  opposed  the 
Ubiquists,  who  arose  in  his  time ;  and, 
the  dispute  growing  still  hotter  after  his 
death,  the  university  of  Wittenburg,  who 
espoused  Melancthon's  opinion,  were  called 
by  the  Flacciaus,  who  attacked  it,  PMUifi- 
ists. 

PHILOSOPHISTS,  a  name  given  to  seve- 
ral persons  in  France  who  entered  into  a 
combination  to  overturn  the  religion  of  Jesus, 
and  eradicate  from  the  human  heart  every 
religious  sentiment.  The  man  more  parti- 
cularly to  whom  this  idea  first  occurred  was 
Voltaire,  who  being  weaiy  (as  he  said  him- 
self) of  hearing  people  repeat  that  twelve 
men  were  sufficient  to  establish  Christiani- 
ty, resolved  to  prove  that  one  might  be 
sufficient  to  overturn  it.  Full  of  this  pro- 
ject, he  swore  before  the  year  1730  to  dedi- 
cate his  life  to  its  accomplishment ;  and, 
for  some  time,  he  flattered  himself  that  he 
should  enjoy  alone  the  glory  of  destroying 
the  Christian  religion.  He  found,  however, 
that  associates  would  be  necessary  ;  and 
from  the  numerous  tribe  of  his  admirers 
and  disciples  he  chose  D'Alembert  and 
Diderot  as  the  most  proper  persons  to  co- 
operate with  him  in  his  designs.  But  Vol- 
taire was  not  satisfied  with  their  aid  alone. 
He  contrived  to  embark  in  the  same  cause 

3  C 


Frederic  II.  king  of  Prussia,  who  wished  to 
be  thought  a  philosopher,  and  who,  of 
course,  deemed  it  expedient  to  talk  and 
write  against  a  religion  which  he  had 
never  studied,  and  into  the  evidence  of 
which  he  had  probably  never  deigned  to 
enquire.  This  royal  adept  was  one  of  the 
most  zealous  of  Voltaire's  coadjutors,  till 
he  discovered  that  the  Philosophists  were 
waging  war  with  the  tiirone  as  well  as  with 
the  altar.  This,  indeed,  was  not  originally 
Voltaire's  intention.  He  was  vain ;  beloved 
to  be  caressed  by  the  great;  and,  in  one 
word,  he  was,  from  natural  disposition,  an 
aristocrat,  and  an  admirer  of  royalty.  But 
when  he  found  that  amost  every  sovereign 
but  Frederic  disapproved  of  his  impious 
projects,  as  soon  us  he  fierceived  their  issue, 
he  determined  to  oppose  all  the  govern- 
ments on  earth,  rather  than  forfeit  the 
glory  with  which  he  had  flattered  himstlf 
of  vanquishing  Christ  and  his  apostles  in  the 
field  of  controversy. 

He  now  set  himself,  with  D'Alembert 
and  Diderot,  to  excite  universal  discontent 
with  the  established  order  of  things.  For 
this  purpose  they  formed  secret  societies, 
assumed  new  names,  and  emplo\  ed  an  en- 
igmatical language  Thus,  Fr  deric  was 
called  Luc  ;  D'Alembert,  Protagoras,  and 
sometimes  Bertnmd ;  Voltaire,  Raton; 
and  Diderot,  Platon ;  or  its  anagram, 
Tonfila ;  while  the  general  term  for  the 
conspirators  was  Cacoucc.  In  their  secret 
meetings  they  professed  to  celebrate  the 
mysteries  of  My  thru  ;  and  their  great  ob- 
ject, as  they  professed  to  one  another,  was 
to  confound  the  wretch,  meaning  Jesus 
Christ.  Hence  their  secret  watch-word 
was  Ecrasez  Vlnfamc,  "  Crush  Christ." 
If  we  look  into  some  of  the  books  express- 
ly written  for  general  circulation,  we  shall 
there  find  the  following  doctrines ;  some  of 
them  standing  alone  in  all  their  naked  hor- 
rors, others  surrounded  by  sophistr>'  and 
meretricious  ornaments,  to  entice  the  mind 
into  their  net  before  it  perceives  their  na- 
ture. "  The  Universal  Cause,  that  god  of 
the  philosophers,  of  the  Jews,  and  of  the 
Christians,  is  but  a  chimera  and  a  phan- 
tom. The  phenomena  of  nature  only  prove 
I  the  existence  of  God  to  a  few  fire/iossess- 
1  cd  men :  so  far  from  bespeaking  a  God, 
they  are  but  the  necessary  effects  of  matter 
prodigiously  diversified.  It  is  more  reason- 
able to  admit,  with  Manes,  of  a  two-fold 
god,  than  of  the  God  of  Christianity.  We 
cannot  know  wliether  a  God  really  exists, 
or  whether  there  is  the  smallest  difference 
between  good  and  evil,  or  vice  and  virtue. 
Nothing  can  be  more  absurd,  than  to  be- 
lieve the  soul  a  spiritual  being.  The  im- 
mortality of  the  soul,  so  far  from  stimulat- 
ing man  to  the  practice  of  viitue,  i.s  nothing 
but  a  barbarous,  desperate,  fatal  tenet,  and 
contrary  to  all  legislation.  All  ideas  of 
ijustice  and  injustice,  of  virtue  and  vice,  of 


PHI 


386 


PHY 


glory  and  infamy,  are  purely  arbitrary,  and 
dependent  on  custom.  Conscience  and  re- 
morse are  nothing  but  t\\e  foresight  of  those 
physical  penalties  t  :  which  crimes  expose 
us.  The  man  who  is  above  the  law,  can 
commit,  without  remorse,  the  dishonest  act 
that  may  serve  his  purpose  The  fear  of 
God,  so  far  from  being  the  btginning  of 
wisdom,  should  be  the  ijeginning  of  folly. 
The  command  to  love  one's  parents  is  more 
the  work  of  education  than  of  nature.  Mo-j 
desty  is  only  an  invention  of  refined  volup- 
tuousness. The  law  which  condemns  mar- 
ried people  to  live  together,  becomes  bar-i 
'barous  and  cruel  on  the  day  they  cease  to  I 
love  one  another."  These  extracts  from 
the  secret  correspondence  and  the  public 
writings  of  these  men,  will  suffice  to  shew 
us  the  nature  and  tendency  of  the  dreadful 
sj'stem  they -had  formed. 

The  Philosofihists  were  diligently  employ- 
ed in  attempting  to  propagate  their  senti- 
ments. Their  grand  Encyclopedia  was 
converted  into  an  engine  to  serve  this  pur- 
pose. Voltaire  proposed  to  establish  a  colo- 
ny of  Piiilosophists  at  Cleves,  who,  protect- 
ed by  the  king  of  Prussia,  might  publish 
their  opinions  without  dread  or  danger  ;  and 
Frederic  was  disposed  to  take  them  under 
his  protection,  till  he  discovered  that  their 
opinions  were  anarchical  as  well  as  impious, 
■when  he  threw  them  off,  and  even  wrote 
against  them.  They  contrived,  however, 
to  engage  the  ministers  of  the  court  of 
France  in  their  favour,  by  pretending  to 
have  nothing  in  view  but  the  enlargement 
of  science,  in  works  which  spoke  indeed 
respectfully  of  revelation,  while  every  dis- 
covery which  they  brought  forward  was 
meant  to  undermine  its  very  foundation. 
When  the  throne  was  to  be  attacked,  and 
even  when  barefaced  atheism  was  to  be  pro- 
mulgated, a  number  of  impious  and  licen- 
tious pamphlets  were  dispersed  (for  some 
time  none  knew  how)  fi-om  a  secret  society 
formed  at  the  Hotel  d'Holbach,  at  Paris,  of 
which  Voltair-  was  elected  honorary  and 
perpetual  presirleiit  To  conceal  their  real 
design,  which  was  the  diffusion  of  their  infi- 
del sentiments,  they  called  themselves 
(EcciK.mists.  See  "CEconojiists.  The 
books,  however,  that  were  issued  from  this 
club  were  calculated  to  impair  and  overturn 
religion,  morals,  and  government  ;  and 
■^vhich  indeed,  spreading  over  all  Europe, 
imperceptibly  took  possession  of  public 
opinion.  As  soon  as  the  sale  was  sufficient 
to  pav  the  expences,  inferior  editions  were 
printc'l  and  given  away,  or  sold  at  a  very 
low  price;  circulating  libraries  of  them 
formed,  and  r*»ading  sncietifs  instituted. 
While  they  constantly  denied  these  produc- 
tions to  the  world,  they  contrived  to  give 
them  a  fa-se  celebrity  through  their  confi- 
dential agents  and  correspondents,  who 
were  nt.t  themselves  always  trusted  with 
the  entire  secret.  By  degrees  they  got 
possession  nearly  of  all  the  reviews  and  pe- 


riodical publications,  established  a  general 
intercourse  by  means  of  hawkers  and  ped- 
'ars  with  the  distant  pvovii.ces.  rind  institu- 
ted an  office  to  supply  all  schools  with  teach- 
ers; and  thus  did  ihey  acquire  unprece- 
dented dominion  over  every  species  of  lite- 
rature, over  the  minds  of  all  ranks  of  peo- 
ple, and  over  the  education  of  youth, 
without  giving  any  alarm  to  the  world. 
The  lovers  of  wit  and  polite  literature  were 
caught  by  Voltaire  ;  the  men  of  science  J 
were  perverted ;  and  children  conupted  in  fl 
the  first  rudiments  of  learning,  by  D'Alcm-  i| 
bert  and  Diderot :  stronger  appetites  were 
fed  by  the  secret  club  of  Baron  Holbach  ; 
the  imaginations  of  the  higher  orders  were 
set  dangerously  afloat  by  Montesquieu  ;  and 
the  multitude  of  all  ranks  were  surprised, 
confounded,  and  hurried  away  by  Rossean. 
Thus  was  the  public  mind  in  France  com- 
pletely corrupted,  and  which,  no  doubt, 
greatly  accelerated  those  dreadful  events 
which  have  since  transpired  in  that 
country. 

PHILOSOPHY,  properly  denotes  love,  or 
desire  of  wisdom  (from  ^<Ae?  and  'Lotptci) 
Pythagoras  was  the  first  who  devised  this 
name,  because  he  thought  no  man  was  wise 
but  God  only ;  and  that  learned  men  ought 
to  be  considered  as  lovers  of  wisdom  than 
really  wise. — 1.  A^'atural  PhUosofihy  is  that 
art  or  science  which  leads  us  to  contem- 
plate the  nature,  causes,  and  effects  of  the 
material  works  of  God. — 2.  Moral  Philoso- 
filiy  is  the  science  of  manners,  the  know- 
ledge of  our  duty  and  felicity.  The  various 
articles  included  in  the  latter  are  explained 
in  their  places  in  this  work. 

PHOTINIANS,  a  sect  of  heretics,  in  the     \ 
fourth  century,  who  denied  the   divinity  of 
our  Lord.     They  derive  their  name  from 
Photinus,  their  founder,   who   was  bishop  of 
Sermium,  and  a  disciple  of  Marcellus.  Pho- 
tinus pubhshed  in  the  year  343,  his  notions 
respecting  the  Deity,  which  were  repugnant 
both  to  the   orthodox    and    Arian  systems. 
He  asserted  that  Jesus  Christ  was  born    of 
the  Holy  Ghost  and  the  Virgin  Mary ;  that     - 
a  certain  divine  emanation,  which  he  called    , 
the  Word,  descended  upon  him  ;  and  that,  \ 
because  of  the  union  of  the  Divine   Word 
with  his  human  nature,  he  was  called  the 
Son  of  God,  and  even  God  himself;    and 
that  the  Holy  Ghost  was  not   a  person,  but 
merely  a  celestial   virtue  proceeding  from 
the  Deitv 

PHRYGIANS,  or  Cataphrygians.  a 
sect  in  the  second  centurv  ;  so  called,  as  be- 
ing of  the  country  of  Phrygia.  They  were 
orthodox  in  every  thing,  setting  aside  this, 
that  they  took  Motannns  for  a  prophet,  and 
Priscilla  and  Maximilla  for  true  prophet- 
esses, to  be  consulted  in  every  thing  rela- 
ting to  religion :  as  supposing  the  Holy 
Spirit   had    abandoned    the    church.      See 

MONTANISTS. 

PHYLACTERY,  in  the  general,  was  a 
name  given  by  the  ancients,  to   all  kinds  of 


1 


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387 


PIE 


charms,  spells,  or  chai'acters,  which  they 
wore  about  them,  as  amulets,  tu  preserve 
them  from  dangers  or  dibcase. 

Phyluctcrij  particularly  denoted  a  slip 
of  parciuiient,  wherein  was  writtc'n  some 
text  of  lioly  scripture,  particularly  of  the  de 
calogue,  which  the  more  devout  people 
among  the  Jews  wore  on  the  forehead, 
the  breast,  or  the  neck,  as  a  mai  k  of  their 
religion. 

The  primitive  Chi'istians  also  gave  the 
name  Phylacieries  to  the  cases  wherein 
they  enclosed  the  relics  of  their  dead 
Phylacteries  are  often  mentioned  in  the 
New  Testament,  and  appear  to  have  been 
very  corumon  among  the  Pharisees  in  our 
Lord's  time. 

PICARDS,  a  sect  which  arose  in  Bohe- 
mia, in  the  fifteenth  century.  Picard,  the 
author  of  this  sect,  from  whom  it  derived 
its  name,  drew  after  liim,  as  lias  been  gene- 
rally said,  a  number  of  men  and  women, 
pretending  he  would  restore  them  to  the 
primitive  state  of  innocence  wherein  man 
was  created,  and  accordingly  he  assumed 
the  title  of  J\''etv  Adam  With  this  pretence, 
he  taught,  to  give  themselves  up  to  all  im- 
purity, saying,  that  therein  consisted  the  li- 
berty of  the  sons  of  God ;  and  all  those  not  of 
their  sect  were  in  bondage  He  hrst  pub- 
lished his  notions  in  Germany  and  the  Low 
Countries,  and  persuaded  many  people  to  go 
naked,  and  gave  them  the  name  of  Adam- 
ites. After  this,  he  seized  on  an  island  in 
the  river  Lausnecz,  some  leagues  from  Tha- 
bor,  the  head  quarters  of  Zisca,  wltre  he 
fixed  himself  and  his  followers.  His  women 
were  common,  but  none  were  allowed  to  en- 
joy them  without  his  permission ;  so  that 
when  any  man  desired  a  particular  woman, 
he  carried  her  to  Picard,  who  gave  him 
leave  in  these  words  :  Go,  increase ,  multi- 
ply, and  fill  the  earih.  At  length,  however, 
Zisca,  general  of  the  Hussites  (famous  for 
his  victories  over  the  emperor  Sigismund,) 
hurt  at  their  abominations,  marched  against 
them,  made  himself  master  of  their  island, 
and  put  them  all  to  death  except  two, 
whom  he  spared,  that  he  might  learn  their 
doctrine. 

Such  is  the  account  which  various  wri- 
ters,  relying   on  the  authorities  of  .^neas, 


and  charges  on  the  Picards  none  of  the  ex- 
travagances or  crimes  ascribed  to  them  l)y 
Syhius.  Schlecta,  secretary  of  Ladislaus, 
liuig  of  Bohemia,  in  iiis  letters  to  Erasmus, 
in  wiiicli  he  gives  a  particular  account  olf 
the  Picards,  says,  that  they  considered  the 
pope,  cardinals,  and  bishops  of  P.ome,  as 
the  true  antichrists  :  and  the  adorers  of  the 
consecrated  elements  in  the  eucharist  as 
downright  idolaters :  t'.iat  they  denied  the 
corporeal  presence  of  Christ  in  this  ordi- 
nance ;  that  they  condemned  tb.e  worship  of 
saints,  prayers  for  the  dead,  auricular  con- 
fession, the  penance  imposed  by  priests,  the 
feasts  and  vigils  observed  in  the  Romish 
church  :  and  that  they  confined  themselves 
to  the  observance  of  the  sabbath,  and  of  the 
two  gi-eat  feasts  of  Christmas  and  Pente- 
cost. From  this  account  it  appears  that 
they  were  no  other  than  the  Vaudcis,  that 
fled  from  persecution  in  their  own  country, 
and  sought  refuge  in  Bohemia.  M.  De 
Beausobre  has  shewn  that  they  were  both  of 
the  same  sect,  though  under  different  deno- 
minations. Besides  it  is  certain  that  the 
Vaudois  were  settled  in  B  hernia  in  the  year 
1178,  where  some  of  them  adopted  the 
rites  of  the  Greek,  and  others  those  of  the 
Latin  church  The  former  were  pretty- 
generally  adh(  red  to  till  the  nuddle  of  the 
fourteenth  century,  when  the  establishment 
of  the  Latin  ritts  caused  great  disturbance. 
Oil  the  commencement  of  the  national  trou- 
bles in  Bohemia,  on  account  of  the  opposi- 
tion to  the  Papal  power,  the  Picards  more 
publicly  avowed  and  defended  their  religious 
opinions ;  and  they  formed  a  considerable 
body  in  an  island  by  the  river  Launitz,  or 
Lausnecz,  in  the  district  of  Bechin,  and,  re- 
curring to  arms,  were  defeated  by  Zisca. 

PIETISTS,  a  religious  sect  that  sprung 
up  among  the  Protestants  in  Germany  in 
the  latter  end  of  the  seventeenth  century. 
Pietism  was  set  on  foot  by  the  pious  and 
learned  Spener,  who  by  the  private  societies 
he  formed  at  Francfort,  with  a  design  to  pro- 
mote vital  religion,  roused  the  lukewarm 
from  their  indifference,  and  excited  a  spi- 
rit of  vigour  and  resolution  in  those  who  had 
been  satisfied  to  lament  in  silence  the  pro- 
gress of  impiety.  The  remarkable  effect 
of  these  pit  us  meetings  was  increased  by  a 


Sylvius,  and  Varillas,  have  given  of  the  Pi-  |i  book  he  publis'ied  under  the  title  of  Pious 


cards.  Some,  however,  doubt  whether  a 
sect  of  this  denomination,  chargeable  with 
such  wild  principles  and  such  licentious  co.n- 
duct,  ever  existed.  It  appears  probable  that 
the  reproachful  representations  '  f  the  vvri- 
ters  just  mentioned,  were  calumnies  invent- 
ed and  propagated  in  order  to  disgrace  the 
Picards,  merely  because  they  deserted  the 
communion,  and  protested  against   the  er- 


Desires,  in  which  he  exhibited  a  striking 
view  of  the  disorders  of  the  church,  and 
prop<')sed  the  remedies  that  were  proper 
to  heal  them.  Many  persons  of  good  and 
upright  intentions  were  highly  pleased  both 
with  tlie  proceedings  and  writing  of  Spe- 
ner ;  and,  indeed,  the  greatest  part  of  those 
who  had  the  cause  of  virtue  and  practical 
religion  truly  at  heart  applauded  the  designs 


rors  of  the  church  of  Rome.  Lasitius  in-  \\  of  this  good  mail,  though  an  apprehension 
forms  us,  that  Picard,  togetlier  with  forjiy  ll  of  abuses  retained  numbers  from  encoura- 
other  persons,  besides  women  and  children,  '  ging  them  openly.  These  abuses  actually 
settled  in  Bohemia,  in  the  year  1418.  Bal-  '  happened.  The  remedies  proposed  by  Spener 
binus,  the  Jesuit,  in  his  Rfiitomr  rerum  Bo  i  to  heal  the  disorders  of  the  church,  fell  into 
hemizarum.  lib.  ii.  gives  a  similar  account,  ji  unskilful  hands,  -were  administered  without 


PIE 


388 


PIE 


sagacity  or  prudence,  and  thus,  in  many  1 
cases,  proved  to  be  worse  than  the  disease 
itself.  Hence  complaints  arose  against  these 
institutions  of  pietism,  as  if,  under  a  strik- 
ing appearance  of  sanctity,  they  led  the 
people  into  false  notions  of  religion,  and  fo- 
mented, in  those  who  were  of  a  turbulent 
and  violent  character,  the  seeds  and  princi- 
ples of  mutiny  and  sedition. 

These  complaints  would  have  been  un- 
doubtedly hushed,  and  the  tumults  they  oc- 
casioned would  have  subsided  by  degrees, 
liad  not  the  contests  that  arose  at  Leipsicin 
the  year  1689  added  fuel  to  the  flame.  Cer- 
tain pious  and  learned  professors  of  philo- 
sophy, and  particularly  Franckius,  Schadius, 
and  Pnulus  Antonius,  the  disciples  of  Spener, 
who  at  that  time  was  ec(  lesiastical  super- 
intendant  of  the  court  of  Saxony,  began  to 
consider  with  attention  the  defects  that  pre- 
vailed in  the  ordinary  method  of  instructing 
the  candidates  for  the  ministrj'^ ;  and  this  re- 
view persuaded  them  of  the  necessity  of 
using  their  best  e,  deavours  to  supply  \vhat 
was  wanting,  and  correct  what  was  amiss. 
F  iT  this  purpose  they  undertook  to  explain 
in  their  colleges  certain  books  of  Holy  Scrip- 
ture, in  order  to  render  these  genuine  sources 
of  religious  knowledge  better  understood, 
and  t'l  promote  a  si'irit  of  practical  piety 
an('  vital  religion  'v,  the  minds  of  their  hear- 
ers The  novelty  of  this  method  drew  at- 
tention, and  rendered  it  singularly  pleasing 
to  many ;  accordingly,  tht- se  lectures  were 
much  mquented,  and  their  effects  were 
visible  in  the  lives  and  conversations  of  se- 
veral persons,  whom  they  set- med  to  inspire 
with  a  deep  sense  of  the  imjjiirtance  of  reli- 
gion and  virtue.  Many  ihing,s.  however,  it 
is  said,  were  done  in  th'  st  iOlical  Colleges 
(as  they  were  called,)  wh'.ch  though  they 
might  be  looked  upon  by  equitable  and  can- 
did judges  as  worthy  of  tDleration  and  indul- 
gence-, were,  nevtrtheless,  conu-ary  to  cus- 
tom, and  far  from  being  consistent  with 
prudence.  Hence  rumours  were  spread,  tu- 
mults excited,  animosities  kindled,  and  the 
matter  at  length  brought  to  a  public  trial, 
in  which  the  pious  and  learned  men  al)ove- 
nientioned  were,  indeed,  declared  free  from 
the  errors  and  heresies  that  had  been  laid 
to  their  charge,  but  were,  at  the  same  time, 
prohibited  from  carrying  on  the  plan  of  re- 
ligious instruction  they  had  undertaken  with 
such  zeal.  It  was  during  these  troubles  and 
divisions  that  the  invidious  denomination  of 
Pietists  was  fii'st  invent,  d  ;  it  may,  at  least, 
be  affirmed,  that  it  was  not  commonly  known 
before  this  period.  It  was  at  first  applied 
by  some  giddy  and  inconsiderate  persons  to 
those  who  frequented  the  'iiblical  Colleges, 
and  lived  in  a  n  anner  suitable  to  the  in- 
structions and  exhortations  that  were  ad- 
dressed to  them  in  these  seminaries  of  piety. 
It  was  afterwards  made  use  of  to  character- 
ize all  those  who  were  either  distinguished 
by  the  excessive  austerity  of  their  manners, 
or  who,  regardless  of  'truth  and  ofmion, 


were  only  intent  upon  practice,  and  turned 
the  whole  vigour  of  their  efforts  towards 
the  attainment  of  religious  feelings  and  ha- 
bits. But  as  it  is  the  fate  of  all  those  de- 
nominations by  which  peculiar  sects  are  dis- 
tinguished to  be  variously  and  often  very 
improperly  applied,  so  the  title  of  Pietists 
was  frequently  given,  in  common  conversa- 
tion, to  persons  of  eminent  wisdom  and 
sanctity,  who  were  equally  remarkable  for 
their  adherence  to  truth,  and  their  love  of 
piety;  and,  not  seldom,  to  persons  Avhose 
motley  characters  exhibited  an  enormous 
mixture  of  profligacy  and  enthusiasm,  and 
who  deserved  the  title  of  delirious  fanatics 
better  than  any  other  denomination. 

Ihis  contest  was  by  no  means  confined 
to  Leipsic,  but  spread  with  incredible  celeri- 
ty through  all  the  Lutheran  churches  in  the 
different  states  and  kingdoms  of  Europe. 
For,  from  this  time,  in  all  the  cities,  towns, 
and  villages,  where  Lutheranism  was  pro- 
fessed, there  started  up,  all  of  a  sudden, 
persons  of  various  ranks  and  professions,  of 
both  sexes,  who  declared  that  they  were 
called  by  a  divine  im/mlse,  to  pull  up  iniqui- 
ty by  the  root ;  to  restore  to  its  primitive 
lustre,  and  propagate  through  the  world, 
the  declining  cause  of  piety  and  virtue ;  to 
govern  the  church  of  Christ  by  wiser  rules 
than  those  by  which  it  was  at  present  di- 
rected :  and,  who,  partly  in  their  writings, 
and  partly  in  their  private  and  public  dis- 
courses, pointed  out  the  means  and  mea- 
sures that  were  necessary  to  bring  about 
this  important  revolution.  Several  religious 
societies  were  formed  in  various  places, 
which,  though  they  differed  in  some  cir- 
cumstances, and  were  not  all  conducted  and 
composed  with  equal  wisdom,  piety,  and 
prudence,  were  however,  designed  to  pro- 
mote the  same  general  purpose.  In  the 
mean  time,  these  unusual  proceedings  filled 
with  uneasy  and  alarming  apprehensions 
both  those  who  were  entrusted  with  the  go- 
vernment of  the  chui'ch,  and  those  who  sat 
at  the  helm  of  the  state.  These  ap- 
prehensions were  justified  by  this  impor- 
tant consideration,  that  the  pious  and  well- 
meaning  persons  who  composed  these  as- 
semblies, had  indiscreetly  admitted  into  their 
community  a  parcel  of  extravagant  and  hot- 
headed fanatics,  who  foretold  the  approach- 
ing destruction  of  Babel  (by  which  they 
meant  the  Lutheran  church,)  tetrified  the 
populace  with  fictitious  visions,  assumed  the 
authority  of  prophets  honoured  with  a  di- 
vine cornmission,  obscured  the  sublime  truths 
of  religion  by  a  gloomy  kind  of  jargon  of 
their  own  invention,  and  revived  doctrines 
that  had  long  before  been  condemned  by  the 
church.  The  most  violent  debates  arose  in 
all  the  T..utheran  churches;  and  persons 
whose  differences  were  occasioned  rather  by 
mere  words  and  questions  of  little  conse- 
quence, than  by  any  doctrines  or  institutions 
of  considerable  importance,  attacked  one 
another  with  the  bitterest  animosity;  and, 


PIE 


389 


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in  many  counti-ies,  severe  laws  were  at 
length  enacted  against  the  Pietists. 

These  revivers  of  piety  were  of  two  kinds, 
who,  by  their  different  manner  of  proceed- 
ing, deserve  to  be  placed  in  two  distinct 
classes.  One  sect  of  these  practical  re- 
formers proposed  to  carry  on  their  plan 
without  introducing  •  any  change  into  the 
doctrine,  discipline,  or  form  of  government 
that  were  established  in  the  Lutheran 
church.  The  other  maintained,  on  the  con- 
trary, that  it  was  impossible  to  promote  the 
progress  of  real  piety  among  the  Lutherans 
without  making  considerable  alterations  in 
their  doctrine,  and  changing  the  whole  form 
of  their  ecclesiastical  discipline  and  polity. 
The  former  had  at  their  head  the  learned 
and  pious  Spener,  who  in  the  year  1691,  re- 
moved from  Dresden  to  Berlin,  and  whose 
sentiments  were  adopted  by  the  professors 
of  the  new  academy  of  Hall ;  and  particu- 
larly by  Frankius  and  Paulus  Antonius,  who 
had  been  invited  thither  from  Leipsic,  where 
they  began  to  be  suspected  of  Pietism. 
Though  few  pretended  to  treat  either  with 
indignation  or  contempt  the  intentions  and 
purposes  of  these  good  men  (which,  indeed, 
n«ne  could  despise  without  affecting  to  ap- 
pear the  enemy  of  practical  religion  and 
virtue.)  yet  many  eminent  divines,  and  more 
especially  the  professors  and  pastors  of  Wit- 
temberg,  were  of  opinion,  that,  in  the  exe- 
cution of  this  laudable  purpose,  several  max- 
ims were  adopted,  and  certain  measures 
employed,  that  were  prejudicial  to  the  truth, 
and  also  detrimental  to  the  interests  of  the 
church.  Hence  they  looked  on  themselves 
as  obliged  to  proceed  publicly  against  Spen- 
er, in  the  year  1695,  and  afterwards  against 
his  disciples  and  adherents,  as  the  inventors 
and  promoters  of  erroneous  and  dangerous 
opinions.  These  debates  are  of  a  recent 
date  ;  so  that  those  who  are  desirous  of 
knowing  more  particularly  how  far  the 
principles  of  equity,  moderation,  and  can- 
dour, influenced  the  conduct  and  direct  the 
conduct  of  the  contending  parties,  may  easi- 
ly receive  a  satisfactory  information. 

These  debates  turned  upon  a  variety  ot 
points,  and  therefore  the  matter  of  them 
cannot  be  comprehended  under  any  one  ge- 
neral head.  If  we  consider  them,  indeed, 
in  relation  to  their  origin,  and  the  circum- 
stances that  gave  rise  to  them,  we  shall 
then  be  able  to  reduce  them  to  some  fixed 
principles.  It  is  well  known,  that  those 
who  had  the  advancement  of  piety  most 
zealously  at  heart,  were  possessed  of  a  no- 
tion that  no  order  of  men  contributed  more 
to  retard  its  progress  than  the  clergy,  whose 
peculiar  vocation  it  was  to  inculcate  and 
promote  it.  Looking  upon  this  as  the  root 
of  the  evil,  it  was  but  natural  that  their 
plans  of  reformation  should  begin  here ;  and, 
accordingly,  they  laid  it  down  as  an  essen- 
tial principle,  that  none  should  be  admitted 
into  the  ministry  but  such  as  had  received 
a  proper  education,  were  distinguished  by 
their  wisdom  and  sanctity  of  manners,  and 


had  hearts  filled  with  divine  love.  Hence 
they  proposed,  mthejirst  filace,  a  thorough 
reformation  of  the  schools  of  divinity ;  and 
they  explained  clearly  enough  what  they 
meant  by  this  reformation,  which  consisted 
in  the  following  points :  That  the  systema- 
tical theology  which  reigned  in  the  acade- 
mies, and  was  composed  of  intricate  and 
disputable  doctrines,  and  obscure  and  un- 
usual forms  of  expression,  should  be  totally 
abolished ;  that  polemical  divinity,  which 
comprehended  the  controversies  subsisting 
between  Christians  of  different  communions, 
should  be  less  eagerly  studied,  and  less  fre- 
quently treated,  though  not  entirely  neglect- 
ed ;  that  all  mixture  of  philosophy  and  hu- 
man learning  v.'ith  divine  wisdom,  was  to 
be  most  carefully  avoided  ;  that,  on  the  con- 
trary, all  those  who  were  designed  for  the 
ministry  should  be  accustomed  from  their 
early  youth  to  the  perusal  and  study  of  the 
Holy  Scrijjtures :  that  they  should  be  taught 
a  plain  system  of  theology  drawn  from  these 
unerring  sources  of  truth;  and  that  the  whole 
course  of  their  education  was  to  be  so  direct- 
ed as  to  render  them  useful  in  life,  by  the 
practical  power  of  their  doctrine,  and  the 
commanding  influence  of  their  example.  As 
these  maxims  were  propagated  with  the 
greatest  industry  and  zeal,  and  were  ex- 
plained inadvertently,  by  some,  without 
those  restrictions  which  pnidence  seemed, 
to  require,  these  professed  patrons  and  re- 
vivers of  piety  were  suspected  of  designs 
th%t  could  not  but  render  them  obnoxious  to 
censure.  They  were  supposed  to  despise 
philosophy  and  learning;  to  treat  with  in- 
difference, and  even  to  renounce,  all  enqui- 
ries into  the  nature  and  foundations  of  reli- 
gious truth ;  to  disapprove  of  the  zeal  and 
labours  of  those  who  defended  it  against  such 
as  either  corrupted  or  opposed  it ;  and  to 
place  the  whole  of  their  theology  in  certain 
vague  and  incoherent  declamations  concern- 
ing the  duties  of  morality.  Hence  arose 
those  famous  disputes  concertiing  the  use  of 
philosophy,  and  the  value  of  human  learnings 
considered  in  connexion  with  the  interests 
of  religion,  the  dignity  and  usefulness  of 
systematic  theology,  the  necessity  of  polemic 
divinity,  the  excellence  of  the  mystic  sys- 
tem, and  also  concerning  the  true  method 
of  instructing  the  people. 

The  second  great  object  that  employed 
the  zeal  and  attention  of  the  persons  now 
under  consideration,  was,  that  the  candi- 
dates for  the  ministry  should  not  only  for 
the  future  receive  such  an  academical  edu- 
cation as  would  tend  rather  to  solid  utility 
than  to  mere  speculation,  but  also  th.at  they 
should  dedicate  themselves  to  God  in  a  pe- 
culiar manner,  and  exhibit  the  most  strik- 
ing examples  of  piety  and  virtue.  This 
maxim  which,  wiien  considered  in  itself, 
must  be  considered  to  be  highly  laudable, 
not  only  gave  occasion  to  several  new  regu- 
lations, designed  to  restrain  the  passions  of 
the  studious  youth,  to  inspire  them  with 
pious  sentiments,  and  to  excite  in  them  holy 


PIE 


390 


PIE 


resolutions,  but  also  produced  another  max- 
im, whicii  was  a  lasting  source  of  controversy 
and  debate,  viz.  "  Tiiai  no  person  that  was 
not  himself  a  niodeli  of  piety  and  divine  love 
was  qualified  to  be  a  public  teacher  of 
piety,  or  a  guide  to  othi.rs  in  tlie  way  of 
salvation."  This  opinion  wasc(.nsidered  by 
many  as  derogatory  from  the  power  arid 
efficacy  of  tlie  word  of  God,  wiiich  cannot 
be  deprived  of  its  divine  influence  by  the 
vices  of  its  ministers ;  and  as  a  sort  of  revi- 
val of  the  long-exploded  errors  of  the  Dona- 
tists :  and  what  rendered  it  peculiarly  liable 
to  an  interpretation  of  this  nature  was,  the 
imprudence  of  some  Pietists,  who  inculcated 
and  explained  it  without  those  restrictions 
that  were  necessary  to  render  it  unexcep- 
tionable. Hence  arose  endless  and  inti-icate 
debates  concerning  the  following  questions: 
**  Whether  the  religious  knowledge  acquir- 
ed by  a  wicked  man  can  be  termed  theolo- 
gy ?"  "  Whether  a  vicious  person  can,  in 
effect  attain  a  true  knowledge  of  religion  ?" 
"  How  far  the  office  and  ministry  of  an 
impious  ecclesiastic  can  be  pronounced 
salutary  and  efficacious?"  "Whether  a 
licentious  and  ungodly  man  cannot  be  sus- 
ceptible of  illumination  •"'  and  other  ques- 
tions of  a  like  nature. 

These  revivers  of  declining  piety  went 
still  farther.  In  order  to  render  the  mi- 
nistry of  their  pastoi's  as  successful  as  pos- 
sible in  rousing  men  from  their  indolence, 
and  in  stemming  the  torrent  of  corruption 
and  immorality,  they  judged  two  things  in- 
dispensibly  necessary.  The  first  was,  to 
suppress  entirely,  in  the  course  of  pulilic 
instruction,  and  more  especially  in  that 
delivered  from  the  pulpit,  certain  maxims 
and  phrases  which  the  corruption  of  men 
leads  them  frequently  to  interpret  in  a  man- 
ner favourable  to  the  indulgence  of  their 
passions.  Such,  in  the  judgment  of  the 
Pietists,  were  the  following  propositions: 
Mo  man  is  able  to  attain  to  that  perfection 
nvhich  the  divine  law  requires  ;  good  works 
are  not  necessary  to  salvation  ;  in  the  act 
of  justification,  on  the  part  of  man,  faith 
alone  is  concerned,  nvithout  good  works. 
The  second  step  they  took  in  order  to  give 
efficacy  to  their  plans  of  reformation,  was, 
to  form  new  rules  of  life  and  manners, 
much  more  rigorous  and  austere  than  those 
that  had  been  formerly  practiced  ;  and  to 
place  in  the  class  of  sinful  and  unlaniful 
gratifications,  several  kinds  of  pleasure  and 
amusement  which  had  hitherto  been  looked  i 
upon  as  innocent  to  themselves,  and  which 
could  only  become  good  or  evil  in  conse- 
quence of  the  respective  characters  of  those 
who  used  them  with  prudence,  or  abused 
tliem  with  intemperance.  Thus,  dancing, 
pantomimes,  public  sports,  theatrical  diver- 
sions, the  reading  of  humourous  and  comical 
books,  with  several  other  kinds  of  pleasure 
and  entertainment,  were  prohibited  by  the 
Pietists  as  unlawful  and  unseemly ;  and, 
therefore,  by  no  means  of  an  indifferent 
nature.    The  third  thing  on  which  the  Pie- 


tists insisted,  was,  that,  besides  the  stated 
meeting.^  for  public  worship,  private  assem- 
blies shiuld  be  held  for  prayer  and  other 
relii;ious  exercises. 

The  other  class  of  Pietists  already  men- 
tioned, whose  reforming  views  extended  s« 
far  as  to  change  the  system  ot  d(  ctrine,  and 
the  form  of  t  cclesiastical  government  that 
were  established  in  the  Lutheran  church, 
comprehended  persons  of  various  characters, 
and  different  ways  of  thinking.  Some  of 
them  were  totally  destitute  of  judgment ; 
their  errors  were  the  reveries  of  a  disor- 
dered brain  ;  and  they  wt  re  rather  consi- 
dered as  lunatics  than  as  heretics.  Others 
were  less  extravagant,  and  tempered  the 
singular  notions  they  had  derived  from 
reading  or  meditation,  with  a  certain  mix- 
ture of  the  important  truths  and  doctrines 
of  religion. 

So  far  Mosheim,  whose  account  of  the 
Pietists  seems  to  have  been  drawn  up  with 
a  degree  of  severity.  Indeed,  he  represents 
the  real  character  of  Franck  and  his  col- 
eagues  as  regardless  of  truth  and  opinion. 
A.  more  recent  historian,  however,  (Dr. 
Haweis,)  observes,  "  that  no  men  more  ri- 
gidly contended  for,  or  taught  more  expli- 
citly the  fundamental  doctrines  of  Christi- 
anity ;  from  all  I  have  read  or  known,  I  am 
disposed  to  believe  they  were  remarkably 
amiable  in  their  behaviour,  kind  in  their 
spirit,  and  compassionate  to  the  feeble- 
minded." j 

PIETY  consists  in  a  firm  belief,  and  in  i 
right  conceptions  of  the  being,  perfections,  '■ 
and  providence  of  God ;  with  suitable  affec- 
tions to  him,  resemblance  of  his  moral 
perfections,  and  a  constant  obedience 
to  his  will.  The  different  articles  included 
in  this  definition,  such  as  knowledge,  vene- 
ration, love,  resignation,  &c.,  are  explained 
in  their  proper  places  in  this  work. 

We  shall,  however,  present  the  reader 
with  a  few  ideas  on  the  subject  of  early 
fiiety  ;  a  subject  of  infinite  importance,  and 
which  we  beg  our  young  readers  especially 
to  regard.  "  Youth,"  says  Mr.- Jay,  "is  a 
period  which  presents  the  fewest  obstacles 
to  the  practice  of  godlir.ess,  whether  we 
consider  our  external  circumstances,  our 
nature,  powers,  or  our  moral  habits.  In 
that  season  we  are  most  free  from  those 
troubles  which  eml^itter,  those  schemes 
which  engross,  those  engagements  which 
hinder  us  "in  more  advanced  and  connected 
life.  Then  the  body  possesses  healtli  and 
strength  ;  tlie  memory  is  receptive  and  te- 
nacious ;  the  fancy  glows ;  the  mind  is 
lively  and  vigorous ;  the  understanding  is 
more  docile  the  affections  are  more  easily 
touched  and  moved  :  we  are  more  accessi- 
ble to  the  influence  of  joy  and  sorrow,  hope  , 
and  fear  :  we  engage  in  an  n  tcrj)rise  witir 
more  expectation,  and  arcKur,  and  zeal. 
Under  the  legal  oeconomy.  \.h^  fir.il  was  to 
lie  chosen  for  God  ;  xXw  firs'  horn  of  man  ; 
the  first-born  of  beasts,  dtt-  first  fruits  of 
the  field.    It  was  an  honour  becoming  the 


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391 


PIL 


God  they  worbhipped,  to  serve  him  first. 
This  duty  the  young  alone  can  spiritualize 
and  fulfil,  by  giving  Him  who  deserves-  ai 
their  lives  the  first-boni  of  their  days,  and 
the  first-fruits  of  their  reason  and  their 
affection :  and  never  have  they  such  an 
opportunity  to  prove  the  gofidness  of  their 
motives  as  they  then  possess  See  an  old 
■man  ;  what  does  he  offer  ?  His  rich'^s  ?  but 
he  can  use  them  no  longer.  His  pleasures  ' 
but  he  can  enjoy  them  no  longer.  His 
honour?  but  it  is  withered  on  Ins  brow  His 
authority  ?  but  it  has  dropped  from  his  feeble 
hand-  He  leaves  his  sins ;  but  it  is  because 
they  will  no  longer  bear  him  company.  He 
flies  from  the  world  ;  but  it  is  because  he  is 
burnt  nut.  He  enters  the  temple  ;  but  it  is 
as  a  sanctuary;  it  is  only  to  take  hold  of 
the  horns  of  the  altar  ;  it  is  a  refuge,  not  a 
place  of  devotion  he  seeks.  But  they  Avho 
consecrate  to  him  their  youth,  they  do  not 
profanely  tell  him  to  suspend  his  claims  till 
the  rest  are  served  ;  till  they  have  satisfied 
the  world  and  the  flesh,  his  degrading  livals. 
They  do  not  send  him  forth  to  gather 
among  the  stubble  the  gleanings  of  life,  after 
the  enemy  has  secured  the  harvest.  They 
are  not  like  those,  who,  if  they  reach  Im- 
nianuel's  land,  are  forced  thither  by  ship- 
wreck :  they  sail  thither  by  intention. 

"  Consider  the  beneficial  influence  of  early 
piety  over  the  remainder  of  our  days. 
Youth  is  the  spring  of  life,  and  by  this  will 
be  determined  the  glory  of  summer,  the 
abundance  of  autumn,  the  provision  of  win- 
ter. It  is  the  morning  of  life;  and  if  the 
sun  of  righteousness  does  not  dispel  the 
moral  mists  and  fogs  before  noon,  the  whole 
day  generally  remains  overspread  and 
gloomy.  Piety  in  youth  will  have  a  good 
influence  over  our  bodies  ;  it  will  preserve 
them  from  disease  and  deformity.  Sin  va- 
riously tends  to  the  injury  of  health  ;  and 
often  by  intemperance  the  constitution  is  so 
impaired,  that  late  religion  is  unable  to  re- 
store what  early  religion  would  have  pre- 
vented Early  piety  will  have  a  good  influ- 
ence to  secure  us  from  all  those  dangers  to 
■which  we  are  exposed   in   a   season  of  life 


to  ask  counsel  of  the  Lord,  and  an*ange  all 
under  the  superintendency  of  scripture. 
Those  changes  which  a  person  who  be- 
comes religious  in  manhood  is  obliged  to 
make,  are  always  ver)'  embarrassing.  With 
what  difficulty  do  some  good  men  establish 
family  worship,  after  living,  in  the  view  of 
children  and  ff'n'ants,  so  long  in  the  neglect 
of  it ! — but  this  would  have  been  avoided, 
had  they  early  followed  the  example  of 
Joshua :  '  As  for  me  and  my  house  we  will 
serve  the  Lord'  How  hard  is  it  to  disen- 
timgie  ourselves  from  associates  with  whom 
we  have  been  long  famihar,  and  who  have 
proved  a  snare  to  our  souls  !  Sc^me  evils,  in- 
deed, are  remediless;  persons  have  formed 
alliances  which  they  canpot  dissolve :  but 
they  di<i  w^t  walk  by  the  i-ule,  '  Be  ye  not 
unequally  yoked  together  with  unbelievers :' 
they  are  now  wedded  to  misery  all  their 
days ;  and  repentnrjce,  instead  of  visiting 
them  like  a  faithful  friend,  to  chide  them 
when  they  do  wrong,  and  withdraw,  is 
quartered  upon  them  for  life.  An  early- 
dedication  to  God,  therefore,  renders  a  re- 
ligious Ufe  more  easy,  pleasant,  and  safe. 
It  is  of  unspeakable  advantage  also  under 
the  calamities  of  life.  It  turns  the  curse 
into  a  blessing  ;  it  enters  the  house  of  mourn- 
ing, and  soothes  the  troubled  mind ;  it  pre- 
pares us  for  all,  sustains  us  in  all,  sanctifies 
us  by  all,  and  delivers  us  from  all.  Finally, 
it  will  bless  old  age :  v/e  shall  look  back 
with  pleasure  on  some  instances  of  useful- 
ness :  to  some  poor  traveller,  to  whom  we 
have  been  a  refreshing  stream ;  some 
deluded  wanderer  we  guided  into  the 
path  of  peace.  We  shall  look  forward  and 
see  the  God  who  has  guided  us  with  his 
council,  and  be  enabled  to  say,  '  Henceforth 
there  is  laid  up  for  me  a  crown  of  righteous- 
ness, which  the  Lord,  the  righteous  Judge, 
shall  give  me  at  that  day ;  and  not  to  me 
only,  but  unto  all  them  that  love  his  appear- 
ing." Jay's  Ser.,  vol.  i.  ser.  5 ;  Jennings\ 
Evans',  Doddridge's,  Jerment's,  and  Thorn- 
ton's Sernions  to  Young  People  ;  Bry soil's 
Address  to  Youth 
PILGRIM,  one  who  travels  through  fo- 


the  most  perilous.     Conceive  of  a  youth  en-jl  reign  countries  to  visit  holy  places,   and  to 


tering  a  world  like  this,  destitute  of  the 
presiding  governing  care  of  religion,  his 
passions  high,  his  prudence  weak,  impa- 
tient, rash,  confident,  without  experience ;. 
a  thousand  avenues  of  seduction  opening 
around  him,  and  a  syren  voice  singing  at 
the  entrance  of  each  ;  jjleased  with  appear- 
ances, and  embracing  tliem  for  realities  ; 
joined  by  evil  company,  and  ensnared 
by   erroneous    publications :    these    hazards 


pay  his  devotion  to  the  relics  of  dead  saints. 
The  word  is  formed  from  the  Flemish 
fie/gri?n,  or  Italian  fielegrino,  which  signifies 
the  same;  and  those  originally  from  the 
Latin  ficres^rinus.  a  stanger  or  traveller. 

PILGRIMAGE,  a  kind  of  religious  disci- 
pline, which  consists  in  taking  a  journey  to 
some  holy  place,  in  order  to  adore  the  relics 
of  some  deceased  saint.  Pilgrimages  beean 
to  be  made   about   the   middle  ages  of  the 


exceed   all  the  alarm  I     can    give.     How  li  church,  but  they  were  most  in  vo^e  after 


necessary,  therefore,  that  we  should  trust 
in  the  Lord  with  all  our  hearts,  and 
lean  not  to  our  own  understanding  ;  but  in 
all  our  ways  acknowledge  him,  that  he  may 
direct  our  patiis ! 

"  Early  piety  will  have  a  beneficial  influ- 
ence in  forming  our  connections,  and  esta- 
blishing our  plans  for  life.    It  will  teach  us 


the  end  of  the  ele\enth  centurv,  when 
everv'  one  was  for  visiting  peaces  of  devotion, 
not  excepti-.g  kines  and  provinces;  and 
even  bishops  made  no  difficu'ty  of  being 
absent  from  their  churches  on  the  same 
account.  The  places  most  visited  were 
Jerusalem.  Rome.  Tours,  and  Compostella. 
As  to  the  latter  place,  we  find  that  in  the 


PIL 


392 


PIL 


year  1428,  under  the  reigii  of  Henry  VI. 
abundance  of  licences  were  granted  for  the 
crown  of  England  to  captains  of  English 
ships,  for  carrying  numbers  of  devout  persons 
thither  to  the  shrine  of  St.  James's  ;  provi- 
ded, however,  that  those  pilgrims  should 
first  take  an  oath  not  to  take  any  thing  pre- 
judicial to  England,  nor  to  iweal  any  of  its 
secrets,  nor  to  carry  out  with  them  any 
more  gold  or  silver  than  what  would  be 
sufficient  for  their  reasonable  expences.  In 
this  year  there  went  thither  from  England 
on  the  said  pilgrimage  the  following  num- 
ber of  persons:  from  London  280,  Bristol 
200.  Weymouth  122,  Dartmouth  90.  Yar- 
mouth 60,  Jersey  60,  Plymouth  40,  Exeter 
oO,  Poole  24,  Ipswich  20 ;  in  all,  926  per- 
sons Of  late  years  the  greatest  numbers 
have  resorted  to  Loretto,  in  order  to  visit 
the  chamber  of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  in  which 
she  was  born,  and  brought  up  her  son  Jesus 
till  he  was  twelve  years  of  age. 

In  almost  every  country  where  popery 
has  been  established,  pilgrimages  have  been 
common.  In  England,  the  shrine  of  St. 
Thomas-a-Becket  was  the  chief  resort  of 
the  pious;  and  in  Scotland,  St.  Andrew, 
■where,  as  tradition  informs  us,  was  deposit- 
ed a  leg  of  the  holy  apostle.  In  Ireland 
they  have  been  continued  even  down  to 
modern  times;  for  from  the  beginning  of 
May  till  the  middle  of  August  every  year, 
crowds  of  popish  penitents  from  all  parts  of 
that  country  resort  to  an  island  near  the 
centre  of  Lough  Fin,  or  White  Lake,  in 
the  county  of  Donegal,  to  the  amount  of  3000 
or  4000.  These  are  mostly  of  the  poorer 
sort,  and  many  of  them  are  proxies  for 
those  who  are  richer :  some  of  whom,  how- 
ever, together  with  some  of  the  priests  and 
bishops  on  occasion,  make  their  appearance 
there.  When  the  pilgrim  comes  within 
sight  of  the  holy  lake,  he  must  uncover  his 
hands  and  feet,  and  thus  walk  to  the  water 
side,  and  is  taken  to  the  island  for  sixpence. 
Hei'e  there  are  two  chapels,  and  fifteen 
other  houses;  to  which  are  added  confes- 
sionals, so  contrived,  that  the  priests  cannot 
see  the  person  confessing  The  penance 
varies  according  to  the  circumstances  of  ttie 
■penitent;  during  the  continuance  of  which 
(which  is  sometimes  three,  six,  or  nine  days) 
he  subsists  on  oatmeal,  sometimes  made  into 
brrjad.  He  tra\  erses  sliarp  stones  on  his  bare 
knees  or  feet,  and  goes  through  a  variety  of 
other  forms,  paying  sixpence  at  every  diffe- 
rent confession.  When  all  is  over,  tlie  priest 
bores  a  gimblet  hole  through  the  top  of  the 
pilgrim'  staff,  in  which  he  fastens  a  cross 
peg  ;  gives  him  as  many  holy  pebbles  out  of 
the  lake  as  he  cares  to  cany  away,  for 
amulets  to  be  presented  to  his  friends,  and 
so  dismisses  him  an  object  of  Aeneration 
to  all  other  Papists  not  thus  initiated  :  who 
no  sooner  see  the  pilgrim's  cross  in  his 
hands,  than  they  kneel  down  to  get  his 
blessing. 

There  are,  however,  it  is  said,  other 
parts  of  Ireland   sacred   to  extraordinary 


worship  and  pilgrimage ;  and  the  number 
of  holy  wells,  and  miraculous  cures,  8cc. 
produced  by  them,  are  very  great.  That 
such  things  should  exist  in  this  enlightened 
age,  and  in  a  protestant  country,  is  indeed 
strange ;  but  our  wonder  ceases  when  we 
reflect  it  is  among  the  lowest,  and  perhaps 
the  worst  of  the  people.  Pilgrimage,  how- 
ever, is  not  peculiar  to  Roman  catholic 
countries.  The  Mahometans  place  a  great 
part  of  tlieir  religion  in  it.  Mecca  is  the 
grand  place  to  which  they  go  ;  and  this 
pilgrimage  is  so  necessary  a  point  of  prac- 
tice, that,  according  to  a  tradition  of  Maho- 
met, he  who  dies  without  performing  it, 
may  as  well  die  a  Jew  or  a  Christian ; 
and  the  same  is  expressly  commanded  in 
the  Koran. 

What  is  principally  reverenced  in  this 
place,  and  gives  sanctity  to  the  whole,  is  a 
square  stone  building,  called  the  Caaba.  Be- 
fore the  time  of  Mahomet  this  temple  was 
a  place  of  worship  for  the  idolatrous  Arabs, 
and  is  said  to  have  contained  no  less  than 
three  hundred  and  sixty  different  images, 
equalling  in  number  the  days  of  the  Arabi- 
an year  They  were  all  destroyed  by  Ma- 
homet, who  sanctified  the  Caaba,  and  ap- 
pointed it  to  be  the  chief  place  of  worship 
for  all  true  believers.  The  Musselmens 
pay  so  great  a  veneration  to  it,  that  they 
believ^e  a  single  sight  of  its  sacred  walls, 
without  any  particular  act  of  devotion,  is  as 
meritorious  in  the  sight  of  God  as  the  most 
careful  discharge  of  one's  duty  for  the  space 
of  a  whole  year,  in  any  other  temple. 

To  this  temple  every  Mahometan  who 
has  health  and  means  sufficient  ought  at 
once,  at  least,  in  his  life  to  go  on  pilgrim- 
age ;  nor  are  women  excused  from  the  per- 
formance of  this  duty.  The  pilgrims  meet 
at  different  places  near  Mecca,  according 
to  the  different  parts  from  whence  they 
come  during  the  months  of  Shawal  and 
Dhu'lkaada,  being  obliged  to  be  there  by  the 
beginning  of  Dhu'lhajja ;  which  month,  as 
its  name  imports,  is  peculiarly  set  apart  for 
the  celebration  of  this  solemnity. 

Jlie  men  put  on  the  Ibram,  or  sacred 
habit,  whicli  consists  only  of  two  woollen 
wrappers,  one  wrapped  about  the  middle, 
and  the  other  thi'own  over  their  shoulders, 
having  their  heads  bare,  and  a  kind  of  slip- 
pers which  cover  neither  the  heel  nor  the 
instep,  and  so  enter  the  sacred  territory  in 
their  way  to  Mecca,  While  they  have 
this  habit  on,  they  must  neither  hunt  nor 
fowl  (though  they  are  allowed  to  fish  ;)  which 
precept  is  so  punctually  observed,  that  they 
will  not  kill  vermin  if  they  find  tliem  on 
their  bodies  :  tliere  are  some  noxious  ani- 
mals, however,  which  they  have  permission 
to  kill  during  the  pilgrimage ;  as  kites,  ra- 
vens, scorpions,  mice,  and  dogs  given  to 
bite.  During  the  pilgrimage,  it  behoves  a 
man  to  have  a  constant  guard  over  his 
words  and  actions ;  to  avoid  all  quarrelling 
or  ill  language,  all  converse  with  women, 
and  all  obscene  discourse ;  and  to  apply  his 


PIL 


393 


PIT 


whole  attention  to  the  good  work  he  is  en- 
gaged in. 

The  ])ilgrim3  being  arrived  at  Mecca,  im- 
mediately visit  the  temple,  and  then  enter 
on  the  performance  of  the  prescribed  cere- 
monies, which  consist  chiefly  in  going  in 
procession  round  the  Caaba,  in  riiniiing  be- 
tween the  mounts  Safa  and  Meriva,  in 
making  the  station  on  mount  Arafat,  and 
slaying  the  victims  and  shaving  their  heads 
in  tlie  valley  of  Mina. 

In  compassing  the  Caaba,  which  they  do 
seven  times,  beginning  at  the  corner  where 
the  black  stone  is  fixed,  they  use  a  short 
quick  pace  the  three  first  times  they  go 
round  it,  and  a  grave  ordinary  pace  the 
four  last ;  which  it  is  said  is  ordered  by  Ma- 
homet, that  his  followers  might  shew  them- 
selves strong  and  active,  to  cut  f)if  the  hopes 
of  t'le  inhdels,  who  gave  out  that  the  im- 
modei'ate  heats  of  Medina  had  rendered 
them  weak.  But  the  aforesaid  quick  pace 
they  are  not  obliged  to  use  every  time  they 
perform  tliis  piece  of  devotion,  but  only  at 
some  i^articular  times.  So  often  as  they 
pass  by  the  black  stone,  they  either  kiss  it, 
or  touch  it  with  their  hand,  and  kiss  that. 

The  running  between  Safa  and  Meriva 
is  also  performed  seven  times,  partly  with 
a  slow  pace,  and  partly  running ;  for  they 
walk  gravely  till  they  come  to  a  place  be- 
tween two  pillars  ;  and  thei'e  they  run,  and 
afterwards  walk  again,  sometimes  looking 
back,  and  sometimes  stopping,  like  one  who 
had  lost  something,  to  represent  Hagar 
seeking  water  for  her  son :  for  the  ceremo- 
ny is  said  to  be  as  ancient  as  her  time. 

On  the  ninth  of  Dhu'lhajja,  after  morn- 
ing prayer,  the  pilgrims  leave  the  valley 
of  Mina,  whither  they  come  the  day  bi  fore, 
and  proceed  in  a  tumultuous  and  rushing 
manner  to  mount  Arafat,  where  they  stay  to 
perform  their  devotions  till  sun-set  ;  then 
they  go  to  Mozdalifa,  an  oratory  between 
Arafat  and  Mina,  and  there  spend  the  night 
in  prayer  and  reading  the  Koran.  The 
next  morning  by  day-bi'eak  they  visit .///  Tila- 
sher  al  Karam,  or  the  sacred  monument ; 
and,  departing  thence  before  sun-i'ise  haste 
by  Batn  Mohas^er  to  the  valley  of  Mina, 
where  they  throw  seven  stones  at  three 
marjss  or  jjillars,  in  imitation  of  Abraham, 
who,  meeting  the  devil  in  that  place,  and 
being  by  him  disturbed  in  his  devotions,  or 
tempted  to  disobedience  when  he  was  going 
to  sicritice  his  son,  was  commanded  by  God 
to  drive  him  away  by  throwing  stones  at 
liini  ;  though  others  pretend  this  rite  to  be 
as  old  as  Adam,  who  also  put  the  devil  to 
flight  in  the  same  place,  and  by  the  same 
means. 

The  ceremony  being  over,  on  the  same 
day,  the  tenth  of  Dhu'lhajja,  the  pilgrims 
slay  their  victims  in  the  said  valley  of  Mi- 
na, of  which  they  and  their  friends  eat  part, 
and  the  rest  is  given  to  the  poor.  These 
victims  must  be  eit!\er  sheep,  goats,  kine,  or 
f.amels;  males  if  of  either  of  the  two  form- 
er kinds,    ?.nd   females   if  of  eillier  of  the  ' 

3   D 


latter,  and  of  a  fit  age.  The  sacrifices  be- 
ing over,  they  shave  their  heads  and  cut 
their  nails,  burying  them  in  the  same  place; 
after  which  the  pilgrimage  is  locked  on 
as  completed  though  they  again  visit  the 
Caaba,  to  take  their  leave  of  that  sacred 
building. 

Di'.  Johnson  gives  us  some  observations  on 
pilgrimage,  which  are  so  much  to  the  pur- 
pose, that  we  shall  here  present  them  to 
the  reader.  "  Pilgrimage,  like  many  other 
acts  of  piety,  may  be  reasonable  or  super- 
stitious according  to  the  principles  upon 
which  it  is  performed.  Long  journies  in 
search  of  truth  are  not  commanded  :  truth, 
such  as  is  necessary  to  the  regulation  of 
life,  is  always  found  where  it  is  honestly 
sought  change  of  place  is  no  natural  cause 
of  the  increase  of  piety,  for  it  inevitably  pro- 
duces dissipation  of  mind.  Yet,  since  men 
go  every  day  to  view  the  fields  where  great 
actions  have  been  performed,  and  return 
with  stronger  impressions  of  the  event,  cu- 
riosity of  the  same  kind  may  naturally  dis- 
pose us  to  view  that  country  whence  our  re- 
ligion had  its  beginning.  That  the  Supreme 
Being  may  be  more  easily  propitiated  in  one 
place  than  in  another,  is  the  dream  of  idle 
superstition  ;  but  that  some  places  may  ope- 
rate upon  our  own  minds  in  an  uncommon 
manner,  is  an  opinion  which  hourly  experi- 
ence will  Justify.  He  who  supposes  that  his 
vices  may  be  more  successfully  combated  in 
Palestine,  will,  perhaps,  find  himself  mista- 
ken ;  yet  he  may  go  thither  without  fi  lly  : 
he  who  thinks  they  will  be  more  freely  par- 
doned, dishonours  at  once  his  reason  and 
his  religion."  Johnsoris  Rasselas.  Enc. 
Brit  Hume's  Hist,  of  England.  See 
Crusade. 

Poor  Pilgrbns,  an  order  that  started  up 
in  the  year  1500.  They  came  out  of  Italy 
into  Germany  bare  footed,  and  bare  headed, 
feeding  all  the  week,  except  on  Sundays,  ^ 
upon  herbs  and  roots  sprinkTed  with  salt. 
They  stayed  not  above  twenty-four  hours  in 
a  place.  They  went  by  couples  begging 
from  door  to  door.  This  penance  they  un- 
dertook voluntarily,  some  for  three,  others 
for  live  or  seven  years,  as  they  pleased,  and 
then  returned  home  to  their  callings. 

PIOUS  FRAUDS  are  those  artifices  and 
falselioods  made  use  of  in  propagating  the 
truth,  and  endeavouring  to  promote  the 
spiritual  interests  of  mankind.  These  have 
been  more  particularly  practised  in  the 
church  of  Rome,  and  considered  not  only  as 
innocent,  but  commendable.  Neither  the 
term  nor  the  thing  signified,  however  can 
be  justified.  The  terms  pious  and  fraud 
form  a  solecism ;  and  the  practice  of  doing 
evil  that  good  may  come,  is  directly  opposite 
to  the  injunction  of  the  sacred  scriptures, 
Rom.  iii.  8. 

PITY  is  generally  defined  to  be  the  unea- 
sjne.'^s  we  feel  at  the  unhappiness  of  another, 
prompting  us  to  compassionate  them,  with  a 
desire  of  their  relief. 


POL 


59i 


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God  is  said  to  pity  them  that  fear  him,  as 
a  father  pitielh  his  children.  The  Father, 
f»ays  Mr.  Hemy,  pities  his  children  that  are 
weak,  in  knowledge,  and  instructs  them  ;  ])i- 
ties  them  when  they  are  forward,  and  bears 
with  them  ;  pities  them  when  they  are  sick, 
and  comforts  them,  Isa.  Ixvi.  13;  when  they 
are  fallen,  and  helps  them  up  again  ;  when 
they  have  offended,  and  forgives  them;  when 
they  are  wronged,  and  rights  them.  Thus 
the  Lord  pitieth  them  that  fear  him,  Ps. 
ciii.  13.    See  Compassion  of  God. 

PLASTIC  NATURE,  an  absurd  doc- 
trine, which  some  have  thus  described.  "It 
is  an  incorporeal  created  substance  endued 
with  a  vegetative  life,  but  not  with  sensation 
or  thought ;  penetrating  the  whole  created 
universe,  being  coextended  with  it ;  and,  un- 
der God,  moving  matter,  so  as  to  produce 
the  phenomena  which  cannot  be  solved  by 
mechanical  laws ;  active  for  ends  unknown 
to  itself,  not  being  expressly  conscious  of 
its  actions,  and  yet  Jiaving  an  obscure  idea 
of  the  action  to  be  entered  upon."  To  this 
it  has  been  answered,  that,  as  the  idea  it- 
self is  most  obscure,  and,  indeed,  inconsis- 
tent, so  the  foundation  of  it  is  evidently 
weak.  It  is  intended  by  this  to  avoid  the 
inconveniency  of  subjecting  God  to  the 
trouble  of  some  changes  in  the  created 
world,  and  the  meanness  of  others.  But  it 
appears,  that,  even  upon  this  hypothesis,  he 
would  still  be  the  author  of  them  ;  besides, 
that  to  Omnipotence  nothing  is  trouble.some, 
nor  those  things  mean,  when  considered  as 
part  of  a  system,  which  alone  might  ap- 
pear to  be  so.  Doddridge^s  Lectures,  lec- 
ture 37.  Cudivortli's  Intellectual  System, 
page  149,  172.  Morels  Immortahiy  of  the 
Soul,  1.  iii.  c.  12.  Ray's  Whdom  of  God, 
paire  51,  52.  Lord  Monboddo's  Ancient 
Metaphysics.  Young^s  Essay  on  the  Pow- 
ers and  Mechanism  of  A'ature. 

PLATONICS  NEW.  See  New  Pla- 
tonics. 

PLEASURE,  the  delight  which  arises 
in  the  mind  from  contemplation  or  enjoy- 
ment of  something   agreeable.     See   Hap- 

PLENARY   INSPIRATION.     See  In- 

SriRATION. 

PLURALIST,  one  that  holds  more  than 
one  ecclesiastical  benefice  with  cure  of 
sou's.  Episcopalians  contend  there  is  no 
impropriety  in  a  presbyter  holding  more 
than  one  ecclesiastical  benefice.  Others,  on 
the  contrary,  affirm  that  this  practice  is  ex- 
actly the  reverse  of  the  primitive  churches, 
as  well  as  the  instructions  of  the  apostles, 
Tit.  i.  5.  Instead  of  a  plurality  of  churches 
to  one  pastor,  they  say,  we  ought  to  have  a 
plurality  of  pastors  to  one  church,  Acts 
xiv.  23. 

PNEUMATOLOGY,  the  doctrine  of 
Spiritual  existence.     See  Soul. 

POLONES  FRATRES.  SeeSociNiANS. 

K.)LYGAMY,  the  state  of  having  more 
wives  than  one  at  once.  Though  this  arti- 
cle, (like  some  others  we  have  inserted,) 


cannot  be  considered  as  strictly  theologicai, 
yet,  as  it  is  a  subject  of  importance  to  society, 
we  shall  here  introduce  it.  The  circum- 
stances of  the  patriarchs  living  in  polyga- 
my, and  their  not  being  reproved  for  it,  has 
given  occasion  for  some  modern  writers  to 
suppose  that  it  is  not  unlawful ;  but  it  is  an- 
swered that  the  equality  in  the  number  of 
males  and  females  born  into  the  world  in- 
timates the  intention  of  God  that  one  wo- 
man should  be  assigned  to  one  man ;  for 
(says  Mr.  Paley)  if  to  one  man  be  allowed 
an  exclusive  right  to  five  or  more  women, 
four  or  more  men  must  be  deprived  of  the 
exclusive  possession  of  any  ;  which  could 
never  be  the  order  intended.  This  equality, 
indeed,  is  not  quite  exact.  The  number 
of  male  infants  exceeds  that  of  females  in 
the  proportion  of  19  to  18,  or  there  abouts; 
but  this  excess  providts  for  the  greater 
consumption  of  males  by  war,  seafaring  and 
other  dangerous  or  uniiealthy  occupations. 
It  seems  also  a  significant  indication  of  the 
Divine  will,  that  he  at  first  created  only  one 
woman  to  one  man.  Had  God  intended 
polygamy  for  the  species,  it  is  probable  he 
would  have  begun  with  it:  e.specialiy  as  by 
giving  to  Adam  more  wives  than  one,  the 
multiplication  of  the  human  race  would 
have  j)rcceeded  with  a  quicker  progress. 
Polygamy  not  only  violates  the  constitution 
of  nature,  and  the  apparent  design  cf  the 
Deity,  but  produces  to  the  parties  them- 
selves, and  to  the  public,  the  following  bad 
eff(  cts :  contests  and  jealousies  among  the 
wives  of  the  same  husband  ;  distracted  af- 
fections, or  the  loss  of  all  affection  in  the 
husband  himself;  a  voluptuousness  in  the 
rich  which  dissolves  the  vigour  of  their  in- 
tellectual as  well  as  active  faculties,  produ- 
cing tliat  indolence  and  imbecility,  both  of 
mind  and  bcxly,  which  have  long  character- 
ized the  nations  of  the  East ;  the  abase- 
ment of  one  half  of  the  human  species,  who, 
in  countries  where  polygamy  obtains,  are 
degraded  into  instruments  of  physical  plea- 
sure to  the  other  half;  neglect  of  children  ; 
and  the  manifold  and  sometimes  unnatural 
mischiefs  which  arise  from  the  scarcity  of 
women.  To  compensate  for  these  evils, 
polygamy  does  not  offer  a  single  advantage. 
In  the  article  of  population,  which  it  has 
been  thought  to  promote,  the  community 
gain  nothing  (nothing,  I  mean,  compared 
with  a  state  in  which  marriage  is  nearly 
universal ;)  for  the  question  is  not,  whether 
one  man  will  have  more  children  by  five  or 
more  wives  than  by  one;  but  whether  these 
five  wives  would  not  bear  the  same  or  a 
greater  number  of  children  to  five  separate 
husbands.  And  as  to  the  care  of  children 
when  produced,  and  the  sending  of  them  into 
the  world  in  situations  in  which  they  may  be 
likely  to  form  and  bring  up  families  of  their 
own,  upon  which  the  increase  and  succession 
of  the  human  species  in  a  great  degree 
depend,  this  is  less  provided  for  antl  less 
practicable,  where  twenty  or  thirty  children 
are  to  be  supported  by  tlie  attention  and 


POL 


395 


POL 


fortunes  of  one  father,  than  if  they  were 
divided  into  live  or  six  families,  to  each  ot 
which  were  assigned  t'le  industry  and  inhe- 
ritance of  two  parents.  Whether  simul- 
tanenus  polygamy  was  permitted  by  the  law 
of  Moses,  seems  doubtful,  Deut.  xvii.  16. 
xxi.  15.  but  wijether  permitted  or  not,  it 
was  certainly  practised  by  the  Jewish  pa- 
triarchs both  before  that  law  and  under  it. 
The  permission,  if  there  were  any,  might 
be  like  that  of  divorce,  "  for  the  hardness 
of  their  heart,"  in  condescension  to  their 
established  indulgences,  rather  than  from 
tile  general  rectitude  or  propriety  of  the 
tiling  itself. 

I'he  state  of  mannei-s  in  Judea  had  pro- 
bably undergone  a  reformation  in  this  re- 
spect before  the  time  of  Christ ;  for  in  the 
New  Testament  we  meet  with  no  trace  or 
mention  of  any  such  practice  being  tolerat- 
ed. For  which  reason,  and  because  it  was 
likewise  forbidden  amongst  the  Greeks  and 
Romans,  we  cannot  expect  to  find  any  ex- 
press law  upon  the  subject  in  the  Christian 
code.  The  words  of  Christ,  Matt.  xix.  9. 
may  be  construed  by  an  easy  implication 
to  prohibit  polygamy;  for  if  "  whoever 
putteth  away  his  wife,  and  marrieth  ano- 
ther, com  mitteth  adulteiy ;"  he  who  mar- 
rieth another  imthout  putting  away  the 
first  is  no  less  guilty  of  adultery :  because 
the  adultery  does  not  consist  in  the  r<.pn- 
diation  of  the  first  wife  (for  however  unjust 
or  cruel  that  may  be,  it  is  not  adultery.)  but 
entering  into  a  second  marriage  during  the 
legal  existence  and  obligation  of  the  first. 
The  several  passages  in  St.  Paul's  writings 
which  speak  of  marriage,  always  suppose  it 
to  signify  the  union  of  one  man  with  one 
woman,  Rom.  vii.  3,  3.  1  Cor.  vii.  12,  14, 
16.  'I'he  manners  of  different  countries 
have  varied  in  nothing  more  than  in  their 
domestic  constitutions.  Less  polished  and 
more  luxurious  nations  have  either  not 
j)erceived  the  bad  effects  of  polygamy,  or, 
if  they  did  perceive  them,  they  wiio  in 
such  countries  possessed  the  p.iwer  of  re- 
forming the  laws  have  been  unwilling  to 
resign  their  own  gratifications.  Polygamy 
is  retained  at  tliis  day  among  the  Turks, 
and  thi'oughout  every  part  of  Asia  in  which 
Christianity  is  not  professed.  In  Christian 
countries  it  is  universally  prohibited.  In 
Sweden  it  is  punished  with  death.  In 
England,  beside  the  nullity  of  the  second 
marriage,  it  subjects  the  offender  to  trans- 
portation or  imprisonment  and  branding  for 
the  first  offence,  and  to  capital  punishment 
for  the  second.  And  whatever  may  be 
said  in  behalf  of  polygamy,  when  it  is  au- 
thorised by  the  law  of  the  land,  the  mar- 
riage of  the  second  wife,  during  the  life- 
time of  the  first,  in  countries  where  such  a 
second  marriage  is  void,  must  be  ranked 
with  the  most  dangerous  and  cruel  of  those 
frauds  by  which  a  women  is  cheated  out 
of  her  fortune,  her  person,  and  her  happi- 
ness. Thus  far  Mr.  Paley.  We  shall 
close  this  article   with  the  words  of  an 


excellent  writer   on  the   same  side  of  the 
subject. 

"  When  we  reflect,"  says  he  "  that  the 
primitive  institution  of  marriage  limited  it  to 
one  man  and  one  woman  ;  that  tliis  institu- 
tion was  adhered  to  by  Noah  and  iiis  ssons, 
amidst  the  degeneracy  of  the  age  in  which 
they  lived,  and  in  spite  of  the  examples  of 
polygamy  which  the  accursed  race  ot  Cain 
had  introduced ;  when  we  consider  how 
very  few  (comparatively  speaking)  the  ex- 
amples of  this  practice  were  among  the 
faithful ;  how  much  it  brought  its  own  pun- 
ishment with  it ;  and  how  dubious  and 
equivocal  those  passages  are  in  which  it 
appears  to  have  the  sanction  of  the  Divine 
approbation  ;  when  to  these  reflections  we 
add  another,  respecting  the  limited  views 
and  temporaiy  nature  of  the  more  ancient 
dispensations  and  institutions  of  religion — 
how  often  the  imperfections  and  even  vices 
of  the  patriarchs  and  people  of  God  in 
old  time  are  recorded,  without  any  express 
notification  of  their  criminality — how  much 
is  said  to  be  commanded^  which  our  reve- 
rence for  the  holiness  of  God  and  his  law 
will  only  suffer  us  to  suppose  were  for  wise 
ends  fiermltted  ;  how  frequently  the  mes- 
sengers of  God  adapted  themselves  to  the 
genius  of  the  people  to  whom  they  were 
sent,  and  the  circumstances  of  the  times  in 
which  they  lived  :  above  all,  when  we  con- 
sider the  purity,  equity,  and  benevolence  of 
the  Christian  law,  the  explicit  declarations 
of  our  I.iord  and  his  apostle  Paul,  respecting 
the  institution  of  marriage,  its  design  and 
limitation :  when  we  reflect,  t(X),  on  the 
testimony  of  the  most  ancient  fathers,  who 
could  not  possibly  be  ignorant  of  the  gene- 
ral and  common  practice  of  the  apostolic 
church  ;  and,  finally,  when  to  these  consi- 
derations we  add  those  which  are  founded 
on  justice  to  the  female  sex,  and  all  the 
regulations  of  domestic  oeconomy  and  na- 
tional policy,  we  must  wholly  condemn  the 
revival  of  Polygamy."  Palei^s  Mor.  Phil. 
vol.  i.  p.  319—325.  Madan'a'Thdvfi/ithora. 
Tomer's,  lVills\  Penn\  R.  Bill's, 'Palmer's 
and  Haiveis'  Ansnvers  to  Madan,  Man. 
Rev.  vol.  Ixiii.  p-  338.  and  also  vol.  Ixix. 
Beat  tie's  El.  of  Mor,  Science,  vol.  ii.  p.  127 
—129. 

POLYGLOT  (zroXvyPMrrai)  having  ma- 
ny languages.  For  the  more  commodious 
comparison  of  different  versions  of  the 
scriptures,  they  have  been  sometimes  joined 
together,  and  called  Polyglot  Bibles.  Ori- 
gen  arranged  in  different  columns  a  He- 
brew copy,  both  in  Hebrew  and  Greek 
characters,  with  six  different  Greek  ver- 
sions. Elias  Hutter,  a  German,  about  the 
end  of  the  sixteenth  century,  published  the 
New  Testament  in  twelve  languages,  viz. 
Greek,  Hebrew,  Syriac,  Latin,  Italian, 
Spanish,  French,  German,  Bohemian,  En- 
glish, Danish,  Polish  ;  and  the  whole  bible 
in  Hebrew,  Chaldaic,  Greek,  Latin,  Ger- 
man, and  a  varied  version.  But  the  most 
esteemed  collections  are  those  in  which 


POL 


396 


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the  originals  and  ancient  translations  are 
conjoined  ;  such  as  the  Complutensian  Bi- 
ble, bv  cardinal  Ximenes,  a  Spaniard  ;  the 
king  of  Spain's  Bible,  directed  by  Montanus, 
&;c.  the  Paris  Bible  of  Michael  Jay,  a 
French  gentleman,  in  ten  huge  volumes, 
folio,  copies  of  which  were  published  in 
Holland  under  the  name  of  pope  Altxander 
the  Seveiitii ;  and  that  of  Brian  VValton, 
afterwards  bishop  of  Chester.  The  last  is 
the  most  regular  and  valuable.  It  contains 
the  Hebrew  and  Greek  originals,  with 
Montanus'  interlineary  version  ;  the  Chaldee 
paraphrases,  the  Septuagint,  the  Samaritan 
rentateuch,  t!ie  Syrian  and  Arabic  BibU-s, 
the  Persian  Pentateuch  and  Gospels,  the 
Ethiopia'^  Psalms,  Song  of  Solomon,  and 
New  Testament,  with  their  respective- 
Latin  translations  :  together  with  the  Latin 
Vulgate,  and  a  large  volume  of  various 
readings,  to  which  is  ordinarily  joined 
Castel's  Heptaglot  Lexicon.  See  Bible, 
No.  29,  30. 

POLYTHEISM,  the  doctrine  of  a  plu- 
rality of  gods,  or  invisible  powers  superior 
to  man. 

"  That  there  exist  beings,  one  or  many, 
powerful  above  the  human  race,  is  a  propo- 
sition," says  lord  Karnes,  "  universally  ad- 
mitted as  true  in  all  ages  and  am-oiig  all 
nations.  I  boldly  call  it  universal,  notwith- 
standing what  is  reported  of  some  gross 
savages;  for  reports  that  contraciict  what 
is  acknowledged  to  be  general  among  men, 
require  more  able  vouchers  than  a  few  illit- 
erate voyagers.  Among  many  savage  tribes 
there  are  no  words  but  for  objects  of  exter- 
nal sense  :  is  it  surprisini^  that  such  people 
are  incapable  of  expressing  their  religious 
perceptions,  or  any  perception  of  internal 
sense  ?  Tiie  conviction  that  men  have  of 
superior  powers,  in  every  country  where 
there  are  words  to  express  it,  is  so  weil 
vouched,  that,  in  fair  reasoning,  it  ought  to 
be  taken  for  granted  among  the  few  tribes 
where  language  is  delicient."  1  he  same 
ingenious  author  shews,  with  great  streogth 
of  reasoning,  that  the  operations  of  nature 
and  the  government  of  this  world,  which 
to  us  loudly  proclaim  the  existence  of  a 
Deity,  are  not  sufficient  to  account  for  the 
universal  I)elief  of  superior  beings  among  ' 
savage  tribes.  He  is  therefore  of  opinion 
that  tuis  universality  of  conviction  can 
spring  only  from  the  image  of  Drity  stamp- 
ed upon  tile  mind  of  every  human  being, 
the  ignorant  equal  with  the  learned. 
This:,  he  thinks,  may  be  termed  the 
sense  of  Deity. 

•  This  sense  of  Deity,  however,  is  objected 
to  by  others,  who  thus  reason  :  All  nations, 
except  the  Jews,  were  once  polytheists  and 
idolaters.  If,  therefore,  his  lordship's  hypo- 
thesis be  admitted,  cither  the  doctrine  of 
polytheism  must  be  true  theology,  or  this 
instinct  or  sense  is  ;)f  such  a  nature  as  to 
have,  at  different  periods  of  the  world, 
misled  all  mankind.  All  savage  tribes  are 
at  present    polytlieists  and  idolaters;  but 


among  savages,  every  instinct  appears  in 
greater  purity  and  vigour  than  among  peo- 
ple polished  by  arts  raid  sciences  ;  and  in- 
stinct never  mistakes  its  objects.  The  in- 
stinct or  primary  impression  of  nature, 
which  gives  rise  to  self-love,  affection  be- 
tween tlie  sexes,  &c.  has,  in  all  nations, 
and  in  every  period  of  time,  a  precise  and 
determinate  object  which  it  inflexibly  pur- 
sues. How,  then,  conies  it  to  pass,  that  this 
particular  instinct,  which,  if  real,  is  surely 
of  as  much  importance  as  any  otlier,  should 
have  uniformly  led  those  who  had  no  other 
guide,  to  pursue  improper  ol)jects,  to  fall 
into  tlie  grossest  errors,  and  the  most  perni- 
cious practices  .'' 

For  these  and  other  reasons,  which  might 
easily  be  assigned,  tliey  suppose  that  the 
first  religious  principles  nmst  have  betn  de- 
rived from  a  source  diflerent  as,  well  from 
internal  sense  as  from  the  deductions  of 
reason  ;  from  a  source  wlnc'i  the  majority 
of  mankind  had  early  forgotten  ;  and  which; 
when  it  was  banished  from  their  minds,  left 
nothing  beViind  it  to  prevent  the  very  first 
pri'iciple  oi  religion  from  being  perverted  by 
various  accidents  or  causes ;  or,  in  some 
extraiiidiiiary  concurrence  of  circumstances, 
from  being,  \>  rliaps,  entirely  obliterated  ! 
This  source  of  religi"n  every  consistent  the- 
ist  must  believe  to  be  revelation.  Reason 
could  not  have  introduced  savages  to  the 
knowledge  of  God,  and  ve  have  just  seen 
that  a  sense  oj'  Deity  is  clogged  with  insu- 
perable t'ifficulties.  Yet  it  is  undeniable  that 
all  mankind  have  believed  in  superior  invi- 
sible p  wers:  and,  if  reason  and  instinct  be 
set  aside,  there  remains  no  other  origin  of 
this  universal  belief  than  primeval  revela- 
tion corrupted ;  indeed,  as  it  passed  from 
fatlier  to  son  in  the  course  of  many  genera- 
tions. It  is  no  slight  .sn;ipi;rt  to  this  dec- 
trine,  that,  if  there  really  be  a  Deity,  it  is 
highly  presumable  that  he  would  reveal 
hiniselt  to  the  first  men  ;  creatures  whom 
he  had  formed  with  I'lcu'.rics  to  adore  and 
to  wursiiip  him.  To  other  animals  the 
knowledge  of  the  Deity  is  of  no  importance, 
to  man  it  is  of  the  first  importance.  Where 
we  totally  ignorant  of  a  Deity,  this  world 
would  appear  to  us  a  mere  chacs.  Under 
the  goveriuiient  of  a  wise  and  benevc  Itnt 
Deity,  chance  is  excluded,  and  every  event 
appears  to  be  t!ie  result  of  established  laws. 
Goorl  men  sui)mit  to  whatever  haj.ipens, 
without  repining,  knowing  that  every  event 
is  ordered  by  Divine  Priividence  ;  they  sub- 
mit with  entire  resignation  ;  and  such  re- 
siiniation  is  a  sovereign  balsam  for  every 
nusfortune  or  evil  in  life. 

As  to  the  circumstances  which  led  to  po- 
lytheism, it  has  been  observed,  that  taking 
it  for  granted  that  our  original  progenitoi-s 
were  instruct' d  by  their  Creator  in  the 
truths  f<f  genuine  theism,  there  is  no  room 
to  doubt  !)ut  that  those  truths  would  be  con- 
veyed pure  from  father  to  son  as  long 
as  the  race  lived  in  one  family,  and  were 
not  spread  over  a  large  extent  of  country. 


POL 


397 


POL 


If  any  credit  be  due  to  the  records  ofi 
antiquity,  the  jjiimeval  inhabitants  of  this 
^loix;  iived  to  so  great  an  age,  that  they 
must  have  increased  to  a  very  large  num- 
ber long  bcture  the  death  of  the  common 
parent,  who  would,  ot"  course,  be  the  bond 
of  union  to  the  whole  society  ;  and  wliose 
dictates,  especially  in  what  related  to  the 
origin  of  his  Being,  and  the  existence  of  his 
Creator,  would  be  listened  to  with  the  ut- 
most respect  by  ever)'  individual  of  his  nu 
merous  progeny.  Many  causes,  however, 
vjoulil  conspire  to  dissolve  this  family,  after 
the  death  of  its  anct^stor,  into  separate  and 
independent  triix;s,  of  which  some  would  be 
driven  by  violence,  or  would  voluntarily 
wander  to  a  distance  from  the  rest.  From 
this  dispersion  t:reat  changes  would  tai^e 
place  in  the  opinions  of  so.ne  of  the  tribes 
respecting  the  o'lject  of  tlieir  religious  wor- 
ship. A  single  family,  or  a  small  tribe,  ban- 
ished into  a  desert  vilderness  (such  as  the 
whole  eartii  must  then  have  been)  would 
find  ernpliiyment  for  all  tiieir  time  in  pro- 
viding the  meat  s  of  subsisteiice,  and  in  de- 
fending tiiemselves  fr  )m  beasts  of  j)rey.  In 
such  circumstances  they  would  have  little 
Ici.Mire  for  meditation  ;  and,  being  constant- 
ly conversant  with  objects  of  sense,  thty 
would  gradually  l^se  tlie  power  of  meditat- 
ing upon  the  spiritual  nature  of  that  Being 
by  whom  their  ancestors  had  taught  them 
that  ail  things  were  created.  Tiie  hrst  wan- 
der, is  would,  no  doubt,  retain  in  toleralile 
purity  their  original  notioris  of  Deity,  and 
they  would  certair.ly  endeavour  t(»  impr.ss 
those  noti.ns  u;:.)n  their  children;  but  in 
circumstances  infinitely  more  favourable  to 
&pccMl.\lion  than  theirs  coukl  nave  ijeen.  the 
hum.iu  mind  dwells  not  long  upon  notions 
purely  inteiiectual.  We  are  so  accustomed 
to  sensible  objects,  and  to  the  ideas  of  space, 
extension,  asid  figure,  which  tliey  are  per- 
petually impressing  upon  the  imagination, 
that  we  hr.d  it  extremely  difficu't  to  con- 
ceive any  being  without  assigr.ir'g  to  him  a 
form  and  a  place.  Hence  bishojj  Law  sup- 
poses that  tlie  earliest  generations  of  men 
(even  those  to  v.-hcm  he  contends  that  fre- 
quent revelations  were  vouchsafed)  may 
have  been  no  better  than  An' hropomor/i/iii es 
in  tilt  ir  conceptions  of  the  Divine  Being.  Be 
this  as  it  nviy,  it  is  easy  to  conceive  that 
the  members  of  the  hrst  colonies  would 
quickly  lose  many  of  the  arts,  and  much  of 
the  science  which  perhaps  prevailed  in  the 
parent  state ;  and  tliat,  fatigued  with  the 
contemplation  of  intellectual  oljjects  they 
wouid  relieve  their  over-strained  faculties 
by  attributing  to  the  Deity  a  place  of  ab">de, 
if  nrit  a  human  firm.  To  men  totally  illiter- 
ate, the  place  fittest  for  the  habitation  of 
the  Deity  would  undoubtedly  anpear  to  be 
the  Sun.  the  most  beautiful  and  glorious  ob- 
ject of  whicli  they  cculd  form  anv  idea  ;  an 
object  from  which  they  cu Id  not  but  be  sen- 
sible that  they  received  the  bentiits  of  light 
and  heat,  and  wliich  experience  must  soon 
have  tauglit  them  to  be  in  a  great  measure 


the  source  of  vegetation.  From  looking  upon 
the  Sun  as  the  habitation  of  their  God,  they 
would  soo'.i  proceed  to  consider  it  as  his 
body.  Experiei.cing  tne  effects  of  power 
in  t.ne  Sun,  they  would  naturally  conceive 
that  luminary  to  be  animated  as  their  bodies 
were  animated  ;  they  would  feel  his  influence 
when  abiw  e  the  horizon;  they  would  see  him 
moving  from  East  to  We.st ;  they  would  con- 
sider him,  when  set,  as  gone  to  take  his  re- 
pose; and  those  exertior.s  and  intermissions  of 
power  being  analogous  to  what  they  experi- 
enced in  themselves,  they  would  lock  upon 
the  Sun  as  a  real  animal.  Thus  would  the  Di- 
vinity appear  to  their  untutored  mincis  to  be 
a  compound  beingiike  a  man,  partly  corpo- 
real and  paitly  spiritual ;  and  as  soon  as 
they  imbibed  such  notions,  though  perha])S 
not  befure,  they  ma\  be  pronounced  to  have 
been  absolute  idolaters.  Wh.en  men  had 
once  got  into  this  train,  their  gods  would 
multiply  upon  them  VN'ith  wonderful  rapidi- 
ty. I'he  niCK.u,  the  planets,  the  fixed  stars, 
&c.  would  become  o'ljects  of  veneration. 
Hence  we  find  Moses  cautioning  the  peoplS 
of  Israel  against  worshipping  the  hosts  of 
heaven,  Deut.  iv.  19.  Other  objects,  hqW- 
ever,  from  whicli  benefits  were  received  'or 
dangers  feared,  would  likewise  be  deified; 
such  as  demons,  departed  herces,  &c.  bee 
Idolatry. 

From  tlie  accounts  given   us  by  the  best 
writers  of  a^.tiquit^',  it  seems  that  though 
the  Poly th cists  believed  heaven,   earth,  and 
hell,  were  all  liiled  with  divinities,  yet  there 
was  One  who  was  consiflcred   as  supreme 
over  all   the    rest,   or,   at  most,   that   there 
were  but  two  selt-existent  gods,  from  whom 
they  conceived   all  the   other   divinities  to 
jj  have  descended  in   a  manner  analogous  to 
''human    generation.     It    appears,    however, 
I'  that  the  vulgar  Pagans  considered  each  di- 
ll vinity  as  supreme,  and  unac<:riuntable  witliin 
il  his  ov.'n  province,  and  theretrre  entitled  to  ^ 
i!  worship,  which,  rested  ultimately  in  hini.self.   ' 
:|  The  philos'phers-  on  the  other  hand,  seem 
'■■\  t"i  have  viewed  the  inferior  gods  as  acccun- 
ij  table  for  e\erv  part  of  their  condr.ct  to  him 
;|  who  was  tlieir  sire  and  sovereign,    and  to 
I  have  paid  to  them  only  that  inferior  kind  of 
:j  devotion  which  the  church  of  Rome  pays  to 
ij  departed  saints.     The  vulgar  Pagans  were 
j;  sunk  in  the  grossest  ignorance,  from  which 
,i  statesmen,  priests,  and  poets,  exerted  their 
jj  utmost  influence  to  keep  them  from  em.erg- 
ing;  for  it  was  a  maxim,   v.hich,   however 
absurd,    was  universally   received,    "  that 
there    were   mnny   things  true   in   religion 
which  it  was  not  convenient  for  the  vulgar 
to  know  ;  and  some  things   which,   though 
i  false,  it  was  cxjiedient  that  they  should  be- 
i|lieve."    It  was   no  wonder,   therefore,  that 
►the  vulgar  j-hnnld  be  idolaters  and  polythe- 
jists.    The  phiicsophers,  however,  were  stili 
}  worse  ;  they  were  wholly  "  without  excuse, 
because  that,  when  tliey  knew  Gcd.  they  glo- 
rified him  not  as  God  ;  neither  were  thank- 
ful,  but  became  vain  in  their  imaginations, 
I  and  their  foolish  heart  was  darkened.    Pre- 


P  01* 


598 


POP 


fessing  themselves  wise,  they  became  fools, 
and  worshipped  and  served  the  creature 
more  Uian  the  Creator,  who  is  God,  blessed 
for  ever."  Rom.  i.  20,  21,  22,  25.  See  list 
of  books  under  article  Idolatry.  Pri- 
deaux's  Con.  v.  i.  p.  177,  179.  Kamea^ 
Sketches  of  the  History  of  Man.  Bisho/i 
Law's  Theory  of  Religion,  p.  58,  65 — 68. 
94,  296.  article  Polytheism  in  Enc.  Brit. 
Farmer  on  the  Worship,  of  Human  Sfiirits. 

PONTIFF,  or  High  Priest,  a  person 
•who  has  the  superintendance  and  direction 
of  divine  worship,  as  t)ie  oiiering  of  sacrifi- 
ces and  other  religious  solemnities.  The 
Romans  had  a  college  of  pontifts,  and  over 
these  a  sovereign  pontiff",  instituted  by  Nu- 
ma,  whose  function  it  was  to  prescribe  the 
ceremonies  each  god  Avas  to  be  worshipped 
withal,  compose  the  rituals,  direct  the  ves- 
tals, and  fur  a  good  while  to  perform  the 
business  of  augury,  till,  on  some  super- 
stitious occasion,  lie  was  prohibited  hiter- 
meddling  therewith.  The  Jews,  too,  had 
their  pontiffs;  and  among  the  Romanists 
the  pope  is  styled  the  sovereign  pontiff. 

PONTIFICATE  is  used  for  the  state  or 
dignity  of  a  pontiff,  or  high  priest ;  but  more 
particularly,  in  modern  writers,  for  the  reign 
of  a  pope. 

POPE,  a  name  which  comes  from  the 
word  riasy*,  and  signifies  Father.  In  the 
East,  this  appellation  is  piveii  to  all  Chris- 
tian priests ;  and  in  the  West,  bisliops  were 
called  by  it  in  ancient  times ;  but  now  for 
many  centuries  it  has  been  appropriated  to 
the  bishop  of  Rome,  whom  the  Roman  Ca- 
thoUcs  look  upon  as  the  common  father 
of  all  Christians. 

All  in  communion  with  the  see  of  Rome 
unanimously  hold  that  our  Saviour  Jesus 
Christ  constituted  St.  Peter  the  apostle  chief 
pastor  under  himself,  to  watch  over  iiis 
whole  flock  here  on  earth,  and  to  ))i-eserve 
the  unity  of  it,  giving  him  the  power  requi- 
site for  these  ends.  Tlicy  also  believe  that 
our  Saviour  ordained  that  St.  Peter  should 
have  srccesscrs,  with  the  like  charge  and 
pmver  to  the  end  of  time.  Now,  as  St.  Peter 
resided  at  Rome  for  many  years,  and  suffer- 
ed mai'tyrdom  there,  they  consiciered  the 
bishops  of  Rome  as  his  successors  in  the  dig- 
nity and  office  of  the  universal  pastor  of  the 
whole  Catholic  church. 

The  cardinals  have  for  several  ages  been 
the  sole  electors  of  the  pope.  These  are  se- 
venty in  number,  v;hen  the  sacred  college, 
as  it  is  called,  is  complete.  Of  these,  six 
are  cardinal  bishn])s  of  the  six  suburbica- 
rian  churches:  fifty  are  cardinal  piicst.s, 
who  have  all  titles  from  parish  churclies 
in  Rome ;  and  fourteen  are  cardinal  dea- 
cons, who  have  their  titles  from  churches 
in  Rome  of  less  note,  called  cUaconias,  orj 
dcaconrics.  These  cardinals  are  created 
by  the  pope  wlicn  there  happen  to  be  va- 
cancies, and  sometimes  he  names  one  or  two 
only  at  a  time  ;  but  commonly  he  defers  the 
proniotion  until  there  be  ten  or  twelve  va- 
cancies, or  more ;  and  then  at  every  second 


such  promotion,  the  emperor,  the  kings  of 
Spain  and  France,  and  of  Britain  when  Ca- 
tholic, are  allowed  to  present  one  eacli,  to 
be  made  cardinal,  whom  the  pope  always 
admits,  if  there  be  not  some  very  great  ob- 
jection. These  cardinals  are  commonly  pro- 
moted from  among  such  clergymen  as  have 
borne  offices  in  the  Roman  court;  some  are 
assumed  from  reli.^ious  orders;  eminent  ec- 
clesiastics of  other  countries  are  likewise 
often  honoured  with  this  dignity.  Sons  of 
sovereign  princes  have  frequently  been  mem- 
bers of  the  sacred  college.  Their  distinc- 
tive dress  is  scarlet,  to  signify  that  they 
ought  to  be  ready  to  shed  their  blood  for  the 
faith  and  church,  when  the  defence  and  ho- 
nour of  either  require  it.  They  wear  a  scar- 
let cap  and  hat :  the  cap  is  given  to  them 
by  the  pope  if  they  are  at  Rome,  and  is  sent 
to  them  if  they  are  absent ;  but  the  hat  is 
never  given  but  by  the  pope's  own  hand. 
These  cardinals  from  the  pope's  standing 
council,  or  consistory,  for  the  management 
of  the  public  affairs  of  church  and  state. 
They  are  divided  into  different  congrega- 
tions for  the  more  easy  despatch  of  business; 
and  some  of  them  have  the  principal  offices 
in  the  pontificai  court ;  as  that  of  cardinal, 
vicar,  penitentiary,  chancellor,  chamberlain, 
prefect  of  the  signature  of  justice,  prefect 
of  memorials,  and  secretary  of  state.  They 
have  the  title  given  to  them  of  eminence 
and  most  eminent. 

On  the  demise  of  a  pope  his  pontifical 
seal  is  immediately  broken  by  the  chamber- 
lain, and  all  public  business  is  interrupted 
that  can  be  delayed ;  messengers  are  des- 
patched to  all  the  Catholic  sovereigns  to 
acquaint  them  of  the  event,  that  they  may 
take  what  measures  they  think  proper ;  anrl 
that  the  cardinals,  in  their  dominions,  if 
any  there  be,  may  hasten  to  the  future  eiec- 
tif  n,  if  they  choose  to  attend  ;  whilst  the 
whole  attention  of  the  sacred  college  is  turn- 
ed to  the  preservation  of  tranquillity  in  the 
city  and  state,  and  to  the  necessary  prepa- 
rations for  the  future  election.  The  cardi- 
nal-chamberlain has,  during  the  vacancy  cf 
the  holy  see,  great  authority  ;  he  coins  money 
with  his  own  arms  on  it,  lodges  in  the  pope  s 
apartments,  and  is  attended  by  the  body 
guards.  He,  and  the  first  cardinal  bishop, 
the  first  cardinal  priest,  and  the  first  cardi- 
nal deacon,  have,  during  that  time,  the  go- 
vernment almost  entirely  in  their  hands  The 
body  of  the  deceased  pope  is  carried  to  St. 
Peter's,  where  funeral  service  is  performed 
for  him  with  great  jiomp  for  nine  days,  and 
the  cardinals  attend  there  every  morning. 
In  the  mean  time,  all  necessary  preparations 
for  the  election  are  made  ;  and  the  place 
where  they  assemble  for  that  purpose, 
which  is  called  the  Conclave,  is  fitted  up 
in  that  part  of  the  Vatican  palace,  which  is 
nearest  to  St.  Peter's  church,  as  this  has 
long  been  thought  the  most  convenient  situ- 
ation. Here  are  formed,  by  partitions  of 
wood,  a  number  of  cells,  or  chambers  equal 
to  the  number  of  cardinals,  with  a  small 


POP 


399 


POP 


distance  between  every  two,  and  a  broad 
gallery  before  them.  A  number  is  put  on 
every  cell,  and  small  papers,  with  corres- 
ponding numbers,  are  put  into  a  box :  every 
cardinal,  or  some  one  for  him,  draws  out 
one  of  these  papers,  whicli  determines  in 
what  cell  he  is  to  lodge.  The  cells  are  lined 
•with  cloth  ;  and  there  is  a  part  of  each  one 
separated  for  the  conclavists,  or  attendants, 
of  whom  two  are  allowed  to  each  cardinal 
and  three  to  cardinal  princes.  They  are 
persons  of  some  rank,  and  generally  of  threat 
confidence ;  but  they  must  carry  in  their 
master's  meals,  serve  him  at  table,  and  per- 
form all  the  offices  of  a  menial  servant. 
Two  physicians,  two  surgeons,  an  apotheca- 
ry, and  some  other  necessary  cffictrs,  ai'c 
chosen  to  the  conclave  by  the  cardinals. 

On  the  tenth  day  after  the  pope  s  death, 
the  cardinals  who  are  then  at  Rome,  and 
in  a  competent  state  of  health,  meet  in  the 
chapel  of  St.  Peter's,  which  is  called  the 
Gregorian  chapel,  where  a  sermon  on  the 
choice  of  a  pope  is  preaclied  to  them,  and 
mass  is  said  for  invoking  the  grace  of  the 
Holy  Ghost.  Then  the  cardinals  proceed 
to  the  conclave  in  procession,  two  by  two, 
and  take  up  their  .  b'de.  When  all  is  pro- 
perly settled,  the  conclave  is  shut  up,  hav- 
ing boxed  wheels,  or  places  of  communica- 
tion, in  convenient  quarters;  there  are,  also, 
strong  guards  placed  all  around.  When  any 
foreign  cardinal  arrives  after  the  inclosure, 
the  conclave  is  opened  for  his  admission.  In 
the  beginning  every  cardinal  signs  a  paper, 
containing  an  obligation,  that,  if  he  shall  be 
raised  to  the  papal  chair,  he  will  not  alien- 
ate any  part  of  the  pontifical  domini.-m  ; 
that  he  will  not  be  prodigal  to  his  relations; 
and  any  ether  such  stipulations  as  may  have 
been  settled  in  former  times,  or  framed  for 
that  occasion. 

We  now  come  to  the  election  itself;  and 
that  this  may  be  effectual,  two  thirds  of  the 
cardinals  present,  must  vote  for  the  same 
person.  As  tli's  is  often  not  easily  obtained, 
they  sometimes  remain  whole  months  in  the 
conclave.  They  meet  in  the  chapel  twice 
every  day  for  giving  their  votes ;  and  the 
election  may  be  effectuated  by  sa-utiny.,  ac- 
cession, or  acclamation.  Scrutiny  is  the  or- 
dinary method,  and  consists  in  this:  every 
cardinal  writes  his  own  name  on  the  inner 
part  of  a  piece  of  paper,  and  this  is  folded 
up  and  sealed  ;  on  a  second  fold  of  the  same 
paper,  a  conclavist  writes  the  name  of  the 
person  for  whom  his  master  votes.  This, 
according  to  agreements  observed  for  some 
centuries,  must  be  one  of  the  sacred  college. 
On  the  outer  side  of  the  paper  is  written  a 
sentence  at  random,  v.^hich  the  voter  must 
well  remember.  Every  cardinal,  on  enter- 
ing into  the  chapel,  goes  to  the  altar,  and 
puts  his  paper  mto  a  large  chalice. 

When  all  are  convened,  two  cardinals 
number  the  votes ;  and  if  there  be  more  or 
less  than  the  number  of  cardinals  present, 
the  voting  must  be  repeated.  When  this 
is  not  the  case,   the  cardinal  appointed  for 


the  purpose,  reads  the  outer  sentence,  and 
the  name  of  the  cardinal  under  it ;  so  that 
each  voter,  hearing  liis  own  sentence,  and 
the  name  joined  with  it,  knows  that  there 
is  no  mistake.  The  names  of  all  the  cardi- 
nals that  are  voted  for  are  taken  down  in 
Avriting,  with  the  number  of  votes  for  each  ; 
and  when  it  appears  that  any  one  has  two 
thirds  of  die  number  present  in  his  favour, 
the  election  is  over ;  but  when  this  does  not 
happen,  the  voting  papers  are  all  immedi- 
ately burnt,  without  opening  up  the  inner 
part.  When  several  trials  of  corrii'ig  to  a 
conclusion  by  this  method  of  scrutivy  have 
been  made  in  vain,  recourse  is  sometimes 
had  to  what  is  called  accession.  By  it, 
when  a  cardinal  peiceives  that  when  one 
or  very  few  votes  are  wanting  to  ar.y  one 
fir  Avhom  he  has  not  voted  at  that  tiini-  he 
must  say  that  he  accedea  the  one  who  has 
nv.ar  the  number  of  votes  requisite ;  and  if 
his  one  vote  suffices  to  make  up  the  two- 
thirds,  or  if  he  is  followed  by  a  sufficient 
number  of  accedtrs,  or  new  voters,  for  the 
said  cardinal,  the  election  is  acc(  mpl  shed. — 
Lastly,  a  pope  is  sometimes  elected  by  ac- 
claKiation  :  and  that  is,  when  a  cardinal 
being  pretty  sure  that  he  will  be  joined  by  a 
number  sufficient,  cries  out  in  the  open 
chapel,  that  such  an  one  shall  be  pope.  If 
he  is  properly  supported,  the  election  be- 
comes unanimous ;  those  who  would,  per- 
haps, oppose  it,  foreseeing  that  their  oppo- 
sition would  be  fruitless,  and  rather  hurtful 
to  themselves.  When  a  pope  is  chosen  in 
any  of  the  three  above-mentioned  ways,  the 
election  is  immediately  announced  from  the 
balcony  in  the  front  of  St.  Peter's,  homage 
is  paid  to  the  new  pontiff,  and  couriers  are 
sent  off  with  the  news  to  all  parts  of  Chris- 
tendom. The  pope  appoints  a  day  for  his 
coronation  at  St.  Peter  s,  and  for  his  taking 
possession  of  the  patriarchal  church  of  St. 
John  Lateran  ;  all  which  is  performed  with 
great  solemnity.  He  is  addressed  by  the 
expression  of  holiness,  and  wosl  holy  fa- 
ther. 

The  Roman  Catholics  believe  that  the 
bishop  of  Rome  is,  under  Christ,  supreme 
pastor  of  the  whole  church,  and  as  such  is 
not  only  the  first  bishop  in  order  and  dig- 
nity, but  has  also  a  power  and  jurisdiction 
over  all  Christians,  in  order  to  preserve 
unity  and  purity  of  faith,  and  moral  doc- 
trine, and  to  maintain  order  and  regularity 
in  all  churches.  See  Suprkmacv  S^me 
Catholic  divines  are  of  opinion  that  the 
pope  cannot  err  when  he  addresses  himself 
to  nil  the  faithfid  on  matters  of  doctrine. 
Tiiey  well  know  that,  as  a  private  doctor, 
he  may  fall  into  mistakes  as  well  as  any 
other  man ;  but  they  think  that,  when  he 
teaches  the  whole  church.  Providence  must 
preserve  him  fiom  error.  We  have,  how- 
ever, already  examined  this  sentiment  un- 
der the  article  Infallibilii  y,  to  whicli 
the  reader  may  refir. 

The  see  of  Rome,  according  to  Roman 
Catholic.3,  is  the   centre  of  catholic  unit; . 


FOP 


400 


POP 


All  their  bishops  communicate  with  the 
pope,  and  by  his  means  with  one  another, 
and  sio  form  one  body  However  distant 
their  chmxhes  may  be,  they  all  meet  at 
Rome  either  in  person  or  by  their  delegates, 
or  at  least  by  their  letters.  And,  according 
to  the  discipline  of  the  latter  ages,  though 
they  are  presented  to  the  pope  for  their 
office  from  their  respective  countries,  yet 
from  him  they  must  receive  iheir  bulls"  of 
consecr-ition  before  they  can  take  posses- 
sion of  their  fees.    See  Popery. 

POPERY  comprehends  the  religious  doc- 
trines and  practices  a '.opted  and  maintained 
by  the  church  of  Rome.  The  following 
summary,  extracted  chiefly  from  the  de- 
crees of  the  council  of  Trent,  continued 
under  Paul  III,  Julius  III,  and  Pius  IV,  from 
the  year  1545  to  1563,  by  successive  ses- 
sions, and  the  creed  of  Fope  Pius  IV.  sub- 
joined to  it,  and  bearing  date  Nnvember 
1564,  may  not  be  unacceptable  to  the  read- 
er. One  of  the  fundamental  tenets  strenu- 
ously maintained  by  popish  writers,  is  the 
infallibility  of  the  church  of  Rome ;  though 
tliey  are  not  agreed  whether  this  privilege 
belongs  to  the  pope  or  a  general  council,  or 
to  both  united ;  but  they  pretend  that  an 
infallible  living  judge  is  absolutely  necessary 
to  determine  controversies,  and  to  secure 
peace  in  the  Christian  church.  However, 
Protestants  allege,  that  the  claim  of  infalli- 
bility in  any  church  is  not  justified  by  the 
authority  of  scripture,  much  less  does  it 
pertain  to  the  church  of  Rome  ;  and  that  it 
is  inconsistent  with  the  nature  of  religion, 
and  the  personal  obligations  of  its  profes- 
sors; and  tliat  it  has  proved  ineffectual  to 
the  end  for  which  it  is  supj)osed  to  be 
granted,  since  popes  and  councils  have  dis- 
agreed in  matters  of  importance,  and  they 
have  been  incapable  v;ith  the  advantage  of 
this  pretended  infallibility,  of  maintaining 
union  and  peace. 

Anotiier  essential  article  of  the  popish 
creed  is  the  supremacy  of  the  pope,  or  his 
sovereign  jjower  over  the  universal  church. 
See  Supremacy. 

Farther ;  the  doctrine  of  the  seven  sacra- 
ments is  a  peculiar  and  distinguishing  doc- 
trine of  the  ciuirch  of  Rome  ;  these  are 
baptism,  confirmation,  the  eucharist,  pen- 
ance, extreme  unction,  orders,  and  mat- 
rimony. 

The  council  of  Trent  (sess.  7,  can.  1.) 
pronounces  an  anatliema  on  those  who  say 
tiiat  the  sacraments  are  more  or  fewer  than 
seven,  or  that  any  one  of  the  above  number 
is  not  truly  and  prfiperly.a  sacrament.  And 
yet  it  does  not  appear  that  thcv  amounted 
to  this  number  before  the  tv.""lttli  ccntuiy, 
when  Hugo  de  St.  Victore  and  Peter  Lom- 
ba7-d,  about  the  year  1144,  tauglit  that  there 
Avere  seven  sacraments.  The  council  of 
Florence,  held  in  1438,  was  the  first  coimci! 
that  determined  this  number.  'I'hese  sa- 
craments confer  grace,  according-  to  the 
decree  of  the  council  of  Trent,  (sess.  7.  can. 
8.)  ex  o/itre  o/iera!o,  by  the  mtre  admini.v 


tration  of  them  :  three  of  them,  viz.  bap- 
tism, confirmation,  and  orders,  are  said  (c. 
9.)  to  impress  an  indelible  character,  so  that 
they  cannot  be  repeated  without  sacrilege ; 
and  the  efficacy  of  every  sacrament  de- 
pends on  the  intention  of  the  priest  bv  whom 
it  is  administered  (can.  11.)  Pope  Pius  ex- 
pressly enjoins  that  all  these  sacraments 
should  be  administered  according  to  the 
received  and  approved  rites  of  the  Catho- 
lic church.  With  regard  to  the  tucharist, 
in  particular,  we  may  here  obs'-rve,  that 
the  churcii  (if  Rome  holds  the  doctrine  of 
tran substantiation;  the  necessity  of  paying- 
divine  Worship  to  Christ  under  the  form  of 
the  consecrated  bread  or  host;  the  propi- 
tiatory sacrifice  of  the  mass,  according  to 
their  ideas  of  which,  Christ  is  truly  and 
properly  offered  as  a  sacrifice  as  often  as 
the  priest  says  mass ;  it  practises,  liliewise, 
solitary  mass,  in  which  the  priest  alone, 
who  consecrates,  communicates,  and  allows 
communion  only  in  one  kind,  viz.  the  bread 
to  the  laity.     Sess.  14. 

The  doctrine  of  merits  is  another  distin- 
guishing tenet  of  popery ;  with  regard  to 
which  the  council  of  Trent  has  expressly 
decreed  (sess.  6.  can.  32.)  that  tlie  good 
works  of  justified  persoris  are  truly  meri- 
torious ;  deserving  not  only  an  increase  of 
grace,  but  eternal  life,  and  an  increase  of 
glory  ;  and  it  has  anathematized  all  who 
deny  this  doctrine.  Of  the  same  kind  is 
the  doctrine  of  satisfactions  ;  which  suppo- 
ses that  penitents  may  truly  satisfy,  by  the 
afflictions  they  endure  under  ihe  dispensa- 
tions of  Providence,  or  by  voluntary  pen- 
ances to  which  they  submit,  for  the  tempo- 
ral penalties  of  sin  to  which  they  are  sub- 
ject, even  after  the  remission  of  their  eter- 
nal punishment.  Sess.  6.  can.  30.  and  sess. 
li,  can.  3  and  9.  In  this  connection  we 
may  mention  the  popish  distinction  of  venial 
and  mortal  sins  :  the  greatest  evils  arising 
from  the  former,  are  the  temporary  pains 
of  purgatory;  but  no  man,  it  is  said,  can 
obtain  the  pardon  of  the  latter,  without  con- 
fessing to  a  priest,  and  performing  the  pen- 
ances which  he  impr sts. 

Tlie  council  of  Trent  (sess.  14.  can,  1.) 
has  expressly  decreed,  that  every  one  is 
accursed  who  shall  affirm  that  penance  is 
not  truly  and  properly  a  sacrament  insti- 
tuted by  Clu'ist  in  the  uriiversal  church,  for 
veconciling  those  Christians  to  the  Divine 
Majesty,  who  have  fallen  into  sin  after 
baptisrn  ;  and  this  sacrament,  it  is  declared, 
con.sists  of  two  parts,  the  matter  and  the 
form  ;  the  matter  is  the  act  of  the  penitent, 
including  contrition,  confession,  and  satis- 
faction ;  the  form  of  it  is  the  act  of  absolu- 
tion on  the  part  of  the  priest.  Accordingly 
it  is  enjoined,  that  it  is  the  duty  of  every 
man  who  hath  fallen  after  baptism,  to  con- 
fess his  -^ins  once  a  year,  at  least,  to  a 
priest  ;  that  this  cor.fession  is  to  Ix"  secret; 
for  pntilic  confession  is  neither  commanded 
nor  expedient:  and  that  it  must  be  exact 
and  particular,  including  every   kind  and 


POP 


401 


POP 


act  of  sin,  with  all  the  circumstances  at- 
tending it.  When  the  penitent  has  so  done, 
the  priest  pronounces  an  absolution,  which 
is  not  conditional  or  declarative  only,  but 
absolute  and  judicial  This  secret  or  auri- 
cular confession  was  first  decrted  and  estab- 
lished in  the  fourth  council  of  Lateran, 
under  Innocent  III,  1215  (cap.  21.)  And 
the  decree  of  this  council  was  afterwards 
confirmed  and  enlarged  in  the  council  of 
Florence  and  in  that  of  Trent,  which  or- 
dains, that  confession  was  instituted  by 
Christ ;  that  by  the  law  of  Gud  it  is  neces- 
sary to  salvation,  and  that  it  has  always 
been  practised  in  the  Christian  church.  As 
for  the  penances  imposed  on  the  penitent  by 
way  of  satisfaction,  they  have  been  com- 
monly the  repetition  of  certain  forms  of  de- 
votion, as  paternosttrs,  or  ave  m arias,  the 
payment  of  stipulated  sums,  pilgrimages, 
fasts,  or  various  s])ecies  of  corporeal  disci- 
pline. But  the  most  formidable  penance,  in 
the  estimation  of  many  who  have  belonged 
to  the  Roman  communion,  has  been  the 
temporary  pains  of  purgatory.  But  under 
all  the  penalties  which  are  inflicted  or 
threatened  in  the  Romish  church,  it  has 
provided  relief  by  its  indulgences,  and  by  its 
prayers  or  masses  for  the  dead,  performed 
professedly  for  relieving  and  rescuing  the 
souls  that  are  detained  in  purgatory. 

Another  article  that  has  been  long  au- 
thoritatively enjoined  and  observed  in  the 
church  of  Rome,  is  the  celibacy  of  her 
clergy.  This  was  first  enjoined  at  Rome 
by  Gregory  VII,  about  the  year  1074,  and 
established  in  England  by  Anselm,  archbi- 
shop of  Canterbury,  about  the  year  1175  ; 
though  his  predecessor  Lanfranc  had  impos- 
ed it  upon  the  prebendaries  and  clergy  that 
lived  in  towns.  And  though  the  council  of 
Trent  was  repeatedly  petitioned  by  several 
i  princes  and  states  to  abolish  this  restraint, 
I  the  obligation  of  celibacy  was  rather  esta- 
blished than  relaxed  by  this  council ;  for 
they  decreed,  that  marriage  contracted 
after  a  vow  of  continence,  is  neither  lawful 
nor  valid ;  and  thus  deprived  the  church  of 
the  possibility  of  ever  restoring  marriage  to 
the  clergy.  For  if  marriage,  after  a  vow, 
be  in  itself  unlawful,  the  greatest  authority 
upon  earth  cannot  dispense  with  it,  nor  per- 
mit marriage  to  the  clergy  who  have 
already  vowed  continence.  See  Celibacy. 
To  the  doctrines  and  practices  above  re- 
cited, may  be  further  added,  the  worship 
of  images,  of  which  Protestants  accuse  the 
Papists.  But  to  this  accusation  the  papii^t 
replies,  that  he  keeps  images  by  him  to 
preserve  in  his  mind  the  memory  of  the 
persons  represented  by  them  ;  as  people  are 
wont  to  preserve  the  memory  of  their  de- 
ceased friends  by  keeping  their  pictures. 

He  is  taught  (he  says)  to  use  them  so  as 
to  cast  his  eyes  upon  the  pictures  or  ima- 
ges, and  thence  to  raise  his  heart  to  the 
Slings  represented  ;  and  there  to  employ  it 
in  meditation,  love,  and  thanksgiving,  desire 
of  imitation,  &c.  as  the  object  requires. 

3  JG 


These~pictures  or  images  have  this  ad- 
vantage, that  they  inform  the  mind^J^y  one 
glance  of  what  in  reading  might  require  a 
whole  chapter  ;  there  bemg  no  other  differ- 
ence between  them  than  that  reading  re- 
presents leisurely,  and  by  degrees,  and  a 
picture  all  at  once.  Hence  he  finds  a  con- 
venience in  saying  his  prayers  with  some 
devout  pictures  before  him,  he  being  no 
sooner  distracted,  but  the  sight  of  these  re- 
calls his  wandering  thoughts  to  the  right 
object  ;  and  as  certainly  brings  something 
good  into  his  mind,  as  an  immodest  picture 
disturbs  his  heart  with  filthy  thoughts. 
And  because  he  is  sensible  that  these  holy 
pictures  and  images  represent  and  bring  to 
his  mind  such  objects  as  in  his  heart  he 
loves,  honours,  and  venerates,  he  cannot  but 
upon  that  account  love,  honour,  and  respect 
the  images  themselves. 

The  council  of  Trent  Hkewise  decreed, 
that  all  bishops  and  pastors  who  have  the 
care  of  souls  do  diligently  instruct  their 
flocks  that  it  is  good  and  profitable  to 
desire  the  intercession  of  saints  reigning" 
with  Christ  in  heaven.  And  this  decree 
the  Papists  endeavour  to  defend,  by  the 
following  observations.  They  confess  that 
we  have  but  one  mediator  of  redemption  ; 
but  affirm  that  it  is  acceptable  to  God 
that  we  should  have  many  mediators  of 
intercession.  Moses  (say  they)  was  such  a 
mediator  for  the  Israelites ;  Job  for  his 
three  friends ;  Stephen  for  his  persecutors. 
The  Romans  were  thus  desired  by  St.  Paul 
to  be  his  mediators :  so  were  the  Corinthi- 
ans ;  so  the  Ephesians  {E/i.  ad.  Rom.  Cor. 
Eph.)  so  almost  every  sick  man  desires  the 
congregation  to  be  his  mediators,  by  re- 
membering him  in  their  prayers.  And  so 
the  Papist  desires  the  blessed  in  heaven  to 
be  his  mediators ;  that  is,  that  they  would 
pray  to  God  for  him.  But  between  these 
living  and  dead  mediators  there  is  no  simi- 
larity ;  the  living  mediator  is  present,  and 
certainly  hears  the  request  of  those  who 
desire  him  to  intercede  for  iliem ;  the 
dead  mediator  is  as  certainly  absent,  and 
cannot  possibly  hear  the  requests  of  all 
those  who  at  the  same  instant  may  be  beg- 
ging him  to  intercede  for  them,  unless  he 
be  possessed  of  the  divine  attribute  of  om- 
nipresence ;  and  he  who  gives  that  attri- 
bute to  any  creature,  is  unquestionably  guilty 
of  idolatry.  And  as  this  decree  is  conti-ary 
to  one  of  the  first  principles  of  natural 
religion,  so  does  it  receive  no  countenance 
from  scripture,  or  any  Christian  writer  of 
the  three  first  centuries.  Other  practices 
peculiar  to  the  Papists  are,  the  religious 
honour  and  respect  that  they  pay  to  sacred 
relics;  by  which  they  understand  not  only 
the  bodies  and  parts  of  the  bodies  of  the 
saints,  but  any  of  those  things  that  apper- 
tained to  them,  and  which  they  touclied  : 
and  the  celebration  of  divine  service  in  an 
unknown  tongue :  to  which  purpose  the 
council  of  Trent  hath  denounced  an  ana- 
thema on  any  one  who  shall  say  that  mass 


POV 


402 


PRA 


ought  to  be  celebi'ated  only  in  the  vulgar 
tongue  (sess  25,  and  sess.  22,  can,  9.) 
Though  the  council  of  Lateran,  under  Inno- 
cent ill,  in  1215  (can.  9,)  had  expressly 
decreed,  that,  because,  in  many  parts  widi- 
in  the  same  city  and  diocese,  there  are 
many  people  of  different  manners  and  rites 
mixed  together,  but  of  one  faith,  the  bish- 
ops of  such  cities  or  dioceses  should  pro- 
vide fit  men  for  celebrating  divine  offices, 
according  to  the  diversity  of  tongues  and 
rites,  and  for  administering  the  sacra- 
ments. 

We  shall  only  add,  that  the  church  of 
Rome  maintains,  that  unwritten  traditions 
ought  to  be  added  to  the  holy  scriptures,  in 
order  to  supply  their  defect,  and  to  be  re- 
garded as  of  equal  authority ;  that  the 
books  of  the  Apocrypha  are  canonical  scrip- 
tui'e  ;  that  the  Vulgate  edition  of  the  Bible 
is  to  be  deemed  authentic  ;  and  that  the 
scriptures  are  to  be  received  and  interpret- 
ed according  to  that  sense  whicli  the  holy 
mother  church,  to  whom  it  belongs  to 
judge  of  the  true  sense,  hath  held,  and  doth 
hold,  and  according  to  the  unanimous  con- 
sent of  the  fathers. 

Such  are  the  principal  and  distinguishing 
doctrines  of  popery,  most  of  which  liave  re- 
ceived the  sanction  of  the  council  of  Trent, 
and  that  of  the  creed  of  pope  Pius  IV, 
•which  is  received,  professed,  and  sworn  to, 
by  every  one  who  enters  into  holy  orders  in 
the  cliurch  of  Rome ;  and  at  the  close  of 
this  creed  we  are  told,  that  the  faith  con- 
taintd  in  it  is  so  absolutely  and  indispen- 
sably necessary,  that  no  man  can  be  saved 
•without  't.  See  Antichrist.  Bowers^ 
History  of  the  Popes.  Smith\  Errors  of 
the  Church  of  Rome  detected.  HenneVs 
Confutation  of  Po fiery.  Sermons  at  Sal- 
ter's Hall  against  Popery.  Bishop.  Hur- 
net''s  Travels.  CTc.  Moore''s  View  of  So- 
ciety and  Manners  in  Italy.  Dr.  Middle- 
ton's  Letters  from  Pome.  Stevensori's 
Historical  and  Critical  View  of  some  of  the 
Doctrines  of  the  Church  of  Rome. 

POSITIVE  INSTITUTES.  See  Insti- 
tutions. 

POSSESSION  OF  THE  DEVIL.    See 

DAEMON  I  ACS. 

POVERTY  is  that  state  or  situation,  op- 
posed to  riches,  in  which  we  are  deprived 
of  t'n'e  convGuiences  of  life.  Indigence  is  a 
degree  lower,  where  we  want  the  necessa- 
ries, and  is  opposed  to  superfluity.  IVant 
seems  rather  to  arrive  by  accident,  imphes 
a  scarcity  of  provision,  rather  than  a  lack 
of  money,  and  is  opposed  to  abundance. 
JVeed  and  rtecessity  relate  less  to  the  situa- 
tion of  life  than  the  other  three  words,  but 
more  to  the  relief  we  expect,  or  the  re- 
n-^dy  we  seek  ;  with  this  difference  be- 
tween the  two,  that  need  seems  less  i)rcss- 
ing  than  necessity. — 2.  Poverty  of  mind 
is  a  state  of  ignorance,  or  a  mind  void  of  re- 
ligious principle.  Rev.  iii.  17. — 3.  Povertii 
of  Spirit,  consists  in  au  inward  sense  and 


feeling  of  our  wants  and  defects  ;  a  convic- 
tion of  our  wretched  and  forlorn  condition 
by  nature  ;  with  a  dependance  on  Divine 
Grace  and  mercy  for  pardon  and  accep- 
tance, Matt.  v.  3  It  must  be  distinguished 
from  a  poor  spiritedness,  a  sneaking  fear- 
fulness,  which  bringeth  a  snare.  It  is  the 
effect  of  the  operation  of  the  Divine  Spirit 
on  the  heart,  John  xvi.  8  ;  is  attended  with 
submission  to  the  Divine  will  ;  contentment 
in  our  situation ;  meekness  and  forbear- 
ance as  to  others,  and  genuine  humility  as 
to  ourselves.  It  is  a  spirit  approved  of  by 
God,  Isa.  Ixvi.  2.  evidential  of  true  religion, 
Luke  xviii.  13.  and  terminates  in  endless 
felicity.  Matt.  v.  3.  Isa.  Ivii.  15.  Ps.  xxxiv. 
18.  Jjtinlop's  Ser.  lee.  1  vol.  ii.  Barclay's 
Diet.  South's  Serm.  vol.  x.  sei*.  1.  No. 
464,  Spec  vol.  vi.  Robert  Harris'  Sermons^ 
ser.  3.  part  3 

POWER,  ability,  force,  strength.  Pow- 
er includes  a  particular  relation  to  the 
subordinate  execution  of  superior  orders. 
In  the  word  authority  we  find  a  sufficient 
energy  to  make  us  perceive  a  right.  Do- 
7ninion  carries  with  it  an  idea  of  empire. 

POWER    OF    GOD       See    Omnipo- 
tence. 

POWERS  OF  THE  MIND  are  those 
faculties  by  which  we  diink,  reason,  judge, 
&c.  They  are  so  various,  says  Dr.  Reid, 
so  many,  so  connected,  and  complicated  in 
most  of  their  operations,  that  there  never 
has  been  any  division  of  them  proposed 
which  is  not  liable  to  considerable  objections. 
The  most  common  division  is  that  of  under- 
standing and  will.  Under  the  will  we  com- 
prehend our  active  powers,  and  all  that  lead 
to  action,  or  influence  the  mind  to  act ;  such 
as  appetites,  passions,  affections.  The  -un- 
derstanding comprehends  our  contemplative 
powers,  by  which  we  perceive  objects ;  by 
which  we  conceive  or  remember  them  ;  by 
which  we  analyse  or  compound  them ;  and 
by  which  we  judge  and  reason  concerning 
them.  Or  the  intellectual  powers  are  com*- 
monly  divided  into  simple  apprehension, 
judgment,  and  reasoning.  See  Reid  on  the 
Active  Powers,  also  on  the  Human  Mind, 
and  the  Intellectual  Powers.  Locke  on  the 
Understanding.  For  the  influence  Chris- 
tianity has  had  on  the  moral  and  intellec- 
tual powers,  see  White's  admirable  sermons, 
ser.  9. 

PRAISE,  an  acknowledgment  made  of 
the  excellency  or  perfection  of  any  person 
or  action,  with  a  commendation  of  the 
same.  "  The  desire  of  praise,"  says  an 
elegant  writer,  "  is  generally  connected 
with  all  the  finer  sensibilities  of  human 
1  nature.  It  affords  a  ground  on  which  ex- 
Ihortation,  council,  and  reproof,  can  work  a 
I  proper  effect.  To  be  entirely  destitute  of 
!  this  passion  betokens  an  ignoble  mind,  on 
[which  no  moral  impression  is  easily  made  ; 
I  for  where  there  is  no  desire  of  praise,  there 
I  will  also  be  no  sense  of  reproach ;  but 
while  it  is  admitted  to  be  a  natural  and  in 


PRA 


4o: 


PllA 


many  respects  an  useful  principle  of  action, 
•we  are  to  observe  that  it  is  entitltd  to  no 
mort  than  our  secondary  regard.  It  has  its 
boundary  set,  by  transgressing  which,  it  is 
at  once  transformed  from  an  innocent  into 
a  mobt  dangerous  passion.  When  passing 
its  natural  line,  it  becomes  the  ruling 
spring  of  conduct :  wlien  the  regard  which 
we  pay  to  the  opinions  of  men  encroaches 
on  that  reverence  which  we  owe  to  the 
voice  of  conscience  and  tl\e  sense  of  duly, 
the  love  of  praise,  having  then  gone  out  of 
its  proper  place,  instead  of  improving,  cor- 
rupts ;  and  instead  of  elevating,  debases  our 
nature."  Young^s  Love  of  Fame.  Blair's 
Sermons y  ser.  6.  vol.  ii.  Jortan^s  Diss. 
diss.  4.  passim.  Wilberforce's  Pract.  Fiew, 
ch.  iv.  sec.  3.  Smith's  Theorij  of  Moral 
Sent.  vol.  i.  p.  233.  Fitzosborne's  Letters^ 
let.  18. 

PRAISE  OF  GOD,  the  acknowledging 
his  perfections,  works,  and  benefits.    Praise 
and  thanksgiving  are  generally  considered 
as  synonymous,  yet  some  distinguish  them 
thus :  Praise  properly   terminates  in   God» 
on  account  of  his  natural  excellencies  and 
perfections,  and  is  that  act  of  devotion  by 
which  we  confe.ss  and  admire  his  several 
attributes :    but    thanksgiving   is    a    more 
contracted  duty,  and  imports  only  a  grate- 
ful sense  and  acknowledgment  of  past  mer- 
cies.    We  praise  God  for  all  his  glorious 
acts  of  eveiy  kind,  that  regard  either  usKir  j 
other  men;    for    his   very   vengeance,,  and  ^ 
those  judgments  which  he  sometimes  sends  | 
abroad  in  the  earth ;  but   we    thank    him, 
properly  speaking,  for  the  instances  of  his] 
goodness  alone,   and  for  such  only  of  these 
as  we  ourselves  ai'e  some  way  concerned  in 
See  Thanksgiving.     Bisho/i  Atterbury's\ 
Sermon  on  Psalm  1.  14.     Saurin's  Serrno?is. 
vol.  i.  ser.    14      Tillotson'a    Sermonsy   ser. 
146,  concl. 

PRxWftR,  a  request  or  petition  for  mer- 
cies; or  it  is  "  an  offering  up  our  desires 
to  God,  for  things  agreeljle  to  his  will,  in 
the  name  of  Christ,  by  the  help  of  his 
Spirit,  ^^'itU  confession  of  our  sins,  and 
thankful  acknowledgment  of  his  mercies ': 
Nothing  can  be  more  rational  or  consist- 
ent than  the  exercise  of  this  duty.  It  is 
a  divine  injunction  that  men  slmuld  always 
pray,  and  not  faint,  Luke  xviii.  1.  It  is 
highly  proper  we  should  acknowledge  the 
cbiigations  we  are  under  to  the  Divint 
Being,  and  supplicate  his  throne  for  tlie 
blessings  we  stand  in  need  of.  It  is  essen- 
tial to  our  peace  and  felicity,  and  is  the 
happy  mean  of  dur  carrying  on  and  enjoy- 
ing fell  wship  with  God.  It  has  an  iuHu- 
ence  on  our  tempers  and  conduct,  and  evi- 
dences our  subjection  and  obedience  to 
God.  We  shall  here  consider  the  object, 
nature,  kinds,  matter,  manner,  and  fdnns 
of  praver,  together  with  its  efhcacy,  and  the 
ol)jectinns  made  against  it, 

I,  The  object,  of  Prayer  is  God  alone, 
thrnugii  Jesus  Christ,  as  ihe  Mediator.  All 
supplications,  therefore,  to  saints  or  angels, 


are  not  only  useless  but  blaspheinous.--7. 
All  worship  of  the  creature,  however  exalt- 
ed that  creature  is,  is  idolatry,  and  strictly- 
prohibited  in  the  sacred  law  of  God.  Isor 
are  we  to  pray  to  the  Trinity,  as  three  dis- 
tinct Gods ;  for  though  the  Fathe  Son,  and 
Holy  Ghost  be  addressed  in  various  parts  of 
the  scripture,  2  Cor.  xiii.  14.  2  Ttiess.  ii. 
16,  17.  yet  never  as  tliree  Gods,  for  that 
would  lead  us  directly  to  the  doctrine  of 
polytheism  :  the  more  ordinary  mode  the 
scripture  points  out,  is,  to  address  the  Fa- 
ther through  the  Son,  depending  on  the  Spi- 
rit to*  help  our  infirmities,  Eph.  ii.  IS.  Rom. 
viii.  26. 

II.  jis  to  the  nature  of  this  duty  :  it 
must  be  observed,  that  it  does  not  consist 
in  the  elevation  of  the  voice,  the  posture  of 
the  body,  the  use  of  a  form,  or  the  mere 
extemporary  use  of  words,  nor,  properly- 
speaking,  in  any  tiling  of  an  exterior  na- 
ture ;  but  simply  the  offering  up  of  our  de- 
sires to  God,  .Matt  XV.  8,  (see  the  defini- 
tion above.)  It  has  been  generally  divided 
into  adoration,  by  Avhich  we  express  our 
sense  of  the  goodness  and  greatness  of  God, 
Dan.  iv.  34,  35;  iojftssion,  by  which  we 
acknowledge  our  nnworthiness,  1  John  i.  9  ; 
supplication,  by  which  we  pray  for  pardon, 
grace,  or  any  blessing  we  want.  Matt.  vii. 
7;  intercession,  by  which  we  pray  for 
others,  James  v.  16,  and  thanksgiving,  by 
which  we  express  our  gratitude  to  God^ 
Phil.  iv.  6.  'l"o  which  some  add  invocation^ 
a  making  mention  of  one  or  more  of  the 
names  of  God  ;  pleading,  arguing  our  case 
with  God  in  an  humble  and  fervent  man- 
ner ;  dedication,  or  surrendering  ourselves 
to  God  i  deprecation,  by  which  we  desire 
that  evils  may  be  averted ;  blessing,  in 
which  we  expvesss  our  joy  in  God,  and 
gratitude  for  his  mercies ;  but  as  all  these 
appear  to  me  to  be  included  in  the  five 
first  parts  of  prayer,  I  think  they  need  not 
be  insisted  on. 

III.  The  different  kinds  of  prayer  are, 
1.  Ejaculati5ry,  by  which  the  mind  is  direct- 
ed to  God  on  any  emergency.  It  is  derived 
from  the  world  ejaculor,  to  dart  or  shoot 
out  suddenly,  and  is  therefore  appropriate 
to  describe  this  kind  of  prayer,  which  is 
made  up  of  short  sentences  spontaneously 
springing  from  the  mind.  The  scripture 
affords  us  many  instances  of  ejaculatory 
prayer,  Exod  xiv.  15.  1  Sam.  i.  13.  Rom. 
vii.  24,  25.  Gen.  xliii.  29.  Judges  xvi. 
38.  Luke  xxiii.  42,  43  It  is  one  of  the 
pnncii)al  excellencies  of  this  kind  of  pray- 
er, that  it  can  be  practised  at  all  times, 
and  in  all  places  ;  in  the  public  ordinances 
of  religion;  in  all  our  ordinary  and  extraor- 
dinary undertakings  ;  in  times  of  affliction, 
temptation,  and  danger;  in  seasons  of  social 
intercourse,  in  worldly  business,  in  travel- 
ling, in  sickness,  and  pain.  In  fact,  every 
thing  around  us,  and  every  event  that  trans- 
pires, may  affnrd  us  matter  for  ejaculation. 
II  It  is  worthy,  thercfrre,  of  our  practice,  es- 
pecially when  w(?  consider  that  it  is  a  species 


PRA 


404 


PRA 


of  devotion  that  can  receive  no  impediment  | 
from  any  external  circumstances;  that  it 
has  a  tendency  to  support  the  mind,  and  keep 
it  in  a  happy  frame  ;  fortifies  us  against  the 
temptations  of  the  world ;  elevates  our  affec- 
tions to  God  ;  directs  the  mind  mto  a  spirit- 
ual channel ;  and  has  a  tendency  to  excite 
trust  and  dependence  on  Divine  Providence. 
— 2.  Secret  or  closet  prayer,  is  another 
kind  of  prayer  to  which  we  should  attend. 
It  has  its  name  from  the  manner  in  which 
Xj;hrist  recommended  it,  Matt.  vi.  6.  He 
himself  set  us  an  example  of  it,  Luke  vi. 
1 2 ;  and  it  has  been  the  practice  of  the 
saints  in  eveiy  age,  Gen.  xxvii.  xxxii.  Dan. 
vi.  10.  Acts  X.  9.  There  are  some  parti- 
cular occasions  when  this  duty  may  be  prac- 
tised to  advantage,  as  when  we  are  enter- 
ing into  any  important  situation;  underta- 
king, any  thing  of  consequence ;  before  we 
go  into  the  world ;  when  calamities  surround 
us,  Isa.  xxvi.  20;  or  when  ease  and  pi'os- 
perJty  attend  us.  As  closet  prayer  is  calcu- 
lated to  inspire  us  with  peace,  defend  us 
from  our  spiritual  enemies,  excite  us  to 
obedience,  and  promote  our  real  happiness, 
we  should  be  watchful  lest  the  stupidity  of 
our  frame,  the  intrusion  of  company,  the 
cares  of  the  world,  the  insinuations  of  Sa- 
tan, or  the  indulgence  of  sensual  objects, 
prevent  us  from  the  constant  exercise  of 
this  necessary  and  important  duty. — 3.  Fa- 
mily prayer  is  also  another  part  not  to  be 
neglected.  It  is  true  there  is  no  absolute 
command  for  this  in  God's  word  ;  yet  from 
hints,  allusions,  and  examples,  we  may  learn 
that  it  was  the  practice  of  our  forefathers : 
Abraham,  Gen.  xviii.  19.  David,  2  Sam. 
vi.  20.  Solomon,  Prov.  xxii.  6.  Job  i.  4,  5. 
Joshua  xxiv.  15.  See  also  Eph.  vi.  4  Prov 
vi.  20  Jer.  x.  25.  Acts  x.  2,  30.  Acts 
xvi.  15.  Family  prayer,  indeed,  may  not 
be  essential  to  the  character  of  a  true  Chris- 
tian, but  it  is  surely  no  honour  to  heads  of 
familifs  to  have  it  said  that  they  have  no 
rehgiou  in  their  houses.  If  we  consider 
what  a  blessing  it  is  likely  to  prove  to  our 
chilch'en  and  our  domestics  ;  what  comfort  it 
must  afford  to  ourselves ;  what  utility  it  may 
prove  to  the  community  at  large ;  how  it 
sanctifies  domestic  comforts  and  crosses ; 
and  what  a  tendency  it  has  to  promote  or- 
der, decency,  sobriety,  and  religion  in  gene- 
ral, we  must  at  once  see  the  propriety  of 
attending  to  it.  The  ohjecdon  often  made 
to  fiiniily  prayer  is,  want  of  time  ;  but  this 
is  a  very  frivolous  excuse,  since  the  time 
allotted  for  this  purpose  need  be  but  short, 
and  may  easily  be  redeemed  from  sleep  or 
business.  Others  say,  they  have  no  gifts  : 
•where  this  is  the  case,  a  form  may  soon  be 

Erocured  and  used,  but  it  should  be  remem 
ered  that  gifts  increase  by  exercise,  and 
no  man  can  properly  decide,  unless  he 
make  repeated  trials.  Others  are  deterred 
tiirough  shame,  or  the  fear  of  man:  in  answer 
to  sucli,  Ave  shall  refer  them  to  the  declara- 
tions of  our  Lord,  Matt.  x.  37,  38.  Mark 
viii.  3S,   .A..S  to  the  season  for  family  prayer, 


every  family  must  determine  for  itself:  but 
before  breakfast  every  morning,  and  before 
supper  at  night,  seems  most  proper;  per- 
haps a  quarter  of  an  hour  or  twenty  minutes 
may  be  sufficient  as  to  the  time. — 4.  Social 
prayer  is  another  kind  Christians  are  called 
upon  to  attend  to.  It  is  denominated  social, 
because  it  is  offered  by  a  society  of  Chris- 
tians in  their  collective  capacity,  convened 
for  that  particular  purpose,  either  on  some 
peculiar  and  extraordinary  occasions,  or  at 
stated  and  regular  seasons.  Special  pray- 
er-meetings are  such  as  are  held  at  the 
meeting  and  parting  of  intimate  friends, 
especially  churches  and  ministers:  when 
the  church  is  in  a  state  of  unusual  deadness 
and  barrenness  ;  when  ministers  are  sick  or 
taken  away  by  death ;  in  times  of  public 
calamity  and  distress,  &c.  Stated  meetings 
for  social  prayer  are  such  as  are  held 
weekly  in  some  places  which  have  a  spe- 
cial regard  to  the  state  of  the  nation  and 
churches :  missionary  prayer-meetings  for 
the  spread  of  the  Gospel  ;  weekly  meetings 
held  in  most  of  the  congregations  which 
have  a  more  particular  reference  to  their 
own  churches,  ministers,  the  sick,  feeble, 
and  weak  of  the  flock.  Christians  are 
greatly  encouraged  to  this  kind  of  prayer 
from  the  consideration  of  the  promise. 
Matt,  xviii.  20  ;  the  benefit  of  mutual  sup- 
plication :  from  the  example  of  the  most 
eminent  primitive  saints,  Mai.  iii.  16.  Acts 
xii.  12  ;  the  answers  given  to  prayer.  Acts 
xii.  1 — 12.  Josh  X  Isaiah  xxxvii.  &c. 
and  the  signal  blessings  they  are  to  the 
churches,  Phil.  i.  19.  2  Cor.  i.  11.  These 
meetings  should  be  attended  with  regulari- 
ty ;  those  who  engage  should  study  simpli- 
city, brevity,  scripture  language,  serious- 
ness of  spirit,  and  every  thing  that  has  a 
tendency  to  edification.  We  now  come  lastly, 
to  take  notice  oi  fiublic  prayer,  or  that  in 
which  the  whole  congregation  is  engaged, 
either  in  repeating  a  set  form,  or  acquiescing 
with  the  prayer  of  the  minister  who  leads 
their  devotions  This  is  both  an  ancient  and 
important  part  of  religious  exercise  ;  it  was  a 
part  of  the  patriarchal  worship,  Gen.  iv.  56 ; 
it  was  also  carried  on  by  the  Jews,  Exod. 
xxix  43.  Luke  i.  10.  It  was  a  part  of  the 
temple  service.  Is.  Ivi.  ".  1  Kings  viii.  59. 
Jesus  Christ  recommended  it  both  by  his  ex- 
ample and  instruction.  Matt,  xviii.  20. 
Luke  iv.  16  The  disciples  also  attended 
to  it.  Acts  ii.  41,  42 ;  and  the  scriptures  in 
many  places  countenance  it,  Exod.  xx.  24. 
Psal.  Ixiii.  1,  2.  Psal.  Ixxxiv.  11.  PsaJ, 
xxvii.  4.  For  the  nature,  necessity,  place, 
time,  and  attendance  on  public  worship, 
see  Worship. 

IV.  Of  the  matter  of  prayer.  "  It  is  ne- 
cessary," says  Dr.  Watts,  "  to  furnish  our- 
selves with  proper  matter,  that  we  may  be 
able  to  hold  much  converse  with  God  ;  to 
entertain  ourselves  and  others  agreeably  and 
devoutly  in  worship  ;  to  assist  the  exercise 
of  our  own  grace  and  others,  by  a  rich  sup- 
ply of  divine  thoughts  and  desires  in  prayer. 


PRA 


405 


PRA 


that  we  may  not  be  forced  to  make  tooi 
long  and  indecent  pauses  whilst  we  are  per- 
forming that  duty ;  nor  break  oft'  abruptly 
as  soon  as  we  have  begun  for  want  of  mat- 
ter ;  nor  pour  out  abundance  of  words  to 
dress  up  narrow  and  scanty  sense  for  want 
of  variety  of  devout  thoughts.  1.  We  should 
labour  after  a  large  acquaintance  with  all 
things  that  belong  to  religion  ;  for  there  is 
nothing  that  relates  to  religion  but  may 
properly  make  some  part  of  the  matter  of 
our  prayer.  A  great  acquaintance  with 
God  in  his  nature,  perfections,  works  and 
word,  an  intimate  acquaintance  with  cur- 
selves,  and  a  lively  sense  of  our  own  frames, 
wants,  sorrows,  and  joys,  will  supply  us 
with  abundant  furniture.  We  should  also 
be  watchful  observers  of  the  dealings  of 
God  with  us  in  every  ordinance,  and  in 
every  providence.  We  should  observe  the 
working  of  our  heart  towards  God,  or  to- 
wards the  creature,  and  often  examine  our 
temper  and  our  life,  both  in  our  natural,  our 
civil,  and  religious  action.  For  this  pur- 
pose, as  well  as  upon  many  other  accounts, 
it  will  be  of  great  advantage  to  keep  by  us  in 
writing  some  of  the  most  remarkable  pro- 
vidences of  God,  and  instances  of  his  mer- 
cy or  anger  towards  us,  and  some  of  our 
most  remarkable  carriages  towards  him, 
whether  sins,  or  duties,  or  the  exercises  of 
grace. — 2.  We  should  not  content  ourselves 
merely  with  generals ;  but  if  we  wish  to 
be  furnished  with  large  supplies  of  matter, 
we  must  descend  to  particulars  in  our  con- 
fessions, petitions,  and  thanksgivings.  We 
should  enter  into  a  particular  consideration 
of  the  attributes,  the  glories,  the^  graces, 
and  the  relations  of  God.  We  should  ex- 
press our  sins,  our  wants,  and  our  sorrows, 
with  a  particular  sense  of  the  mournful  cir- 
cumstances that  attend  them  :  it  will  enlarge 
our  hearts  with  prayer  and  humiliation,  if 
■we  confess  the  aggravations  that  increase 
the  guilt  of  our  sins,  viz  whether  they 
have  been  committed  against  knowledge, 
against  the  warnings  of  conscience,  &c.  It 
will  furnish  us  with  large  matter,  if  we 
run  over  the  exulting  and  heightening  cir- 
cumstances of  our  mercies  and  comforts, 
viz.  that  they  are  great,  and  spiritual,  and 
eternal,  as  well  as  temporal.  Our  petitions 
aiid  thanksgivings,  in  a  special  manner, 
should  be  suited  to  the  place  and  circum- 
stances of  ourselves,  and  those  that  we  pray 
with,  and  those  that  we  pray  for. — 3.  It  is 
very  proper,  at  solemn  seasons  of  worship, 
to  read  some  part  of  the  word  of  God,  or 
some  spiritual  treatise  written  by  holy  men ; 
or  to  converse  with  fellow  Christians  about 
divine  things,  or  to  spend  some  time  in  re- 
collection or  meditation  of  things  that  belong 
to  religion  :  this  will  not  only  supply  us  with 
divine  matter,  but  will  compose  our 
thoughts  to  a  solemnity.  Just  before  we  en- 
gage in  that  work,  we  should  be  absent  a  lit- 
tle from  the  world,  that  our  spirits  may  be 
freer  for  converse  with  God — 4.  If  we  find 
our  hearts,  after  all,  very  barren,  a«d  hard- 


ly know  how  to  frame  a  prayer  before 
God  of  ourselves,  it  has  been  oftentimes 
useful  to  take  a  book  in  our  hand,  wlierein 
are  contained  some  spiritual  meditations  in  a 
petitionary  form,  some  devout  refieciions, 
or  excellent  patterns  of  prayer  ;  and  above 
all,  the  Psalms  of  David,  some  of  the  pro- 
phecies of  Isaiah,  some  chapters  in  the 
Gospels,  or  any  of  the  Epistles.  Thus  we 
may  lift  up  our  hearts  to  God  in  stcret,  ac- 
C'lrding  as  the  verses  or  paragraphs  we 
read  are  suited  to  the  case  ot  our  own 
souls.  This  many  Christians  have  experi- 
enced as  a  very  agreeable  help,  and  of 
gr«rat  advantage  in  their  secret  retirement 
5.  We  must  not  think  it  absolutely  necessary 
to  insist  upon  all  the  parts  of  prayer  in  eve- 
ry address  to  God ;  though  in  our  stated 
and  solemn  prayers  there  are  but  few  of 
them  that  can  be  well  left  out.  What  we 
omit  at  one  time,  we  may,  perhaps,  pursue 
at  another  with  more  lively  affection.  But 
let  us  be  sure  to  insist  most  upon  those 
things  which  are  warmest  in  our  hearts, 
especially  in  secret.  We  should  let  those 
parts  of  prayer  have  the  large.st  share  ia 
the  performance  for  which  our  spirit  is 
best  prepared,  whether  it  be  adoration,  pe- 
tition, cnnfession  or  thanksgivirg. — 0  We 
should  suit  the  matter  of  our  prayers  to 
the  special  occasion  of  each  particular  duty, 
to  the  circumstances  of  the  time,  place, 
and  persons  with  and  for  whom  we  pray. 
This  will  direct  us  to  the  choice  of  proper 
thoughts  and  language  for  every  part  of 
prayer. — T.  We  should  not  affect  to  pray 
long  for  the  sake  of  length,  or  to  stretcU 
eut  our  matter  by  labour  and  toil  of  thought, 
beyond  the  furniture  of  our  own  spirit. 
Sometimes  a  person  is  betrayed  by  an  af- 
fectation of  long  prayers  into  crude,  rash, 
and  unseemly  expressions;  we  are  tempt- 
ed hereby  to  tautologies,  to  say  the  same 
thing  over  and  over  again.  We  are  in  dan- 
ger of  tiring  those  that  .join  with.  us.  We 
exceed  the  season  that  is  allotted  for  us 
in  prayer,  especially  when  others  are  to 
succeed  in  the  same  work." 

V.  Of  the  method  of  prayer.  "  Method," 
continues  Dr.  Watts,  "  is  necessary  to 
guide  our  thoughts,  to  regulate  our  expres- 
sions, and  dispose  of  the  several  parts  of 
prayer  in  such  an  order,  as  is  most  easy  to 
I  be  understood  by  those  that  join  with  us, 
1  and  most  proper  to  excite  and  maintain 
our  own  devotion  and  their's.  This  will  be 
of  use  to  secure  us  from  confusion,  prevent 
repetitions,  and  guard  us  against  roving  di- 
gressions. The  general  rules  of  method  in 
prayer  are  these  three  :  1.  Let  the  general 
and  the  particular  heads  in  prayer  be  well 
distingui.shed,  and  usually  let  generals  be 
mentioned  first,  and  particulars  follow.  2. 
Let  things  of  the  same  kind,  for  the  most 
part,  be  put  together  in  prayer.  We  should 
not  run  from  one  part  to  another  by  starts, 
and  sudden  wild  thoughts,  and  then  return 
often  to  the  same  part  again,  going  back- 
ward and  forward  in  confusion ;  this  bewil- 


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ders  the  mind  of  him  that  prays,  disgusts 
our  fellow  worshippers,  and  injures  their 
devotion  — 3.  Let  those  things,  in  every  part 
of  prayer,  which  are  the  proper  objects  of 
Gur  judgment,  be  first  mentioned,  and  then 
those  that  influence  and  move  our  affections; 
not  that  we  should  follow  such  a  manner  of 
prayer  as  is  more  like  preaching,  as  some 
imprudently  have  done,  speaking  many  di- 
vine truths  without  the  form  or  air  of 
prayer.  Yet  it  must  be  granted  that  there 
is  no  necessity  of  always  confining  ourselves 
to  this,  or  to  any  oUier  set  method,  no  more 
than  there  is  of  confining  ourselves  to  a  form 
in  prayer.  Sometimes  the  mind  is  so  di- 
vinely full  of  one  particular  part  of  prayer, 
that  high  expressions  of  gratitude,  and  of 
devoting  ourselves  to  God,  break  out  first. 
I  am  persuaded,  however,  that  if  young 
Christians  did  not  give  themselves  up  to  a 
loose  and  negligent  habit  of  speaking  every 
thing  that  comes  uppermost,  but  attempted 
to  learn  this  holy  skill  by  a  recollection. of  the 
several  parts  of  prayer,  and  properly  dis- 
posing their  thoughts,  there  would  be  great 
numbers  in  our  churches  that  would  arrive 
at  a  good  degree  of  the  gift  of  prayer,  and 
that  to  the  great  edification  of  our  churches, 
as  well  as  of  their  own  families  " 

As  to  exfiression  in  prayer,  it  may  be  ob- 
served, that  though  prayer  be  the  proper 
work  of  the  heart,  yet  in  this  present  state, 
in  secret  as  well  as  in  social  prayer,  the 
language  of  the  lips  is  an  excellent  aid  in 
this  part  of  worship.  Expressions  are  use- 
ful not  only  to  dress  our  thoughts,  but  some- 
times to  form,  and  shape,  and  perfect  the 
ideas  and  affections  of  our  minds.  They 
serve  to  awaken  the  holy  passions  of  the  soul, 
as  well  as  to  express  them.  They  fix  and 
engage  all  our  powers  in  religion  and  wor- 
ship ;  and  they  serve  to  regulate  as  well  as 
to  increase  our  devotion.  The  directions  to 
attain  a  treasure  of  expressions  are  these : 
1.  We  should  labour  after  a  fresh,  particu- 
lar, and  lively  sense  of  the  greatness  and 
grace  of  God,  and  of  our  own  wants,  and 
sins,  and  mercies.  The  passions  of  the  mind, 
when  they  are  moved,  do  mightily  help  the 
tongue ; '  they  give  a  natural  eloquence  to 
those  who  know  not  any  rules  of  art,  and 
they  almost  constrain  the  dumb  to  speak. 
There  is  a  remarkable  instance  of  this  in 
ancient  histoiy.  When  Atys,  the  son  of 
Croesus  the  king,  who  was  dumb  from  his 
childhood,  saw  his  father  ready  to  be  slain, 
tlie  violence  of  his  passion  broke  the  bonds 
wherewith  his  tongue  was  tied,  and  he  cried 
out  to  save  him.  Let  our  spiritual  senses 
be  always  awake  and  lively,  then  v/ords 
will  follow  in  a  greater  or  less  degree. — 2. 
We  should  treasure  up  such  expressions, 
especially,  as  we  read  in  scripture,  and  such 
as  we  have  found  in  other  books  of  devotion, 
or  such  as  we  have  heard  fellow  Christians 
make  use  of,  whereby  our  own  hearts  have 
been  sensibly  moved  and  warmed. — 3.  Wf 
should  be  always  ready  to  engage  in  h(.l\ 
conference,  and  divine  discourse-    This  will 


I  teach  us  to  speak  of  the  things  of  God.  ft 
should  be  our  practice  to  recollect  and  talk 
over  with  one  another  the  sermons  we  have 
heard,  the  books  of  divinity  we  have  been 
conversant  with,  those  parts  of  the  word  of 
God  we  have  lately  read,  and  especially 
our  own  experiences  of  divine  things.  Here- 
by we  shall  gain  a  large  treasure  of  lan^ 
guage  to  clothe  our  thoughts  and  affections. 
— 4.  We  shouid  pray  for  the  gift  of  utter- 
ance, and  seek  the  blessing  c>t  the  Spirit  of 
God  upon  tlie  use  of  proper  means  to  obtain 
a  treasure  of  expressions  for  prayer;  for 
the  wise  man  tells  us,  that  "  the  prepara- 
tion of  the  heart  n  man,  and  the  answer  of 
the  tongue,  is  trom  the  Lord,"  Prov.  xvi. 
1.  The  rules  about  the  choice  and  use  of 
pro/ier  expressions  Are  these:  1.  We  should 
choose  those. expressions  that  best  suit  our 
meaning,  that  most  exactly  answer  the  ideas 
of  our  mind,  and  that  are  fitted  to  our  sense 
and  apprehension  of  things. — 2.  We  should 
use  such  a  way  of  speaking  as  may  be  most 
natural  and  easy  to  be  understood,  and  most 
agreeable  too  those  that  join  with  us.  We 
should  avoid  all  foreign  and  uncommon 
words ;  all  those  expressions  which  are  too 
philosophical,  and  those  which  savour  too 
much  of  mystical  divinity  ;  all  dark  meta- 
phors, or  expressions  that  are  used  only  by 
some  particular  violent  party-men.  We 
should  likewise  avoid  length  and  obscurity 
in  our  sentences,  and  in  the  placing  of  our 
words ;  and  not  interline  our  expressions 
with  too  many  parenthesis,  which  cloud  and 
entangle  the  sense. — 3.  Our  language  should 
be  grave  and  decent,  which  is  a  medium 
between  magnificence  and  meanness:  we 
should  avoid  all  glittering  language  and  af- 
fected style.  An  excessive  fondness  of  ele- 
gance and  finery  of  style  in  prayer,  discovers 
the  same  pride  and  vanity  of  mind,  as  an  af- 
fection to  many  jewels  and  fine  apparel  in  the 
house  of  God :  it  betrays  us  into  a  neglect 
of  our  hearts,  and  of  expei'imental  religion, 
by  an  affectation  to  make  the  nicest  speech, 
and  say  the  finest  things  we  can,  instead  of 
sincere  devotion,  and  praying  in  the  spirit. 
On  the  other  hand,  we  should  avoid  mean 
and  coarse,  and  too  familiar  expressions ; 
such  as  excite  any  contemptible  or  ridicu- 
lous ideas ;  such  as  raise  any  improper  or 
irreverent  thoughts  in  the  mind,  or  base 
and  impure  images,  for  these  nuich  injure 
the  devotion  of  our  fellow  worshippers — 4. 
We  should  seek  after  those  ways  of  exprts-* 
sion  that  are  pathetical ;  such  as  denote  the 
fervency  of  affection,  and  carry  life  and  spi- 
rit with  them  ;  such  as  may  awaken  and 
exercise  our  love,  our  hope,  our  holy  joy, 
our  sorrow,  our  fear,  and  our  faith,  as  well 
as  express  the  activity  of  those  graces.  Tliis 
is  the  way  to  raise,  assist,  and  maintain  de- 
votion. We  should,  therefore,  avoid  such 
a  sort  of  style  as  looks  move  like  preaching, 
which  some  per>ons  that  affect  long  j)ra\crs 
have  been  guilty  nf  to  a  great  df  gree  :  they 
have  bten  speaking  to  the  people  rather 
than  speaking  to  God  ;  they  have  wandered 


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away  from  God  to  speak  to  men  :  but  this 
is  quite  contrary  to  the  nature  of  prayer,  for 
prayer  is  cur  own  address  to  God,  and  pour- 
ing out  our  hearts  before  him  with  warm  and 
proper  affections. — 5.  We  should  not  always 
confine  ourselves  to  one  set  form  of  words 
to  express  any  particular  request ;  nor  take 
too  much  pains  to  avoid  an  expression  mere- 
ly because  we  used  it  in  prayer  heretofore. 
We  need  not  be  ever  fond  ot  a  nice  unifor- 
mity of  words,  nor  of  perpetual  diversity  of 
expression  in  every  prayer:  it  is  best  to 
keep  the  middle  between  these  two  ex- 
tremes. The  imitation  of  those  Christians 
and  ministers  that  have  the  best  gifts,  will 
be  an  excellent  direction  in  this  as  well  as 
in  the  former  cases. 

As  to  the  voice  in  prayer :  in  the  first 
place,  our  words  should  be  all  pronounced 
distinct,  and  ought  not  to  be  made  shorter 
by  cutting  off  the  last  syllable,  nor  longer  by 
the  addition  of  hems  and  o'sof  long  breaths, 
affected  gruanings,  and  useless  sounds,  &c. 
— 2  Every  sentence  should  be  spoken  loud 
enough  to  be  heard,  yet  none  so  kaid  as  to  af- 
fright or  offend  the  ear.  Some  persons  have 
got  a  habit  of  begmning  their  prayers,  and 
even  upon  the  most  common  family  occasions, 
so  loud  as  to  startle  the  company  ;  others  be- 
gin so  slow  in  a  large  assembly,  that  it  looks 
like  secret  worship,  and  as  though  they  iur- 
bid  those  that  are  present  tojoin  with  them. 
Both  these  extremes  are  to  be  avoided  by 
prudence  and  moderation. — 3.  We  should 
observe  a  due  medium  between  excessive 
swiftness  and  slowness  of  speecli,  for  both 
are  faulty  in  their  kind.  If  we  are  too  swift, 
our  words  will  be  hurried  on,  and  be  min- 
gled in  confusion ;  if  we  are  too  slow,  this 
will  be  tiresome  to  the  hearers,  and  will 
make  the  worship  appear  heavy  and  dull. 
_  "  As  to  gesture  in  prayer:  all  indecen- 
cies should  be  avoided.  Fi-ostration  may 
be  sometimes  used  in  secret  prayer,  under 
a  deep  and  uncommon  sense  of  sin;  but 
kneeling  is  the  most  frequent  posture ;  and 
nature  seems  to  dictate  and  lead  us  to  it  as 
an  expi'ession  of  humility,  of  a  sense  of  our 
wants,  a  supplication  for  mercy,  and  adora- 
tion of,  and  dependence  on  him  before  whom 
we  kneel. 

"  Standing  is  a  posture  not  unfit  for  this 
worship,  especially  in  places  where  we  have 
not  conveniency  for  the  humbler  gestures: 
but  sitting,  or  other  postures  of  rest  and  la- 
ziness, ought  not  to  be  indulged,  unless  per- 
sons are  aged  or  infirm,  or  the  work  of 
prayer  be  drawn  out  so  long  as  to  make  it 
troublesome  to  human  nature  to  maintain 
itself  always  in  one  jjosture.  The  head  should 
be  kept  for  the  most  part  without  motion  ; 
the  whole  visage  should  be  composed  to 
gravity  and  solemnity.  The  eye  should  be 
kept  from  roving,  and  some  think  it  best  to 
keep  the  eyes  closed.  The  lifting  up  of  the 
hands  is  a  very  natural  expression  of  our 
seeking  help  from  God.  As  to  other  parts 
of  the  body  there  is  little  need  of  direction. 
In  secret  devotion,  sighs  and  groans  may  be 


allowed ;  but  in  public  these  things  should 
be  less  indulged.  If  we  use  oursclvts  to 
various  motions,  or  noise  made  by  the  hands 
or  feet,  or  any  other  parts,  it  will  tempt 
others  to  think  that  our  minds  are  not  very 
intensely  engaged  ;  or,  at  least,  it  will  ap- 
pear so  familiar  and  irreverent,  as  we  would 
not  willingly  be  guilty  of  in  the  presence  of 
our  superiors  here  on  earth.'' 

VI.  jis  to  forms  ofpraijer.  We  find  this 
has  been  a  matter  of  controvei-sy  among  di- 
vines and  Christians,  whether  such  ought 
to  be  used,  or  whether  extempore  prayers 
are  not  to  be  preferred.  We  shall  state  the 
arguments  on  both  sides.  Those  who  are 
advocates  for  forms,  observe,  that  it  pre- 
vents absurd,  extravagant,  or  impious  ad- 
dresses to  God,  as  well  as  the  confusion  of 
extemporary  prayer;  that  forms  were  used 
under  the  Old  Testament  dispensation  ;  and. 
in  proof  thereof  cite  Num.  vi.  24,  26.  Num. 
x.  35,  36.  On  the  other  side  it  is  answered, 
that  it  is  neither  reasonable  nor  scriptural 
to  look  for  the  pattern  of  Christian  worship 
m  the  Mosaic  dispensation,  which,  with  all 
its  rites  and  ceremomes,  is  abrogated  and 
done  away ;  that  though  forms  may  be  of 
use  to  children,  and  such  as  are  very  igno- 
rant, yet  restriction  to  forms,  either  in  pub- 
lic or  private,  does  not  seem  scriptural  or 
lawful.  If  we  look  to  the  authority  and  ex- 
ample of  Christ  and  his  apostles,  every  thing 
is  in  favour  of  extempore  prayer.  The 
Lord's  prayer,  it  is  observed,  was  not  given 
to  be  a  set  form,  exclusive  of  extemporaiy 
prayer.  See  Lord's  Prayer.  It  is  far- 
ther argued,  that  a  form  cramps  the  de- 
sires ;  inverts  the  true  order  of  prayer,  mak- 
ing our  words  to  regulate  our  desires,  in- 
stead of  our  desires  regulating  our  words,  has 
a  tendency  to  make  us  formal ;  cannot  be  suit- 
ed to  every  one's  case  ;  that  it  looks  as  if  we 
were  not  in  reality  convinced  of  our  wants, 
when  we  want  a  form  to  express  them  ; 
and,  finally,  in  answer  to  the  two  first  ar- 
guments, that  it  is  seldom  the  case  that 
those  who  are  truly  sensible  of  their  condi- 
tion, and  pray  extempore,  do  it  in  an  impi- 
ous and  extravagant  manner;  and  if  any 
who  have  the  gift  of  prayer  really  do  so, 
and  run  into  the  extreme  of  enthusiasm, 
yet  this  is  not  the  case  with  the  generality 
since  an  unprejudiced  attention  to  those 
who  pray  extempore  must  convince  us,  that, 
if  their  prayers  be  not  so  elegantly  com])os- 
ed  as  that  of  a  set  form,  they  are  more  ap- 
propriate, and  delivered  with  more  energy 
and  feeling. 

yil.  The  efficacy  of  prayer.  It  has  been 
objected,  that  "  if  what  we  request  be  fit 
for  us,  we  shall  have  it  without  praying :  if 
it  be  not  fit  for  us,  we  cannot  obtain  it  by 
praying."  But  it  is  answered,  that  it  may 
be  agreeable  to  perfect  Wisdom  to  grant 
that  to  our  jirayers  which  it  would  not  have 
been  agreeable  to  the  same  Wisdom  to  have 
given  us  without  praying  for.  But  what  vir- 
tue, you  will  ask,  is  there  in  prayer,  which 
should  make  a  favour  consistent  with  wis- 


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dom,  -which  would  not  have  been  so  with- 
out it  ?  To  this  question,  which  contains 
the  whole  difficulty  attending  the  subject, 
the  following  possibilities  are  offered  in  re- 
ply :  1.  A  favour  granted  to  prayer,  may  be 
more  apt  on  that  very  account  to  produce 
a  good  efff  ct  upon  the  person  obliged.  It 
may  hold  in  the  Divine  bounty,  what  expe- 
rience has  raised  into  a  proverb  in  the  col- 
lation of  human  benefits,  that  what  is  obtain- 
ed without  asking,  is  oftentimes  received 
without  gratitude. — 2  It  may  be  consistent 
with  the  wisdom  of  the  Deity  to  withhold 
his  favours  till  they  be  asked  for,  as  an  ex 
pedient  to  encourage  devotion  in  his  rational 
cr.-ation,  in  order  thereby  to  keep  up  and 
circulate  a  knowledge  and  sense  of  their  de- 
pendency on  him. — 3.  Prayer  lias  a  natural 
tendency  to  amend  the  petitioner  himself; 
it  composes  the  mind,  humbles  us  under  a 
conviction  uf  what  we  are,  and  under  the 
gracious  influence  of  the  Divine  Spirit,  as- 
simulates  us  into  the  Divine  image.  Let  it 
suffice,  therefore,  to  say,  that  though  we  are 
cei'tam  that  God  cannot  be  operated  on,  or 
moved  as  a  fellow-creature  may:  that 
though  we  cannot  inform  him  of  any  thing 
he  does  not  know,  nor  add  any  thing  to  his 
essential  and  glorious  perfections,  by  anv 
servicts  of  ours ;  yet  we  should  remember, 
that  he  has  appointed  tliis  as  a  mean  to  ac- 
complish an  end ;  that  he  has  commanded 
us  to  engage  in  this  important  duty,  1  Tiies. 
V.  17;  that  he  has  promised  his  Spirit  to 
assist  us  in  it,  R:)m.  viii.  26;  that  th>  Bib'e 
abounds  with  numerous  answers  to  prayer; 
and  that  the  promise  still  relates  to  al!  who 
pi'ay,  that  answers  shall  be  given,  Matt.  viii. 
7.  Ps  1  15  Luke  xviii  1,  &c  Pail  iv. 
6,  7.  James  v.  16.  Wilkins,  Henrii,  Watts 
on  Prayer.  Tow72sfn(rs  A^ne  Serjyions  on 
Prayer  Palei/s  Moral  Philo,;Op/iy,  vol.  ii. 
pa^e  31  Mus'^n's  S'udent  and  Pastor, 
page  87  1Vollasto7i\s  Rel  of  Ai'ut.  page 
122,  124  Hannah  Moore  on  Education, 
•hap.  i.  vol.  ii  f^arrow's  Works,  vol.  i. 
strmon  6.  Smitli's  System  of  Prayer. 
Scanifi's  Sermon  on  Family  Religion 

PHE\CHER,  one  who  discourses  public- 
ly on  religinus  subjects.     See  articles  De- 

CLA   lATION,      ELOqUENCE,      MINISTER, 

and  Sermon 

PREACHING  is  the  discoursing  publicly 
on  any  religious  subject  It  is  impossible, 
in  the  compass  of  this  work,  to  give  a  com- 
plete history  of  this  article  from  the  begin- 
ning down  to  the  present  day.  This  must 
be  considered  as  a  desideratum  in  theologi- 
c;il  learning.  Mr  Robinson,  in  his  second 
volume  .f  Claude's  Essay,  has  prefixed  a 
brief  dissertation  on  tliis  subject,  an  abridg- 
ment of  which  we  shall  here  insert,  with 
a  few  occasional  alterations. 

From  the  sacred  records  we  learn,  that, 
when  men  began  to  associate  for  the  pur- 
pose of  worshipping  the  Deity,  Enoch  pro- 
phesied, Jude  14,  15.  We  have  a  very 
hhort  account  of  this  prophet  and  his  doc 
trine;  enough,  however,  to  convince  us  that 


he  taught  the  principal  truths  of  natural  and 
revealed  religion.  Conviction  of  sin  was 
in  his  doctrine,  and  communion  with  God 
was  exemplified  in  his  conduct.  Gen.  v.  24. 
Heb.  xi.  5,  6.  From  the  days  of  Enoch  to 
the  time  of  Moses,  each  patriarch  worship- 
ped God  with  his  family :  probably  several 
assembled  at  new  moons,  and  alternately  in- 
structed the  whole  company. — Noah,  it  is 
said,  was  a  preacher  of  righteousness,  2  Pet. 
ii.  5.  1  Pet.  iii.  19,  20.  Abraham  com- 
manded his  household  after  him  to  keep 
the  way  of  the  Lord,  and  to  do  justice  and 
judgment.  Gen.  xviii  19 ;  and  Jacob,  when 
his  house  lapsed  to  idolatry,  remonstrated 
against  it,  and  exhorted  them  and  all  that 
were  with  him  to  put  away  strange  gods, 
and  go  up  with  him  to  Bethel,  Gen.  x.  xxv. 
2.  3.  Melchisedec,  also,  we  may  consider 
as  the  father,  the  prince,  and  the  priest  of 
his  people,  publishing  the  glad  tidings  of 
peace  and  salvation,  Gen.  xviii.  Heb.  vii. 

Moses  was  a  most  eminent  prophet  and 
preacher,  raised  up  by  the  authority  of  God, 
and  by  whom,  it  is  said,  came  the  law,  John 
i.  17.  This  great  man  had  much  at  heart 
the  promulgation  of  his  doctrine  ;  he  direct- 
ed it  to  be  inscribed  on  pillars  to  be  tran- 
scribed in  books,  and  tobetaught  both  in  public 
and  private  by  word  of  mouth,  Deut.  vi.  9. 
xvii.  8.  xxviii.  18.  xxxi.  19.  Numb  v.  23. 
Deut.  iv.  9.  Himself  set  the  example  of 
each  ;  and  how  he  and  Aaron  sermonized, 
we  may  see  by  several  parts  of  his  writings. 
The  first  discourse  was  heard  with  profound 
reverence  and  attention,  the  last  was  both 
uttered  and  received  in  raptures,  Ex.  iv.  31. 
Deut.  xxxiii.  7,  8.  Public  preaching  does 
not  appear  under  this  econtimy  to  have  been 
attached  to  the  priesthood:  priests  were  not 
officially  preachers ;  and  we  have  innumera- 
ble instances  of  discourses  delivered  in  reli- 
gious assemblies  by  men  of  other  tribes  be- 
sides that  of  Levi,  Psalm  Ixviii  11.  Joshua 
was  an  Ephraimite ;  but  being  full  of  the 
spirit  of  wisdom,  he  gathered  the  tribes  to 
Shechem,  and  harangued  the  people  of  God, 
DeuL  xxxiv.  9.  Joshua  xxxiv  Solomon  was 
a  prmce  of  the  house  of  Judah,  Amos  a 
herdsman  of  Tekoa ;  yet  both  were  preach- 
ers, and  one  at  least  was  a  prophet,  1  Kings 
ii.  Amos  vii.  14,  15.  When  the  ignorant 
notions  of  Pagans,  the  vices  of  their  prac- 
tice, and  the  idolatry  of  their  pretended 
worship,  were  in  some  sad  periods  incorpo- 
rated into  the  Jewish  religion  by  the  princes 
of  that  nation,  the  prophets  and  all  the 
seers  protested  against  this  apostacy,  and 
they  were  persecuted  for  so  doing.  She- 
maiah  preached  to  Rehoboam,  the  princes, 
and  all  the  people,  at  Jerusalem,  2  Chron. 
xii.  5.  Azariah  and  Hanani  preached  to 
Asa  and  his  army,  2  Chron.  xv.  1,  Sec  ch. 
xvi.  7.  Micaiah  to  Ahab  Some  of  them 
opened  sch'  ols,  or  houses  of  instruction,  and 
there  to  their  disciples  they  taught  the  pure 
religion  of  Moses.  At  Naioth,  in  the  suberbs 
of  Ramah,  there  was  one,  where  Samuel 
dwelt ;  there  was  another  at  Jericho,  and  a 


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third  at  Bethel,  to  which  Elijah  and  Elisha 
often  resorted.  Thither  the  people  wgnt 
on  sabbath  days  and  at  new  moons,  and 
received  public  lessons  of  piety  and  morali- 
ty, 1  Sam.  xix.  18.  2  Kings  ii.  3.  5.  2  Kings 
iv.  2,  3.  Through  all  this  perind  there  was 
a  dismal  confusion  of  the  useful  ordinance 
of  public  preaching.  Sometimes  they  had  no 
open  vision,  and  the  word  of  the  Lord  was 
precious  or  scarce  :  the  people  heard  it  only 
now  and  then.  At  other  times,  they  were 
left  without  a  teaching  priest,  and  without 
law.  And,  at  other  seasons  again,  itine- 
rants, both  princes,  priests,  and  Levites, 
were  sent  through  all  the  countiy  to  cany 
the  book  of  the  law,  and  to  teach  in  the 
cities.  In  a  word,  preaching  flourished 
when  pure  religion  grew  ;  and  when  the 
last  decayed,  the  hrst  was  suppressed,  i 
Moses  had  not  appropriated  preaching  to 
any  order  of  men :  persons,  places,  times, 
aid  manners,  were  all  left  open  and  discre- 
tional. Many  of  the  discourses  were  preach- 
ed in  camps  and  courts,  in  streets,  schools, 
cities,  and  villages,  sometimes  with  great 
composure  and  coolness,  at  other  times  with 
vehement  action  and  rapturous  energy ; 
sometimes  in  a  plain  blunt  style  ;  at  other 
times  in  all  the  magnificent  pomp  of  E  is- 
tern  allegory.  On  some  occasions,  the 
preachers  appeared  in  public  with  visible 
signs,  with  implements  of  war,  yokes  of 
slavery,  or  something  adapted  to  their  sub- 
ject. They  gave  lectures  on  these,  held 
thr'm  up  to  view,  girded  them  on,  broke 
them  in  pieces,  rent  their  garments,  rolled 
in  the  dust ;  and  endeavoured,  by  all  the 
methods  they  could  devise  agreeably  to  the 
customs  of  their  country,  to  impress  the 
minds  of  their  auditors  with  the  nature  and 
importance  of  their  doctrines.  These  men 
were  highly  esteemed  by  the  pious  part  of 
the  nation  ;  and  princes  thought  proper  to 
keep  seers  and  others,  who  were  scribes, 
who  read  and  expounded  the  law,  2  Chron. 
xxxiv.  29,  30.  XXXV.  15.  Hence  false  pro- 
phets, bad  men  who  found  it  worth  while  to 
affect  to  be  good,  crowded  the  courts  of 
princes.  Jezebel,  an  idolatress,  had  -four  i 
hundred  prophets  of  Baal ;  and  Ahab,  a 
pretended  worshipper  of  Jehovah,  had  as 
many  pretended  prophets  of  his  own  profes- 
sion, 2  Chron.  xviii.  5. 

VVhen  the  Jews  were  carried  captive  into 
Babvlon,  the  prophets  who  were  with  them 
inculcated  the  principles  of  religion,  and 
endeavoured  to  possess  their  minds  with  an 
aversion  to  idolatry  ;  and  to  the  success  of 
preaching  we  may  attribute  the  re-conver- 
sion of  the  Jews  to  the  belief  and  vorship 
of  one  God  ;  a  conversion  that  remains  to 
this  day.  The  Jews  have  since  fallen  into 
horrid  crimes ;  but  they  have  never  since 
this  period  lapsed  into  idolatry,  Hosea  2d, 
and  3d  chap.  Ezekiel  2d,  3d,  and  34th  chap. 
Thei-e  were  not  wanting,  however,  multi- 
tudes of  false  prophets  among  them,  whose 
characters  are  strikingly  delineated  by  the 
true  prophets,  and  which  the  reader  may 

3  F 


see  in  the  13th  chapter  of  Ezekiel,  56th 
Isaiah,  23d  Jeremiali.  When  the  seventy 
years  of  the  captivity  were  expired,  the 
good  prophets  and  preachers,  Zerubbabel, 
Joshua,  Haggai,  and  others  having  confi- 
dence in  the  word  of  God,  and  aspiring 
after  their  natural,  civil,  and  religious 
rights,  endeavoured  by  all  means  to  extri- 
cate themselves  and  their  countrymen  from 
that  mortifying  state  into  which  the  crimes 
of  their  ancestors  had  brought  them.  They 
wept,  fasted,  prayed,  preaclied,  prophesied, 
and  at  length  prevailed  The  chiet  instru- 
ments were  Nehemiah  and  Ezra ;  the  first 
was  governor,  and  reformed  their  civil  state  ; 
the  last  was  a  scribe  of  the  law  of  the  God, 
of  heaven,  and  addressed  himself  to  eccKsi- 
astical  matters,  in  which  he  rendered  the 
noblest  service  to  his  country,  and  to  all 
posterity.  He  collected  and  collated  manu- 
scripts of  the  sacred  writings,  and  arranged 
and  published  the  holy  canon  in  its  present 
form.  To  this  he  added  a  second  work  as 
necessary  as  the  former ;  he  revived  and 
new  moddled  public  preaching,  and  exem- 

ftlified   his  plan   in  his   own  person.     The 
ews  had  almost  lost  in  their  seventy  years' 
captivity  their  original  language ;  that  was 
now  become  dead  ;  and  they  spoke  a  jargon 
made  up  of  their  own  language  and  that  of 
the  Chaldeans  and  other  nations  with  whom 
they  had  been  confounded.  Formerly  preach- 
ers had  only  explained  subjects :  now  they 
were    obliged   to    explain    words;    words, 
which,    in  the  sacred  code,   were  become 
obsolete,  equivocal  or  dead.    Houses  were 
now  opened,  not  for  ceremonial  worship,  as 
sacrificing,   for   this    was   confined    to  the 
temple  :  but  for  moral  obedience,  as  praying, 
preaching,  reading  the  law,  divine  worship, 
and  social  duties.     These  houses  were  called 
synagogues:    the    people    repaired    thither 
morning  and  evening  for  prayer;  and   on 
sabbaths  and  festivals  the  law  was  read  anit 
expounded  to  them.     VVe  have  a  short  but 
beautiful  description  of  the  manner  of  Ezra's 
first    preaching  Nehem.  viii.    Upwards    of 
fifty  thousand  people  as.sembled  in  a  street, 
or    large   square,    near  the  Watergate.     It 
was  early  in  the  morning  of  a  sabbath  day. 
A  pulpit  of  wood,  i .    tlie  fashion  of  a  small 
tower,  was  placed  mere  on  purpose  for  the- 
preacher  ;  and  this  turret  was  supported  by 
a  scaffold,  or  temporary  gallery,  where,  in 
a  wing  on  the  right  hand  of  the  pulpit,  sat 
six  of  the  principal  preachers ;  and  in  ano- 
ther,   on  the  left,  seven.    Thirteen  other 
principal  teachers,  and  many  Levites,  were 
present,   also,  on   scaffolds   erected  for  the 
purpose,    alternately    to    officiate.      VVhen 
Ezra  ascended  the  puljjit,  he  produced  and 
opened  the  book  of  the  Law,  and  the  whole 
congregation   instantly   rose  up   from   their 
seats,  and  stood.     Then  he  offered  up  pray- 
er  and  praise   to  God,  the  people  bowing 
their  heads,  and  worshipping  the  Lord  with 
their  faces  to  the  ground  ;  and,  at  the  close 
]  of   the  prayer,  with   uplifted   hands,   they 
solemnly  pronounced,  Amen,  Amen.   Then, 


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all  standing,  Ezra,  assisted  at  times  by  the 
Levites,  read  the  law  distinctly,  gave  the 
SDHse,  and  caused  them  to  understand  the 
rtadiiig.  The  sermons  delivered  so  atf;  cted 
the  hearers,  that  they  wept  excessively ; 
and  about  noon  the  sorrow  became  so  exube- 
rai'.t  and  immeasurable,  that  it  was  thought 
necessary  by  the  governor,  the  preacher, 
and  the  Levites,  to  restrain  it.  Go  your 
Avay,  said  they  ;  eat  the  fat,  drink  the  sweet, 
send  portions  unto  tliem  for  whom  nothing 
is  prepared.  l"he  wise  and  benevolent  sen- 
timents of  these  noble  souls  were  imbibed 
by  the  whole  congregation,  and  fifty  thousand 
troubled  hearts  were  calmed  in  a  moment. 
Home  tiiey  returned,  to  eat,  to  drink,  to 
send  portions,  and  to  make  mirth,  because 
they  had  understood  the  words  that  were 
declared  unto  them.  Plato  was  alive  at 
this  time,  teaching  dull  philosophy  to  cold 
academics;  but  what  was  he,  and  what  was 
Xenophon  or  Demosthenes,  or  any  of  the 
Pagan  orators,  in  comparison  with  these 
men  ?  From  this  period  to  that  of  the  ap- 
pearance of  Jesus  Christ,  public  preaching 
was  universal ;  synagogues  were  multiplied, 
vast  numbers  attended,  and  elders  and  ru- 
lers were  appointed,  for  the  purpose  of  order 
and  instruction. 

The  most  celebrated  preacher  that  arose 
before  the  appearance  of  Jesus  Christ  was 
John  the  Baptist.  He  was  commissioned 
from  heaven  to  be  the  harbinger  of  the 
Messiah.  He  took  Eljah  for  his  model ; 
and  as  the  times  were  very  much  like  those 
in  which  that  prophet  lived,  he  chose  a 
doctrine  and  a  method  very  much  resem- 
bing  those  of  that  venerable  man.  His  sub- 
jects were  few,  plain,  and  important.  His 
style  was  vehement,  images  bold,  his  deport- 
ment solemn,  his  actions  etiger,  and  his 
Kiorals  strict;  but  tiiis  bright"^ morning-star 
gave  way  to  the  illustrious  Sun  of  Righte(  us- 
ness,  who  now  anse  ^n  a  benighted  world. 
Jesus  Christ  certainly  was  the  prince  of 
preachers.  Who  but  can  admire  the  sim- 
phcity  and  majesty  of  his  style,  the  beauty 
of  his  images,  the  alternate  softness  and 
severity  of  his  address,  the  choice  of  bis 
subjects,  the  gracefulness  of  his  deportment, 
and  the  indf  iatigableness  of  his  zeal  ?  Let 
the  reader  cnarm  ancF  solace  himself  in  the 
study  and  contemplation  of  the  character, 
excellency,  and  dignity  of  this  best  of  preach- 
ers, as  he  will  find  them  dehneated  by  the 
evangelists. 

The  apostles  exactly  copied  their  divine 
blaster.  They  formed  multitudes  of  reli- 
gious societies,  and  were  abundantly  succcss- 
tul  in  their  labours.  They  confined  their 
attention  to  religion,  and  left  the  school  to 
<lisputc,  and  politicians  to  intrigue.  The 
doctrines  they  pi'eached,  they  supported 
/  entirely  by  evidence ;  and  neither  iiad  nor 
I'equii-ed  such  assistance  as  human  laws  or 
worldly  policy,  the  eloquence  of  the  schools, 
'V  the  terror  of  arms,  the  charms  of  money, 

•  the   tricks   of  tradesmen,   could  afford 


The  apostles  being  dead,  every  thing 
came  to  pass  as  they  had  foretold.  The 
whole  Christian  system  underwent  a  miser- 
able change  ;  preaching  shared  the  fate  of 
other  institutions,  and  this  glory  of  the  pri- 
mitive church  was  now  generally  degene- 
rated. Those  writers  whom  we  call  the 
Fathers,  hfiwever,  held  up  to  view  by  some 
as  models  of  imitation,  do  not  deserve  that 
indiscriminate  praise  ascribed  to  them. 
Christianity,  it  is  true,  is  found  in  their 
writings  ;  but  how  sadly  incorporated  with 
Pagan  philosophy  and  Jewish  allegory  !  It 
must,  indeed,  be  allowed,  that  in  general, 
the  simplicity  of  Christianity  was  maintain- 
ed, though  under  gradual  decay,  during 
the  first  three  centuries.  The  next  five 
centuries  produced  many  pious  and  excel- 
lent preachers  both  in  the  Latin  and  Greek 
churches,  though  the  doctrine  continued  to 
degenerate.  The  Greek  pulpit  was  adorn- 
ed with  some  eloquent  orators.  Basil,  bish- 
op of  Cesarea,  John  Chrysostom,  preacher 
at  Antioch,  and  afterwards  patriarch  (as  he 
was  called)  of  Constantinople,  and  Gregory 
Nazianzen,  who  all  fiourished  in  the  fourth 
century,  seem  to  have  led  the  fashion  of 
preaching  in  the  Greek  church  :  Jerom  and 
Augustine  did  the  same  in  the  Latin  church. 
For  some  time,  preaching  was  common  to 
bishops,  elders,  deacons,  and  private  bre- 
thren in  the  primitive  church  :  in  process, 
it  was  restrained  to  the  bishop,  and  to  such 
as  he  should  appoint.  They  called  the  ap- 
pointment ordination  ;  and  at  last  attached 
I  know  not  what  ideas  of  mystery  and  in- 
fluence to  the  word,  and  of  dominion  to  the 
bishop  who  pronounced  it.  When  a  bishop 
or  preacher  travelled,  he  claimed  no  autho- 
rity to  exercise  the  duties  of  his  function, 
unless  he  wei'e  invited  by  the  churches 
where  he  attended  public  worship.  The 
first  preachers  differed  much  in  pulpit  ac- 
tion ;  the  greater  part  used  very  moderate 
and  sober  gesture.  They  delivered  their 
sermons  all  extempore,  while  there  were  < 
notaries  who  took  down  what  they  said. 
Sermons  in  those  days  were  all  in  the  vul- 
gar tongue.  The  Greeks  preached  in 
Greek,  the  Latins  in  Latin.  They  did  not 
preach  by  the  clock  (so  to  speak,)  but  were 
short  or  long  as  they  saw  occasion,  though 
an  hour  was  about  the  usual  time.  Sermons 
were  generally  both  preached  and  heard 
standing  ;  but  sometimes  both  speaker  and 
auditors  sat,  especially  the  aged  and  the 
infirm.  The  fathers  were  fond  of  allegory  ; 
for  Origen,  that  everlasting  alleg'.rizer, 
had  set  them  the  example.  Before  preach- 
ing, the  preacher  usually  went  into  a  vestry 
to  ])ray,  and  afterwards  to  speak  to  such  as 
came  to  salute  him.  He  prayed  with  his 
eyes  shut  in  the  pulpit.  The  first  word  the 
preacher  uttered  to  the  people,  when  he 
ascended  the  pulpit,  was,  "  Peace  be  with 
you,"  or  "  The  grace  of  our  L8rd  Jesus 
Christ,  the  love  ci"  God,  and  the  fellowship 
of  the  Holy  Ghost,  be  with  you  all  ;"  to 
which  the  assembly  at  first  added, "  Amen:" 


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and,  in  after  times,  they  answered,  "  And 
•with  thy  spirit"  Degenerate,  however,  as 
these  days  were  in  comparison  witii  those 
of  the  apostles,  yet  they  were  golden  ages 
in  comparison  with  the  times  that  followed, 
when  metaphysical  reasonings,  mystical 
.divinity,  yea,  Aristotelian  categories,  and 
reading  the  lives  of  saints,  were  substituted 
in  the  place  of  sermons.  The  pulpit  became 
a  stage,  were  ludicrous  priests  obtained  the 
vulgar  laugh  by  the  lowest  kind  of  wit,  es- 
pecially at  the  festivals  of  Christmas  and 
Easter. 

But  the  glorious  reformation  was  the  off- 
spring of  preaching,  by  which  mankind 
were  informed  :  there  was  a  standard,  and 
the  religion  of  the  times  was  put  to  trial 
by  it.  The  avidity  of  the  common  people 
to  read  scripture,  and  to  hear  it  expound- 
ed, was  wonderful ;  and  the  Papists  were 
so  fully  convinced  of  the  benefit  of  frequent 
public  instruction,  that  they  who  were  justly 
called  unjireaching  prelates^  and  whose 
pulpits,  to  use  an  expression  of  Latimer, 
had  been  bells  ^without  dajijitra  for  many  a 
long  year,  were  obliged  for  shame  to  sjt  up 
regular  preaching  again. 

The  church  of  Rome  has  produced  some 
great  preachers  since  the  reformation;  but 
not  equal  to  the  reformed  preachers  ;  and 
a  question  naturally  arises  here,  which  it 
■would  be  unpardonable  to  pass  ovt-r  in 
silence,  concerning  the  singular  effect  of 
the  preaching  of  the  reformed,  which 
■was  general,  national,  universal  reforma- 
tion. 

In  the  darkest  times  of  popery  there 
had  arisen  now  and  then  some  famous  po- 
pular preachers,  who  had  zealously  inveigh- 
ed against  the  vices  of  their  times,  and 
■whose  sermons  had  produced  sudden  and 
amazing  effects  on  their  auditors :  but  all 
these  effects  had  died  away  witli  the 
preachers  who  produced  them,  and  all 
thiiigs  had  gme  back  into  the  old  state. 
Law,  learning,  commerce,  society  at  large, 
had  not  been  improved  — Here  a  new  scene 
opens ;  preachers  arise  less  popular,  per- 
haps less  indefatigable  and  exemplary  ; 
their  sermons  produce  less  striking  imme- 
diate effects ;  and  yet  their  auditors  go 
away,  and  agree  by  whole  nations  to  re- 
form. 

Jerom  Savonarola,  Jerom  Narni,  Capis- 
tran,  Connecte,  and  many  others,  had  pro- 
duced by  their  sermons  great  immediate 
efforts.  When  Connecte  preached,  the 
ladies  lowered  their  head-dresses,  and 
committed  quilled  caps  by  hundreds  to  the 
flames.  When  Narni  taught  the  populace 
in  Lent,  from  the  pulpits  of  Rome,  half 
the  city  went  from  his  sermons  crying 
along  the  streets,  hord  have  rncrcij  upon 
us  ;  Christ  have  mercy  ujion  us  ;  so  that 
in  only  one  passion  week,  two  thousand 
crowns  wrrth  of  ropes  were  sold  to  make 
scourges  with  ;  and  when  he  preached 
before  the  pope  to  cardinals  and  bishops, 
and  painted  the   crime   of  non-residence  in 


its  own  colours,  he  frightened  thirty  or 
forty  bishops,  who  heard  him.  instantly 
home  to  their  dioceses.  In  the  pulpit  of 
the  university  of  Salamanca  he  induced 
eiglvt  hundred  students  to  quit  all  worldly 
prospects  of  honour,  riches,  and  pleasures, 
and  to  become  penitents  in  divers  monas- 
teries Some  of  this  class  were  martys 
too.  We  know  the  fate  of  Savonarola, 
and  more  might  be  added  :  but  all  lament- 
ed the  momentary  duration  of  the  effects 
produced  by  their  labours.  Narni  himself 
was  so  disgusted  with  his  office,  that  he 
renounced  preaching,  and  shut  himself 
up  in  his  cell  to  mourn  over  his  irre- 
claimable contemporaries;  for  bishops  went 
back  to  court,  and  rope-makers  lay  idle 
again. 

Our  reformers  taught  all  the  good  doc- 
trines which  had  been  taught  by  these 
men,  and  they  added  two  or  three  more, 
by  which  they  laid  the  axe  to  the  root  of 
apostacy,  and  produced  general  reformation. 
Instead  of  appealing  to  popes,  and  canons, 
and  founders,  and  fathers,  they  only  quoted 
them,  and  referred  their  auditors  to  the 
holy  scriptures  for  law.  Pope  Leo  X.  did 
not'  know  this  when  he  told  Prierio,  who 
complained  of  Luther's  heresy.  Friar  Mar- 
tin had  a  fine  genius  !  They  also  taught 
the  pe(ple  what  little  they  knew  of  (  hns- 
tian  liberty  ;  and  so  led  them  into  a  belief 
that  they  might  follow  their  onvn  ideas  in 
religion,  without  the  consent  of  a  confessor, 
a  diocesan,  a  pope,  or  a  council.  They 
went  farther,  and  laid  the  stress  of  all 
religion  on  justifying  faith.  This  obliged 
the  pet  pie  to  get  acquainted  with  Christ, 
the  object  of  their  faith;  and  thus  they 
were  led  into  t!>e  knowledge  of  a  character 
altogether  different  from  what  they  saw  in 
their  old  guides ;  a  character  which  it  is 
impossible  to  know,  and  not  to  admire  and 
imitate.  The  old  papal  popular  sermons 
had  gone  off  like  a  charge  of  gunpowder, 
producing  only  a  flight,  a  bustle,  and  a 
black  face;  biit  those  of  the  newe  learn- 
inge,  as  the  monks  called  them,  were 
small  hearty  seeds,  which,  being  sown  ia 
the  honest  hearts  of  the  multitude,  and 
watered  with  the  dew  of  heaven,  softly  ve- 
getated, and  imperceptibly  unfolded  blos- 
soms and  fruits  of  inestimable  value. 

Tl-.ese  eminent  servants  of  Christ  excelled 
in  various  talents,  both  in  the  pulpit  and  in 
private.  Knox  came  down  like  a  thunder- 
storm ;  Calvin  resembled  a  whole  <lay's  set 
rain  ;  Beza  was  a  shower  of  the  softest 
dew.  Old  Latimer,  in  a  coarse  frieze  gown, 
trurlged  afoot,  his  Testament  hanging  at  one  -v 
end  of  his  leathern  girdle,  and  his  specta-  I 
cles  at  the  other,  ^nd  without  ceremony, 
instructed  the  people  in  rustic  style  from  a 
hollow  tree  ;  while  the  courtly  Ridley  in 
satin  a!Kl  fir,  taught  the  same  principles  in 
the  cathedral  of  the  metropolis.  Cranrner 
thousrh  a  timorous  man,  ventured  to  give 
king  Henrv  the  Eighth  a  New  Testament, 
witii  tJ'.e  label,  whoremongers  and  adid'fr* 


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PUE 


ers  God  will  Judge  ;  Avhile  Ktiox,  who  said 
there  was  nothing  in  the  pleasant  /ace  of  a 
lady  to  a^ray  him^  assured  the  queen  of 
Scots,  that,  "  if  there  were  any  spark,  of 
the  spirit  of  God,  yea,  of  honesty  and  wis- 
dom in  her,  she  ^vould  not  be  offended  with 
liis  affirming  in  his  sermons,  that  the  di- 
versions of  her  court  were  diabolical  crimes, 
—evidences  of  impiety  or  insanity."  These 
men  were  not  all  accomphshed  scholars  ; 
but  they  all  gave  proof  enough  that  they 
were  honest,  hearty,  and  disinterested  ip  the 
cause  of  religion. 

All  Europe  produced  great  and  excellent 
preachers,  and  some  of  the  more  studious 
and  sedate  reduced  their  art  of  public 
preaching  to  a  system,  and  taught  rules  of  a 
good  sermon.  Bishop  VVilkins  enumerated, 
in  1646,  upwards  of  sixty  who  had  written 
on  the  subject.  Several  of  these  are  valu- 
able treatises,  full  of  edifying  instructions  ; 
but  all  are  on  a  scale  too  large,  and  by  affect- 
ing to  treat  of  the  whole  office  of  a  minis- 
ter, leave  that  capital  branch,  public  preach- 
ing, unfinished  and  vague. 

One  of  the  most  important  articles  of 
pulpit  science,  that  which  gives  life  and 
energy  to  all  the  rest,  and  without  which  all 
the  rest  are  nothing  but  a  vain  parade,  is 
either  neglected  or  exploded  in  all  these 
treatises.  It  is  essential  to  the  ministration 
of  the  Divine  Word  by  public  preaching, 
that  preachers  be  allowed  to  form  prnici- 
ples  of  their  own,  and  that  their  sermons 
contain  their  real  sentiments,  the  fruits  of 
their  own  intense  thouglit  and  meditation. 
Preaching  cannot  be  in  a  good  state  in  those 
communities,  where  the  shameful  traffic  of 
buying  and  selling  manuscript  sermons  is 
caiTied  on.  Moreover,  all  the  animating 
encouragements  that  arise  from  a  free  un- 
biased choice  of  the  people,  and  from 
their  uncontaminated,  disinterested  ap- 
plause, should  be  left  open  to  stimulate  a 
generous  youth  to  excel.  Command  a  man 
to  utter  what  he  has  no  inclination  to  pro- 
pagate, and  what  he  does  not  even  believe  ; 
threaten  him,  at  the  same  time,  with  all 
the  miseries  of  life,  if  he  dare  to  follow 
his  own  ideas,  and  to  promulge  his  own 
sentiments,  and  you  pass  a  sentence  of  death 
on  all  he  says.  He  does  declaim  ;  but  all  is 
languid  and  cold,  and  he  lays  his  system  out 
as  an  undertaker  does  the  dead 

Since  the  reformers,  we  have  had  multi- 
tudes who  have  entered  into  their  views 
with  disinterestedness  and  success  ;  and,  in 
tl'.e  present  times,  both  in  the  church  and 
among  Dissenters,  names  could  be  niention- 
ed  which  would  do  honour  to  any  nation  ; 
for  though  there  are  too  many  who  do  not 
fill  up  that  important  station  with  propor- 
tionate piety  and  talents,  yet  we  have  men 
who  are  conspicuous  for  their  extent  of 
knowledge,  depth  of  experience,  originality 
of  thought,  fervency  of  zeal,  consistency  of 
deportment,  and  great  usefulness  in  the 
"hristian  church     May  their  numbeis  still 

e    increased,   and  their  exertions    in  the 


cause  of  truth  be  eminently  crowned  with 
the  Divine  blessing  !  See  Robivson's  Claude, 
vol.  ii.  preface  ;  and  books  recommended 
under  article  Minister. 

PREADAMITE,  a  denomination  given 
to  the  inhabitants  of  the  earth ;  conceived 
by  some  people  to  have  lived  before  Adam. 

Isaac  de  la  Pereyra,  in  1655,  published  a 
book  to  evince  the  reality  of  Preadamites, 
by  which  he  gained  a  considerable  number 
of  proselytes  to  the  opinion ;  but  the  answer 
of  Demarets,  professor  of  theology  at  Gron- 
ingen,  published  the  year  following,  put  a 
stop  to  its  progress,  though  Pereyra  made  a 
reply. 

His  system  was  this:  The  Jews  he  calls 
Adamitesy  and  supposes  them  to  have  is- 
sued from  Adam  ;  and  gives  the  title  Pre- 
adamites to  the  Gentiles  whom  he  suppo- 
ses to  have  been  a  long  time  before  Adam. 
But  this  being  expressly  contrary  to  the 
first  words  of  Genesis,  Pereyra  had  re- 
course to  the  fabulous  antiquities  of  the 
Egyptians  and  Chaldeans,  and  to  some 
idle  rabbins,  who  imagined  there  had  been 
another  world  before  that  described  by 
Moses.  He  was  apprehended  by  the  inqui- 
sition in  Flanders,  and  very  roughly  used, 
though  in  the  service  of  the  dauphin  But 
he  appealed  from  their  sentence  to  Rome, 
whither  he  went  in  the  time  of  Alexander 
VII.  and  where  he  printed  a  retraction  of 
his  book  of  Preadamites. 

The  arguments  against  the  Preadamites 
are  these :  The  sacred  histoiy  of  Mf)ses 
assures  us  that  Adam  and  Eve  were  the 
first  persons  that  were  created  on  the 
earth.  Gen.  i.  26.  Gen.  ii.  7.  Our  Saviour 
confirmed  this  when  he  said,  "  From  the 
beginning  of  the  creation  God  made  them, 
male  and  female,"  Mark  x.  6.  It  is  unde- 
niable that  he  speaks  this  of  Adam  and 
Eve,  because  in  the  next  verse  he  uses  the 
same  words  as  those  in  Gen.  ii.  24.  *'  There- 
fore shall  a  man  leave  his  father  and  mo- 
ther, and  cleave  unto  his  wife."  It  is  also 
clear  from  Gen.  iii.  20.  where  it  is  said, 
that  "  Adam  called  his  wife's  name  Eve, 
because  she  was  the  mother  of  all  living  ;'* 
that  is,  she  was  the  source  and  root  of  all 
men  and  women  in  the  world ;  which  plain- 
ly intimates  that  there  was  no  other  woman 
that  was  such  a  mother.  Finally,  Adam  i$ 
expressly  called  twice,  by  the  apostle  Paul, 
the frst  man,  1  Cor.  xv.  45,  47. 

PRECEPT,  a  rule  given  by  a  superior  r 
a  direction  or  command.  The  precepts  of 
religion,  says  Saurin,  are  as  essential  as  the 
doctrines  ;  and  religion  will  as  certainly  sink 
if  the  morality  be  subverted  as  if  the  theo- 
logy be  undermined.  The  doctrines  are  onl}^ 
proposed  to  us  as  the  ground  of  our  duty. 
See  Doctrine. 

PEDES'ilNARIANS.  those  who  believe 
in  predestination.     See  Predestination. 

PREDESTINATION  is  the  decree  of 
God  wiiereby  he  hath  for  his  own  glory  fore- 
ordained whatever  comes  to  pass.  The  verb 
predestinate  is  of  Latin  original  {Jirxdestinof) 


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and  signifies  in  that  tongue  to  deliberate  be- 
fore-hand with  one's  self  how  one  shall  act, 
and,  in  consequence  of  such  dfliberation,  to 
constitute,  fore-ordain,  and  predetermine, 
where,  when,  how,  and  by  whom  any  thing 
shall  be  done,  and  to  what  end  it  shall  be 
done.  So  the  Greek  work  7rp»opi^a  which 
exactly  answers  to  the  English  word  pre- 
destinate, and  is  rendered  by  it,  signifies  to 
resolve  before-hand  with  one's  self  what 
shall  be  done,  and  before  the  thing  resolved 
on  is  actually  effected ;  to  appoint  it  to  some 
certain  use,  and  direct  it  to  some  determi- 
nate end.  This  doctrine  has  been  the  oc- 
casion of  considerable  disputes  and  controver- 
sies among  divines.  On  the  one  side  it  has 
been  observed,  that  it  is  impossible  to  re- 
concile it  with  our  ideas  of  the  justice  and 
goodness  of  God,  that  it  makes  God  to  be 
the  author  of  sin ;  destroys  moral  distinction, 
and  renders  all  our  efforts  useless.  Predcs- 
tinarians  deny  these  consequences,  and  en- 
deavour to  prove  this  doctrine  from  the  con- 
sideration of  the  perfections  of  the  Divine 
nature,  and  from  scripture  testimony.  If 
his  knowledge,  say  they,  be  infinite  and  un- 
changeable, he  must  have  known  every  thing 
from  eternity.  If  we  allow  the  attribute  of 
prescience,  the  idea  of  a  decree  must  cer- 
tainly be  believed  also ;  for  how  can  an  ac- 
tion that  is  really  to  come  to  pass  be  fore- 
seen, if  it  be  not  determined  ?  God  knew 
every  thing  from  the  beginning;  but  this 
he  could  not  have  known  if  he  had  not  so 
determined  it.  If,  also,  God  be  infinitely 
wise,  it  cannot  be  conceived  that  he  would 
leave  things  at  random,  and  have  no  plan. 
He  is  a  God  of  order,  and  this  order  he  ob- 
serves as  strictly  in  the  moral  as  in  the  na- 
tural world,  however  confused  things  may 
appear  to  us.  To  conceive  otherwise  of  God, 
is  to  degrade  him,  and  is  an  insult  to  his 
perfections.  If  he,  then,  be  wise  and  un- 
changeable, no  new  idea  or  purpose  can  arise 
in  his  mind ;  no  alteration  of  his  plan  can 
take  place,  upon  condition  of  his  creatures 
acting  in  this  or  that  way.  To  say  that  this 
doctrine  makes  hisn  the  author  of  sin  is  not 
justifiable  We  all  allow  omnipotence  to  be 
an  attribute  of  Deity,  and  that  by  this  attri- 
bute he  could  have  prevented  sin  from  en- 
tering into  the  world,  had  he  chosen  it ;  yet 
we  see  he  did  not.  Now  he  is  no  more  tlie 
author  of  sin  in  one  case  than  the  other. 
May  we  not  ask.  Why  does  he  suffer  those 
inequalities  of  Providence  ?  Why  permit 
whole  nations  to  lie  ih  idolatry  for  ages  ? 
Why  leave  men  to  the  most  cruel  barbari- 
ties ?  Why  punish  the  sins  of  the  fathers 
in  the  children  .'  In  a  word.  Why  permit 
the  world  at  large  to  be  subject  to  pains, 
crosses,  losses,  evils  of  every  kind,  and  that 
for  so  many  thousands  of  years.'  And,  yet, 
will  any  dare  call  the  Deity  unjust?  The 
fact  is,  our  finite  minds  know  but  little  of 
the  nature  of  Divine  justice,  or  any  other  of 
his  attributes.  But,  supposing  there  are  dif- 
ncalties  in  this  subject  (and  what  subject  is 
witliout?)  the  scripture  abounds  with  pas- 


sages which  at  once  prove  the  doctrine, 
Matt.  XXV.  34.  Rom  viii.  29,  30  Eph.  i. 
3,  6,  11.  2  Tim.  i.  9.  2  Thess.  ii.  13.  1  Pet. 
i.  1,  2.  John  vi.  37.  John  xvii.  2 — 24  Rev. 
xiii.  8.  Rev.  xvii.  8.  Dan.  iv.  35.  1  Tliess. 
V.  19.  Matt.xi.  26.  Exod.  iv.  21.  Prov.  x\i.  4. 
Acts  xiii  48.  The  moral  uses  of  this  ductrine 
are  these: — 1  It  hides  pride  from  man. — 
2.  Excludes  the  idea  of  chance. — 3.  Exalts 
the  grace  of  God. — 4.  Renders  salvation 
certain. — 5.  Affords  believers  great  consola- 
tion. See  Decrees  of  God  ;  Necessi- 
ty; King,  Tofilady,  Cooper,  and  Tucker, 
on  Predestination.  Burnet  on  17  ^ri. 
Whitby  and  Gill  on  the  Frve  Points.  Wes- 
ley's  Fred,  considered.  HilPs  Logica  IVes- 
leiensis.  Edwards  on  the  Will.  Polhill 
on  the  Decrees.  Edward's  Veritas  Redux. 
Saurin's  Sermons,  vol.  v.  ser.  13.  Dr.  Wil' 
Ham's  Sermons  on  Predestination, 

PRE-EXISTENCE  OF  JESUS  CHRIST, 
is  his  existence  before  he  was  born  of  the 
Virgin  Mary.  That  he  really  did  exist  be- 
fore is  plain  from  John  iii.  13.  John  vi.  50, 
ficc  John  xvii.  John  viii.  58.  1  John  i.  4  ; 
but  there  are  various  opinions  respecting 
this  existence.  Some  acknowledge,  that  in 
Jesus  Christ  there  is  a  divine  nature,  a  ra- 
tional soul,  and  a  human  body.  His  body, 
they  think,  was  formed  in  the  Virgin's 
womb  ;  his  human  soul,  they  suppose,  was 
the  first  and  most  excellent  of  all  tlie  works 
of  God  :  was  brought  into  existence  before 
the  creation  of  the  world,  and  subsisted  in 
happy  union  in  heaven  with  the  second  f)er- 
son  in  the  Godhead,  till  his  incarnation, 
rhese  divines  differ  from  those  called 
Arians,  for  the  latter  ascribe  to  Christ  only 
a  created  deity,  whereas  the  former  hold 
his  true  and  proper  divinity :  they  differ 
from  the  Socinians,  who  believe  no  existence 
of  Christ  before  his  incarnation  :  they  differ 
from  the  Sabellians,  who  only  own  a  trinity 
of  names :  they  differ,  also,  from  the  gene- 
rally received  opinion,  which  is,  that  the 
human  soul  began  to  exist  in  his  mother's 
womb,  in  exact  conformity  to  that  likeness 
unto  his  brethren,  of  which  St.  Paul  speaks, 
Heb.  ii.  17.  The  writers  in  favour  of  the 
pre-existence  of  Jesus  Christ's  human  soul 
recommend  their  thesis  by  these  arguments. 

1.  Christ  is  represented  as  his  Father's 
messenger,  or  angel,  being  distinct  from  his 
Father,  sent  by  his  Father  long  before  his 
inca;  nation,  to  perform  actions  which  seem 
to  be  too  low  for  the  dignity  of  pure  God- 
head. The  appearances  of  Christ  to  the 
patriarchs  are  described  like  the  appear- 
ances of  an  angel,  or  man  really  distinct 
from  God  ;  yet  such  a  one,  in  whom  God, 
or  Jehovah,  had  a  peculiar  indwelling,  or 
with  whom  tlie  Divine  nature  had  a  per- 
sonal union. 

2.  Christ,  when  he  tame  into  the  world, 
is  said,  in  several  passages  of  scripture,  ta 
have  divested  himself  of  some  glory  which, 
he  had  before  his  incarnation.  Now  if  there 
had  existed  before  this  time  nothing  but  his. 
divine  nature,  this  divine  nature  could  net 


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properly  divest  itself  of  any  glory.  I  have 
glorified  thee  on  earth  :  I  havejinished  the 
•work  thou  gavest  me  to  do.  And  now,  O 
Father,  glorify  thou  me  ivith  thine  own  self, 
nxnth  the  glory  which  I  had  with  thee  before 
the  world  ^tma. —  Ye  know  the  grace  of  our 
Lord  Jesus  Christ,  that  though  he  was  rich, 
yet  for  your  sakes  he  became  jioor,  that  ye 
through  his  poverty  might  be  rich,  John 
xvii.  4,  5.  2  Cor.  viii  9.  It  cannot  be  said 
«f  God  that  he  became  poor:  he  is  infinite- 
ly stlf  sufficient ;  he  is  necessarily  and  eter- 
nally rich  in  perf-ctions  and  glories.  Ntir 
can  it  be  said  of  Christ  as  man,  that  he  was 
rich,  if  he  were  never  in  a  richer  state  be- 
fore, than  while  he  was  on  earth. 

It  seems  needful  that  the  soul  of  Christ 
should  pre-exist,  that  it  might  have  an  op- 
portunity to  give  its  previous  actual  consent 
to  the  great  and  painful  undertaking  of  atone- 
ment for  our  sins.  It  was  the  human  soul 
of  Christ  that  endured  the  weakness  and 
pain  of  his  infant  state,  all  the  labours  and 
fatigues  of  life,  the  reproaches  of  men,  and 
the  suflFerings  of  death.  The  divine  nature 
is  incapable  of  suffering.  The  covenant  of 
redemption  between  the  Father  and  the  Son 
is  therefore  represented  as  being  made  be- 
ifore  the  foundation  of  the  world.  To  sup- 
pose that  simple  Deity  or  the  divine  essence, 
which  is  the  same  in  all  the  three  person- 
alities, should  make  a  covenant  with  itself, 
is  inconsistent. 

Christ  is  the  angel  to  whom  God  was  in 
a  peculiar  manner  united,  and  who  in  this 
union  made  all  the  divine  appearances  re- 
lated in  the  Old  T  stament. 

God  is  often  represented  in  Scripture  as 
appearing  in  a  visible  manner,  and  assuming 
a  'human  form.  See  Gen.  iii.  8.  xvii.  1. 
xxviii.  12.  xxxii.  24.  Exod.  ii.  2.  and  a  va- 
riety of  other  passages. 

The  Lord  Jehovah,  when  he  came  down 
to  visit  men,  carried  some  ensign  of  divine 
majesty:  he  was  sun-ounded  with  some 
splendid  appearance.  Such  a  light  often 
appeared  at  the  door  of  the  tabernacle,  and 
fixed  its  abode  on  the  ark,  between  the 
cherubims.  It  was  by  the  Jews  called  the 
Skekinah,  i.  e.  the  habitation  of  God.  Hence 
he  is  described  as  dwelling  in  light,  and 
clothed  with  light  as  with  a  garment.  In 
the  midst  of  this  brightness  there  seems  to 
have  been  sometimes  a  human  shape  and 
figure.  It  was  probably  of  this  heavenly 
light  that  Christ  divested  himself  when  he 
was  made  flesh.  With  this  he  was  covered 
at  his  transfiguration  in  the  mount,  when 
his  garmefits  were  white  as  the  light ;  and 
at  his  ascension  into  heaven,  when  a  bright 
cloud  received,  or  invested  him :  and  when 
he  appeared  to  John,  Rev.  i.  13.  and  it  was 
with  this  he  prayed  his  Father  would  glori- 
fy b.im. 

Sometimes  the  great  and  blessed  God  ap- 
peared in  the  form  of  a  man  or  angel  Ii 
is  evident  that  the  true  God  resided  in  this 
man  or  angel ;  b(  cause,  on  account  of  this 
union  to  proper  Deity,  the  angel  calls  him- 
self Godj  the  Lord  6od.    He  assumes  the 


most  exalted  names  and  characters  of  God- 
head. And  the  spectators,  ana  t^dcred  his- 
torians, it  IS  evident,  cun.^idertd  him  as  true 
and  proper  God:  they  paid  him  the  high- 
est worship  and  obedience.  He  is  properly 
styled  the  arigel  of  God  s  /ircsence — The 
(messenger  or)  angel  of  the  covenant,  Isa. 
Ixxii.  iVIal.  iii.  1. 

Ihe  same  angel  of  the  Lord  was  the  par- 
ticular God  and  King  of  tne  Israelites.  It 
was  he  who  made  a  covenant  with  the  pa- 
triarchs, who  appeared  to  Moses  in  the 
burning  bush,  who  redeemed  the  Israelites 
from  Egypt,  who  conducted  them  through 
the  wilderness,  who  gave  the  law  at  Sinai, 
and  transacted  the  affairs  of  the  ancient 
church, 

The  angels  who  have  appeared  since  our 
blessed  Saviour  became  incarnate,  have  never 
assumed  the  names,  titles,  characters,  or 
worship,  belnnging  to  God.  Hence  we  may 
infer  that  the  angel  who,  under  the  Old 
Testament,  assumed  divine  titles,  and  ac- 
cepted religious  worship,  was  that  peculiar 
angel  of  God's  presence,  in  whom  God  re- 
sided, or  who  was  united  to  the  Ciodhead 
in  a  peculiar  manner ;  even  the  pre-exist- 
ent  soul  of  Christ,  who  afterwards  took  flesh 
and  blood  upon  him,  and  was  called  Jesus 
Christ  on  earth. 

Christ  represents  himself  as  one  with  the 
Father :  /  and  the  Father  are  one,  John  x. 
30.  xiv.  10,  11.  There  is,  we  may  hence 
infer,  such  a  peculiar  union  between  God  and 
the  man  Christ  Jesus,  both  in  his  pre- 
existent  and  incarnate  statt,  that  he  may 
be  properly  called  God  man  in  one  complex 
person. 

Among  those  expressions  of  scripture 
which  discover  the  pre-existence  of  Christ, 
theie  are  sevei'al  from  which  we  may  de- 
rive a  certain  proof  of  his  divinity  Such 
are  those  places  in  the  Old  Testament, 
where  the  angel  who  appeared  to  the  an- 
cients is  called  God,  the  Almighty  God,  Je- 
hovah, theLord  of  Hosts,  lam  that  lam,  &c. 

Dr.  Watts  supposes,  that  the  doctrine  of 
the  pre-existence  of  the  soul  of  Christ  ex- 
plains dark  and  difficult  scriptures,  and  dis- 
covers many  beauties  and  proprieties  of  ex- 
pression in  the  word  of  God,  which  on  any 
ether  plan  lie  unobserved.  For  instance,  in 
Col.  i.  15,  &c.  Christ  is  described  as  the 
image  of  the  invisible  God,  the  first-born  of 
every  creature.  His  being  the  image  of  the 
invisible  God  cannot  refer  merely  to  his  di- 
vine nature  ;  for  that  is  as  invisible  in  the 
Son  as  in  the  Father:  therefore  it  seems  to 
refer  to  his  pre-existent  soul  in  union  with 
the  Godhead.  Again :  when  man  is  said 
to  be  created  in  the  image  of  God,  Gen.  i. 
2.  it  may  refer  to  the  God  man,  to  Christ 
in  his  pre-existent  state.  God  says.  Let 
us  make  ma?2  /w  our  image,  after  our  like- 
ness. The  word  is  redoubled,  perhaps  to 
intimate  that  Adam  was  made  in  the  like- 
ness of  the  human  soul  of  Christ,  as  well  as 
that  he  bore  something  of  tlie  image  and  re- 
semblance of  the  f'ivine  nature 

On  the  other  side,  it  is  affirmed,  that  this 


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doctrine  of  the  pre-existence  of  the  human 
soul  of  Christ  weakens  and  subverts  that  of 
his  personality.  1.  A  pure  intelligent  spirit, 
say  they,  the  first,  the  most  ancient,  and 
the  most  excellent  of  creatures,  created 
before  the  foundation  of  the  world,  so  exact- 
ly resembles  the  second  person  of  the  Arian 
trinity,  that  it  is  impossible  to  shew  the 
least  difference,  except  in  name. — 2.  The 
pre-existent  intelligence  supposed  in  this 
doctrine  is  so  confounded  with  those  other 
intelligences  called  angels,  that  there  is 
gx-eat  danger  of  mistaking  this  human  soul 
for  an  angel,  and  so  of  making  the  person 
of  Christ  to  consist  of  three  natures. — 3.  If 
Jesus  Christ  had  nothing  in  common  like 
the  rest  of  mankind  except  a  body,  how 
could  this  semi-conformity  make  him  a  real 
man  .'' — 4.  The  passages  quoted  in  proof  of 
the  pre-existence  of  the  human  soul  of  Jesus 
Christ  are  of  the  same  sort  with  those 
Avhich  others  allege  in  proof  of  the  pre- 
existence  of  all  human  souls. — 5.  This  opi- 
nion, by  ascribing  the  dignity  of  the  work  of 
redemption  to  this  sublime  human  soul,  de- 
tracts from  the  deity  of  Christ,  and  renders 
the  last  as  passive  as  the  first  active. — 6 
This  notion  is  contrary  to  scripture.  St. 
Paul  says,  in  all  things  it  behoved  him  to  be 
made  like  his  brethren :  he  partook  of  all 
our  infirmities,  except  sin.  St.  Luke  says, 
he  increased  in  stature  and  in  wisdom,  Heb. 
ii.  17.  Luke  ii.  52.  See  articles  Jesus 
Christ  and  Indwelling  Scheme  ;  Ro- 
binsori's  Claude,  vol.  i.  p  214,311;  Watts' 
Works,  vol.  v.  p.  274,  385  ;  GUI's  Body  of 
Di-v.  vol.  ii.  p.  51 ;  Robinson's  Plea,  p.  140; 
Fleming's  Christology  ;  Sinifison's  jifiology 
for  the  Trin.,  p.  190 ;  Hawker's  Ser.  on 
the  Divinity  of  Christ,  p.  44,  4o. 

PREMONSTRANTRS,  or  Pr/f.mon- 
stratenses,  a  religious  order  of  regular 
canons,  instituted  in  1120,  by  S.  Norbert, 
and  thence  called  Norbertines.  The  rule 
they  followed  was  that  of  St.  Augustine, 
with  some  slight  alterations,  and  an  addition 
of  certain  severe  laws,  whose  authority  did 
not  long  survive  their  founder. 

They  first  came  into  England  A.  D.  1146. 
Their  first  monastery,  called  Mew-house, 
was  erected  in  Lincolnshire,  by  Peter  de 
Saulia,  and  dedicated  to  St.  Martial.  In  the 
reign  of  Edward  I.  this  order  had  twenty- 
seven  monasteries  in  England. 

PRESBYTER.  See  next  article;  and 
articles  Deacon,  Elder. 

PRESBYTERIANS.  Tlic  title  Pres- 
byterian, comes  from  the  Greek  word 
npitrjivTepoi  which  signifies  senior  or  elder, 
intimating  that  the  government  of  the 
church  in  the  New^  Testament,  was  by 
presbyteries,  that  is  by  association  of  minis- 
ters and  ruling  elders,  possessed  all  of  equal 
powers,  without  any  superiority  among 
them,  either  in  office  or  order.  The  Pres- 
byterians believe,  that  the  authority  of  their 
ministers  to  preach  the  Gospel,  to  adminis- 
ter the  sacraments  of  baptism  and  the 
Lord's  supper,   and   to  feed   the   flock  of 


Christ,  is  derived  from  the  Holy  Ghost  by 
the  imposition  of  the  hands  of  the  presby- 
tery; and  they  oppose  the  independant 
scheme  of  the  common  rights  of  Christians 
by  the  same  arguments  which  are  used  for 
that  purpose  by  the  Episcopalians.  They 
affirm,  however,  that  tliere  is  no  order  in 
the  church  as  established  by  Christ  and  his 
apostles  superior  to  that  of  presbyters  ;  that 
all  ministers  being  ambassadors  of  Christ, 
are  equal  by  their  commission  ;  that  presby- 
ter and  bishop,  though  different  words,  are 
of  the  same  import ;  and  that  prelacy  was 
gradually  established  upon  the  primitive 
practice  of  making  the  jnoderator  or  speak- 
er of  the  presbytery  a  permanent  officer. 

These  positions  they  maintain  against  the 
Episcopalians  by  the  following  scriptural  ar- 
guments. They  observe.  That  the  apostles 
planted  churches  by  ordaining  bishops  and 
deacons  in  every  city  ;  that  the  ministers 
wliich  in  one  verse  are  called  bishops,  are 
in  the  next  perhaps  denominated  presby- 
ters ;  that  we  no  where  read  in  the  New 
Testament  of  bishops,  presbyters,  and  dea- 
cons, in  any  one  church  ;  and  that,  therefore, 
we  are  under  the  necessity  of  concluding 
bishofi  and  presbyter  to  be  two  names  for 
the  same  church  officer.  This  is  apparent 
from  Peter's  exhortation  to  the  elders  or 
presbyters  who  were  among  the  Jewish 
Christians.  *  The  eldeis  (presbyters)  which 
are  among  you  I  exhort,  who  am  also  an 
elder,  and  a  witness  of  the  sufferings  of 
Christ,  and  also  a  partaker  of  the  glory 
that  shall  be  revealed :  feed  the  flock  of 
God  which  is  among  you,  taking  the  over- 
sight thereof,  {e7!ris-x,o7i-ovv]e(;  acting  as  bi-^ 
shops  thereof,)  not  by  constraint,  but  wil- 
lingly ;  not  for  filthy  lucre,  but  of  a  ready 
mind  ;  neither  as  being  Lords  over  God's 
heritage,  but  being  ensamples  to  the  flock,' 
1  Pet.  V.  2,  3.  From  this  passage  it  is  evi- 
dent that  the  presbyters  not  only  fed  the 
flock  of  God.  but  also  governed  that  flock 
with  episcopal  powei's ;  and  that  the  apos- 
tle himself,  as  a  church  officer,  was  nothing 
more  than  a  presbyter  or  elder. — The  iden- 
tity of  the  office  of  bishop  and  presbyter  is 
still  more  apparent  from  Heb.  xiii.  7,  17 
and  1  Thes.  v.  13;  for  the  bishops  are 
there  represented  as  governing  the  flock, 
speaking  to  them  the  word  of  God,  Avatch- 
ing  for  their  souls,  and  discharging  various 
offices,  which  it  is  impossible  for  any  man  to 
perform  to  more  than  one  congregation. 

"  From  the  last  cited  text  it  is  evident 
that  the  bishops  (■irooKrlxf.civovr)  of  the 
Thessalonian  churches  had  the  pastoral 
care  of  no  more  souls  than  they  cruld  hold 
personal  communion  with  in  God's  worship ; 
for  they  were  such  as  all  the  people  were 
to  know,  esteem,  and  love,  as  those  that 
not  only  were  over  them,  but  also  'chs-zly 
laboured  among  them,  and  admonished 
them.'  But  diocesan  bishops,  Avhcm  ordi- 
narily the  hundredth  part  of  their  flock 
never  hear  nor  see,  cannot  be  those  bishops 


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bj»  whom  that  fl-ick  is  admonished ;  nor  can 
th^  y  !>•  w.iciL  Peter  requires  the  bishops  of 
the  Jewisni  Ojnverts  to  be,  ensawfiles  co  the 
Jlock  It  is  I'le  opinion  of  Dr.  Hammond, 
who  was  a  ve  y  learned  divine,  nnd  a  zea- 
lot f'lr  episc  pacy,  that  the  elders  whom  the 
apostle  James  desires  (Jas.  v  14  )  the  sick 
to  call  fur.  were  the  highest  permanent 
ordtr  uf  ccciesiastical  officers;  but  it  is 
self-evident  itiat  th.se  elders  cannot  have 
been  diocesan  bishops,  otherwise  the  sick 
must  have  been  often  without  the  reach  of 
the  remedy  proposed  to  them. 

"  There  is  nothing  in  scripture  upon 
•which  the  Episcopalian  is  more  ready  to 
rest  his  cause  than  the  alleged  episcopacy 
of  Timothy  and  Titus,  of  whom  the  former 
is  said  to  have  been  bishop  of  Ephe.sus,  and 
the  latter  bishop  of  Crete ;  yet  the  Presby- 
terian thinks  it  as  clear  as  the  noon-day 
sun,  that  the  presbyters  of  Ephesus  were 
supreme  governors,  under  Christ,  of  the 
Ephesian  churches,  at  the  very  time  that 
Timothy  is  pretended  to  have  been  their 
proper  diocesan. 

*'  In  Acts  XX.  17,  &c.,  we  read,  that '  from 
Miletus  Paul  sent  to  Ephesus,  and  called 
the  elders  (presbyters)  of  the  church.  And 
when  they  wei'e  come  to  him,  he  said  unto 
them,  Ye  know,  from  the  first  day  that  I 
came  into  Asia,  after  wliat  manner  I  have 
been  with  you  at  all  seasons.  And  now,  I 
know  that  ye  all,  among  whom  I  have  gone 
preaching  the  kingdom  of  God,  shall  see  my 
face  no  more.  \X^herefore  I  take  you  to 
record  this  day,  that  I  am  pure  from  the 
blood  of  all  men.  For  I  h&ve  not  shmined 
to  declare  unto  you  all  the  counsel  of  God. 
Take  heed,  therefore,  unto  yourselves,  and 
to  all  the  flock  over  whicli  tlie  Holy  Ghost 
hath  made  you  overseers  (fpriiKOTovi, 
bishops)  to  feed  the  church  of  God,  which 
he  hath  purchased  with  iiis  own  blood. 
For  I  know  this,  that  after  my  departure 
shall  grievous  wolves  enter  in  among  you, 
not  sparing  the  flock.  Also  of  your  own 
selves  shall  men  arise,  speaking  perverse 
things,  to  draw  away  disciples  after  them. 
Therefore  w  itch,  and  remember  that,  by 
the  space  of  three  years,  I  ceased  not  to 
warn  every  one  iiiglit  and  day  with  tears. 
And  now,  brethren,  I  commend  you  to  God, 
and  to  the  word  of  his  grace,'  &c 

"  From  this  passage  it  is  evident  that 
there  was  in  the  city  of  Ephesus  a  plurality 
of  pastors  of  equal  authority,  without  any 
superior  pastor  or  bishop  over  them ;  for 
the  apostle  directs  his  discourse  to  them  all 
in  common,  and  gives  them  equal  power 
over  the  whole  hock.  Dr.  Hammond,  in- 
deed, imagines,  that  the  elders  whom  Paul 
called  to  Miletus,  were  the  bishofin  of  Asia, 
and  that  he  sent  for  them  to  Ephesus,  be- 
cause that  city  was  the  metropolis  of  this 
province.  But,  were  this  opinion  well 
founded,  it  is  not  conceivable  that  the  sacred 
writer  would  have  called  them  the  elders  of 
the  church  of  Efihesus,  but  the  elders  of 
the  church  in  general,  or  the  elders  of  the 


churches  in  Aiia.  Besides,  it  is  to  be  re- 
membered, that  the  apostle  was  in  such 
haste  to  be  at  Jerusalem,  that  the  sacred 
historian  measures  his  time  by  days ; 
whereas  it  must  have  required  several 
months  to  call  together  the  bishops  or  elders 
of  all  the  cities  of  Asia  ;  and  he  might  cer- 
tainly have  gone  to  meet  them'  at  Ephesus 
in  less  time  than  would  be  requisite  ifor 
their  meting  in  that  city,  and  proceeding 
thence  to  him  at  Miletus.  They  must 
therefore  have  been  either  the  joint  pastors 
of  one  congiTgation,  or  the  pastors  of  diflFe- 
rent  congregations  in  one  city ;  and  as  it 
was  thus  in  Ephesus,  so  it  was  in  Philippi ; 
for  we  find  the  apostle  addressing  his  epistle 
'  to  all  the  saints  in  Christ  Jesus  which  are  at 
Piiilippi,  with  the  bisliops  and  deacons.' 
From  the  passage  before  us  it  is  likewise 
plain,  that  the  presbyters  of  Ephesus  had 
not  only  the  name,  but  the  whole  fioiver  of 
bishops  given  to  them  by  the  Holy  Ghost ; 
for  they  are  enjoined  to  do  the  whole  work 
of  bishops— 'r<J<jM.cs*iie<»  T^v  tKKXiis-iecv  Tov  6i»v 
— which  signifies  to  rule  as  well  aiS  feed  the 
church  of  God.  Whence  we  see  that  the 
apostle  makes  the  power  of  governing  in- 
separable from  that  of  preaching  and 
watching ;  and  that,  according  to  him,  all 
who  are  preachers  of  God's  word,  and 
watchmen  of  souls,  are  necessarily  rulers  or 
governors  of  the  church,  without  being  ac- 
countable for  their  management  to  anv  pre- 
late, but  only  to  their  Lord  Christ,  from 
wh'  ni  their  power  is  derived. 

"  It  appears,  therefore,  that  the  apostle 
Paul  left  in  the  church  of  Ephesus,  which 
h'-  had  planted,  no  other  successors  to  him- 
self than  presbyter- bishops,  or  Presbvterian 
ministers,  and  that  he  did  not  devolve  his 
power  upon  any  prelate.  Timothy  whom 
the  Episcopalians  allege  to  have  been  the 
first  bishop  of  Ephesus,  was  present  when 
this  settlement  was  made.  Acts  xx.  5  ;  and 
it  is  surely  not  to  be  supposed  that,  had  he 
been  their  bishop,  the  apostle  would  have 
devolved  the  whole  episcopal  power  upon 
the  presbyters  before  his  face.  If  ever 
tliere  were  a  season  fitter  than  another  for 
pointing  out  the  duty  of  this  supposed  bi- 
shop to  his  diocese,  and  his  presbyters'  duty 
to  him,  it  was  surely  when  Paul  was  taking 
his  final  leave  of  them,  and  discoursing  so 
pathetically  conceniing  the  duty  of  overseers, 
the  coming  of  ravenous  wolves,  and  the 
consequont  hazard  of  the  flock.  In  this  fare- 
well discourse  he  tells  them  that  *  he  had 
not  shunned  to  declare  unto  them  all  the 
counsel  of  God.'  But  with  what  truth  could 
this  have  been  said,  if  obedience  to  a  dioce- 
san bishop  had  been  any  part  of  their  duty, 
either  at  the  time  of  the  apostle's  speaking, 
or  at  any  future  period  ?  He  foresaw  that 
ravenous  wolves  would  enter  in  among 
them,  and  that  even  some  of  themselves 
should  arise  speaking  perverse  things ;  and 
if,  as  the  Episcopalians  allege,  diocesan 
episcopacy  was  the  remedy  provided  for 
these  evils,  is  it  not  strange,  passing  scrangei 


PRE 


417 


PRE 


that  the  inspired  preacher  did  not  foresee 
that  Tinii  thy,  who  was  tlien  standing  beside 
him,  was  destiaed  to  fill  tliat  important 
oflice  ;  or,  if  he  did  foresee  it,  tljat  he  omit- 
ted to  re  commend  him  to  his  future  cliart^e, 
and  to  give  him  proper  instructions  for  the 
discharge  of  his  duty  ? 

•'  But  if  Timothy  was  not  bishop  of  Ephe- 
sus,  what,  it  may  be  asked,  was  his  office 
in  that  city  ?  for  that  he  resided  there  for 
some  time',  and  was  by  tlie  apostle  invested 
with  authority  to  ordain  and  rebuke  pres- 
byters, are  facts  about  which  all  parties  are 
agreed,  and  whicli,  indeed,  cannot  be  con- 
troverted by  any  reader  of  Paul's  epistles. 
To  this  the  Presbyterian  replies,  with  confi- 
dence, that  the  power  which  Timothy  ex- 
ercised in  the  church  of  Ephesus  was  that 
of  an  evangehbt,  Tim.  ii  4,  5.  and  not  a 
fixed  prelate.  But,  according  to  Eusebius, 
the  work  of  an  evangelist  was,  '  to  lay  the 
foundations  of  the  faith  in  barbarous  nations. 
and  to  constitute  among  them  pastors,  after 
which  he  passed  on  to  other  countries.' 
Accordingly  we  find  that  Timothy  was 
yesident  for  a  time  at  Pliilippi  and  Corinth 
(Phil.  ii.  19.  1  Cor.  iv.  17.  xvi.  10,  11.)  as 
well  as  Ephesus,  and  that  he  had  as  much 
authority  over  those  churches  as  over  that 
of  which  he  is  said  to  have  been  the  fixed 
bishop.  '  Now,  if  Timotheus  come,  see 
that  he  may  be  with  you  without  f(  ar,  for 
he  worketh  the  work  of  tlie  Lord,  as  I  also 
do.  Let  no  man,  therefore,  despise  him.' 
This  text  might  'ead  us  to  suppose  that 
Timothy  was  bishop  of  Corinth  as  well  as 
of  Ephesus  ;  for  it  is  stronger  than  that  upon 
whic\  his  episcopacy  of  the  latter  church  is 
chiefly  built.  The  apostle  says,  1  Tim.  i. 
3.  '  i  besought  thee  to  abide  still  at  Ephe- 
sus, when  I  went  into  Macedonia,  that 
thou  mightest  charge  some  that  they  teach 
no  other  doctrine.'  But,  had  Timothy  been 
the  fixed  bishop  of  that  city,  there  would 
surely  have  been  no  necessity  for  beseech- 
ing him  to  abide  with  his  flock.  It  is  to  be 
observed,  too,  that  the  first  epistle  to  Timo- 
thy, which  alone  was  written  to  him  during 
his  residence  at  Ephesus,  was  of  a  date 
prior  to  Paul's  meeting  with  the  elders  of 
that  church  at  Miletus;  for  in  the  epistle 
he  hopes  to  come  to  him  shortly ;  whereas 
he  tells  the  elders  at  Miletus  that  they 
should  see  his  face  no  more.  This  being 
the  case,  it  is  evident  that  Timothy  was 
left  by  the  apostle  at  Ephesus  only  to  sup- 
ply his  pl.ace  during  his  temporary  absence 
at  Macedonia ;  and  that  he  could  not  pos- 
sibly have  been  constituted  fixed  bishop  of 
that  church,  since  the  episcnpal  powers  were 
afterwards  committed  to  the  presbyters  b)' 
the  H'lly  Ghost  in  his  presence. 

"  The  identity  nf  the  oflice  of  b'shnp  and 
presbyter  bei'^g  thus  clearly  establish(  d,  it 
follows,  that  the  presbyterate  is  the  hti;hest 
permanent  office  in  the  church,  and  that 
every  faithful  pastor  of  a  flnck  is  successor 
to  the  apr-stles  in  every  thing  in  which  they 
'.vere  to  have  any  successors.    In  the  aprs- 

3  a 


tolic  office  there  were  indeed  some  things 
peculiar  and  extraordinary,  such  as  their 
immediate  call  by  Christ,  their  infallibility, 
their  teuig  witnesses  of  our  Lord's  resur- 
rection, and  their  unlimited  jurisdiction  over 
the  whole  world.  These  powers  and  pri*- 
vilfges  could  not  be  conveyed  by  imposition 
of  hands  to  any  successors  ;  whether  called 
presbyters  or  bishops ;  but  as  rulers  or 
office-bearers  in  pai-ticular  churches,  we 
have  the  confession  of  '  the  very  chiefest 
apostles,'  Peter  and  John,  that  they  were 
nothing  more  than  presbyters,  or  parish 
ministers.  This  being  the  case,  the  dispute 
which  has  been  so  warmly  agitated  concern- 
ing the  validity  of  Presbyterian  ordination, 
may  be  soon  decided  ;  for  if  the  ceremony 
of  ordination  be  at  all  essential,  it  is  obvious 
that  such  a  ceremony  performed  by  presby- 
ters must  be  valid,  as  there  is  no  higher  or- 
der of  ecclesiastics  in  the  church  by  whom 
it  can  be  performed.  Accordingly  we  find, 
that  Timothy  himself,  though  said  to  be  a 
bishop,  was  ordained  by  the  laying  on  of 
the  hands  by  a  presbytery.  At  that  ordina- 
tion, indeed,  St.  Paul  presided,  but  he  couid 
preside  only  as  /trimUs  in  paribus  ;  for  we 
have  seen  that,  as  permanent  officers  in  the 
church  of  Christ,  the  apostles  themselves 
were  no  more  than  presbyters-  If  the  apos- 
tle's hands  were  imposed  for  any  other  pur- 
pose, it  must  have  been  to  communicate 
those  charismata,  <ir  miraculous  gifts  of  the 
Holy  Spirit,  which  were  then  so  frequent; 
but  which  no  modern  presbyter  or  bishop 
will  prett  nd  to  give,  unless  his  understand- 
ing be  clouded  by  the  grossest  ignorance, 
or  perverted  by  the  most  frantic  enthu- 
siasm." 

l  he  members  of  the  church  of  Scotland 
are  strict  Presbyterians.  Their  mode  of 
ecclesiastical  government  was  brought  thi- 
ther from  Geneva  by  John  Knox,  the  famous 
ScMtch  reformer,  and  who  has  been  styled 
the  apostle  of  Scotland. 

Their  doctrines  are  Calvinistic,  as  may 
be  seen  in  the  confession  of  faith,  and  the 
larger  and  shorter  catechisms;  though  it 
is  supposed  that  the  clergy,  when  composing 
instructions,  either  for  their  respective  pa- 
rishes, or  the  public  at  large,  are  uo  more 
fettered  by  the  confession,  than  the  clergy 
of  the  cliurch  of  England  are  by  the  thirty- 
nine  articles.  Many  in  both  communities,  it 
seems,  take  a  more  extensive  latitude  than 
their  formulas  allow  them. 

As  to  the  church  government  among  the 
Scotch  Presbyterians,  no  one  is  ignorant, 
that,  from  the  first  dawn  of  the  reforma- 
tion among  us  till  the  era  of  the  revolution, 
there  was  a  perpetual  struggle  between  the 
court  and  the  people,  for  the  establish- 
ment of  an  episci'pal  or  presbyterian  form; 
the  former  model  of  ecclesiastical  polity 
was  patronised  by  the  house  of  Stuait  on 
account  of  the  support  which  it  gave  to  the 
prerogatives  of  the  crown  ;  the  latter  was 
th(^  favourite  of  the  majority  of  the  people, 
perhaps  not  so  much  on  account  of  its  supe- 


PRE 


418 


PRE 


rwr  claim  to  apostolical  institution,  as  be- 
tause  the  laity  are  mixed  with  the  clergy 
in  church  judicatories,  and  the  two  orders, 
which  under  episcopacy  are  kept  so  distinct, 
incorporated,  as  it  were,  into  one  body.  In 
tile  Scottish  church,  every  regulation  of 
public  worship,  every  act  of  discipline,  and 
every  ecclesiastical  censure,  which  in  other 
churches  flows  from  the  authority  of  a 
diocesan  bishop,  or  from  a  convocation  of 
the  clergy,  is  the  joint  work  of  a  certain 
number  of  clergymen  and  laymen  acting 
together  with  equal  authority,  and  deciding 
every  question  by  a  plurality  of  voices.  The 
laymen  who  thus  form  an  essential  part  of 
the  ecclesiastical  courts  of  Scotland  are  call- 
ed ruling  eldersy  and  hold  the  same  office, 
as  well  as  the  same  name,  with  those  bre- 
thren (Acts  XV.)  who  joined  with  the  apos- 
tles and  elders  at  Jerusalem  in  determining 
the  important  question  concerning  the  ne- 
cessity of  imposing  upon  the  Gentile  con- 
verts the  ritual  observances  of  the  law  of 
Moses.  These  lay-elders  Paul  enjoined 
Timothy,  (1  Tim.  v.  17.)  to  account  worthy 
of  double  honour,  if  they  should  rule  well, 
and  discharge  the  duties  for  which  they 
■were  separated  from  the  multitude  of  their 
brethren.  In  the  church  of  Scotland  every 
pafish  has  two  or  three  of  those  lay-elders, 
who  are  grave  and  serious  persons,  chosen 
from  among  the  heads  of  families,  of  known 
orthodoxy,  and  steady  adlierence  to  the 
worship,  discipline,  and  government  of  the 
church.  Being  solemnly  engaged  to  use 
their  utmost  endeavours  for  the  suppression 
of  vice,  and  the  cherishing  of  piety  and  vir- 
tue, and  to  exercise  discipline  faithfully  and 
diligently,  the  minister,  in  the  presence  of 
the  congregation,  sets  them  apart  to  their 
office  by  solemn  prayer;  and  concludes  the 
ceremony,  which  is  sometimes  called  ordi- 
nation, with  exhorting  both  elders  and  peo- 
ple to  their  respective  duties. 

The  kirk  session,  which  is  the  lowest  ec- 
clesiastical judicatory,  consists  of  the  minis- 
ter and  those  elders  of  the  congregation. 
The  minister  is  ex-officio  moderator,  but 
has  no  negative  voice  over  the  decision  of 
the  session  ;  nor,  indeed,  has  he  a  right  to 
vote  at  all,  uriless  when  the  voice  of  the 
elders  ai"e  equal  and  opposite.  He  may, 
indeed,  enter  his  protest  against  their  sen- 
tence, if  he  think  it  improper,  and  appeal 
to  the  judgment  of  the  presbytery  ;  but  this 
privilege  belongs  equally  to  every  elder,  as 
well  as  to  every  person  who  may  believe 
himself  aggrieved  by  the  proceedings  of 
the  session.  Tlie  deacons,  whose  proper 
office  it  is  to  take  care  of  the  poor,  may 
be  present  in  every  session,  and  offer  their 
counsel  on  all  questions  that  come  before 
it:  but,  except  in  what  relates  to  the 
distribution  of  alms,  they  have  no  decisive 
'.'ote  with  tlic  minister  and  elders. 

The  next  judicatory  is  the  prcsln/tery, 
which  consists  of  all  the  pastors  within  "a 
certain  district,  and  one  ruling  ch'er  from 
each  parish,  commissioned  by  his  brethren 


to  represent,  in  conjunction  with   the   mi- 
nister,  the   session  of  that   parish.     The 
presbytery  treats  of  such  matters  as  con- 
cern  the   particular   churches    witliin  its 
limits;  as  the  examination,  admission,  ordi- 
nation, and  censuring  of  ministers ;  the  li- 
censing of  probationers,  rebuking  the  gross 
or  contumacious  sinners,  the  directing  the 
sentence  of  excommunication,  the  deciding 
upon  references  and  appeals  from  kirk  ses- 
sions, resolving  cases  of  conscience,  explain- 
ing difficulties  in  doctrine  or   discipline  ; 
and  censuring,   according  to  the  word  of 
God,    any    heresy   or     erroneous    doctrine 
which  hath  either  been  publicly  or  private-      j 
ly  maintained  within  the  bounds  of  its  juris-      j 
diction.    Some  of  them  have  frankly  ac-      1 
knowledged  that  they  cannot  altogether  ap- 
prove of  that  part  of  her  constitution  which 
gives  an  equal  vote,  in  questions  of  heresy, 
to  an  illiterate  mechanic  and  his  enlightened 
pastor.    We  are  persuaded  (say  they)  that 
it  has  been  the  source  of  much  trouble  to 
many  a  pious  clergyman,  who,  from  the  laud- 
able desire  of  explaining  the  scripture,  and 
declaring  to  his  flock  all  the  counsel  of  God, 
has  employed  a  variety  of  expressions  of  the 
same  import  to  illustrate  those  articles  of 
faith,  which  may  be  obscurely  expressed  in 
the  established  standards.     The  fact,  how- 
ever, is,  that  in  presbyteries  the  only  prero- 
gatives which  tlie  pastors  have  over  the  ru- 
ling  elders   are,    the  power  of  ordination 
by  imposition  of  hands,  and  the  privilege  of 
having  the  moderator  chosen  from  their  body. 
From  the  judgment  of   the   presbytery 
there  lies  an  appeal  to  the  firovindal  synods 
which  ordinarily  meets  twice   in  the   year, 
and  excercises  over  the  presbyteries  within 
the  province  a  jurisdiction  similar  to  that 
which  is  vested  in  each    presbytery  over 
the  several  kirk  sessions  within  its  bounds. 
Of  these  synods  there  are  in   the  church  of 
Scotland    fifteen,    which   are    composed  of 
the  members  of  the  several   presbyteries 
within  the  respective  provinces  which  give 
names  to  the  synods. 

The  highest  authority  in  the  church  of 
Scotland  is  the  general  assembly,  which 
consists  of  a  certain  number  of  ministers 
and  ruling  elders  delegated  from  each  pres- 
bytei7,  and  of  commissioners  from  the  uni- 
versities and  royal  boroughs.  A  presbyte- 
ry in  which  there  are  fewer  than  twelve 
parishes  sends  to  the  general  assembly 
two  ministers  and  one  ruling  elder  ;  if  it 
contain  between  twelve  and  eighteen  minis- 
ters, it  sends  three  of  these,  and  one  ruling 
elder :  if  it  contain  between  eighteen  and 
twentj'-four  ministers,  it  sends  four  minis- 
ters, and  two  ruling  ciders  ;  and  of  twenty- 
four  ministers,  when  it  contains  so  many,  it 
sends  five,  with  two  ruling  elders.  Every 
royal  borough  sends  one  ruling  elder,  and 
Edinburgh  two.  whose  election  must  be  at- 
tested by  the  kirk  sessions  of  their  respec- 
tive boroughs.  Every  university  sends  one 
commissioner  fj-om  its  own  body.  Tlie 
conarai^sioncrs    are    chosen     annuitl'y   six 


PRE 


419 


PRE 


weeks  before  the  meeting  of  the  assembly  ; 
and  the  ruling  elders  are  often  men  of  the 
first  eminence  in  the  kingdom  for  rank  and 
talents.  In  this  assembly,  which  meets 
once  a  year,  the  king  presides  by  his  com- 
missioner, who  is  always  a  nobleman,  but 
he  has  no  voice  in  their  deliberations.  The 
order  of  their  proceedings  is  regular,  though 
sometimes  the  number  of  members  creates 
a  confusion ;  which  the  moderator,  who  is 
chosen  from  among  the  ministers  to  be,  as 
it  were,  the  speaker  of  the  house,  has  not 
sufficient  authority  to  prevent.  Appeals  are 
brought  from  all  the  other  ecclesiastical 
courts  in  Scotland  to  the  general  assembly ; 
and  in  questions  purely  religious,  no  appeal 
lies  from  its  determination.  See  Hall's 
View  of  a  Gosficl  Church.  Enc.  Brit  art. 
fresbyterians.  Brown's  Vindication  of  the 
Presbyterianform  of  Lhurch  Government. 
Scotch  Confession  and  Directory  For  the 
other  side  of  the  question,  and  against 
Presbyterian  church  government.  See  arti- 
cles Brownists,  Church  Congrega- 
tional, Episcopacy,  and  Indepen- 
dents. 

PRESBYTERIANS  Cumberland,  this 
is  a  body  of  Presbyterians  who  principally 
reside  in  the  states  of  Kentucky  and  Ten- 
nessee, and  in  the  adjacent  territories. 

They  constituted  a  presbytery  separate 
from  the  Kentucky  synod  and  general  pres- 
byterian  church,  on  the  10th  of  February, 
1810.  The  causes  that  led  to  this  are  as 
follow : 

About  the  year  1799  or  1800,  God  revi- 
ved religion  in  a  remarkable  manner  in  the 
western  country,  through  the  instrumentali- 
ty of  some  presbyterian  preachers ;  conse- 
quently, many  new  congregations  were  soon 
formed  and  organiEed.  But  to  continue  to 
supply  them  all  by  the  the7i  licensed  and 
ordained  ministers,  was  impracticable. 

A  venerable  father  in  the  ministry  who 
came  from  a  distance,  discovering  the  ne- 
cessity for  supplies,  proposed  to  the  preach- 
ers who  were  engaged  in  promoting  the  re 
vival  to  choose  from  amongst  the  laity  some 
men  (whose  talents,  gifts,  piety,  8cc.  would 
justify  such  a  step,)  and  encourage  them  to 
prepare  for  the  work  of  the  ministry  : 
though  they  might  not  have  a  classical  edu- 
cation, 7  his  proposition  was  readily  ac- 
ceded to,  and  several  persons  were  spoken 
to  on  the  subject,  and  encouraged  to  im- 
prove their  talent  by  exhortation,  and  to 
prepare  written  discourses  to  exhibit  to  the 
next  Transylvania  presbytery,  as  specimens 
of  their  abilities  to  sermonize,  &c ;  with 
which  they  accordingly  complied.  The 
discourses  were  read  to  the  aged  member 
who  first  recommended  the  measure,  and 
tolerably  well  approved.  They  were  not 
now  received  as  candidates  for  the  minis- 
try, but  were  dii'ected  to  prepare  other  dis- 
courses to  read  to  the  next  presbytery, 
where  the  debate  became  veiy  animated, 
whether  they  should  be  admitted  as  candi-  j 
dates  for  the  holy  ministry  ;  when  finally  aj 
majority  of  one  vote  decided,  one  of  them  i 


only  should  be  received  at  that  time.  The 
next  presbytery,  however,  decided  by  a 
large  majority  in  favour  of  the  proposed 
plan  ;  and  accordingly,  after  hearing  popu- 
lar trials,  &c.  proceeded  to  license  three 
men,  to  wit: — Alexander  Anderson,  Finis 
Ewing,  and  Samuel  King,  to  preach  the 
Gospel  as  probationers.  These  men,  al- 
though two  of  them  had  no  knowledge  of 
the  dead  languages ;  yet,  from  their  dis- 
courses, extempore,  as  well  as  written,  and 
from  the  petitions  of  hundreds  of  serious 
Christians,  praying  that  they  might  be  li- 
censed ;  the  presbytery  thought  they  could 
not  be  out  of  their  duty  in  promoting  them 
to  the  work  of  the  ministry  ;  in  which  opi- 
nion they  were  afterwards  fully  confirmed. 
Some  members  of  this  presbytery,  however, 
as  well  as  the  preceding,  were  opposed  to 
the  measure,  who  entered  their  protest,  and 
wrote  to  the  synod,  who,  at  first,  paid  but 
little  attention  to  it.  About  this  time  the 
Transylvania  presbytery  was  divided,  and 
ihe  former,  Cumberland  presbytery  consti- 
tuted, in  which  there  were  always  a  decid- 
ed majority  in  favour  of  licencing  men  to 
preach  the  Gospel  (when  need  required, 
and  God  called)  who  were  "  apt  to  teach,'* 
and  sound  in  the  faith,  though  they  might 
not  possess  a  liberal  education.  Therefore, 
from  time  to  time  they  licensed,  (some  of 
whom  they  ordained,)  men  of  that  descrip- 
tion. This  measure  was  still  opposed  by 
that  part  of  the  presbytery  who  were  un- 
friendly to  the  revival.  The  synod  took  up 
the  matter,  and  appointed  a  commission  of 
their  own  body  to  meet  in  the  bounds  of 
the  {'umberland  presbytery,  and  directed 
the  members  thereof,  with  all  their  licen- 
ciates,  candidates,  and  exhorters,  to  meet : 
which  summons  the  greater  part  of  them 
obeyed.  After  the  commission  and  the  ac- 
cused had  met,  the  former  exhibited  many 
charges  against  the  latter  ;  principally  taken 
from  the  minutes  of  the  presbytery  and 
public  fame  :  all  of  which  were  chiefly  com- 
prised in  the  two  following,  to  wit: — 1st,. 
Licensing  men  to  preach  who  had  not  been 
examined  on  the  languages.  2d,  That 
those  men  who  were  licensed,  both  learn- 
ed and  less  learned,  had  been  only  required 
to  adopt  the  confession  of  faith  partially, 
that  is,  as  far  as  they  believed  it  to  agree 
with  God's  word. 

As  to  the  first  ground  of  complaint  the 
presbytery  not  only  plead  the  exception 
in  the  discipline  in  "  extraordinary  cases," 
but  also  the  example  of  a  number  of  the 
presbyteries  in  different  parts  of  tlie  United 
States.  They  moreover,  appealed  to  a 
higher  authority  than  either  of  the  fore- 
going, which  was  the  N'ew  Testament,  and 
enquired  if  there  be  any  precept  or  exan;- 
ple  in  that  Book  which  condemns  the  prac- 
tice of  licensing  what  they  (the  commission) 
called  unlearned  men.  It  was  also  asked, 
if  God  could  not  as  easily  call  a  Presby- 
terian not  classically  learned,  to  preach  the 
Gospel,  as  he  could  such  of  any  other  de- 
nomination ?  ,, 


PRE 


420 


PRE 


With  respect  to  doctrines  ;  the  preshy 
teiy  believed  their  candi.lates  had  departtc! 
from  no  essential  doctrine  taught  in  the 
confession  of  faith  ;  and  therefore  otight  to 
have  been  indulged  in  their  conscientious 
scruples  about  tenets  not  essential  or  im- 
portant. This  reasoning,  however,  was 
not  satisfactoiy  to  the  commission,  who  de- 
manded all  the  young  men  to  be  given  up 
to  them  for  re-examination.  The  presby- 
tery refused  ;  viewing  the  demand  unprece- 
dented, and  directly  making  dangerous  en- 
croachments on  the  liberties  and  privileges 
©f  presbyteries,  who,  according  to  the  dis- 
cipline, were  sole  judges  of  the  faith  and 
qualifications  of  their  own  candidates  for 
the  ministry.  The  young  men  then  being 
summoned  to  submit,  and  refusing,  the 
commission  proceeded  solemnly  to  prohibit 
them  all,  learned  and  less  learned,  from 
preaching  or  administering  any  more  as 
Presbyterians  ;  and  summoned  the  majority 
of  the  presbytery  to  appear  at  their  next 
syn(;d  to  answer  for  not  surrendering  their 
young  brethren,  and  to  be  examined  them- 
selves on  doctrines.  The  presbytery  thought 
it  a  very  extraordinary  step  indeed,  for  a 
commission  of  synod  to  silence,  or  prohibit, 
a  number  of  respectable  and  useful  minis- 
ters of  Jesus,  without  firocess.  or  trial; 
men,  whose  moral  charactei's  were  unex- 
ceptionable, and  who  had  never  been  called 
before  their  own  presbytery  to  answer  any 
charge  ;  and  men,  who  were  never  convict- 
ed of  either  heresy,  innnorality,  or  contu- 
macy, before  any  judicature  whatsoever. 
The  presbytery  being  conscious  that  the 
commis  in  l^ad  acted  illegally,  determined 
to  pet:  1  n  the  general  assembly.  In  the 
mean  liine  they  farmed  themselves  into  a 
council  ;  intending,  with  their  young  bre- 
thren, to  promote  religion  as  welPas  they 
could  in  that  capacity;  refraining  from 
presbyterial  acts,  until  they  could  learn 
the  decision  of  the  assembly :  the  first  de- 
cision of  whicli  appeared  favourable.  This 
encouraged  the  council  to  expect  the  as- 
sembly would  eventually  redre&s  their  griev- 
ances They  therefore  waited  and  peti- 
tioned, until  they  were  convinced  by  an 
act,  or  decision  of  the  assembly,  tliat  the 
syi^cd  were  justified  in  th^ir  unconstitutional 
and  unpreredented  conduct  toward  the 
young  preachers:  which,  (after  another 
fruitless  application  to  the  synod  and  Tran- 
sylvania presbytery)  determined  three  of 
the  remaining  ordained  ministers  to  consti- 
tute a  separate  presbytery;  which  was  done 
in  the  following;  manner: 

"  In  Dicks'-n  County,  Tennessee  State, 
?.t  the  Rev.  M'Adow's,  this  4th  day  of  Feb- 
j-uary.  1810  :" 

*'  We,  Samuel  M'Adow,  Finis  Ewing, 
And  Samuel  King,  reirularly  ordained  minis- 
ters in  the  Presbyterian  church,  against 
whom  no  charge  either  of  immorality  or 
heiesy  has  ever  been  exhibited,  before  anv 
of  the  church  judicatures ;  having  waited 
in  vain  more  than  four  years ;  in  the  mean 
time  petitioui:)g  the  General  Assembly  for 


a  redress  of  grievances  and  a  restoration  of 
our  violated  rights,  have,  and  do  hereby 
agree  and  determine,  to  constitute  a  Pres- 
bytery known  by  the  name  of  the  Cum- 
berland Presbytery,  on  the  following  con- 
ditions :" 

All  candidates  for  the  ministiy  who  may 
hereafter  be  licensed  by  this  presbyteiy,  and 
all  licenciatcs  or  probationers  who  may  here- 
after be  ordained  by  this  presbytery,  shall  be 
required  before  such  licensure  and  ordination 
to  receive  and  adopt  the  confession  and  dis-  - 
cipline  *  of  the  presbyterian  church,  except 
the  idea  of  fatility  that  seems  to  be  taught 
under  the  mysterious  doctrine  of  predestina- 
tion. 

It  is  to  be  understood,  however,  that  such 
as  can  adopt  the  confession  without  such 
exception,  shall  not  be  required  to  make 
any.  Moreover,  all  licenciates  before  they 
are  set  apart  to  the  whole  work  of  the 
ministry,  (ordained)  shall  be  required  to 
undergo  an  examination  on  English  Gram- 
mer,  Geography,  Asti'onomy,  natural  and 
moral  Philosophy,  and  Church  History.f 
The  presbytery  may  also  require  an  ex- 
amination on  all  or  any  part  of  the  above 
branches  of  literature  before  licensure,  if  they 
deem  it  expedient. 

Doctrines.  It  has  been  already  observed 
that  the  Presbyterian  confession  is  their 
confession,  "  except  the  idea  of  fatality." 
But  as  some  may  think  this  too  indefinite, 
it  may  be  proper  here  to  state  explicitly 
all  the  essential  doctrines  or  tenets  they 
hold. 

1st,  That  Adam  was  made  upright, 
pure  and  free;  that  he  was  necessarily 
under  the  moral  law,  which  binds  all  intel- 
ligences; and  having  transgressed  it,  he 
was  consequently,  with  all  his  posterity, 
exposed  to  eternal  punishment  and  mise- 
ry. 

2d,  That  Christ  the  second  Adam  repre- 
sented just  as  many  as  the  first,  consequent- 
ly made  an  atonement  for  all,  "  which  will 
be  testified  in  due  time."  But  that  the  be- 
nefit of  that  atonement  will  be  only  received 
by  the  true  believer. 

3d,  That  all  Adam's  family  are  totally  dc 
praved,  "  conceived  in  sin  ;  going  astray 
from  the  womb,  and  all  children  of  wrath  ;" 
therefore  must  "  be  born  again,"  justified 
and  sanctified,  or  they  never  can  enter  into 
the  kingdom  of  God. 

4th,  That  justification  is  by  faith  alone 
as  the  Instrument  ;  by  the  merits  of 
Christ's  active  and  passive  obedience,  as 
the  meritorious  cause  ;  and  by  the  opera- 
tion of  God's  Spirit,  as  the  efficient^  or 
active  cause. 

5th,  That  as  the  sinner  is  justified  on  the 


*  Tlie  rece])tion  of  the  discipline  is  to  beunderstood  in  con- 
formity  to  the  brandies  of  literature  required  by  this 
body. 

t  It  will  not  be  understood  that  examination  on  Theology, 
expenmental  reIigio»j  and  a  call  to  the  jBinistry.  will  pe 
omitted. 


PRE 


421 


PRE 


account  of  Christ's  righteousness  being  im- 
puteil  or  accounted  to  him  ;  on  the  same 
account  he  will  be  enabled  to  go  on  from 
one  degree  of  grace  to  another,  in  a  pro 
gressive  life  of  sanciification,  until  he  is  fit 
to  be  gathered  into  the  garner  of  God,  who 
will  certainly  take  to  glory-  eveiy  man  who 
has  been  really  justified :  that  is,  he, 
Christ,  has  become  wisdom,  (light  to  con- 
vince) righteousness,  (to  justify)  sanctifica- 
tion,  (to  cleanse)  and  redemption,  (to  glorify,) 
to  e\ery  truly  regenerated  soul. 

6th,  That  there  are  three  persons  in  one 
God,  coequal,  essential,  and  eternal;  or  the 
Father,  Word,  and  Holy  Ghost :  that  the 
mediatiir  is  vcrv'  God  and  very  maii ;  two 
distinct  natures  in  one  person  ;  therefore 
Avhile  the  humanity  obeys  and  suffers,  there 
is  infinite  wortii  or  merit  given  to  that  obe- 
dience and  suflering,  by  the  union  of  the  di- 
vinity. 

They  dissent  from  the  Confession — in,  1st, 
That  tliere  are  no  eternal  reprobates. — 2d, 
That  Christ  died  not  for  a  part  only,  but 
for  all  mankind — 3d,  That  all  infants,  dy- 
ing in  infancy  are  saved  through  Christ,  and 
sanctification  of  the  Spirit. — 4th,  That  tht 
Spirit  of  God  operates  on  the  ivorlcl,  or  as 
coextensively  as  Christ  has  made  the  atone- 
ment, in  such  a  manner  as  to  leave  all  men 
inexcusable. 

As  to  the  doctrines  of  predestination  an'^ 
election,  they  think,  (with  many  eminent 
aiKi  modest  divines  who  have  written  on  the 
subject,)  they  are  mysterious,  a^.d  they  are 
not  well  pleased  with  the  application  that 
rigid  Caivinists,  or  Arminians  make  of 
them.  They  think  the  tnith,  or  that,  as 
well  as  many  other  points  in  divinity,  lies 
between  the  opposite  extremes.  They  are 
confident  however,  that  those  doctrines 
should  not,  on  the  one  hand  be  so  con- 
strued as  to  make  any  thing  the  creature 
has  done,  or  can  do,  at  all  meritorious  in  his 
salvation ;  or  to  lay  any  ground  to  say 
*'  well  done  I  ;"  or  to  take  the  least  degi'ee 
of  the  honour  of  our  justification  and  per- 
severance from  God's  unmerited  grace,  and 
Christ's  pure  righteousness.  On  the  other 
hand,  they  are  equally  confident  those  doc- 
trines should  not  be  so  construed  as  to  make 
God  the  author  of  sin,  directly  or  indirectly; 
either  of  Adam's  sin,  or  any  subsequent  sin 
of  his  fallen  race  ;  or  to  contradict  the  ex- 
press and  repeated  declarations  of  God's 
word,  on  the  extent  of  the  atonement  and 
operations  of  the  Spirit ;  or  to  contradict 
the  sincerity  of  God's  expostulations  with 
.sinners,  and  make  his  oath  to  have  no  mean- 
ing, when  he  swears  he  has  no  pleasure  in 
their  death  ;  or  to  resolve  the  whole  cha- 
racter of  the  Deity  into  his  sovereignty, 
without  a  due  regard  to  all  other  of  his 
adorable  attributes.  Finally,  they  think 
those  doctrines  ought  to  be  thought  and 
spoken  of  in  a  consistency  with  God's  moral 
government,  which  always  has  for  its  object 
the  happiness  of  his  intelligent  creatures, 
when  it  consists  with  his  jusUce,  and  the 
honour  of  the  divine  throne. 


Discifiline.  Their  discipline  is  Presbyte- 
rian. Their  congregations  are  governed  by 
church  sessions,  presbyteries,  and  they  now 
have  appointed  to  constitute  a  synod  to  be 
called  the  Cumberland  Synod.  They  are 
tenacious  of  the  presbyterial  form  of  church 
government ;  btcanse  they  believe  it  to  be 
equitable,  just,  and  scriptural ;  and  because 
it  tends  to  cherish  in  their  minds,  and  the 
minds  of  their  congregatic)ns,  a  love  of  civil, 
as  well  as  religious  liberty  ;  its  being  so  con- 
genial  to  the  republican  form  of  government 
established  in  these  United  States ;  which 
stands  equally  aloof  from  monai'chy  and 
anarchy. 

On  the  subject  of  their  deviation  from  the 
old  rule  with  respect  to  literary  quilifica- 
tions  for  the  ministry,  they  would  not  be  un- 
derstootl  as  undervaluing  that  precious  hand- 
maid to  the  useful  work  of  a  Gos-pel  minis- 
ter. They  have  in  two  publications  called 
"  a  circular  letter,"  and  "  a  reply,"  given 
abundant  evidence  of  their  anxiety  to  ac- 
quire and  promote  useful  knowledge;  by 
recommending  the  study  of  the  Greek  scrip- 
tures, and  by  their  exertion  to  procure  a 
circulating  libraiy  of  theological,  historical, 
and  scientific  bofiks,  which  they  are  increas- 
ing from  time  to  time.  Notwithstanding 
they  are  persuaded  that  God  has  and  does 
call  many  to  preach  the  Gospel,  who  have 
no  knowledge  of  the  original  languages,  and 
who  have  been  and  are  eminently  useful  in 
their  profession.  They  have  therefore  dis- 
pensed with  that  condition,  as  not  being  ab- 
solutely necessary  ;  yet  they  recommend  it, 
v.'hen  it  can  conveniently  be  acquired.  From 
pursuing  this  course  they  have,  as  might  be 
expected,  some  learned  and  some  /ess  learn- 
ed preachers  of  the  everlasting  Gospel: 
the  latter  of  whom  appear  in  many  in» 
stances,  to  be  as  useful  in  promoting  the 
work  of  God  as  the  formei'. 

Progress.  Since  they  first  constituted  a 
separate  presbytery  they  have  made  consi- 
derable progress.  At  first  there  were  but 
nine  preachers  in  the  connection,  four  of 
whom  only  were  ordained. 

At  that  time  their  organized  congrega- 
tions were  but  few ;  but  since,  they  have 
increased  to  about  e'ghty,  exclusive  of  a 
number  not  yet  organized.  Their  preach- 
ers have  increased  from  nine  to  eighteen, 
fourteen  of  whom  are  ordained ;  and  there 
are  now  about  ten  candidates  for  the  minis- 
try. At  their  stated  session  in  April  1813, 
they  divided  their  body  into  three  presby- 
teries, and  appointed  to  constitute  a  synod 
on  the  first  Wednesday  in  October  foIloAV- 
ing.  They  have  pursued  the  itinerant  mode 
of  preaching  the  Gospel,  which  appears  to 
have  a  good  effect,  and  to  be  the  best  in 
a  frontier  country.  The  demand  for  preach- 
ing, however,  is  increasing  faster  than  their 
preachers. 

They  continue  to  observe  a  custom  which 
was  introduced  early  in  the  glorious  revival 
in  that  country,  which  i";,  to  encamp  on  the 
ground  at  their  communions  for  four  days 
and  nights :  and  it  has  been  remarked  that  , 


PRE 


422 


PRE 


they  have  rarely  had  a  communion  since 
they  constituted,  but  more  or  less  have  giv- 
en satisfactory  evidence  of  having  become 
subjects  of  vital  religion.  Sometimes,  how- 
ever, there  are  but  few,  at  other  times, 
there  ai*e  as  many  as  thirty  or  forty,  who 
have  made  a  credible  profession  of  faith  in 
the  Lord  Jesus  A  great  part  of  their  in- 
crease consists  of  new  converts,  whose  lives 
and  conversation  manifest  "  they  have  been 
with  Jesus." 

While  God  thus  evidently  owns  their  hum- 
ble efforts  to  spread  a  savour  of  his  name, 
tliey  hope  to  bear  with  firmness  all  the  op- 
position they  may  meet,  from  individuals  or 
sectaries. 

P.  S.  When  they  receive  candidates  for 
the  ministi7,  they  allow  them  to  exercise 
their  gift  in  public  spcdking,  under  the  im- 
mediate eye  of  the  church ;  thereby  they 
are  belter  able  to  judge  of  their  "  aptness 
to  teach"  than  they  could  be  by  their  writ- 
ten discourses  alone,  which  they  require 
also. 

PRESBYTERIANS  ENGLISH.  The  ap- 
pellation Presbyterian  is  in  England  appro- 
priated to  a  body  of  Dissenters,  who  have  not 
any  attachment  to  the  Sc.tch  mode  of  church 
government,  any  more  than  to  episcopacy 
among  us;  and  therefore  the  term  presby- 
terian  is  here  improperly  applied.  How 
this  misapplication  came  to  pass  cannot  be 
easily  determined ;  but  it  has  occasioned 
many  wrong  notions,  and  should  therefore 
be  rectified.  English  Presbyterians,  as  they 
are  calli  d,  adopt  nearly  tlie  same  mode  of 
church  government  with  the  Independents. 
Their  chief  difference  from  the  Indepen- 
dents is,  that  they  are  less  attached  to  Cal- 
>inism. 

PRESBYTERY  REFORMED— The  re- 
formed presbytery  in  Scotland  trace  their 
origin  as  far  back  as  the  reformation,  and 
consider  themselves  as  the  only  pure  Pres- 
byterians since  the  revolution.  They  pro- 
fess to  adhere  to  the  solemn  league  and  co- 
venant agreed  to  by  the  nation  befrre  the 
restoration,  in  which  they  abjure  pipeiy 
and  prelacy,  and  resolve  tn  maintain  and 
defend  tbe  doctrines,  worship,  discipline, 
and  government  of  the  church,  as  approved 
by  the  parliament  and  assembly  at  West- 
minster, and  by  the  general  assembly  of  the 
church  and  parliament  of  Scotland,  1645 — 9. 
It  seems,  they  object  not  so  much  to  a 
religious  establishnent,  but  to  the  religious 
establishment  as  it  exists ;  they  object  not 
to  an  alliance  of  the  church  with  the  state, 
but  to  the  alliance  of  the  church  with  an  un- 
covenanted  king  and  government.  Their 
number,  it  is  said,  amounts  to  about  four 
thousand  persons. 

PRESCIENCE  OF  GOD  is  his  fore- 
knowledge, or  that  knowledge  which  God 
has  of  things  to  come.  The  doctrine  of  pre- 
destination is  founded  on  the  prescience  of 
God,  and  on  the  supposition  of  all  futurity 
teing  present  to  him.  Properly  speaking, 
indeed,  prescience  supposes  that  of  predes- 


tination ;  for  if  we  allow  that  God  from  ail 
eternity  foresaw  all  things,  he  must  ihni 
have  foreseen  them  in  consequence  of  his 
permitting  or  fore -appointing  them.  Hence 
events  are  not  certam  merely  because  fore- 
known ;  but  foreknown  because  antecedent- 
ly certain  on  account  of  pre-determining  rea- 
sons. See  Foreknowledge,  Predesti- 
nation. 

PRESCRIPTION,  in  theology,  was  a  kind 
of  argument  pleaded  by  TertuUian  and  others 
in  the  third  century  against  erroneous  doc- 
tors. This  mode  of  arguing  has  been  de- 
spised by  some,  both  because  it  has  been  used 
by  Papists,  and  because  they  think  that 
truth  has  no  need  of  such  a  support.  Others, 
however,  think  that  if  it  can  be  shewn  that 
any  particular  doctrine  of  Christianity  was 
held  in  the  earliest  ages,  even  approaching 
the  apostolic,  it  must  have  very  considerable 
weight ;  and,  indeed,  that  it  has  so,  appears 
from  the  univeral  appeals  of  all  parties  to 
those  early  times  in  support  of  their  parti- 
cular opinions.  Besides,  the  thing  is  in  itself 
natural ;  for  if  a  man  finds  a  variety  of  opi- 
nions in  the  world  upon  important  passages 
in  scripture,  where  shall  he  be  so  apt  to  get 
the  true  sense  as  fr^m  contemporary  wri- 
ters, or  (there  who  lived  very  near  the  apos- 
tolic age  ?  And  if  such  a  man  shall  find 
any  doctrine  or  interpretation  to  have  been 
universally  believed  in  the  first  ap,es,  or  as 
Vicentius  Lirinensis  words  it,  semper  ubique 
et  ab  omnibus,  he  will  unquestionably  be  dis- 
posed to  tliink  such  early  and  universal  con- 
sent, or  such  prescription,  of  very  consider- 
able weight  in  determining  his  opinion. 

PRESUMPTION,  as  it  relates  to  the 
mind,  is  a  supposition  formed  before  exam- 
ination. As  it  relates  to  the  conduct  or 
moral  action,  it  implies  arrogance  and  irre- 
verence. As  it  relittes  to  religion  in  gene- 
ral, it  is  a  bold  and  daring  confidence 
in  the  goodness  of  God,  without  obedience 
to  his  will.  Presumfituous  sins  must  be 
distinguished  from  sins  of  infirmity,  or  these 
failings  peculiar  to  human  nature,  Ecc.  vii. 
20.  1  John  i.  8,  9  ;  from  sins  done  through 
ignorance,  Luke  xii.  58 ;  and  from  sins  into 
which  men  are  hurried  by  sudden  and  vio- 
lent tt  niptation.  Gal.  vi.  1.  The  ingredients 
which  render  sin  presumptuous  are.  know- 
ledge, John  XV.  22 ;  deliberation  and  contri- 
vance, Prov.  vi.  14.  Psal.  xxxvi.  4:  obsti- 
nacy, Jer  x'iv.  16  Deut.  i-  13 :  inattention 
to  the  remonstrances  of  conscience.  Acts 
vii.  51 ;  opposition  to  the  dispensations  of 
Providence,  2  Chron.  xxviii.  22 :  and  re- 
peated commission  of  the  same  sin,  Psal. 
Ixxviii.  17.  Presumptuous  sins  are  numer- 
ous; such  as  profane  swearing,  perjury, 
theft,  adultery,  drunkenness,  sabbath-break- 
ing, &c.  These  may  be  more  particularly 
considered  as  presumptuous  sins,  because 
they  are  generally  committed  against  a 
known  law.  and  so  often  repeated.  Such 
sins  are  most  heinous  in  their  nature,  and 
most  pernicious  in  their  effects.  They  are 
said  to  be  a  reproach  to  the  Lord,  Numb. 


PRI 


423 


PRI 


XV.  3;  they  harden  the  heart,  1  Tim.  iv.  2  ; 
draw  down  judgments  from  heaven.  Numb. 
XV.  31  ;  even  when  repented  of,  are  seldom 
pardoned  without  some  visible  testimony  of 
Ci)d*s  displeasure,  2  Sam.  xii.  10.  As  it  re- 
spects professors  of  religion,  as  one  observes, 
they  sin  presumptuously,  1.  when  they  take 
up  a  profes-sion  of  religion  without  principle; 

2.  when  they  profess  to  ask  the  blessing  of 
God,   and  yet  go  on  in  forbidden  courses ; 

3.  when  they  do  not  take  religion  as  they 
find  it  in  the  scriptures  ;  4.  when  they  make 
their  feelings  the  test  of  their  religion,  with- 
out considering  the  difiFerence  between  ani- 
mal passion  and  the  operations  of  the  Spirit 
of  God  :  5.  when  they  run  into  temptation ; 
6.  when  they  indulge  in  self-confidence  and 
self-complacency;  7  when  they  bring  the 
spirit  of  the  world  into  the  church ;  8  when 
they  form  apologit^s  for  tha^  in  some  which 
they  condemn  in  others ;  9.  'when  professing 
to  believe  in  the  doctrines  of  the  gospel, 
they  live  licentiously ;  10.  when  they  create, 
magnify,  and  pervert,  their  troubles;  11. 
•when  they  arraign  the  conduct  of  God  as 
unkind  and  unjust.  See  B.  Walker's  Ser. 
vol.  i.  ser.  3  Soufh's  Ser.  vol.  vii.  ser.  10, 
11,  and  12.  Tillotso7i's  Ser.  ser.  147.  Sau- 
rin'a  Ser.  ser.  11,  vol.  i.  Robinson's  trans- 
lation.   £/i.  Hopkins  on  the  JVaiure,  Dan- 

fer,  and  Cure  of  Presumfituoiu  Sins.   See 
is  Works. 

PRIDE  is  inrrdinate  and  unreasonable 
self-esteem,  attended  with  insolence,  and 
rude  treatment  of  others.  "  It  is  some 
times,"  says  a  good  writer,  "  confounded 
with  vanity,  and  sometimes  with  dignity  ; 
but  to  the  former  passion  it  has  no  resem- 
blance, and  in  many  circumstances  it  difFers 
from  the  latter.  Vanity  is  the  parent  of 
loquacious  boasting ;  and  the  person  subject 
to  it,  if  his  pretences  be  admitted,  has  no 
inclination  to  insult  the  company  The  proud 
man,  on  the  other  hand,  is  naturally  silent, 
and,  wrapt  up  in  his  own  importance,  sel- 
dom speaks  but  to  make  his  audience  feel 
their  inferi-irity."  Pride  is  the  high  opinion 
that  a  poor  little  contracted  soul  entertains 
of  itself.  Dignity  consists  in  just,  great,  and 
uniform  actions,  and  is  the  opposite  to  mean- 
ness— 2.  Pride  manifests  itself  by  praising 
ourselves,  adoring  our  persons,  attempting  to 
appear  before  others  in  a  superior  light  to 
what  we  are;  contempt  and  slander  of 
others  ;  envy  at  the  excellencies  others  pos- 
sess ;  anxiety  to  gain  applause  ;  distress  and 
rage  when  slighted ;  impatience  of  contra- 
diction, and  opposition  to  God  himself. — 3. 
The  evil  effects  of  pride  are  beyond  compu- 
tation. It  has  spread  itself  universally  in  all 
nations,  among  all  characters ;  and  as  it  was 
the  first  sin,  as  some  suppose,  that  entered  into 
the  world,  se  it  seemsthe  last  to  be  conquered. 
It  may  be  considered  as  the  parent  of  discon- 
tent, ingratitude,  covetousness,  poverty,  pre- 
sumption, passion,  extravagance,  bigotry, 
■war,  and  persecution.  In  fact,  there  is  hard- 
ly an  evil  perpetrated  but  what  pride  is  con- 
nected with  it  in  a  proximate  or  remote 


sense. — 4,  To  suppress  this  evil,  we  should 
consider  what  we  are,  "  If  we  could  trace 
our  descents,"  says  Seneca,  "  we  should 
find  all  slaves  to  come  from  princes, 
and  all  princes  from  slaves.  To  be  proud 
of  knowledge,  is  to  be  blind  in  the  light ;  to 
be  proud  of  virtue,  is  to  poison  ourselves 
with  the  antidote  ;  to  be  proud  of  authority, 
is  to  make  our  rise  our  downfall.'*  The 
imperfection  of  our  nature,  our  scanty  know- 
ledge, Cfintracted  powers,  narrow  concep- 
tions, and  moral  inability,  are  strong  mo- 
tives to  excite  us  to  humility.  We  should 
consider,  also,  what  punishments  this  sin 
has  brought  on  mankind.  See  the  cases  of 
Pharaoh,  Haman,  Nebuchadnezzar,  Herod, 
and  others.  How  particularly  it  is  prohi- 
bited, Prov.  xvi.  18.  1  Pet.  v.  5.  James  iv. 
6.  Prov.  xxix.  23 ;  what  a  torment  it  is  to 
its  possessor,  Esther  v.  13 ;  how  soon  all 
things  of  a  sublunary  nature  will  end  ;  how 
disgraceful  it  renders  us  in  the  sight  of 
God,  angels,  and  men ;  what  a  barrier 
it  is  to  our  felicity  and  communion  with 
God  ;  how  fruitful  it  is  of  discerd ;  how 
it  precludes  our  usefulness,  and  renders 
us  really  contemptible.  See  Humili- 
ty. 

PRIEST,  a  person  set  apart  for  the  per- 
formance of  sacrifice,  and  other  offices  and 
ceremonies  of  religion.  Before  the  promul- 
gation of  the  law  of  Moses,  the  first-bom  of 
every  family,  the  fathers,  the  prince,  and 
the  kings,  were  priests.  Thus  Cain  and 
Abel,  Noah,  Abraham,  Melchizedec,  Job, 
Isaac,  and  Jacob,  offered  themselves  their 
own  sacrifices.  Among  the  Israelites,  after 
their  departure  from  Egypt,  the  priesthood 
was  confined  to  one  tribe,  and  it  consisted 
of  three  orders,  the  /lig/i-Tpritst,  fines ts  and 
Lffvites.  The  priesthood  was  made  here- 
ditary in  the  family  of  Aaron,  and  the  first- 
born of  the  oldest  branch  of  that  family,  if 
he  had  no  legal  blemish,  was  always  the 
high-priest.  This  divine  appointment  was 
observed  with  considerable  accuracy  till 
the  Jews  fell  under  the  dominion  of  the  Ro- 
mans, and  had  their  faith  corrupted  by  a 
false  philosophy.  Then,  indeed,  the  high- 
priesthood  was  sometimes  set  up  to  sale, 
and,  instead  of  continuing  for  life,  as  it  ought 
to  have  done,  it  seems,  from  some  passages 
in  the  New  Testament,  to  have  been  noth- 
ing more  than  an  annual  office.  There  is 
sufficient  reason,  however,  to  believe,  that 
it  was  never  disposed  of  but  to  some  de- 
scendant of  Aaron  capable  of  filling  it,  had 
the  older  branches  been  extinct.  [For  the 
consecration  and  offices  of  the  Jewish  priest- 
hood, we  refer  our  readers  to  the  book  of 
Moses.]  In  the  time  of  David,  the  inferior 
priests  were  divided  into  twenty-four  com- 
panies, who  wei-e  to  serve  in  rotation,  each 
company  by  itself,  for  a  week.  The  order 
in  which  the  several  courses  were  to  serve 
was  determined  by  lot ;  and  each  course  was, 
in  all  succeeding  ages,  called  by  the  name 
of  its  original  chief 

It  has  beer)  much  disputed^  whether  in 


•PRI 


424 


PRI 


the  Christian  church,  there  be  any  such 
officer  as  a  priest,  in  the  proper  sense  of 
>he  word.  It  the  word  priest  be  taken  to 
tlcnote  a  person  commissi(j!ied  by  divine 
authority  to  offer  up  a  real  siriifice  to  God, 
we  may  justly  deny  that  tliere  is  a  priest 
upon  earth.  Under  the  Gospel,  there  is 
but  one  priest,  which  is  Christ  ;  and  but  one 
sacrifice,  that  of  the  cross.  The  church  of 
Rome,  however,  erroneously  believe  their 
priests  to  be  empowered  to  offer  up  to  the 
Divine  Majesty  a  real  proper  sacrifice,  as 
^Tere  die  priests  under  the  Old  Testament. 
Ecclesiastical  history  informs  us,  that,  in 
the  second  century,  some  time  after  the 
reign  of  the  emperor  Adrian,  when  the 
Jews,  by  the  second  destruction  of  Jerusa- 
lem, were  bereaved  of  all  hopes  of  the  re- 
storation of  their  government  to  its  former 
histre,  the  notion  that  the  ministers  of  the 
Christian  church  succeeded  to  the  charac- 
ter and  prerogatives  of  the  Jewish  priest- 
hood, was  industriously  propagated  by  the 
Christian  doctors  ;  and  that,  in  consequt  nee, 
the  bishops  claimed  a  rank  and  character 
similar  to  that  of  the  Jewish  high-priest ; 
the  presbyters  to  that  of  the  priests ;  and 
the  deacons  to  that  of  the  Levites.  One  of 
the  pernicious  effects  of  this  groundless  com- 
parison and  pretension  seems  to  have  been, 
the  introduction  of  the  idea  of  a  real  sacri- 
fice in  the  christian  church,  and  of  sacrifi- 
cing priests. 

,  In  the  church  of  England,  the  word 
finest  is  retained  to  denote  the  second  order 
in  her  hierarchy,  but  we  believe  with  very 
different  significations,  according  to  the  dif- 
ferent opinions  entertained  of  the  Lord's 
supper.  Some  few  of  her  divines,  of  great 
learning,  and  of  undoubted  protestantism, 
maintain  that  the  Lord's  supper  is  a  com- 
memnrative^.n6.eucharistical sacrifice.  These 
consider  all  who  are  authorised  to  adminis- 
ter that  sacrament,  as  in  the  strictest  sense 
firiests.  Others  hold  the  Lord's  supper  to  be 
a  feast  upon  the  one  sacrifice,  once  offered 
on  the  cross;  and  these,  two,  must  consider 
themselves  as  clothed  with  some  kind  of 
piiesthood.  Gi'eat  numbers,  however,  of 
the  iEnglish  clergy,  perhaps  the  majority, 
agree  with  the  church  of  Scotland,  in  main- 
taining that  the  Lord's  supper  is  a  rite  of 
no  other  moral  import,  than  the  mere  com- 
memoration of  the  death  of  Christ.  These 
cannot  consider  themselves  as  priests  in 
the  rigid  sense  of  the  word,  but  only  as 
presbyters,  of  which  the  word  priest  is  a 
contraction  of  the  same  import  with  elder. 
See  Lord's  Supper. 

PRIMACY,  the  highest  post  in  the  church. 
The  Romanists  contend  that  St  Peter,  by 
our  Lord's  appointment,  had  a  jiriniacv  or 
sovereign  authority  and  jurisdiction  over  the 
ap'stles.  This,  however,  is  denied  by  the 
Prr^testants,  and  that  upon  just  grounds. 
Dr.  Barrow  observes,  (WorUs,  vol.  i  p. 
557,)  that  there  are  several  sorts  of  prima- 
cy which  may  belong  to  ;i  person  in  respect 
of  others,    1.  A  primacy  <tf  worth  or  per- 


sonal excellency. — 2.  A  primacy  of  reputa- 
tion and  esieeni. — 3.  A  primcxy  of  order  or 
bare  dignity  and  precedence. — 4.  A  prima- 
cy of  power  and  jurisdiction.  As  fur  the 
first  of  these,  a  primacy  of  worth,  we  may* 
well  grant  it  to  Peter,  admitting  that  jm'o- 
bably  he  did  exceed  the  rest  of  his  bretlu-en 
in  personal  endowments  and  capacities; 
particularly  in  quickness  of  apprehension, 
boldness  of  spirit,  readiness  of  speech, 
charity  to  our  Lord,  and  zeal  for  his  service. 
— 2.  As  to  a  primacy  of  repute,  which  St. 
Paul  means  when  he  speaks  of  those  who 
had  a  special  reputation,  of  those  who  seem- 
ed to  be  pillars,  of  the  superemincnt  apos- 
tles. Gal  ii  6,  9.  2  Cor.  xi.  5.  xii.  11.  this 
advantage  cannot  be  refused  him,  be'ng  a  • 
necessary  consequent  of  those  eminent  qua- 
lities resplendent  in  him,  and  of  the  illustri- 
ous performances  achieved  by  him,  beyond 
the  rest.  This  may  be  inferred  fiom  that 
renown  which  he  hath  had  from  the  begin- 
ning ;  and  likewise  from  his  being  so  con- 
stantly ranked  in  the  first  place  before  the 
rest  of  his  brethren. — 3.  As  to  a  primacy  of 
order  or  bare  dignity,  importing  that  com- 
monly in  all  meetings  and  pi'oceedings,  the 
other  apostles  did  yield  him  the  precedence, 
may  be  questioned,  for  this  does  not  seem 
suitable  to  the  gravity  of  such  persons, 
or  their  condition  and  circumstances,  to 
stand  upon  ceremonies  of  respect ;  for  our 
Lord's  rules  seem  to  exclude  all  semblance 
of  ambition,  all  kind  of  inequality  and  dis- 
tance between  his  apostles.  But  yet  this 
P'imacy  may  be  granted  as  probable  upon 
divers  accounts  of  use  and  convenience ;  it 
might  be  useful  to  preserve  order,  and  to 
promote  expedition,  or  to  prevent  confusion, 
distracti<>n,  am'  dilatory  obstruction  in  the 
management  of  things. — 4.  As  to  a  primacy 
importing  a  sup  riority  in  command,  power, 
or  jurisdiction,  this  we  have  great  reason  to 
deny  upon  the  following  considerations. 
1.  For  such  a  power  it  was  needful  that  a 
commission  from  God,  its  founder,  should 
be  granted  in  absolute  and  perspicuous 
terms ;  but  no  such  commission  is  extant  in 
scripture — 2  If  so  illustrious  an  office  was 
instituted  by  our  Saviour,  it  is  strange,  that 
no  where  in  the  evangelical  or  apostolical 
history,  th»re  should  be  any  express  mention 
j  of  that  institution  — 3.  If  St.  Peter  had  been 
instituted  sovereign  of  the  apostolic  senate, 
his  office  and  state  had  been  in  nature  and 
kind  very  distinct  from  the  common  office 
of  the  oi-her  apostles,  as  the  office  of  a  king 
,  from  the  office  of  any  subject ;  and  probably 
\  would  have  been  signified  by  some  distinct 
name,  as  that  of  arch-apostle,  ard-pastor, 
the  vicar  of  Christ,  or  the  like;  but  no 
such  name  or  title  was  assumed  by  him,  or 
was  bv  the  rest  attrii)uted  to  him. — 4. 
There  was  no  office  aben-e  that  of  an  apos- 
tle, kn  wn  to  the  apestles  or  primiiivc 
church  Eph.  iv  11.  1  Cor.  xii.  28. — 5.  Our 
Lord  himself  declared  against  this  kind  of 
primary,  .{)r' hibiting  his  apostles  to  affect, 
to  seek,  to  assume,  or  admit  a  superiority' 


PRI 


425 


PRO 


of  power  one  above  another,  Luke  xxii.  14 
—24.  Mark  ix.  35. — 6.  We  do  not  find  any 

Peculiar  administration  committed  to  St. 
eter,  nor  any  privilege  conferred  on  him 
which  was  not  also  granted  to  the  other 
apostles,  John  xx.  23.  Mark  xvi.  15. — 7. 
When  Peter  wrote  two  catholic  epistles, 
there  does  not  appear  in  either  of  them 
any  intimation  or  any  pretence  to  this  arch- 
apostolical  power. — 8.  In  all  relations  which 
occur  in  scripture  about  controversies  inci- 
dent to  doctrine  or  practice,  there  is  no 
appeal  made  to  St.  Peter's  judgment  or  al- 
legation of  it  as  decisive,  no  argument  is 
built  on  his  authority. — 9.  St.  Peter  no 
where  appears  intermeddling  as  a  judge  or 
governor  paramount  in  such  cases ;  yet 
where  he  doth  himself  deal  with  heretics 
and  disorderly  persons,  he  proceedeth  not 
as  a  pope  decreeing;  but  as  an  apostle, 
warning,  arguing,  and  persuading  against 
them. — 10.  The  consideration  of  the  apos- 
tles proceeding  in  the  convertion  of  people,  in 
the  foundation  of  churches,  and  in  adminis- 
tration of  their  spiritual  affairs,  will  exclude 
any  probability  of  St.  Peter's  jurisdiction 
over  them.  They  went  about  their  business 
not  by  order  or  license  from  St  Peter,  but 
according  to  special  direction  of  God's 
Spirit. — 11.  The  nature  of  the  apostolic 
ministry,  their  not  being  fixed  in  one  place 
of  residence,  but  continually  moving  about 
the  world ;  the  state  of  things  at  that  time, 
and  the  manner  of  St.  Peter's  life,  render  it 
unlikely  that  he  had  such  a  jurisdiction 
over  the  apostles  as  some  assign  him. — 12. 
It  was  indeed  most  requisite  that  every 
apostle  should  have  a  complete,  absolutej 
independent  authority  in  managing  the  du- 
ties and  concerns  of  the  office,  that  he  might 
not  in  any  wise  be  obstructed  in  the  discharge 
of  them,  not  clogged  with  a  need  to  consult 
others,  not  hampered  with  orders  from 
those  who  are  at  a  distance. — 13.  The  dis- 
course and  behaviour  of  St.  Paul  towards 
St.  Peter  doth  evidence  that  he  did  not 
acknowledge  any  dependence  on  him,  or 
any  subjection  to  him.  Gal.  ii.  11. — 14.  If 
St.  Peter  had  been  appointed  sovereign  of 
the  church,  it  seems  that  it  should  have 
been  requisite  that  he  should  have  outlived 
all  the  apostles ;  for  otherwise  the  church 
would  have  wanted  a  head,  or  there  must 
have  been  an  inextricable  controversy  who 
that  head  was.  But  St.  Peter  died  long 
before  St.  John,  as  all  agree,  and  perhaps 
before  divers  others  of  the  apostles. 

From  these  arguments  we  must  evidently 
see  what  little  ground  the  church  of  Rome 
hath  to  derive  the  supremacy  of  the  pope 
from  the  supposed  primacy  of  St.  Peter. 

PRIMATE,  an  archbishop  who  is  invest- 
ed with  a  jurisdiction  over  other  bishops. 
See  Archbishop. 

PRIMITIVE  CHRISTIANS,  those  who 
lived  in  the  first  ages  of  Christianity,  espe- 
cially the  apostles,  and  immediate  followers 
of  our  Lord. 
PRINCIPLE,    an   essential   truth    from 

3H 


which  others  are  derived ;  the  ground  or 
motion  of  action.  See  Disposition  and 
Doctrine. 

PRIOR,  the  head  of  a  convent ;  next  in 
dignity  to  an  abbot. 

PRISCILLIANISTS,  the  followers  of 
Priscillian,  in  the  fcurth  century.  It  ap- 
pears fn  in  authentic  records,  tliat  the  dif- 
ference between  their  doctrine  and  that  of 
the  Maniclieans  Avas  not  very  considerable. 
For  they  denied  the  reality  of  Christ's  birth 
and  incarnation  ;  maintained  that  the  visi- 
ble universe  was  not  the  production  of  the 
Supreme  Deity,  but  of  some  damon  or  ma- 
lignant principle :  adopted  the  doctrine  of 
jeons,  or  emanations  from  the  Divine  nature; 
considered  human  bodies  as  prisons  formed 
by  the  author  of  evil  to  enslave  celestial 
minds;  condemned  marriage,  and  disbeliev- 
ed the  resurrection  of  the  body.  Their 
rule  of  life  and  manners  was  rigid  and 
severe ;  the  accounts,  therefore,  which 
many  have  given  of  their  lasciviousness  and 
intemperance  deserve  not  the  least  credit, 
as  they  are  totally  destitute  of  evidence  and 
authority.  That  the  Priscillianists  were 
guilty  of  dissimulation  upon  sfme  occasions, 
and  deceived  their  adversaries  by  cunning 
stratagems,  is  true ;  but  that  they  held  it 
as  a  maxim,  that  lying  and  perjuiy  were 
lawful,  is  a  most  notorious  falsehood,  with- 
out even  the  least  shadow  of  probability. 

PROBITY,  honesty,  sincerity,  or  veraci- 
ty.— "  It  consists  in  the  habit  of  actions  use- 
ful to  society,  and  in  the  constant  observ- 
ance of  the  laws  which  jus»;e  and  con- 
science impose  upon  us.  The  man  who 
obeys  all  the  laws  of  society  with  an  exact 
punctuality,  is  not,  therefore,  a  man  of  pro- 
bity :  laws  can  only  respect  the  external  and 
definite  parts  of  human  conduct ;  but  pro- 
bity respects  our  more  private  actions,  and 
such  as  it  is  impossible  in  all  cases  to  de- 
fine; and  it  appears  to  be  in  morals  what 
charity  is  in  religion.  Probity  teaches  us  to 
perform  in  society  those  actions  which  no 
external  power  can  oblige  us  to  perform, 
and  is  that  quality  in  the  human  mintl  from 
which  we  claim  the  performance  of  the 
rights,  commonly  called  Imperfect" 

PROCESSION,  a  ceremony  in  the  Ro- 
mish cliurch,  consisting  of  a  formal  march 
of  the  tlergy  and  people,  puttine  up  pray- 
ers, &:c.  and  in  this  manner  visiting  some 
church,  &c.  They  liave  processions  of  the 
host,  or  sacrament ;  of  our  Sanioiir  to 
Moimt  Calvary  ;  of  the  Rosarii,  fvc. 

Processions  are  said  to  be  of  Pagan  origi- 
nal. The  Romans,  when  the  empire  was 
distressed,  or  after  some  victory,  used  con- 
stantly to  order  processions,  for  several  days 
together,  to  be  made  to  the  temples,  to  l)eg 
the  assistance  of  the  gods,  or  to  return  them 
thanks. 

The  first  processions  mentioned  in  eccle- 
siastical history,  are  those  set  on  foot  at 
Constantinople,  by  St.  Chrysostom.  The 
Arians  of  that  city  being  forced  to  hold  their 
meetings  without  the  town,    went    tiiither 


PR  O 


426 


PRO 


night  and  moiniing,  singing  anthems.  Chr)'- 
sostom,  to  prevent  their  perverting  the 
Catholics,  set  up  cnunter  precessions,  in 
wliich  the  clergy  and  people  marched  by 
night,  singing  prayers  and  hymns,  and  car- 
rying crosses  and  flambeaus.  From  this 
period  the  custom  of  processions  was  intio- 
duced  among  the  Greeks,  and  atterwards 
among  the  Latins ;  but  they  have  sul)sisted 
longer,  and  been  more  frequently  used  in 
the  Western  than  in  the  Eastern  church. 

PROCESSION  OF  THE  HOLY 
GHOST,  a  term  made  use  of  in  reference 
to  the  Holy  Ghost ;  as  proceeding  from  the 
Father,  or  from  the  Father  and  Son.  It 
seems  to  be  founded  on  that  passage  in  John 
XV.  26.  "  When  the  Comforter  is  come, 
■whom  I  will  send  unto  you  from  the  Father, 
even  the  Spirit  of  Truth  which  proceedeth 
from  the  Father,  He  shall  testify  of  me." — 
The  procession  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  it  is  said, 
is  expressly  taught  by  Christ,  in  very  strong 
terms,  in  this  text.  This  procession,  it  is 
alleged,  is  here  evidently  distinguished  from 
his  mission ,  for  it  is  said,  "  Whom  I  will 
send  to  you  from  the  Father,  even  the  Spirit 
of  Truth  vi\\\z\i  proceeds  from  the  Father." 
If  his  mission  and  proceeding  were  the  same 
thing  there  would  be  a  tautology  in  the 
words,  his  mission,  according  to  that  inter- 
pretation, being  mentioned  twice  in  the  same 
verse.  Dr.  Watts,  however,  observes,  that 
the  procession  of  the  Holy  Ghost  from  the 
Father,  respects  not  his  nature  or  substance, 
bat  his  mission  only ;  and  that  no  distinct 
and  clear  idL*.s  can  be  formed  of  his  proces- 
sion ;  consequently  it  must  be  given  up  as 
popish,  scholastic,  inconceivable,  and  inde- 
fensible. But,  it  is  answered,  what  clear 
idea  can  be  giwn  us  of  the  originate,  self- 
existent,  eternal  being  of  the  Father  .■'  Shall 
we,  therefore,  deny  him  to  be  without  be- 
ginning or  end,  and  to  be  st-lf-existent,  be- 
cause we  know  not  bow  he  is  so  ?  If  not, 
•whv  must  we  give  up  the  procession  of  the 
Spirit,  because  we  known  not  the  mode  of 
it  .••  We  can  no  more  explain  the  manner 
how  the  Spirit  proceeds  from  the  Father, 
than  we  can  explain  the  eti.rnal  generation 
and  hypostaticai  union  of  the  two  natures  of 
the  Son.  We  may  say  to  tlip  objector,  as 
Gregory  Nazianzen  formerly  did  to  his  ad- 
versaryi  "  Do  you  tell  me  how  the  F.^  ther 
IS  unbegotten,  and  I  will  attempt  to  teli  you 
how  the  Son  is  begotten,  and  the  Spirit  pro- 
ceeds." 

The  clearest  and  fullest  account  of  this 
procession,  next  to  that  in  the  above-men- 
tioned text,  is  that  in  1  Cor  ii.  12.  "  The 
Spirit  which  is  of  God  ;"  that  is  (sav  the  ad- 
vocates for  this  doctrine.)  the  S  -irit  which 
is  the  same  in  nature  and  esse;  re  with  the 
Father,  and  so  is  said  to  be  of  him,  or  out 
of  hirn.  not  as  to  local  separation,  but  with 
respect  to  identity  of  nature. 

About  the  eighth  and  ninth  centuries, 
there  was  a  very  warm  dispute  between 
the  Greek  and  Latin  churches,  whether  the 
Snirit  proretded  from  the  Father  only,  or 


from  the  Father  and  the  Son ;  and  the  con- 
troversy arose  to  such  a  height,  that  they 
charged  one  another  with  heresy  and 
schism,  when  neither  side  well  understood 
what  they  contended  for.  The  Latin  church. 
however,  has  not  scrupled  to  say  that  the 
Spirit  proceeds  from  the  Father  and  the 
Son  ;  but  the  Greek  church  chooses  to  ex- 
press it  thus :  the  Spirit  proceeds  from  the 
Father  by  or  through  the  Son,  or  he  re- 
ceives of  the  Son,  Gal.  iv.  6.  See  Holy 
Ghost-  Bishop  Pearson  o?i  the  Creed,  p. 
324.  Watts'  IVorks,  8vo.  ed.  vol.  v.  p. 
199.  Hurrion  on  the  Holy  Spirit,  p.  204. 
Ridgley's  Div.  qu.  11.  Dr.  Lightfoot's 
Works,  vol.  i,  p.  482. 

PROFANE,  a  term  used  in  opposition  to 
holy,  and  in  general  is  applied  to  all  per- 
sons who  have  not  the  sacred  character, 
and  to  things  which  do  not  belong  to  the 
service  of  religion. 

PROFESSION,  among  the  Romanists, 
denotes  the  entering  into  a  religious  order, 
whereby  a  person  offers  himself  to  God  by 
a  vow  of  inviolably  observing  obedience, 
chastity,  and  poverty. 

Christians  are  required  to  make  a  profes- 
sion of  their  faith,  1.  Boldly.  Rom.  i.  16. — 
2.  Explicitly,  Matt.  v.  16 — 3  Constantly, 
Heb  X.  23. — 4.  Yet  not  ostentatiously,  but 
with  humility  and  meekness. 

PROFESSOR,  a  term  commonly  used  in 
the  religious  world,  to  denote  any  person 
who  makes  an  open  acknowledgment  of 
the  religion  of  Christ,  or  who  outwardly 
manifests  his  attachment  to  Christianity. 
All  real  Christians  are  professors,  but  all 
professors  are  not  real  Christians.  In  this, 
as  in  all  other  things  of  worth  and  import- 
ance, we  find  counterfeits.  There  are  ma- 
ny who  become  professors,  not  from  princi- 
ple, from  investigation,  from  love  to  the 
truth  ;  but  from  interested  motives,  preju- 
dice of  education,  custom,  influence  of  con- 
nections, novelty,  &c.  as  Saul.  Jehu,  Judas, 
Demas,  the  foolish  virgins,  ?cc.  See  arti- 
cle Christian  :  7az/'«  Sermoiis,  ser.  9. 
Mead's  Abnost  Christian.  Bellamy's  True 
Religion  delineated.  Shepherd's  Sincere 
Cojix'ei't,  and  on  the  Parable  of  the  Ten 
Virgins.     Seeker's  J^^'onsuch  Professor. 

PROMISE  is  a  solemn  asseveration,  by 
which  one  pledges  his  veracitiy  that  he 
shall  perform,  or  cause  to  be  performed, 
the  thing  which  he  mentions. 

The  obligation  of  promises  arises  from 
the  necessity  of  the  well-being  and  exist- 
ence of  society.  "  Virtue  requires,"  as  Dr. 
Doddridge  observes,  "  that  promises  be  ful- 
filled. The  promisee,  i.  e.  the  person  to 
whom  the  promise  is  made,  acquires  a  pro- 
perty in  virtue  of  the  promise.  The  uncer- 
taintv  of  property  would  evidently  be  attend- 
ed with  great  inconvenience.  By  failing  to 
fulfil  my  promise,  I  either  shew  that  1  was 
not  sincere  iii  making  it,  or  that  I  have  little 
constancy  or  resolution,  and  either  way  injure 
my  charactei',  and  consequently  my  useful- 
ness  in  life.    Promises^  however,  are  not 


PRO 


427 


PllO 


binding,  1.  If  they  were  made  by  us  before 
we  came  to  such  exercise  of  reason  as  to  be 
fit  to  transact  affairs  of  moment ;  or  if  by 
any  distemper  or  sudden  surprise  we  are 
deprived  oi  the  exercise  of  our  reason  at 
the  time  when  the  promise  is  made. — 2.  If 
the  promise  was  made  on  a  false  pi'esump- 
tion,  in  which  the  promiser,  after  the  most 
diligent  inquiry,  was  imposed  upon,  espe- 
cially if  he  were  deceived  by  the  fraud  of 
the  promisee. — 3.  If  the  thing  itself  be  vi- 
cious ;  for  virtue  cannot  require  that  vice 
should  be  committed. — 4.  If  the  accomplish- 
ment of  the  promise  be  so  hard  and  intole- 
rable, that  there  is  reason  to  believe  that, 
had  it  been  foreseen,  it  would  have  been  an 
excepted  case. — 5.  If  the  promise  be  not 
accepted,  or  if  it  depend  on  conditions  not 
performed."  See  Doddridge's  Lectures, 
lee.  69.  Grot,  de  Jure,  lib.  ii.  cap.  xi.  Pa- 
ley's  Moral  F liilosofihy ,  chap.  v.  vol.  i 
Grave's  Moral  Philosojihy,  vol.  ii.  page 
2.  c.  12.      Watts'  Sermons,  ser.  20. 

PROMISES  OF  GOD  are  the  kind  de- 
clarations of  his  word,  in  which  he  hath 
assured  us  he  will  bestow  blessings  upon  his 
people.  The  pi'omises  contained  in  the  sa- 
cred scriptures  may  be  considered,  1.  Di- 
vine as  to  their  origin — 2.  Suitable  as  to 
their  nature  — 3.  Abundant  as  to  their  num- 
ber.— 4.  Clear  as  to  their  expi'es^ion. — 5. 
Certain  as  to  their  accomplishment.  The 
consideration  of  them  should,  1.  Prove  an 
antidote  to  despair. — 2.  A  motive  to  pa- 
tience.— 3.  A  call  for  prayer. — 4.  A  spur  to 
perseverance.  See  Clark  on  the  Promises, 
a  book  that  Dr.  Watts  says  "  he  could  dare 
put  into  the  hands  of  every  (Miristian, 
among  all  their  divided  sects  and  parties  in 
the  world."     Buck's  Sermons,  ser.  xi. 

PROPHECY,  a  word  derived  from 
7ri>o<p>]]etu,  and  in  its  original  impoi't  signifies 
the  prediction  of  future  events.  It  is  thus 
defined  by  VVitsius:  "A  knowledge  and 
manifestation  of  secret  things,  which  a  man 
knows  not  from  his  own  sagacity,  nor  from 
the  relation  of  others,  but  by  an  extraordi- 
nary revelation  of  God  from  heaven."  In 
the  Old  and  New  Testaments  the  woi-d  is 
Jiot  always  confined  to  the  foretelling  of  fu- 
ture events.  In  several  instances  it  is  of 
the  .same  import  with  preaching,  and  de- 
notes the  faculty  of  illustrating  and  apply- 
ing to  present  practical  purposes  the  doc- 
trines of  prior  revelation.  Thus,  in  Nehe- 
miah  it  is  said,  "  Thou  hast  appointed  pro- 
phets to  preach,"  chap.  vi.  7  ;  and  whoever 
speaketh  unto  men  to  edification,  and  ex- 
hortation, and  comfort,  is  by  St.  Paul  called 
a  firolihet,  1  Cor.  xiv.  3.  Hence  it  was  that 
there  were  schools  of  prophets  in  Israel, 
where  young  men  were  instructed  in  the 
truths  of  religion,  and  fitted  to  exhort  and 
comfort  the  j^eople.  It  is  prophecy,  liow- 
ever,  according  to  the  first  definiiion  given 
above,  we  shall  here  consider. 

Prophecy  (with  the  power  of  working 
miracles)  may  be  considered  as  the  highest 
evidence  that  can  be  given  of  a  supernatu- 


ral communion  with  the  Deity.  Hence, 
among  tlie  professors  of  almost  every  reli- 
gious system,  there  have  bten  numberless 
pretenders  to  the  gift  of  prophecy.  Pagans 
had  thuir  oracles,  augurs,  and  soothsayers; 
modern  idolaters  their  iiecromancers  and 
diviners  j  and  the  Jews,  Christians,  and  Ma- 
hometans, their  jirophets.  The  pretensions 
of  Pagans  and  impostors,  have,  however, 
been  justly  exposed  ;  Avhile  the  Jewish  and 
Christian  prophecies  carry  with  them  evi- 
dent marks  of  their  validity.  Hence  St. 
Peter  observes,  "  We  have  a  more  sure 
word  of  prophecy,  whereunto  we  do  well 
to  take  heed,  as  unto  a  lighf  that  shineth 
in  a  dark  place  ;  for  the  prophecy  came  net 
in  old  time  by  the  will  of  man,  but  holy  men 
of  God  spake  as  tiiey  were  moved  bv  the 
Holy  Ghost,"  2  Pet.  ii.  19,  21.  Scripture 
prophecy,  tlierefore,  hath  God  for  its  ori- 
gin. It  did  not  arise  from  the  genius  of 
the  mind,  the  temperament  of  the  body, 
the  influence  of  the  stars,  &.c.  but  from  tlie 
sovereign  will  of  God.  The  ways  by  wliich 
the  Deity  made  known  his  mind  were  va- 
rious ;  such  as  by  dreams,  visions,  angels, 
symbolic  representatives,  impulses  on  the 
mind.  Num.  xii.  6.  Jer.  xxxi.  26.  Dan. 
viii.  16,  17. 

As  to  the  language  of  propliecy  :  "  It  is," 
says  Mr.  Gray,  "  remarkable  for  its  mag- 
nificence. Each  prophetic  writer  is  distin- 
guished for  peculiar  beauties ;  but  their 
style  in  general  may  be  characterized  as 
strong,  animated,  and  impressive.  Its  orna- 
ments are  derived  not  from  accumulation 
of  epitiiet.  or  laboured  harmony ;  but  from 
the  real  grandeur  of  its  images,  and  the 
majestic  force  of  its  expressions,  it  is  va- 
ried with  striking  propriety,  and  enlivened 
with  quick  but  easy  transitions.  Its  sudden 
bursts  of  eloquence,  its  earnest  warmth,  its 
affecting  exhortations  and  appeals,  affords 
very  interesting  proofs  of  that  lively  im- 
pression, and  of  that  inspired  conviction, 
under  which  the  prophets  wrote  :  and  which 
enabled  them,  among  a  people  not  distin- 
guished for  genius,  to  surpass  in  every 
variety  of  composition,  the  most  admired 
productions  of  Pagan  antiquity.  If  the  im- 
agery employed  liy  the  sacred  writers  ap- 
pears sometimes  to  partake  of  a  coarse 
and  indelicate  cast,  it  must  be  recollected, 
that  the  Easteni  manners  and  languages 
required  the  most  forcible  representations; 
and  that  the  masculine  and  indignant  spirit 
of  the  proiihets  led  them  to  adopt  the  most 
energetic  and  descriptive  expressions.  No 
style  is,  perhaps,  so  highly  figurative  as 
that  of  the  prophets.  Every  object  of  nature 
and  of  art  which  could  furnish  allusions  is 
explored  with  industry ;  every  scene  of  cre- 
ation, and  every  page  in  science  seems  to 
have  unfolded  its  rich  varieties  to  the 
sacred  writers,  who  in  tlie  spirit  of  Eastern 
poetry, deiignt  in  every  kind  of  metaphorical 
embellishment.  Thus,  by  way  of  illustration, 
it  is  obvious  to  remark,  tiiat  earthly  digni- 
ties  and   powers  are    symbolized   by  "the 


PRO 


428 


PRO 


icelestial  bodies ;  the  effects  of  moral  evil 
are  shewn  under  the  storms  and  convul- 
sioi's  of  nature;  the  pollutions  of  sin  are 
represented  by  external  impurities ;  and 
the  beneiicial  iulluence  of  righteousness  is 
depicted  by  the  severity  and  confidence  of 
peaceful  life.  This  allegorical  language 
,being  founded  in  ideas  universally  preva- 
lent, and  adhered  to  with  invariable  rela- 
'tion  and  regular  analogy,  has  furnished 
great  ornament  and  elegance  to  the  sacred 
writings.  Sometimes,  however,  the  inspired 
penmen  drew  their  allusions  from  local  and 
temporary  sources  of  metaphor ;  from  the 
peculiar  scenery  of  their  country  ;  from  the 
idolatries  of  heathen  nations  ;  from  their  own 
histoiy  and  circumstances :  from  the  service 
of  their  temple,  and  the  ceremonies  of  their 
religion,  from  manners  that  have  faded, 
and  customs  that  have  elapsed.  Hence 
many  appropriate  beauties  have  vanished. 
Many  descriptions  and  many  representations, 
that  must  have  had  a  solemn  importance 
among  the  Jews,  are  now  considered,  from  a 
change  of  circumstances,  in  a  degraded 
poiHt  of  view  Hence,  hkewise,  here  and 
there  a  shade  of  obscurity.  In  general, 
however,  the  language  of  scripture,  though 
highly  sublime  and  beautiful,  is  easy  and  in- 
telligible to  all  capacities." 
2.  Of  the  use  and  intent  of  firofihecy ■ 
As  prophecy  is  so  striking  a  proof  of  a 
supernatural  communion  with  the  Deity, 
and  is  of  so  early  a  date  ;  we  may  rest  as- 
sured it  was  given  for  wise  and  important 
ends.  "  It'  cannot  be  supposed,"  says 
bishop  Sherlock,  "  that  God  delivered  pro- 
phecies only  to  satisfy  or  employ  the  curio- 
sity of  the  inquisitive,  or  that  he  gave  his 
Spirit  to  men  merely  to  enable  them  t 
give  forth  predictions  for  the  amusement 
and  entertainment  of  the  world  :  there  must 
be  some  end  worthy  of  the  author."  Now, 
■what  end  could  this  be,  but  to  keep  alive 
in  the  minds  of  those  to  whom  it  was  given, 
a  sense  of  religion,  anrl  a  hope  of  future  de- 
liverance from  the  curse  of  the  fall  through 
Jesus  Christ?  "The  uses  of  prophecy," 
says  Dr.  Jortin,  "  besides  gradually  opening 
and  unfolding  the  things  relating  to  the 
Messiah,  and  the  bler,ir)gs  which  by  him 
should  be  cunferred  upon  mankind,  are  ma- 
ny, gri.'at,  and  manifest. 
' '■■  1.  It  served  to  secure  the  belief  of  a 
God,  and  of  a  Providence. 

"  As  God  is  invisible  and  spiritual,  there 
was  cause  to  fear,  that  in  the  first  and  ru- 
der ages  of  the  world,  when  men  were  bu- 
sier in  cultivating  the  earth  than  hi  cultiva- 
ting arts  and  sciences,  and  in  seeking  the 
necessaries  ox  life,  than  in  the  study  of  mo- 
ralit)',  th(;y  miglit  forget  their  Creator  and 
Govern(,r;  and  thereiore,  God  maintained 
amonght  them  the  great  article  of  faith  in 
him,  by  manifestations  of  himself ;  by  send- 
ing angeis  to  declare  his  will;  by  miracles, 
and  by  prophecies. 

•'  2.  It  was  intended  to  give  men  the  pro- 
foundest  veneration  for  that  jimaziiig  know- 


ledge from  which  nothing  was  concealeci, 
not  even  the  future  actions  of  creatures,  and 
the  things  which  as  yet  were  not.  How 
could  a  man  hope  to  hide  any  counsel,  any 
design,  or  thought,  from  such  a  being  } 

"  It  contributed  to  keep  up  devotion  and 
true  religion,  the  religion  of  the  heart, 
which  consists  partly  in  entertaining  just 
and  honourable  notions  of  God,  and  of  his 
perfections,  and  which  is  a  more  rational 
and  a  more  acceptable  service  than  rites 
and  ceremonies. 

"  4.  It  excited  men  to  rely  upon  God,  and 
to  love  him  who  condescended  to  hold  this 
mutual  intercourse  with  his  creatures,  and 
to  permit  them  to  consult  him,  as  one  friend 
asks  advice  of  another. 

"  And  it  was  intended  to  keep  the  peo- 
ple, to  whom  God  revealed  himself,  from 
idolatry  ;  a  sin  to  which  the  Jews  would 
be  inclined,  both  from  the  disposition  to 
it  which  they  had  acquired  in  Egypt,  and 
from  the  contagion  of  bad  example. 

"  The  people  of  Israel  were  strictly  for- 
bidden to  consult  the  diviners  and  the  gods 
of  other  nations,  and  to  use  any  enchant- 
ments and  wicked  arts ;  and  that  they 
might  have  no  temptation  to  it,  God  per- 
mitted them  to  apply  to  him  and  to  his 
prophets,  even  upon  small  occasions :  and 
he  raised  up  amongst  them  a  succession  of 
prophets,  to  whom  they  might  have  resort 
for  advice  and  direction.  These  prophets 
were  reverenced  abroad  as  well  as  at  home, 
and  consulted  by  foreign  princes  ;  and  in 
times  of  the  captivity,  they  were  honoured 
by  gi'eat  kings,  and  advanced  to  high  sta- 
tions.' ' 

As  it  respects  us,  prophecy  connected  with 
miracles,  affords  a  considerable  evidence  of 
the  truth  of  revelation,  as  Avell  as  of  a  su- 
perintending Providence.  This  evidence, 
too,  is  a  growing  evidence.  "  The  Divine 
design,  uniformly  pursued  through  a  series 
of  successive  generations,  opens  with  a 
greater  degree  of  clearness,  in  proportion  to 
the  lapse  of  time  and  the  number  of  events. 
An  increase  of  age  is  an  addition  to  its 
strength ;  and  the  nearer  we  approach  the 
point  towards  which  the  dispensations  of 
God  unvaryingly  tend,  the  more  clearly 
shall  we  discern  the  wonderful  regularity, 
consistency,  and  beauty  of  this  stupendous 
plan  for  universal  good.  Of  the  great  use 
of  prophesies  which  have  been  fulfilled,  as 
a  direct  and  strong  argument  to  convert 
unbelievers  to  Christianity,  and  to  establish 
Christians  in  the  faith,  we  have  the  most 
ample  proofs.  Our  Lord  himself  made 
very  frequent  appeals  to  prophecy,  as  evi- 
dence of  his  Divine  mission  ;  he  referred 
the  Jews  to  their  own  scriptures,  as  most 
fully  and  clearly  bearing  witness  of  himself. 
Ul)on  them  he  grounded  the  necessity  of 
his  sufferings ;  upon  them  he  settled  tlie 
faith  of  the  disciples  at  limmaus,  and  of  the 
apostles  at  Jerusalem.  The  same  source 
I  supplied  the  eloquence  of  St.  Peter  and  St. 
1  Paul,  and  the  means  with  which  ApoUos 


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429 


PRO 


•  mightily  convinced  the  Jews.'  This  was 
a  powerful  instrument  of  persuasion  in  the 
succeeding  ages  of  the  church,  when  used 
by  the  primitive  apologists.  Upon  this 
topic  were  employed  the  zeal  and  diligence 
not  only  of  Justin  Martyr,  but  TertuUian, 
Cyprian,  and  Augustine.  It  would  never 
have  been  so  frequently  employed,  if  it  had 
not  been  well  adapted  to  the  desired  end  ; 
and  that  it  did  most  completely  answer 
this  end,  by  the  conversion  of  unbeliev- 
ers, is  evident  from  the  accounts  of  scrip- 
ture, and  the  records  of  the  primitive 
church. 

"  Prophecy  keeps  the  attention  of  Chris- 
tians alive  to  the  truth  and  importance  of 
their  holy  religion  ;    to  its   truth,  because 
prophecy  and  Christianity  had  one  and  the 
same  origin   both  being  derived  from  the 
same  Fountain  of  Perfection  ;  it  keeps  them 
alive  to  its    importance,  because  prophecy 
shews  that  the  Supreme  Being  has  vouch- 
safed, through  a  long  succession  of  ages,  to 
prepare  mankind,  by  gradual  revelations  of 
his    will,    for    future    blessings :    and   has 
proved,  by  sending  chosen  messengers  to 
usher  in  this  final  dispensation,  that  '  the 
testimony  of  Jesus  is  the  spirit  of  prophe- 
cy.*   It  confirms   the   general  belief  of  a 
God,  and  points  out  to  a  careless  world  the 
plain  traces  of  his  watchful  Providence.    It 
displays   the  counsels  of  inspiration,  inces- 
santly directing  the  course  of  events,  with- 
out \iolating  the  order  of  reason  and  of  hu- 
man action.    Such  knowledge  is  too  won- 
derful for   us !    such    pnwer  is  above   our 
comprehension  !    But  the  fact  is  placed  be- 
fore our  eyes.    We  see,  or  may  see,  a  regu- 
lar train  of  prophesies  tending  towards  one 
declared  end,  accurately  fulfilled  and  fulfil- 
ling amidst  .ill  the  confusion  and  opposition 
of  this  tumultuous  world  ;  and  we  see  that 
these  prophecies  are  clear,  both  in  predic- 
tion and  accomplishment,  in  proportion    to 
their  importance  in  fixing  our  belief  in  the 
providence  of  God,  and  in   the  great  truths 
of  Divine  revelation.    Thus  it  appears  that 
the  chief  design  of  propliesy  is  to  bear  con- 
stant witness  to  reHgious  truth  :  but  though 
to  convince  gainsayers  of  this  tnith  is  justly 
considered  as  its  principal  use,  it  has  ano- 
ther   very  important    object,  to    which   it 
well  becomes  us  to  pay  attention,  from  mo- 
tives of  gratitude,  as  well  as  from  fear  of 
incuiTing  the  blame  which  scripture  inva- 
riable imputes  to  those  who  neglect  to  take 
advantage  of  the  light  afforded  them.     It  is 
designed  to  protect  believers  in  the  word 
of  God  from  the  dangers  arising  from  the 
prevalent  con-uptions,  errors,  and  vices  of 
the  age  in  which  they  five.    The  due  con- 
sideration of  prophecy  will  administer  con- 
solation amidst  present  distress,  and  enliven 
faith    and    elevate    hope,     whilst    passing 
through    those    dark    depressmg     scenes, 
which,    without   this   gi-acious    aid,    might 
lead  through  the  intricacies  of  doubt  to  the 
gloom  of  despair." 
Objections,  however,  have  been    raised 


against  the  prophecies  from  their  obscurity. 
But  to  this  it  is  answered,  that  they  have 
often  a  first,  or  partial,  and  an  ultimate  com- 
pletion, of  which  the  former  may  be  gene- 
rally considered  as  an  eai-nest  of  the  latter. 
It  is  principally    this  double  serise  of  pro- 
phecy which  renders  it  obscure  ;  for  though 
the  predictions  of  the  prophets  were  some- 
times positive  and  exactly  descriptive,   and 
delivered  with  an  accurate  and  definite  de- 
signation of  names   and   times,    prophecy 
was  not  generally  designed  to  be  clear  be- 
fore its  accomplishment    It   is,  however, 
always  sufficiently  exact  in  its  descriptions 
to  authenticate  its  pretensions  to  a  Divine 
authority  ;    to  produce,    when  it  comes  to 
pass,  an   acknowledgement  of  its  unerring 
certainty;  and  to  demonstrate  the  wisdom 
and  power  of  God.     As  Bishop  Newton  ob- 
serves, prophecies  are  the  only  species  of 
writing  which  are  designed  more  for  the 
instruction  of  future  ages  than  of  the  times 
wherein  they  are  v/ritten.    In  this  respect, 
as   the    world  growetli    older,    it    gi'oweth 
wiser.     Time,  that  detracts  something  from 
the  evidence  of  other  writers,  is  still  adding 
something  to  the  credit    and    authority  of 
the  prophets.    Future  ages  will  comprehend 
more  than  the  present,  as  the  present  im- 
derstands   more  than   the   past ;    and  the 
perfect    accomplishment    will    produce    a 
perfect  knowledge  of  all  the  prophecies. 
3.  Of  the  fulfibnent  of  Prophecij. 
Our  limits  will  not  permit  us   to  give  a 
copious  account  of  the   various  prophecies 
which  have  been  remarkably  fulfilled  :  but 
whoe\er  has  examined  profane  history  with 
any  degree  of  attention,  and  compared  it 
with  the  predictions  of  scripture,  must,  if 
he  be  not  blinded  by  prejudice,  and  hardened 
by  infidelity,  be  convinced  of  the  ti^uth  of 
prophesy  by  its  exact  accomplishment.    It 
is  in  vain  to  say  that  these  prophecies  werie 
delivered  since  the  events  have  taken  place; 
for  we  see  the  prophecies,  the  latest  where- 
of were   dehvered  about  1700   years    ago, 
and  some  of  them  above  3000  years  ago, 
fulfilling  at  this  very  time  ;  and  cities,  and 
countries,  and  kingdoms,  in  the  very  same 
condition,  and  all  brought  about  in  the  very 
same  manner,  and  with  the  very  same  cir- 
cumstances, as  the  prophets  had  foretold. 
*'  We  see,"  says  bishop  Newton,   *'  the  de- 
scendants of  Shem  and  Japhet,  ruling  and 
enlarged  in  Asia  and  Europe,  and  perhaps 
in  America,  and  '  the  curse  of  sei-\'itude, 
still  attending  the  wretched  descendants  of 
Ham  in  Africa.      We  see  the  posterity  of 
Ishmael  '  multiplied  exceedingly,'  and  be- 
come  '  a  great  nation'   in   the  Arabians ; 
yet    living  like  '  wild   men,'  and   shifting 
from    place    to   place    in    the    wilderness; 
'  their  hand  against  every  man,  and  every 
man's  hand  against  them  ;'  and  still  dwell- 
ing an  independent   and    free    people,  '  in 
the  presence  of  all  their  brethren,'  and  in 
the  presence  of  all  their  enemies.      We  see 
the  family   of    Esau   totally   extinct,   and 
that  of  Jacob  subsisting  at  this  day ;  '  the 


PRO 


430 


PRO 


sceptre  departed  from  Judah,'  and  the  peo- 
ple living  no  where  in  au thorny,  every 
where  in  subjection ;  the  Jt  ws  still  dwel- 
ling alone  among  the  nations,  while  '  the 
remembrance  of  Amalek  is  '  utterly  put  out 
from  under  heaven.'  We  see  the  Jews 
severely  punished  for  their  infidelity  and 
disobedience  to  their  great  prophet  like 
unto  Muses  ;  '  plucked  from  off  their  own 
land,  and  removed  into  all  the  kingdoms  of 
the  earth  ;  oppressed  and  spoiled  ever- 
moi'e ;'  and  made  *  a  proverb  and  a  bye- 
word  among  all  nations.'  We  see '  Ephraim 
so  broken  as  to  be  no  more  a  people,'  while 
the  whole  nation  is  comprehended  under 
the  name  of  Judah ;  the  Jews  wonderfully 
preserved  as  a  distinct  people,  while  their 
great  conquerors  are  every  where  destroyed: 
their  land  lying  desolate,  and  themselves 
cut  off  from  being  the  people  of  God, 
while  the  Gentiles  are  advanced  in  their 
room.  We  see  Nineveh  so  completely  de- 
stroyed, that  the  place  thereof  is  not  and 
cannot  be  known  ;  Babylon  made  '  a  deso- 
lation for  ever,  a  possession  for  the  bittern, 
and  pools  of  water  ;*  Tyre  become  '  like 
the  top  of  a  rock,  a  place  for  fishers  to 
spread  their  nets  upon ;'  and  Egypt  '  a  base 
kingdom,  the  basest  of  the  kingdoms,'  and 
still  tributary  and  subject  to  strangers.  We 
see,  of  the  four  great  empii-es  of  the  world, 
the  fourth  and  last,  which  was  greater  and 
more  powerful  than  any  of  the  former, 
divided  in  the  western  part  thereof  into  ten 
lesser  kingdoms ;  and  among  them  a  power 
'  with  a  triple  crown  diverse  from  the  first,' 
with  '  a  mouth  speaking  very  great  things,' 
and  with  '  a  look  more  stout  than  his  fel- 
lows, speaking  great  words  against  the 
Most  High,  wearing  out  the  saints  of  the 
Most  High,  and  changing  times  and  laws.' 
We  see  a  power  '  cast  down  the  truth  to 
the  ground,  and  prosper,  and  practice,  and 
destroy  th,e  holy  people,  not  regarding  the 
God  of  his  fathers,  nor  the  desire  of  wives, 
but  honouring  Mahuzzim,'  gods. protectors, 
or  saints-protectors, '  and  causing'  the  priests 
of  Mahuzzim  '  to  rule  over  many,  and  to  di- 
vide the  land  for  gain.'    We  see  the  Turks 

•  stretching  forth  their  hand  over  the  coun- 
tries,' and  particularly  '  over  the  land  of 
Egypt,  the  Libians  at  their  steps,'  and  the 
Arabians  still  '  escaping  out  of  their  hand.' 
We  see  the  Jews  *  led  away  captive  into 
all  nations,  and  Jerusalem  trodden  down  of 
the   Gentiles,'  and    likely    to    continue    so 

•  until  the  times  of  the  Gentiles  be  fulfilled,' 
as  the  Jews  are  by  a  constant  miracle 
preserved  a  distinct  people  for  the  com- 
pletion of  other  prophecies  relating  to  them. 
We  see  one  '  who  opposeth  and  exalteth 
himself  above  all  laws,  divine  and  hu- 
man, '  sitting  as  god  in  the  church  of  God, 
and  shewing  himself  that  he  is  God,  whose 
coming  is  after  the  working  of  Satan,  with 
all  power,  and  signs,  and  lying  wonders, 
and  with  all  deccivableness  of  unrighteous 
ness.'  We  see  a  gieat  afiostacy  in  the 
ChrVitian  church,  which  consists  chiefly  in 


the  worship  of  demons,  angels,  or  departed 
saints,  and  is  promoted  '  through  the  hy- 
pocrisy of  liars,  forlVidden  to  marry,  and  | 
commanding  to  abstain  from  meats.'  We 
see  the  seven  churches  of  Asia  lying  in  the 
same  forlorn  and  desolate  condition  that 
the  angi^l  had  signified  to  St.  John,  '  their 
candlestick  removed  out  of  its  place,'  their 
churches  turned  into  mosques,  their  worship 
into  superstition.  In  short,  we  see  the 
characters  of  '  the  beast  and  the  false  pro- 
phet,' and  *  the  whore  of  Babylon,'  now 
exemplified  in  every  particular,  and  in  a 
city  that  is  seated  '  upon  seven  moun- 
tains ;  so,  that,  if  the  bishop  of  Rome 
had  sat  for  his  picture,  a  greater  resem- 
blance and  likeness  could  not  have  been 
drawn. 

"  For  these  things  we  have  the  attestation 
of  past,  and  the  experience  of  present  times  ; 
and  we  cannot  well  be  deceived,  if  we 
will  only  believe  our  own  eyes  and  obser- 
vation. We  actually  see  the  completion  of 
many  of  the  prophecies  in  the  state  of 
men  and  things  around  us;  and  we  have 
the  prophecies  themselves  recorded  in  books 
which  books  have  been  read  in  public  as- 
semblies these  1700  or  2000  years,  have 
been  dispersed  into  several  countries,  have 
been  translated  into  several  languages,  and 
quoted  and  commented  upon  by  different  na- 
tions, so  that  there  is  no  room  to  suspect 
so  much  as  a  possibility  of  forgery  or  illu- 
sion." 

4.  Rules  for  understanding  the  firofihe- 
cies. 

In  order  to  understand  the  prophecies, 
and  to  form  a  right  judgment  of  the  argu- 
ment for  the  truth  of  Christianity,  we 
must  not  consider  them  singly  and  apart, 
but  as  a  grand  whole,  or  a  chain  reaching 
through  several  thousand  years,  yet  mani- 
festly subservient  to  one  and  the  same  end. 
This  end  is  no  other  than  the  establish- 
ment of  the  universal  empire  of  truth  and 
righteousness  under  the  dominion  of  Jesus 
Christ.  We  are  not,  indeed,  to  suppose 
that  each  of  the  prophecies  recorded  in  the 
Old  Testament  ex/iressly  points  out,  and 
clearly  charncterizes  Jesus  Christ ;  yet, 
taken  as  a  whole,  tiiis  grand  system  refers 
to  him ;  for  the  testimony  of  Jesus  is  the 
spirit  of  prophecy  "  All  the  revolutions 
of  divine  Providence  have  him  for  their 
scope  and  end  Is  an  empire,  or  kingdom 
erected  ?  that  empire,  or  kingdom,  is  erect- 
ed widi  a  view,  directly  or  indirectly,  to 
the  kingdom  of  the  Messiah.  Is  an  empire, 
or  kingdom,  subverted  or  overthrown  I 
that  empire  or  kingdom,  is  overthrown  in 
subserviency  to  the  gloiy  of  his  kingdom 
and  empire,  which  shall  know  neither 
bounds  nor  end,  but  whose  limits  shall  be 
no  other  than  the  limits  of  the  universe, 
and  whose  end  nn  other  than  the  days  of 
eternity.  Jesus  Christ,  then,  is  the  oniy  per- 
son that  ever  existed  in  whom  all  the  pro- 
phecies meet  as  in  a  centre."  In  order, 
therefore,  to  oppose  error  and  confront  the 


PRO 


431 


PRO 


infidel,  we  must  study  the  prophecies  not 
as  independent  of  each  other,  but  as  con- 
nected ;  for,  "  the  argument  from  prophe- 
cy," says  bishop  Hurd,  "  is  not  to  be  form- 
ed from  tlie  consideration  of  single  prophe- 
cies, but  from  all  the  prophecies  taken 
together,  and  considered  as  making  one 
system  ;  in  which,  from  the  mutual  depen- 
dence and  connection  of  its  parts,  preced- 
ing prophecies  prepare  and  illustrate  those 
which  tollow  ;  and  these,  again,  reflect  light 
on  the  foregoing :  just  as  in  any  philosophi- 
cal system,  that  which  shews  the  solidity  of 
it  is  the  harmony  and  correspondence  of  the 
whole,  not  the  application  of  it  in  particular 
instances. 

"  Hence,  though  the  evidence  be  but 
small  from  the  completion  of  any  one  pro- 
phecy taken  separately,  yet  that  evidence, 
being  always  something,  the  amount  of  the 
whole  evidence  resulting  from  a  great  num- 
ber of  prophecies,  all  relative  to  the  same 
design,  may  be  considerable;  Uke  many 
scattered  rays,  which,  though  each  be  weak 
in  itself,  yet,  concentered  into  one  point, 
shall  form  a  strong  light,  and  strike  the 
sense  veiy  powerfully.  Still  more ;  this  evi- 
dence is  not  merely  a  growing  evidence,  but 
is  indeed  multiplied  upon  us,  from  the  num- 
ber of  reflected  lights  which  the  several 
component  parts  cf  such  a  system  recipro- 
cally throw  upon  each  ;  till,  at  length,  the 
conviction  rise  into  a  high  degree  of  moral 
certainty. 

Farther,  in  order  to  understand  the  pro- 
phecies, we  must  endeavour  to  find  out  the 
the  true  subject  of  prophecy ;  that  is,  pre- 
cisely what  the  prophets  speak  of,  and  the 
characters  that  are  applied  to  that  subject. 
The  litei-al  sense  should  be  always  kept  in 
view,  and  a  knowledge  of  oriental  customs 
attained.  The  beginning  and  end  of  the  pro- 
phetic sermons  must  be  carefully  observed. 
The  time,  as  near  as  possible,  of  the  pre- 
diction should  be  ascertained.  An  acquaint- 
ance with  the  method  of  salvation  by  Christ 
will  greatly  assist  us  in  this  work.  The 
mind  must  be  unprejudiced,  and  we  should 
be  well  acquainted  with  the  scriptures  at 
large.  These  rules,  with  dependence  on  the 
Divine  teaching,  will  assist  us  in  under- 
standing the  prophecies.  See  Bishofi  Mew- 
ton'a  Dissertations  on  the  Profihecies.  Bish- 
ofi Sherlock^ s  Use  and  Intent  of  Prophecy. 
Bishofi  Hurd's  Sermons  on  the  Frofihecies. 
Sir  Isaac  JVewton's  Observations  on  the 
Prophecies  of  Daniel  and  the  Apocalypse. 
Gray's  Key  to  the  Old  Testament.  Simp- 
son's Key  to  the  Prophecies.  Illustrations 
of  Prophecy.  Vitring-a's  Typus  Doctrinx 
Propheticx.  Gill  on  the  Prophets.  Kt- 
trick's  second  EjcocIus,  or  Pemarks  on  the 
Pr'jphecies  of  the  Last  Times.  Kelt's  His- 
tory of  the  Interpreter  of  Prophecy.  See 
also  the  works  of  Mede,  Smith,  Halifax, 
Apthorp,  and  Fnbtr,  on  the  subject. 

PROPHESYINGS,  religious  exercises  of 
the  clerg)-  in  the  reign  of  queen  Elizabeth 
instituted  for  the  purpose  of  promoting  kiiow-  ^ 


ledge  and  piety.  The  ministers  of  a  partic- 
ular division  at  a  set  time  met  together  in 
some  church  of  a  market  or  other  large 
town,  and  there  each  in  their  order  explain- 
ed according  to  their  abilities,  some  portion 
of  scripture  allotted  to  them  before.  This 
done,  a  moderator  made  his  observations 
on  what  had  been  said,  and  determined  the 
true  sense  of  the  place,  a  certain  space  of 
time  being  fixed  for  despatching  the  whole. 
These  institutions,  like  all  others,  however, 
it  seems,  were  abused,  by  irregularity,  dis- 
putations, and  divisions.  Archbishop  Grin- 
dal  endeavoured  to  regulate  the  prophesy- 
ings,  and  cover  them  from  the  objections 
that  the  court  made  against  them,  by  en- 
joining the  ministers  to  observe  decency  and 
order,  by  forbidding  them  to  meddle  with 
politics  and  churc--  government,  and  by  pro- 
hibiting all  nonconformist  ministers  and  lay- 
men from  being  speakers  The  queen, 
however,  was  resolved  to  suppress  them  ; 
and  having  sent  for  the  archbishop,  told 
him  she  was  informed  that  the  rites  and 
ceremonies  of  the  church  were  not  duly  ob- 
served in  these  prophesy ings;  that  persons 
not  lawfully  called  to  be  ministers  exercised 
in  them ;  that  the  assemblies  themselves 
were  illegal,  not  being  allowed  by  public 
authority  ;  that  the  laity  neglected  their 
secular  affairs  by  i-epairing  to  these  meet- 
ings, which  filled  their  heads  with  notions, 
and  might  occasion  disputes  and  seditions 
in  the  state ;  that  it  was  good  for  the  church 
to  have  but  few  preachers,  three  or  four  in 
a  county  being  sufficient.  She  farther  de- 
clared her  dislike  to  the  number  of  these 
exercises,  and  therefore  commanded  him 
peremptorily  to  put  them  down.  The  arch- 
bishop, however,  instead  of  obeying  the 
commands  of  his  royal  mistress,  thought 
that  she  had  made  some  infringement  upon 
his  office,  and  wrote  the  queen  a  long  and 
earnest  letter,  declaring  that  his  conscience 
would  not  suffer  him  to  comply  with  her 
commands.  The  queen  was  so  inflamed 
with  this  letter,  that  the  archbishop  was 
sequestered  from  his  office,  and  he  never 
afterwards  recovered  the  queen's  favour. 
Thus  ended  the  prophesyings ;  "  an  useful 
institution,"  says  Neale,  "  for  promoting 
Christian  knowledge  and  piety,  at  a  time 
when  both  were  at  a  very  low  ebb  in  the 
nation.  The  queen  put  them  down  for  no 
other  reason,  but  because  they  enlightened 
the  people's  mind  in  the  scriptures,  and  en- 
couraged their  enquiries  after  truth  ;  her 
majesty  being  always  of  opinion  that  know- 
ledge and  learning  in  the  laity  would  only 
endanger  their  peaceable  submission  to  her 
absolute  will  and  pleasure. 

PROPHET,  a  person  who  foretels  future 
events.  It  is  particularly  applied  to  such 
inspired  persons  among  the  Jews  as  were 
commissioned  by  God  to  declare  his  will 
and  purposes  to  that  people.  See  Pro- 
phecy. 

False  Profihets.  See  Impostors  ;  and 
Joseplms'  Hist,  of  the  Jews. 


PRO 


432 


PRO 


Sons  of  the  Profihets,  an  appellation  giv- 
en to  young  men  who  were  educated  in  the 
schools  or  colleges  under  a  proper  master, 
■who  was  commonly,  if  not  always  an  inspir- 
ed prophet  in  the  knowledge  of  religion,  and 
in  sacred  music,  and  thus  were  qualified  to 
be  public  preachers.  1  Sam.  x.  1  Sam.  xi. 
2  Sam  xix.     2  Kings  ii. 

PROPITIATION,  a  sacrifice  offered  to 
God,  to  assuage  his  wratli,  and  render  him 
propitious.  Among  the  Jews,  there  were 
both  oi'dinary  and  public  sacrifices,  as  holo- 
causts, &c.  oftered  by  way  of  thanksgiving ; 
and  extraordinary  ones,  offered  by  persons 
guilty  of  any  crime,  by  way  of  propitiation. 
The  Homish  church  believe  the  mass  to  be 
a  sacrifice  of  propitiation  for  the  living  and 
the  dead  The  reformed  churches  allow  of 
no  propitiation  but  that  one  offered  by  Jesus 
on  the  cross,  whereby  Divine  justice  is  ap- 
peased, and  our  sins  forgiven,  Rom.  iii.  25. 
1  John  ii.  2. 

As  it  respects  the  unbloody  propitiatory 
sacrifice  of  the  mass  above-mentioned,  little 
need  be  said  to  confute  such  a  doctrine.  In- 
deed, it  is  owned  in  the  church  of  Rome, 
that  there  is  no  other  foundation  for  the  be- 
lief of  it  than  an  unwritten  tradition.  There 
is  no  hint  in  the  scripture  of  Christ's  offer- 
ing his  body  and  blood  to  his  Father  at  his 
institution  of  the  eucharist.  It  is  also  a  mani- 
fest contradiction  to  St.  Paul's  doctrine,  who 
teaches,  that,  without  shedding  of  blood. 
there  is  no  remission  ;  therefore  there  can 
be  no  remission  of  sins  in  the  mass.  The 
sacrifice  of  Christ,  according  to  the  same 
apostle,  is  not  to  be  repeated.  A  second  ob- 
lation would  be  superfluous;  consequently 
the  pretended  true  and  proper  sacrifice  of 
the  mass  must  be  superfluous  and  useless. 

The  propitiation  made  by  Jesus  Christ  is 
that  which  atones  for  and  covers  our  guilt, 
as  the  mercy -seat  did  the  tables  of  the  law  ; 
or  it  may  be  defined  thus  :  "  It  is  the  avert- 
ing the  punishment  due  to  any  one,  by  un- 
dergoing the  penalty  in  the  room  of  the 
guilty."  Thus  Jesus  Christ  is  called  the 
the  propitiation  or  atonement,  as  his  com- 
plete righteousness  appeases  his  Father,  and 
satisfies  his  law  and  justice  for  all  our  trans- 
gressions. See  Atonement,  and  books 
under  that  article. 

PROPORTION  OF  FAITH.  See  Ana- 
logy OF  Faith. 

PROSELYTFi,  a  new  convert  to  some 
religion  or  religious  sect.  Among  the  He- 
brews, proselytes  were  distinguished  into  two 
sorts :  the  first  called  proselytes  of  the  gate, 
because  suffered  to  live  among  them,  and 
were  those  who  observed  the  moral  law 
onlv,  and  the  rules  imposed  on  the  children 
of  Noah  ;  the  second  were  called  proselytes 
of  justice,  who  engaged  to  receive  circum- 
cision, and  the  whole  law  of  Moses,  and 
enjoyed  all  the  privileges  of  a  native  He- 
brew. 

PROSpUCHE,  from  xpofs-iv-^'Vi,  signifies 
prayer ;  but  it  is  taken  for  the  places  of  pray- 


er  of  the  Jews,  and  was  pretty  near  the 
same  as  their  synagogues.  But  the  synago- 
gues were  originally  in  the  cities,  and  were 
covered  places ;  whei'eas,  for  the  most  part, 
the  proseuches,  were  out  of  the  cities,  and 
on  the  banks  of  rivers,  having  no  covering, 
except,  perhaps,  the  shade  of  some  trees  or 
covered  galleries.  Acts  xvi.  13. 

PROSPERITY,  a  state  wherein  thing* 
succeed  according  to  our  wishes,  and  are 
productive  of  affluence  and  ease.  However 
desirable  prosperity  be,  it  has  its  manifest 
disadvantages.  It  too  often  alienates  the 
soul  from  God ;  excites  pride ;  exposes  to 
temptation ;  hardens  the  heart ;  occasions 
idleness ;  promotes  effeminacy  ;  damps  zeal 
and  energy ;  and,  too  often  has  a  baneful  re- 
lative influence.  It  is  no  wonder,  therefore, 
that  the  Almighty  in  general  withholds  it 
from  his  children  ;  and  th-t  adversity  should 
be  their  lot  rather  than  prrsperity.  Indeed, 
adversity,  seems  more  beneficial  on  the 
whole,  although  it  be  so  unpleasant  to  our 
feelings.  "  The  advantages  of  prosperity," 
says  Bacon,  "  are  to  be  wished  ;  but  the  ad- 
vantages of  adversity  are  to  be  admiredi 
The  principal  virtue  of  prosperity,  is  tem- 
perance ;  the  principal  virtue  of  adversity, 
is  fortitude,  which  in  morality,  is  allowed  to 
be  the  most  heroical  virtue  ;  prosperity  best 
discovers  vice,  adversity  best  discovers  vir- 
tue, which  is  like  those  perfumes  that  are 
most  fragrant  when  burnt  or  bruised."  It  is 
not,  however,  to  be  understood,  that  prosper- 
ity in  itself  is  unlawful.  The  world  with  all 
its  various  productions  was  formed  by  the  Al- 
mighty for  the  happiness  of  man,  and  de- 
signed to  endear  himself  to  us,  and  to  lead 
our  minds  up  to  him.  What  however  God 
often  gives  us  as  a  blessing,  by  our  own  folly 
we  pervert  and  turn  into  a  curse.  Where 
prosperity  is  given,  there  religion  is  absolute- 
ly necessary  to  enable  us  to  act  under  it  a» 
we  ought.  Where  this  divine  principle  in- 
fluences the  mind,  prosperity  may  be  enjoy- 
ed and  become  a  blessing ;  for  "  while  bad 
men  snatch  the  pleasures  of  the  world  as  by 
stealth  without  countenance  from  God,  tlie 
proprietor  of  the  world ;  the  righteous  sit 
openly  down  to  the  feast  of  life,  under  the 
smile  of  heaven.  No  guilty  fears  damp  tlieir 
joys.  The  blessing  of  God  rests  upon  all 
they  possess.  Their  piety  reflects  sunshine 
from  heaven  upon  the  prosperity  of  the 
world ;  unites  in  one  point  of  view  the  smil- 
ing aspect,  both  of  the  powers  above,  and  of 
the  objects  below.  Not  only  have  they  as 
full  a  relish  as  others  of  the  innocent  plea- 
sures of  life,  but  moreover,  in  them  they 
hold  communion  with  God.  In  all  that  is 
good  or  fair,  they  trace  his  hand.  From  the 
beauties  of  nature  from  the  improvements 
of  art,  from  the  enjoyments  of  social  life, 
they  raise  their  affections  to  the  source  of 
all  the  happiness  which  surrounds  them  ; 
and  thus  widens  the  sphere  of  their  plea- 
sures, by  adding  intellectual  and  spiritual, 
to  earthlv  iovs.  Blair's  Stnno72s,  vol,  i.  ser. 
3.     Bates'  Ji'orks,  p.  297. 


PRO 


433 


PRO 


S/iirUual  firosficrity  consists  in  the  con 
tinual  progress  of  the  mind  in  knowledge, 
purity,  and  joy.  It  arises  from  tlie  partici- 
pation of  the  divine  blessing;  and  evidences 
itself  by  frequency  in  pra)'er ;  love  to  God's 
word  ;  delight  in  his  peojjie  ;  attendance  on 
his  ordinances;  zeal  in  his  cause;  submis- 
sion to  his  will ;  usefulness  in  his  church  ; 
and  increasing  abhorrence  of  every  thing 
that  is  derogatory  to  his  glory. 

PROTESTANT,  a  name  first  given  in 
Germany  to  those  who  adhered  to  the  doc- 
trine of  Luther,  because  in  1529,  they  pro- 
tested against  a  decree  of  the  emperor 
Charles  V.  and  the  diet  of  Spires ;  declaring 
that  they  appealed  to  a  general  council. 
The  same  has  also  been  given  to  those  of 
the  sentiments  of  Calvin ;  and  is  now  be- 
come a  common  denomination  for  all  those 
of  the  reformed  churches.  See  article  Re- 
formation. FeWs  four  Letters  on  ge7iu- 
ine  Protestantism.  C/iillinffworth's  Religion 
of  the  Protestants.  Robertsoji's  Hist,  oj 
C/iarles  V.  vol.  ii.  page  249,  250. 

PROVIDENCE,  the  superintendance  and 
care  which   God  exercises  over  creation. 
The  arguments  for  the  providence  of  God 
are  generally  drawn  from  the  light  of  na- 
ture ;  the  being  of  a  God ;  the  creation  of 
the   world  ;   the   wonderfully  disposing   and 
controlling  the  affairs  and  actions  of  men  ; 
from  the  absolute  necessity  of  it ;  from  the 
various  blessings  enjoyed  by  his  creatures  -, 
the  awful  judgments  that  have  been  inflict- 
ed ;  and  from  the  astonishing  preservation 
of  the  Bible  and  the  church  through  every 
age,  notwithstanding  the  attempts  of  earth 
and  hell  against  them.   Providence  has  been 
divided  into  immediate  and  mediate,  ordi- 
nary and  extraoi'dinary,  common  and  special, 
universal  and  particular.     Iimnediate  pro- 
vidence is  what  is  exercised  by  God  him- 
self, without  the  use  of  any  instrument  or 
second  cause ;   mediate  providence  is  what 
is  exercised  in  the  use  of  means :  ordinary 
providence  is  what  is  exercised  in  the  com-  |! 
mon  course  of  means,  and  by  the  chain  of  i} 
second    causes ;    extraordinary  is   what  is  jj 
out  of  the  common  way,  as  miraculous  ope-'j 
i-ations  ;  common  providence  is  what  belongs  i: 
to  the  whole  world  ;  special,  what  relates  to  J 
the  church  ;  universal  relates  to  the  gene-  'i 
ral  upholding    and.  preserving  all   things ;  '| 
particular   relates   to  individuals   in  every  {i 
action  and  circumstance.     This  last,  how- 
ever, is  denied  by  some.  But  as  a  good  writer 
observes,  "  The  opinion  entertained  by  some 
that  the  providence  of  God  extends  no  far- 
ther than  to  a  general  superintendance  of 
the   laws  of  nature,   without  interposing  in 
the  particular  concerns  of  individuals  is  con- 
trary bet) I   to  reason  and  to  scripture.     It 
renders  the   government  of  the  Almighty 
altogether  loose  and  contingent,  and  would 
leave  no  ground  for  reposing  any  trust  under 
its  protection ;  for  the  majority  of  human 
affairs  would  then  be  allowed  to  fluctuate  in 
a  fortuitous  course,  without  moving  in  any 
rej^ular  direction,  and  without  tending  to 

3  I 


any  one  scope.  The  uniform  doctrine  of  the 
sacred  writings  is  that  through  the  universe 
nothino;  happens  witliout  God  ;  that  his  hand 
is  ever  active,  and  his  decree  cr  permission  « 
intervenes  in  all;  tKat  nothing  is  too  great 
or  uiiwieldly  for  his  managcn>«jnt,  and  no- 
thing so  minute  and  inconsiderable  as  to  be 
below  his  inspection  and  care.  While  he  is 
guiding  the  sun  and  moon  in  their  course 
through  the  heavens;  while  in  this  inferioi' 
world  he  is  ruling  among  empires,  stilling 
the  ragings  of  the  waters,  and  the  tumults 
of  the  people,  he  is  at  the  same  time  watch- 
ing over  the  humble  good  man,  who,  in  the 
obscurity  of  his  cottage,  is  serving  and  wor- 
shipping him." 

"  In  what  manner,  indeed.  Providence  in- 
terposes in  human  affairs;  by  what  means  it 
influences  the  thoughts  and  councils  of  men, 
and  notwithstanding  the  influence  it  exerts, 
leaves  to  them  the  freedom  of  choice,  are 
subjects  of  dark  and  mysterious  nature,  and 
which  have  given  occasion  to  many  an  in- 
tricate controversy.  Let  us  remember,  that 
the  manner  in  which  God  influences  the 
motions  of  all  the  heavenly  bodies,  the 
nature  of  that  secret  power  by  which  he  is 
ever  directing  the  sun  and  the  moon,  the 
planets,  stars,  and  comets,  in  their  course 
through  the  heavens,  while  they  appear  to 
move  themselves  in  a  free  course,  are  mat- 
ters no  less  inexplicable  to  us  than  the  man- 
ner in  which  he  influences  the  couixils  (?f 
men.  But  though  the  mode  (f  Divine  ope- 
ration remains  unknown,  the  fact  of  an 
ever-ruling  influence  is  equally  certain  in 
the  moral  as  it  is  in  the  natural  world.  In 
cases  wh-i-e  the  fact  is  clearly  authenti- 
cated, we  are  not  at  liberty  to  call  its  truth 
in  question,  merely  because  we  understand 
not  the  manner  in  Avhich  it  is  brought  about. 
Nothing  can  be  more  clear,  from  the  testi- 
mony of  scripture,  than  that  God  takes  part 
in  all  that  happens  among  mankind ;  direct- 
ing and  over-ruhng  the  whole  course  of 
events  so  as  to  make  eveiy  one  of  them 
answer  the  designs  of  his  wise  and  righteous 
government.  We  cannot,  indeed,  conceive 
God  acting  as  the  governor  of  the  world  at  all, 
unless  his  government  were  to  extend  to  all 
the  events  that  happen.  It  is  upon  the  sup- 
position of  a  particular  providence  that  our 
worship  and  prayers  to  him  are  founded. 
All  his  perfections  would  be  utterly  insig- 
nificant to  us,  i^-' they  were  not  exercised, 
on  every  occasion,  according  as  the  circum- 
stances of  his  creatures  required. — The  Al- 
mighty would  then  be  no  more  than  an  un- 
concerned spectator  of  the  behaviour  of  his 
subjects,  regarding  the  obedient  and  the 
rebellious  with  an  ec]ual  eye. 

"  The  experience  of  every  one  also,  must, 
more  or  less,  bear  testimony  to  it.  We 
need  not  for  this  purpose  have  recourse  to 
those  sudden  and  unexpected  vicissitudes 
which  have  sometimes  astonished  whole 
nations,  and  drawn  their  attention  to  the 
conspicuous  hand  of  heaven.  We  need  not 
appeal  to  the  history  of  the  statesman  and 


PRO 


434 


PRU 


the  warrior ;  of  the  ambitious  and  the  en-  I 
terprising.  We  confine  our  observation  to 
those  Avhose  lives  have  been  most  plain  and 
simple,  and  who  had  no  de^'^'c  to  depart 
from  the  ordinary  trai"  ot  conduct.  In  how 
many  instances  have  we  found,  that  we  are 
held  in  subjection  to  a  higher  Power,  on 
whom  depends  the  accomplishment  of  our 
wishes  and  designs  .•'  Fondly  we  had  pro- 
jected some  favourite  plan :  we  thought  that 
we  had  forecast,  and  provided  for  all  that 
might  happen ;  we  had  taken  our  measures 
with  such  vigilant  prudence,  that  on  every 
side  we  seemed  to  ourselves  perfectly  guard- 
ed and  secure;  but  lo!  some  little  event 
hath  come  about,  unforeseen  by  us,  and  in 
its  consequences  at  tlie  first  seemingly  in- 
considerable, which  yet  hath  turned  the 
whole  course  of  things  into  a  new  direction, 
and  blasted  all  our  hopes.  At  other  times 
our  counsels  and  plans  have  been  permitted 
to  succeed :  we  then  applauded  our  own 
wisdom,  and  sat  down  to  feast  on  the  hap- 
piness we  had  attained.  To  our  surprise 
we  found  that  happiness  was  not  there,  and 
that  God's  decree  had  appointed  it  to  be 
only  vanity.  We  labour  for  prosperity,  and 
obiain  it  not.  Unexpected,  it  is  sometimes 
made  to  drop  upon  us  as  of  its  own  accord. 
The  happiness  of  man  depends  on  secret 
springs  too  nice  and  dehcate  to  be  adjusted 
by  human  art:  it  requires  a  favourable  com- 
bination of  external  circumstances  with  the 
state  of  his  own  mind.  To  accomplish  on 
every  occasion  such  a  combination,  is  far 
beyond  his  power ;  but  it  is  what  God  can 
at  all  times  effect ;  as  the  whole  series  of 
external  causes  are  arranged  according  to 
his  pleasure,  and  the  hearts  of  all  men  are 
in  his  hands,  to  turn  them  wheresoever-  he 
•will,  as  rivers  of  water.  From  the  imper- 
fection of  our  knowledge  to  ascertain  what 
is  gond  for  us,  and  from  the  defect  of  our 
power  to  bring  about  that  good  when  known, 
arise  all  those  disappointments  which  con- 
tinually testify  that  the  way  of  man  is  not 
in  himself ;  that  he  is  not  the  master  of  his 
own  lot ;  that,  though  he  may  devise,  it  is 
God  who  directs  ;  God,  who  can  make  the 
smallest  incident  an  efFtctual  instrument  of 
his  providence  for  overturning  the  most  la- 
boured plans  of  men. 

•'  Accident,  and  chance,  and  fortune,  are 
words  which  we  often  hear  mentioned,  and 
much  is  ascribed  to  them  in  the  Hfe  of  man. 
But  they  are  words  without  meaning;  or, 
as  far  as  they  have  any  signification,  they 
are  no  other  tliap,  names  for  the  unknown 
operations  of  Providence  ;  for  it  is  certain, 
that  in  God's  universe  nothing  comes  to  pass 
causelessly,  or  in  vain.  Every  event  has  its 
own  determined  direction.  That  chaos  of 
human  affairs  and  intrigues  where  we  can 
see  no  light,  that  mass  of  disorder  and  con- 
confusion  which  they  often  pi'esent  to  our 
view,  is  all  clearness  and  order  in  ilie  sight 
of  Him  wlui  is  governing  and  directing  ail, 
and  bringing  forward  every  event  in  its  due 
time  and  place.    The  Lord  sitteth  on  the 


flood.  The  Lord  maketh  the  wrath  of  man 
CO  /iraise  him,  as  he  maketh  the  kail  and  the 
I'ain  obey  his  word.  He  hath  prepared  his 
throne  in  the  heavens ;  and  his  kingdoTn 
ruleth  over  all.  A  man^s  heart  deviseih  his 
way,  but  the  Lord  dirccteth  his  ste/is."' 

"  To  follow  the  leadings  of  Providence, 
means  no  other  than  to  act  agreeably  to  the 
law  of  duty,  prudence,  and  safety,  or  any 
particular  circumstance,  according  to  the 
direction  or  determination  of  the  word  or 
law  of  God.  He  follows  the  dictates  of 
Providencfe,  who  takes  a  due  survey  of  the 
situation  he  is  placed  in,  compares  it  with 
the  rules  of  the  word  which  reaches  his 
case,  and  acts  accordingly.  To  know  the 
will  of  God  as  it  respects  Providence,  there 
must  be,  1.  Deliberation. ^-2.  Consultation. — 
3.  Supplication. — The  tokens  of  the  Divine 
will  and  pleasure  in  any  particular  case  are 
not  to  be  gathered  from  our  inclinations ; 
particular  frames,  the  form  of  scripture 
phrases ;  impulses ;  nor  even  the  event,  as 
that  cannot  always  be  a  rule  of  judgment : 
but  whatever  appears  to  be  proper  duty, 
true  prudence,  or  real  necfssity,  that  we 
should  esteem  to  be  his  will."  See  Char, 
nock,  Flavel,  Hoakwell,  Hopkins,  Sherlock, 
Callings,  and  Fawcet  on  Providence ; 
Gill's  Body  of  Divinity  ;  Ridgley's  Body 
of  Divinity,  qu.  18.  Blair's  Ser.  ser.  18. 
vol.  v.  Forsyth's  piece  on  Providence,  Enc. 
Brit.  Wollaston's  Religion  of  nature  deli- 
neated,sec.  5.  Thompson's  Seasons,  Winter, 
conclusion. 

PRUDENCE  is  the  act  of  suiting  words 
and  actions  according  to  the  circumstance 
of  things,  or  rules  of  right  reason.  Cicero 
thus  defines  it :  "  Est  rerum  expetendarum 
fugiendarum  scientia." — "  The  knowledge 
of  what  is  to  be  desired  or  avoided,"  Grove 
thus :  "  Prudence  is  an  ability  of  judging 
what  is  best  in  the  choice  both  of  ends  and 
means."  Mason  thus  :  "  Prudence  is  a  con- 
formity to  the  rules  of  reason,  truth,  and 
decency,  at  all  times,  and  in  all  circumstan- 
ces. It  differs  from  wisdom  only  in  degree; 
wisdom  being  nothing  but  a  more  consum- 
mate habit  of  prudence ;  and  prudence  a 
lower  degi-ee  or  weaker  habit  of  wisdom." 
It  is  divided  into,  1.  Christian  prudence, 
which  directs  to  the  pursuit  of  that  blessed- 
ness which  the  Gospel  discovers  by  the  use 
of  Gospel  means.— 2.  Moral  prudence  has 
for  its  end  peace  and  satisfaction  of  mind  in 
this  world,  and  the  greatest  happiness  after 
death. — 3.  Civil  prudence  is  the  knowledge 
of  what  ought  to  be  done  in  order  to  secure 
the  <  utward  happiness  of  life,  consisting  in 
prosperity,  liberty,  &c. — 4.  Monastic,  rela- 
tirg  to  any  circumstances  in  which  a  man  is 
not  charged  with  the  care  of  others — 
5.  (Eccno7nical  prudence  regards  the  con- 
duct of  a  family. — 6.  Political  refers  to  the 
good  government  of  a  state. 

Tlie  idea  of  prudence,  says  one,  includes 
(v^aXtct,  or  due  consultation  ;  that  is,  con- 
cerning such  things  as  demand  consultation 
in  a  riglu  manner,   and  for  a  competent 


PUR 


435 


PUR 


time,  that  the  resolution  taken  up  may  be 
neither  too  precipitate  nor  too  slow ;  and 
c-vviG-ti,  or  a  faculty  of  discerning  proper 
means  when  they  occur.  To  the  perfection 
of  prudence  these  three  things  are  farther 
required,  viz.  hi^eltio"}  or  a  natural  sagacity; 
Ayjf^tvoix,  presence  of  mind,  or  a  ready 
turn  of  thought;  and  Ef^srupcc,  or  expe- 
rience. 

Plato  styles  prudence  the  leading  virtue  ; 
and  Cicero  observes,  "  that  not  one  of  the 
virtues  can  want  prudence  ;"  which  is  cer- 
tainly most  true,  since  without  prudence  to 
guide  them,  piety  would  degenerate  into 
superstition,  zeal  into  bigotry,  temperance 
into  austerity,  courage  into  rashness,  and 
justice  itself  into  folly.  See  U'atts'  Scj: 
ser.  28.  Grovels  Moi-al  Phil.  vol.  ii.  ch.  2. 
MasorCs  Christian  Mor.  vol.  i.  ser.  4. 
Evans'  Christ.  Temp.er,  ser.  38. 

PSALMODY,  the  art  or  act  of  singing 
psalms.  Psalmody  was  always  esteemed  a 
considerable  part  of  devotion,  and  usually 
performed  in  the  standing  posture  ;  and  as 
to  the  manner  of  pronunciation,  the  plain 
song  was  sometimes  used,  being  a  gentle 
inflection  of  the  voice  not  much  different 
from  reading,  like  the  chant  in  cathedrals  ; 
at  other  times  more  artificial  compositions 
were  used,  like  our  anthems. 

As  to  the  persons  concerned  in  singing, 
sometimes  a  single  person  sung  alone ; 
sometimes  the  whole  assembly  joined  toge- 
ther, which  was  the  most  ancient  and  gene- 
ral practice.  At  other  times,  the  psalms 
were  sung  alternately,  the  congregation  di- 
viding themselves  into  two  parts,  and  sing- 
ing verse  about  in  their  turns.  There  was 
also  a  fourth  way  of  singing,  pretty  com- 
mon in  the  fourth  century,  which  was,  when 
a  single  person  began  the  verse,  and  the 
people  joined  with  him  in  the  close  ;  this 
was  often  used  for  variety  in  the  same 
service,  with  alternate  Psalmody.  See 
Singing. 

PSATYRIANS,  a  sect  of  Arians,  who. 
in  the  council  of  Antioch,  held  in  the  year 
360,  maintained  that  the  Son  was  not  like 
the  Father  as  to  will ;  that  he  was  taken 
from  nothing,  or  made  of  nothing ;  and  that 
in  God's  generation  was  not  to  be  distin- 
guished from  creation. 

PURGATORY,  is  a  place  in  which  the 
just  who  depart  out  of  this  life  are  suppo- 
sed to  expiate  certain  offences  which  do  not 
merit  eternal  damnation.  Broughton  has 
endeavoured  to  prove  that  this  notion  has 
been  held  by  Pagans,  Jews,  and  Mahomet- 
ans, as  well  as  by  Christians  ;  and,  that,  in 
the  days  of  the  Maccabees,  tlie  Jews  be- 
lieved that  sin  might  be  expiated  by  sacri- 
fice after  the  death  of  the  sinner.  The  ar- 
guments advanced  by  the  Papists  for  Pur- 
gatory are  these :  1.  Every  sin,  how  slight 
soever,  though  no  more  than  an  idle  word, 
as  it  is  an  offence  to  God,  deserves  punish- 
ment from  him,  and  will  be  punished  by  him 
hereafter,  if  not  cancelled  by  repentance 


here. — 2.  Such   small  sins  do  not  deserve 
eternal  punishment. — 3.   Few    depart    this 
life  so  pure  as  to  be  totally  exempt  from 
spots  of  this  nature,   and  from  e\  ery  kind 
of  debt  due  to  God's  justice — 4.  Therefore 
few  will  escape  without  suffering  something 
from  his  justice  for  such  debts  as  they  have 
carried  with  them  out  of  this  wond,  ac- 
cording to  that  rule  of  Divine  justice  by 
which  hs  treats  eveiy  soul  hereafter  accord- 
ing to  its  worus,  and  acc^'rding  to  the  state 
in  which  he  finds  it  in  death.    From  these 
propositions,    wliicfi    the    Papist    considers 
as  so   many  self-evident  truths,  he   infers 
that  there  must  be  some  third  place  of  pun- 
ishment ;  for  since   the  infinite  goodness  of 
God  can  admit  notlung  into  heaven  which 
is  not  clean  and  puie    from    all    sin,    both 
great  and  small,  and  his  infinite  justice  can 
permit  none  to  receive  the  reward  of  bliss, 
who   as    yet  are  not  out  of  debt,  but  have 
something  in  justice  to  suffer,    there   must 
of  necessity,  be  some  place  or  state,  where 
smuIs  departing  this  life,   pardoned    as    to 
the  external  guilt  or   pain,    yet   obnoxious 
to    some   temporal    penalty,    or    with   the 
guilt  of  some  venial  faults  are  purged  and 
purified    before  then*  admittance  into  hea- 
ven.    And  this  is  what  he  is  taught  con- 
cerning purgatory,  which,  though  he  know 
not  where  it  is,  of  what   nature  the  pains 
are,    or   how  long  each    soul    is    detained 
there,    yet  he  believes  that  those  who  are 
in  this  place    are    relieved  by  the  prayers 
of  their  fellow  members  here  on  earth,  as 
also    by  alms    and    masses    offered   up  to 
God  for  their  souls.      And  as  for  snch  as 
have   no   relations  or   friends    to   pray  for 
them,  or  give  alms  or  procure  masses  for 
their  relief,  they  are  not  neglected  by  the 
church,  which  makes  a  general  commemo- 
ration of  all  the  faithful  departed  in  every 
mass,  and  in  every   one  of  the    canonical 
hours   of  the    divine    office.       Besides  the 
above  arguments,  the  following  passages  are 
alledged  as  proofs :  2  Maccabees  xii.  43,  44, 
45.     Matt.  xii.  31,  32.     1  Cor.  iii  15,     1  Pet. 
iii.  19.     But   It    may  be  observed,    1.  That 
the  books  of  Maccabees  have  no   evidence 
of    inspiration,    therefore    quotations   from 
them  are  not  to  be  regarded. — 2.  if  they 
were,    the    texts   refeiTed  to  would  rather 
prove  that    there  is  no  such  place  as  pur- 
gatory,  since    Judas    dJ<i   not   expect    the 
souls  departed  to  reap  any  benefit  from  his 
sin-offering  till  tlie  resurrection.    The  texts 
quoted  from  the  scriptures  have  no  refer- 
ence to  this  doctrine,  as    may  be   seen    by 
consulting  the  context,    and   any  just  com- 
mentator   thereon. — 3.  Scripture,    in    gene- 
ral, speaks  of  departed  souls  going  immedi- 
ately at  death  to  a  fixed  state   of  happiness 
or  misery,  and  gives  us  no  idea  of  purgato- 
ry, Isa.  Ivii.  2.    Rev.  xiv.  13.   Luke  xvi.  22. 
2  Cor.  v.  8. — 4.  It   is  derogatory   from    the 
doctrine  of  Christ's  satisfaction.     If  Christ 
died  for  us,  and  redeemed   us  from  sin  and 
hell,  as  the  scripture  speaks,  then  the  idea 
of  farther   meritorious   suffering    detracts 


PUR 


436 


PUR 


from  the  perfection  of  Christ's  work,  and  i 
places  merit  still  in  the  creature ;  a  doctrine  | 
exactly  opposite  to  scripture.  See  Dod- 
dnge's  Lee.  lee  270.  Lvnborch's  Tfieoi  \.\ 
6,  ch.  10.  §  10,  22.  Earle's  Sermons,  in ' 
ike  Sermons  against  Popery,  vol.  ii.  No.  l.j 
Burnett  on  t he Ai-t.  22.  Pleury's  Cmechusm,\ 
vol.  ii.  p.  250.  _  } 

PL'RIFICATION,  a  ceremony  which  con- 
sists in  cleansing  any  tiling  from  pollution 
or  defilement.  Purifications  are  common  to 
Jews,  Pagans,  and  Mahometans.  See  Im- 
purity, j 

PURITANS,  a  name  given  in  the  primi- 
tive church  to  the  Novatians,  because  they 
would  never  admit  to  communion  any  one, 
■who,  from  dread  of  death,  had  apostatized 
from  the  faith :  but  the  word  has  been 
chiefly  applied  to  those  who  were  professed 
favourers  of  a  farther  degree  of  reformation 
and  puritj-  in  the  church  before  the  act 
of  uniformity  in  1662.  After  this  period, 
the  term  nonconformist  became  common, 
to  which  succeeds  the  appellation  Dissen- 
ter. 

"  During  the  reign  of  qneen  Elizabeth,  in 
•which  tne  ro\-al  prerogative  was  carried  to 
its  utmost  limits,   there  were  found  manv 


persons  who  were  disobedient  to  the  royal 
pleasure." 

The  severe  persecutions  carried  on  against 
the  Puritans  during  the  reigns  of  Elizabeth 
and  the  Stuarts,  served  to  lay  the  founda- 
tion of  a  new  empire  in  the  western  world. 
Thi:her  as  into  a  wilderness  they  fled  from 
the  face  of  their  persecutors,  and,  being 
protected  in  the  free  exercise  of  their  reli- 
gion, continued  to  increase,  till  in  about  a 
century  and  a  half  they  became  an  inde- 
pendent nation.  The  different  principles, 
however,  on  which  they  had  originally  divid- 
ed from  the  church  estabhshment  at  home, 
operated  in  a  way  that  might  have  been 
expected  w-hen  tliey  came  to  the  possession 
of  the  civil  power  abroad.  Those  who 
foi-med  the  colony  of  Massachusetts  Bay, 
having  never  relinquished  the  principles  of 
a  national  church,  and  of  the  power  of  the 
civil  magistrate  in  matters  of  faith  and 
worship,  were  less  tolerant  than  those  who 
settled  at  New  Plymouth,  at  Rhode  Island, 
and  at  Providence  Plantations.  The  veiy 
men  (and  they  were  good  men  too)  who  had 
just  escaped  the  persecutions  of  the  Enghsh 
prelates,  now  in  their  turn  persecuted 
others   who    dissented  from   them,   till    at 


daring  spirits  who  questioned  the  right  of  i  length  the  liberal   sj'stem   of  toleration  es 


the  sovereign  to  prescribe  and  dictate  to  her 
subjects   what   principles    of   relipon  theyi 
should  profess,  and  what  forms  they  ought 
to  adhere  to.      The  ornaments  and  habits  j 
•worn  by  the  clergy  in  the  preceding  reign,  I 
when  the  Romish   religion  and  rites  were  ■, 
triumphant,  Elizabeth  was  desirous  of  pre- 
sennug    in    the   Protestant    service.     This  | 
was  the  cause  of  great  discontent  among  a  ' 
large  body   of  her  subjects :  multitudes  re- 
fused to  attend  at   those  churches    where 
the  habits  and  ceremonies  were  used ;  t'.ie 
conforming  clerg%'  they  treated  with  con- , 
tumely  ;  a.  d,  from  the  superior  purity  and  ! 
simplicity  of  the  modes  ff  worship  to  which  j 
they  adhered,  they  obtained  the  name  of 
JPuritaJis.    The  queen  made  many  attempts } 
to  repress  every  thing  that  appeared  to  her 
as  an  innovation  in  the  religion  established 
by- her   authority,  but  without  success:  by. 
"her  almost  unlimited  autlicrit)'  she  readily 
checked  c-pen  and  avowed   opposition,    but 
she  ccuk\  not  extinguish  the  principles  of 
the  Purita'.s,  •  by  whom  al  ne,'  according! 
to  Mr.  Hume, '  tb'e  precious  spark  of  liberty  ' 
had  been  kindled   and  was  presened.  and 
to  wlrm  the  English  owe  the  whole  free- 
dom cf  t'i  ir  oonstitutirn.'    Some  secret  at- 
tempts t  at  had  f.een  mnde  by  them  to  es- 
tablish a  separate  Cf^regation   and  disci- 
pane,  had  been  can  fui'.y  repressed  by  the 
strict  hr^nd  whicli  Elizibeth  held  over  all 
her   subjects.      The  most,    therefre.  that 
they  tx)uld  eff  ct  was,  to  assemble  in  private 
houses,  for  the  pur]x>->e  of  worshipping  God 
according  to  tlie  dictates  of  their  own  con- 
saencs       Tiiese   practices   were    at  first 
connived  at,  but  afterwards  every  mean  was 
taken  to  suppress  them,  and  the  most  cruel 
methods  v.ere  made  use  of  to   discover 


tablished  in  the  parent  countiy  at  the 
revolution,  extending  to  the  colonies,  in  a 
good  measure  put  an  end  to  these  proceed- 
ings. 

Neither  the  Puritans  before  the  passing 
of  the  Bartholomew  act  in  1662,  nor  the 
Nonconformists  after  it,  appear  to  have 
disapproved  of  the  articles  of  the  establish- 
ed church  in  matters  of  doctrine.  The 
number  of  them  who  did  so,  however,  was 
very  small.  WTiile  the  great  br  dy  of  the 
bishops  and  clergy-  had  from  the  days  of 
archbishop  Laud  abandoned  their  own  arti- 
cles in  favour  of  Arminianism,  they  were 
attached  to  the  principles  of  the  first  re- 
formers ;  and  by  their  labours  and  suffer- 
ings the  spirit  of  the  reformation  was  kept 
alive  in  the  land.  But  after  the  revolution, 
one  part  of  the  protestant  Dissenters,  chiefly 
Presbyterians,  first  veered  towards  Armini- 
anism, then  revived  the  Arian  controversy, 
and  by  degrees  many  of  them  settled  in 
Socinianism.  At  the  same  time  another 
part  of  tliem,  chiefly  Independents  and 
Baptists,  earnestly  contending  for  the  doc- 
trines of  grace,  and  conceiving,  as  it  would 
seem,  that  the  danger  of  erring  lay  entirely 
■n  one  side,  first  veered  towards  high  Cal- 
vinism, then  forbore  the  unregenerate  to  re- 
pent, believe,  or  do  any  thing  practically 
good,  and  by  degrees  many  of  them,  it  is 
said,  settled  in  Antinomianism. 

Such  are  the  principles  which  have 
f'-.und  place  amongst  the  descendants  of 
the  Puritans.  At  the  same  time,  however, 
it  must  be  acknowledged  that  a  goodly  num- 
ber of  each  of  the  three  denominations 
have  adhered  to  the  dcctrine  and  spirit  of 
their  forefathers  ;  and  have  proved  the  effi- 
1  cacy  of  their  principles  by  their  concern  to 


QUA 


437 


QUA 


be  holy  in  all  manner  of  conversation.  See 
articles Brownists,  Independents,  and 
Nonconformists,  in  this  work.  See 
also  list  of  books  under  tlie  last-mentioned 
article. 

PURITY,  the  freedom  of  any  thing  from 
foreign  admixture  ;  but  more  particularly  it 
signifies  the  temper  directly  opposed  to 
criminal  sensualities,  or  the  ascendancy  of 
irregular  passions.  [See  Chastity.]  Pu- 
rity implies,  1.  A  fixed  habitual  abhorrence 
of  ail  forbidden  indulgences  of  the  flesh. — 2. 
All  past  impurities,  either  of  heart  or  life, 
will  be  reflected  on  with  shame  and  sorrow. 
— 3.  The  heart  will  be  freed,  in   a  great 


measure,  from  impure  and  irregular  desires. 
— 4.  It  will  discover  itself  by  a  cautious  fear 
of  the  least  degree  of  impurity. — 5.  It  im- 
plies a  careful  and  habitual  guard  against 
every  thing  which  tends  to  pollute  the 
mind.  See  Evansi'  Sermon-?  on  the  Chris- 
tian Temfier,  ser.  23 ;  and  H'atta*  ikrmon»y 
ser    27. 

PURPOSE  OF  GOD.    See  Decree. 

PUSILLANIMITY  is  a  feebleness  of 
mind,  by  which  i:  is  terrified  at  mere  trifles 
or  imaginary  dangers,  unauthorised  by  the 
most  distant  probability. 

PYRRHONISTS.    See  Sceptics. 


Q. 


QUAKERS,  a  sect  which  took  its  rise  in  [ 
Kngland  about  the  middle  of  the  seven-  [ 
teenth  century,  and  rapidly  found  its  wayj 
into  other  countries  in  Europe,  and  into  the . 
English  settlements  in  North  America. j 
The  members  of  this  society,  we  believe, 
called  themselves,  at  first.  Seekers,  from 
their  seeking  the  truth ;  but  after  the  so- 1 
ciety  was  formed,  they  assumed  the  appella- 1 
tion  of  Friends.  The  name  of  Quakers  was| 
given  to  them  by  their  enemies,  and  though  I 
an  epithet  of  reproach,  seems  to  be  stamped | 
upon  them  indelibly.  George  Fox  is  sup- 1 
posed  to  be  their  first  founder  ;  but,  after, 
the  restoration,  Penn  and  Barclay  gave  to, 
their  principles  a  more  regular  form. 

The  doctrines  of  the  society  have  been' 
variously  represented;  and  some  have| 
thought  and  taken  pains  to  prove  them 
favourable  to  Socinianism.  But,  according! 
to  Penn,  they  believe  in  the  Holy  Three,  orj 
the  Trinity  of  Father,  Word,  and  Spirit, 
agreeable  to  the  Scripture.  In  reply  to  the  j 
charge  that  they  deny  Christ  to  be  God, 
Penn  says,  "  that  it  is  a  most  untrue  and 
uncharitable  censure — that  they  truly  and 
expressly  own  him  to  be  so  according  to 
the  scripture."  To  the  objection  that  they 
deny  the  human  nature  of  Christ,  he  an- 
swers, "  We  never  taught,  said,  or  held 
so  gross  a  thing,  but  believe  him  to  be 
truly  and  properly  man  like  us,  sin  only 
excepted."  The  doctrines  of  the  fall  and 
the  redemption  by  Christ  are,  according 
to  him,  believed  firmly  by  them ;  and  he 
declares  "  that  they  own  Jesus  Christ  as 
their  sacrifice,  atonement,  and  propitia- 
tion." 

But  "we  shall  here  state  a  further  ac- 
count of  their  principles  and  discipline, 
="^  extracted  from   a  summary  transmitted 


to  me  from  (Mie  of  their  most  respectable 
members. 

They  tell  us  that,  about  the  beginning  of 
the  seventeenth  centur\-,  a  number  of  men 
dissatisfied  with  all  the  modes  of  religious 
j  worship  then  known  in  the  world,  with- 
i  drew  from  the  communion  of  every  visible 
church  to  seek  the  Lord  in  retirement. 
Among  these  was  their  honourable  elder 
George  Fox,  who,  being  quickened  by  the 
immediate  touches  of  Divine  love,  could 
not  satisfy  his  apprehensions  of  duty  to 
God  without  directing  the  people  where  to 
find  the  like  consolation  and  instruction. 
In  the  course  of  his  travels,  he  met  with 
many  seeking  persons  in  circumstances 
similar  to  his  own,  and  these  readily  re- 
ceived his  testimony.  They  then  give  us 
a  short  account  of  their  sufferings  and  dif- 
ferent settlements ;  they  also  vindicate 
Charles  II.  from  the  character  of  a  per- 
secutor :  acknowledging  that,  though  they 
suffered  much  during  his  reign,  he  gave 
as  little  countenance  as  he  could  to  the  se- 
verities of  the  legislature.  They  even  te 
us  that  he  exerted  his  influence  to  rescue 
their  friends  from  the  unprovoked  and 
cruel  persecutions  they  met  with  in  New- 
England;  and  they  speak  with  becoming 
gratitude  of  the  different  acts  passed  in 
their  favour  during  the  reigns  of  William 
and  Mary,  and  George  I.  They  then  pro- 
ceed to  give  us  the  following  account  of  their 
doctrine : 

"  We  agree,  with  other  professors  of  the 
Christian  name,  in  the  belief  of  one  eternal 


um- 
the 


i  God,  the  Creator  and  preserver  of  the 
I  verse;  and    in    Jesus   Christ   his   Son, 
Messiah,  and   Mediator  of  the  New  Cove- 
nant, Heb.  xii.  24. 
"  When  we  speak  of  the  gracious  display 


QUA 


438 


QUA 


of  the  love  of  God  to  mankind,  in  the  mi- 
raculous conception,  birth,  life,  miracles, 
death,  resurrection,  and  ascension  of  our 
Saviour,  we  prefer  the  use  of  such  terms 
as  we  find  in  scripture  ;  and,  contented  "with 
that  knowledge  which  Divine  wisdom  has 
seen  meet  to  reveal,  we  attempt  not  to  ex- 
plain those  mysteries  which  remain  under 
the  veil ;  nevertheless  we  acknowledge  and 
assert  the  divinity  of  Christ,  who  is  the 
wisdom  and  power  of  God  unto  salvation, 
1  Cor.  i.  24. 

"  To  Christ  alone  we  give  the  title  of  the 
Word  of  God,  John  i.  1.  and  not  to  the 
scriptures,  although  we  highly  esteem  these 
sacred  writings,  in  subordination  to  the 
Spirit  (2  Pet.  i.  21.)  from  which  they  were 
given  forth  ;  and  we  hold,  with  the  apostle 
Paul,  that  they  are  able  to  make  wise  unto 
salvation,  through  faith,  which  is  in  Christ 
Jesus,  2  Tim.  iii.  15. 

"  We  reverence  those  most  excellent 
precepts  which  are  recorded  in  scripture  to 
have  been  delivei"ed  by  our  great  Lord,  and 
we  firmly  believe  that  they  are  practicable, 
and  binding  on  every  Christian ;  and  that 
in  the  life  to  come  every  man  will  be  re- 
warded according  to  his  works.  Matt.  xv. 
27.  And  further ;  it  is  our  belief,  that,  in 
order  to  enable  mankind  to  put  in  prac- 
tice these  sacred  pi'ecepts,  many  of  which 
are  contradictoiy  to  the  unregenerate  will 
of  man,  John  i.  9.  every  man  coming  into 
the  world  is  endued  with  a  measure  of 
the  light,  grace,  or  good  spirit  of  Christ ; 
by  which,  as  it  is  attended  to,  he  is  ena- 
bled to  distinguish  good  from  evil,  and  to 
correct  the  disorderly  passions  and  corrupt 
propensities  of  his  nature,  which  mere  rea- 
son is  altogether  insufficient  to  overcome 
For  all  that  belongs  to  man  is  fallible,  and 
within  the  reach  of  temptation  ;  but  this 
Divine  grace,  which  comes  by  him  Avho 
hath  overcome  the  world,  Jnlm  xvi.  33.  is, 
to  those  who  humbly  and  sincerfly  seek 
it,  an  all-siifficient  and  present  help  in  time 
of  need  By  this  the  snares  of  the  enemy 
are  detected,  his  allurements  avoided,  and 
deliverance  is  experienced  through  faith 
in  its  efft-ctual  operation  ;  whereby  the  soul 
is  translated  out  of  the  kingdom  of  dark- 
ness, and  from  under  the  p  wer  of  Satan, 
unto  t!ie  marvellous  light  and  kingdom  of 
the  S(in  of  G'ld. 

"  Being  thus  persuaded  that  man,  with- 
out the  Spirit  of  Christ  inwardly  revealed, 
can  do  nothing  to  the  glory  of  God,  or  to 
effect  his  own  salvation,  we  think  this  influ- 
ence especially  necessary  to  the  perform- 
ance of  the  highest  act  of  which  the  human 
mind  is  capable;  even  the  worship  of  the 
Father  of  Lights  and  of  Spirits,  in  spirit 
aud  in  truth  ;  therefore  we  consider  as  ob- 
structions to  pure  worship,  all  forms 
which  divert  the  attention  of  the  mind 
from  the  secret  influence  of  this  unction 
from  the  Holy  One,  1  John  ii.  20.  27.  Yet, 
althougli  true  worship  is  not  confined  to 
time  and  place,  we    think  it  incumbent  on 


Christians  to  meet  often  together,  Heb.  x. 
25.  in  testimony  of  their  dependance  on  the 
heavenly  Father,  and  for  a  renewal  of 
their  spiritual  strength  :  nevertheless,  in 
the  performance  of  worship,  we  dare  not 
depend  for  our  acceptance  with  him  on  a 
formal  repetition  of  the  words  and  experi- 
ences of  others ;  but  we  believe  it  to  be  our 
duty  to  lay  aside  the  activity  of  the  imagi- 
nation, and  to  wait  in  silence  to  have  a  true 
sight  of  our  own  condition  bestowed  upon  us ; 
believing  even  a  single  sigh  (Rom.  vii.  26) 
arising  from  such  a  sense  of  our  infirmities, 
and  of  the  need  we  have  of  Divine  help,  to 
be  more  acceptable  to  God  than  any  perform- 
ances, however  specious,  which  originate 
in  the  will  of  man. 

"  From  what  has  been  said  respecting 
worship,  it  follows  that  tlse  ministry  we  ap- 
prove must  have  its  origin  from  the  same 
source  ;  for  that  which  is  needful  for  man's 
own  direction,  and  for  his  acceptance  with. 
God,  Jer.  xxiii.  30 — 32,  must  be  eminently 
so  to  enable  him  to  be  helpful  to  others. 
Accordingly  we  believe  that  the  renewed 
assistance  of  the  light  and  power  of  Christ 
is  indispensably  necessary  for  all  true  mi- 
nistry ;  and  that  this  holy  influence  is  not 
at  our  command,  or  to  be-procured  by  study, 
but  is  the  free  gift  of  God  to  chosen  and 
devoted  servants.  Hence  arises  our  testi- 
mony against  preaching  for  hii'e,  in  con- 
tradiction to  Christ's  positive  command, 
'  Freely  ye  have  received,  freely  give,' 
Matt.  X.  8.  and  hence  our  conscientious  re- 
fusal to  support  such  ministry  by  tithes,  or 
other  means. 

"  As  we  dare  not  encourage  any  minis- 
try but  that  which  we  believe  to  spring 
from  the  influence  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  so 
neither  dare  we  attenniit  to  restrain  this 
influence  to  persons  of  any  condition  in  life, 
or  to  the  male  sex  alone  ;  but,  as  male  and 
female  are  one  in  Christ,  we  allf)w  such  of 
the  female  sex  as  we  believe  to  be  endued 
with  a  rioiht  qualification  for  the  ministry 
to  exercise  their  gifts,  for  the  general  edifi- 
cation of  the  church ;  and  this  liberty  we 
esteem  a  peculiar  mark  of  the  (iospel  dis- 
pensation, as  foretold  by  the  prophet  Joel, 
Joel  ii.  28,  29.  and  noticed  by  the  apostle 
Peter,  Acts  ii.  16,  17. 

"  There  are  two  ceremonies  in  use  among 
most  professors  of  the  Christian  name, — 
water-baptism,  and  what  is  termed  the 
Lord's  supper.  The  first  of  these  is  gene- 
rally esteemed  the  essential  means  of  initia- 
tion into  the  church  of  Christ;  and  the 
latter  of  maintaining  communion  with  him. 
But  as  we  have  been  convinced,  that  nothing 
short  of  his  redeeming  power,  invariably 
revealed,  can  set  the  soul  free  from  the 
thraldom  of  sin,  by  this  power  alone  we 
believe  salvation  to  be  effected.  We  hold, 
that,  as  there  is  one  Lord  and  one  faith, 
Eph.  iv.  5.  so  his  baptism  is  one,  in  nature 
and  operation ;  that  nothing  short  of  it  can 
make  us  living  members  of  his  mystical 
body  ;  and  that  the  baptism  with  water,  ad- 


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439 


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ministered  by  his  forerunner  John,  belonged, 
as  the  latter  confessed,  to  an  inferior  dis- 
pensation, John  iii.  30. 

"  With  respect  to  the  other  rite,  we  be- 
lieve that  communion  between  Christ  and 
his  church  is  not  maintained  by  that,  nor 
any  other  external  performance,  but  only  by 
a  real  participation  of  his  divine  nature  (1 
Pet.  ii.  4.)  through  faith:  that  this  is  the 
supper  alluded  to  in  the  Revelation,  Rev.  vii. 
20.  '  Behold  I  stand  at  the  door,  and  knock ;  if 
any  man  hear  my  voice,  and  open  the  door,  I 
■will  come  in  to  him,  and  will  sup  with  him, 
and  he  with  me ;'  and  that,  where  the  sub- 
stance is  attained,  it' is  unnecessary  to  attend 
to  the  shadow,  which  doth  not  confer  grace, 
and  concerning  which  opinions  so  diflFerent, 
and  animosities  so  violent,  have  arisen. 

"  Now,  as  we  thus  believe  that  the  grace 
of  God,  which  comes  by  Jesus  Christ,  is 
alone  sufficient  for  salvation,  we  can  neither 
admit  that  it  is  conferred  on  a  few  only, 
Avhilst  others  are  left  without  it,  nor  thus 
asserting  its  universality,  can  we  limit  its 
operation  to  a  partial  cleansing  of  the  soul 
from  sin,  even  in  this  life.  We  entertain 
worthier  notions  both  of  the  power  and 
goodness  of  our  Heavenly  Father,  and  be- 
lieve that  he  doth  vouchsafe  to  assist  the 
obedient  to  experience  a  total  sun'ender  of 
the  natural  will  to  the  guidance  of  his  pure 
unerring  Spirit :  through  whose  renewed 
assistance  they  are  enabled  to  bring  forth 
fruits  unto  holiness,  and  to  stand  perfect  in 
their  present  rank,  Matt.  v.  48.  Eph.  iv 
13.     Col,  iv.  12. 

"  There  are  not  many  of  our  tenets  more 
generally  known  than  our  testimony  against 
oaths,  and  against  war.  With  respect  to 
the  former  of  these,  we  abide  literally  by 
Christ's  positive  injunction,  delivered  in  his 
sermon  on  the  Mount,  '  Swear  not  at  all,' 
Mattt.  V.  34.  From  the  same  sacred  col- 
lection of  the  most  excellent  precepts  of 
moral  and  religious  duty,  from  the  example 
of  our  Lord  himself.  Matt.  v.  39,  44.  &c. 
xxvi.  52,  53.  Luke  xxii.  51.  John  xviii. 
11.  and  from  the  correspondent  convictions 
of  his  Spirit  in  our  hearts,  we  are  confirmed 
in  the  belief  that  wars  and  fightings  are,  in 
their  origin  and  effects,  utterly  repugnant 
to  the  Gospel,  which  still  breathes  peace 
and  good-will  to  men.  We  also  are  clearly 
of  the  judgment,  that  if  the  benevolence  of 
the  Gospel,  were  generally  prevalent  in  the 
minds  of  men,  it  would  effectually  prevent 
them  from  oppressing,  much  more 'from  en- 
slaving their  brethren  (of  whatever  colour 
or  complexion,)  for  whom,  as  for  them- 
selves, Christ  died  ;  and  would  even  influ- 
ence their  conduct  in  their  treatment  of  the 
brute  creation,  which  would  no  longer  groan, 
the  victims  of  their  avarice,  or  of  their 
false  ideas  of  pleasure. 

Some  of  our  ideas  have  in  former  times, 
as  hath  been  shewn,  subjected  our  friends 
to  much  suffering  from  government,  though 
to  the  salutary  purposes  of  government, 
our  principles  are  a  security.    They  incul- 


cate submission  to  the  laws  in  all  cases 
wherein  conscience  is  not  violated.  But  we 
hold,  that,  as  Christ's  kingdom  is  not  of 
this  world,  it  is  not  the  business  of  the  civil 
magistrate  to  interfere  in  matters  of  reli- 
gion, but  to  maintain  the  external  peace 
and  good  order  of  the  community.  We 
therefore  think  persecution,  even  in  the 
smallest  degree,  unwarrantable.  We  are 
careful  in  requiring  our  members  not  to  be 
concerned  in  illicit  trade,  nor  in  any  manner 
to  defraud  the  revenue. 

"  It  is  well  known  that  the  society,  from 
its  first  appearance,  has  disused  those  names 
of  the  months  and  days,  which  having  been 
given  in  honour  of  the  heroes  or  false  gods 
of  the  Heathen,  originated  in  their  flattery 
or  superstition ;  and  the  custom  of  speak- 
ing to  a  single  person  in  the  plural  number, 
as  having  arisen  also  from  motives  of  adu- 
lation. Compliments,  superfluity  of  appa- 
rel and  furniture,  outward  shews  of  rejoic- 
ing and  mourning,  and  the  observation  of 
days  and  times,  we  esteem  to  be  incompatible 
with  the  simplicity  and  sincerity  of  a  Chris- 
tian life ;  and  public  diversions,  gaming, 
and  other  vain  amusements  of  the  world, 
we  cannot  but  condemn.  They  are  a  waste 
of  that  time  which  is  given  us  for  nobler 
purposes ;  and  divert  the  attention  of  the 
mind  from  the  sober  duties  of  life,  and 
from  the  reproofs  of  instruction  by  which 
we  are  guided  to  an  everlasting  inheritance. 

"  To  conclude  :  although  we  have  exhi- 
bited the  several  tenets  which  distinguish 
our  religious  society  as  objects  of  our  belief, 
yet  we  are  sensible  that  a  true  and  living 
faith  is  not  produced  in  the  mind  of  man 
by  his  own  effort,  but  is  the  free  gift  of  God 
in  Chi-ist  Jesus,  Eph.  ji.  S.  nourished  and 
increased  by  the  progressive  operation  of  his 
Spirit  in  our  hearts,  and  our  proportionate 
obedience,  John  vii.  17.  Therefore,  although 
for  the  preservation  of  the  testimonies  giv- 
en us  to  bear,  and  for  the  peace  and  good 
order  of  the  society,  we  deem  it  necessary 
that  those  who  are  admitted  into  member- 
ship with  us  should  be  previously  convinced 
of  those  doctrines  which  v/e  esteem  essen- 
tial, yet  we  require  no  formal  subscription 
to  any  articles,  either  as  a  condition  of  mem- 
bership, or  a  qualification  for  the  service  of 
the  church.  We  prefer  the  judging  of  men 
by  their  fruits,  and  depending  on  the  aid 
of  Him,  who  by  his  prophet ;  hath  promised 
to  be  'a  spirit  of  judgment,  to  him  'that 
sitteth  in  judgment,'  Isa.  xxviii.  6.  With- 
out this,  there  is  a  danger  of  receiving  num- 
bers into  outward  communion,  without  any 
addition  to  that  spiritual  sheep-fold,  whereof 
our  blessed  Lord  declared  himself  to  be 
both  the  door  and  the  shepherd,  John  x.  7,  1 1 ; 
that  is,  such  as  know  his  voice  and  follow 
him  in  the  paths  of  obedience. 

"In  the  practice  of  discipline,  we  think 
it  indispensable  that  the  order  recommend- 
ed by  Christ  himself  be  invariably  observed. 
Matt   xviii.  15 — 17. 

"  To  effect  the  salutary  porposes  of  dis- 


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440 


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cipline,  meetings  were  appointed  at  an  early 
period  of  the  society,  which,  from  the  times 
of  their  being  held,  wert-  called  quarterly 
meetings.  It  was  afterwai'ds  found  expe- 
dient to  divide  the  districts  of  those  meet- 
ings, and  to  meet  more  frequently :  from 
whence  arose  nnonthly  meetings,  subordinate 
to  those  held  quarterly.  At  length,  in  1669, 
a  yearly  meeting  was  established,  to  super- 
intend, assist,  and  provide  rules  for  the 
whole,  previously  to  which  general  meetings 
had  been  occasionally  held. 

"  A  monthly  meeting  is  usually  composed 
of  several  particular  congregations,  situated 
within  a  convenient  distance  from  each 
other.  Its  business  is  to  provide  for  the 
subsistence  of  the  poor,  and  for  the  education 
of  their  offspring;  to  judge  of  the  sincerity 
and  fitness  of  persons  appearing  to  be  con- 
vinced of  the  religious  principles  of  the 
society,  and  desiring  to  be  admitted  into 
membership ;  to  excite  due  attention  to  the 
discharge  of  religious  and  moral  duty :  and 
to  deal  with  disorderly  members.  Monthly 
meetings  also  grant  to  such  of  their  mem- 
bers as  remove  into  other  monthly  meetings 
certificates  of  their  membership  and  con- 
duct; without  which  they  cannot  gain  mem- 
bership in  such  meetings.  Each  monthly 
meeting  is  required  to  appoint  certain  per- 
sons, under  the  name  of  overseers,  who  are 
to  take  care  that  the  rules  of  our  discipline 
be  put  in  practice ;  and  when  any  case  of 
complaint,  or  disorderly  conduct,  comes  to 
their  knowledge,  to  see  that  private  admo- 
nition, agreeably  to  the  Gospel  rule  before 
mentioned,  be  given,  previouly  to  its  being 
laid  before  the  monthly  meeting. 

"  When  a  case  is  introduced,  it  is  usual 
for  a  small  committee  to  be  appointed  to 
visit  the  offender,  to  endeavour  to  convince 
him  of  his  error,  and  to  induce  him  to  for- 
sake and  condemn  it.  If  they  succeed,  the 
person  is  by  minute  declared  to  have  made 
satisfaction  for  the  offence  ;  if  not,  he  is  dis- 
owned as  a  member  of  the  society. 

"  In  disputes  between  individuals,  it  has 
long  been  the  decided  judgment  of  the  society, 
that  its  members  should  not  sue  each  other 
at  law.  It  therefore  enjoins  all  to  end  their 
differences  by  speedy  and  impartial  arbitra- 
tion, agreeably  to  rules  laid  down.  If  any 
refuse  to  adopt  this  mode,  or,  having  adopt- 
ed it,  to  submit  to  the  award,  it  is  the  di- 
rection of  the  yearly  meeting  that  such  be 
disowned. 

"  To  monthly  meetings  also  belongs  the 
allowing  of  marriages ;  for  our  society  hath 
always  sciuplcd  to  acknowledge  the  exclu- 
sive authority  of  the  priests  in  the  solemni- 
zation of  marriage.  Those  who  intend  to 
many  api)car  together,  and  propose  their 
intention  to  the  monthly  meeting  ;  and  if 
not  attended  by  their  parents  and  guardians, 
produce  a  written  certificate  of  tlieir  con- 
sent, signed  in  the  presence  of  witnesses. 
The  meeting  then  appoints  a  comnnttee  to 
inquire  whether  they  be  clear  of  other  en- 
gagements respecting  marriage  ;  and  if  at 


a  subsequent  meeting,  to  which  the  parties 
also  come  and  declare  the  continuance  of 
their  intention,  no  objections  be  reported, 
they  have  the  meeting's  consent  to  solem- 
nize their  intended  marriage.  This  is  done 
in  a  public  meeting  for  worship,  towards 
ihe  close  whereof  the  parties  stand  up,  and 
solemnly  take  each  other  for  husband  and 
wife.  A  certificate  of  the  proceedmgs  is 
then  publicly  read,  and  signed  by  the  par- 
ties, and  afterwards  by  the  relations  and 
others  as  witnesses.  Of  such  marriage,  the 
monthly  mei  ting  keeps  a  record  ;  as  also  of 
the  births  and  burials  of  its  members.  A 
certificate  of  the  date,  of  the  name  of  the 
infant,  and  of  its  parents,  signed  by  those 
present  at  the  birth,  is  the  subject  of  one  of 
these  last-mentioned  records ;  and  an  order 
for  the  interment,  countersigned  by  the 
grave-maker  of  the  other.  The  naming  of 
children  is  without  ceremony.  Burials  are 
also  conducted  in  a  simple  manner.  The 
body,  followed  by  the  relations  and  friends, 
is  sometimes,  previously  to  interment,  car- 
ried to  a  meeting ;  and  at  the  grave  a  pause 
is  generally  made  :  on  both  which  occasions 
it  frequently  falls  out  that  one  or  more 
friends  present,  have  somewhat  to  express 
for  the  edification  of  those  who  attend  ;  but 
no  religious  rite  is  considered  as  an  essen- 
tial part  of  burial. 

*'  Several  monthly  meetings  compose  a 
quarterly  meeting.  At  the  quarterly  meet- 
ing are  produced  written  answers  fi'om  the 
monthly  meetings  to  certain  queries  respect- 
ing the  conduct  of  their  members,  and  the 
meeting's  care  over  them.  The  accounts 
thus  received  are  digested  into  one,  which 
is  sent,  also  in  the  form  of  answers  to  que- 
ries, by  representatives  to  the  yearly  meet- 
ing. Appeals  from  the  judgment  of  month- 
ly meetings  are  brought  to  the  quarterly 
meetings,  whose  business  also  it  is  to  assist 
in  any  difficult  case,  or  where  remissness 
appears  in  the  care  of  the  monthly  meet- 
ings over  the  individuals  who  compose  them. 
— There  are  seven  yearly  meetings,  viz. 
1.  London,  to  which  come  representatives 
from  Ireland  ; — 2.  New  England ; — 3.  New 
York  ; — 4.  Pennsylvania  and  New  Jersey  ; 
— 5.  Maryland ;— 6.  Virginia  ; — 7.  the  Caro- 
linas  and  Georgia. 

"  The  yearly  meeting  has  the  general 
superintendance  of  the  society  in  the  countrj'- 
in  which  it  is  established ;  and,  therefore,  as 
the  accounts  which  it  receiA'es  discover  the 
state  of  inferior  meetings,  as  particular  exi- 
gencies require,  or  as  the  meeting  is  im- 
pressed with  a  sense  of  duty,  it  gives  forth 
its  advice,  making  such  regulations  as  ap- 
pear to  be  requisite,  or  excites  to  the  ob- 
servance of  those  already  made  ;  and  some- 
times appoints  committees  to  visit  those 
quarterly  meetings  which  appear  to  be  in 
need  of  immediate  advice.  Appeals  from 
the  judgment  of  quaiterly  meetings  are  here 
finally  determined  ;  and  a  brotlierly  corres- 
pondence, by  epistles,  is  maintained  with 
other  yearly  meetings. 


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441 


QUI 


"  In  this  place  it  is  proper  to  add,  that,  tl 
as  we  believe  women  may  be  rightly  called 
to  the  work  of  the  ministry,  we  also  think 
that  to  them  belongs  a  share  in  the  support 
of  our  Christian  discipline ;  and  that  some 
parts  of  it,  wherein  their  own  sex  i^s  con- 
cerned, devolve  on  thtm  with  peculiar  pro- 
priety ;  accordingly  they  have  monthly,  quar- 
terly, and  yearly  meetings  of  their  own  sex, 
held  at  the'  same  time  and  in  the  same  place 
with  those  of  the  men ;  but  separately,  and 
without  the  power  of  making  rules :  and  it 
may  be  remarked,  that,  during  the  persecu- 
tions which  in  the  last  centuiy  occasioned  tlie 
imprisonment  of  so  many  of  the  men,  the  care 
of  the  poor  often  fell  on  the  women,  and  WuS 
by  them  satisfactorily  administered. 

"  In  order  that  those  who  are  in  the  situa- 
tion of  ministers  may  have  the  tender  sym- 
pathy and  counsel  of  those  of  either  sex,  who 
by  their  experience  in  the  work  of  religion, 
are  qualified  for  that  service,  the  montlily 
meetings  are  advised  to  select  such,  under 
the  denomination  of  elders.  These,  and 
ministers  approved  by  their  monthly  meet- 
ings, have  meetint^s  peculiar  to  themselves, 
called  meetings  of  ministers  and  elders  ;  in 
which  diey  have  an  opportunity  of  exciting 
each  other  to  a  discharge  of  their  several 
duties,  and  of  extending  advice  to  those  who 
may  appear  to  be  weak,  without  any  need- 
less exposure.  Such  meetings  are  generally 
held  in  the  compass  of  each  monthly,  quar- 
terly, and  yearly  meeting.  They  are  con- 
ducted by  rules  prescribed  by  the  yearly 
meeting,  and  have  no  authority  to  make  any 
alteration  or  addition  to  them.  The  mem- 
bers of  them  unite  with  their  brethren  in 
the  meetings  for  discipline,  and  are  equally 
accountable  to  the  latter  for  their  conduct. 

"  It  is  to  a  meeting  of  this  kind  in  London, 
called  the  second-day's  morning  meeting, 
that  the  revisal  of  manuscripts  concerning 
our  principles,  previously  to  publication,  is 
intrusted  by  the  yearly  meeting  held  in  Lon- 
don ;  and  also  the  granting,  in  the  intervals 
of  the  yearly  meeting,  of  cei  tificates  of  ap- 
probation to  such  ministers  as  are  concerned 
to  travel  in  the  work  of  the  ministry  in 
foreign  parts,  in  addition  to  those  granted 
by  their  monthly  and  quarterly  meetings. 
When  a  visit  of  this  kind  doth  not  extend 
beyond  Great  Britain,  a  certificate  from  the 
monthly  meeting  of  which  the  minister  is  a 
member  is  sufficient :  if  to  Ireland,  the  con- 
currence of  the  quarterly  meeting  is  also 
required.  Regulations  of  similar  tendency 
obtain  in  other  yearly  meetings. 

"  The  yearly  meeting  of  London,  in  the 
year  1675,  appointed  a  meeting  to  be  held 
in  that  city,  for  the  pui-pose  of  advising  and 
assisting  in  cases  of  suffering  for  conscience 
sake,  which  hath  continued  with  great  use 
to  the  society  to  this  day.  It  is  composed  of 
friends,  under  the  name  of  correspondents, 
chosen  by  the  several  quarterly  meetings, 
and  who  reside  in  or  near  the  society.  The 
same  meetings  also  appoint  members  of 
their  own  in  the  country  as  correspondents, 

3K 


who  are  to  join  their  brethren  in  London  on 
emergency.  The  names  of  all  these  corres- 
pondents, previously  to  their  being  recorded 
as  such,  ai'e  submitted  to  the  approbation  of 
the  yearly  meeting.  Those  of  the  men  who 
are  ajjproved  ministers  are  also  members  of 
this  meeting,  which  is  called  the  meeting 
for  sufferings;  a  name  arising  from  its  origi- 
nal purpose,  Vthich  is  not  yet  become  en- 
tirely obsolete. 

"  The  yearly  meeting  has  entrusted  the 
meeting  for  sufitrings  with  the  care  of 
printing  and  distributing  books,  and  with  the 
management  of  its  stock  ;  and,  considered 
as  a  standing  committee  of  the  ♦  early  meet- 
ing, it  hatli  a  general  care  of  whatever 
may  arise,  during  the  intervals  of  that  meet- 
ing, affecting  the  society,  and  requiring  im- 
mediate attention,  particularly  of  those  cir- 
cumstances which  may  occasion  an  applica- 
tion to  government. 

"  There  is  not,  in  any  of  the  meetings 
wliich  have  been  mentioned,  any  president, 
as  we  believe  that  Divine  Wisdom  alone 
ought  to  preside  ;  nor  hath  any  niemlx:ra 
right  to  claim  pre-eminence  over  the  rest. 
The  ofiice  of  clerk,  with  a  few  exceptions, 
is  undertaken  voluntarily  by  some  member; 
as  is  also  the  keeping  of  tlie  records. 
When  these  are  very  voluminous,  and  re- 
quire a  house  for  their  deposit,  (as  is  the 
case  in  London,  where  the  general  records 
of  the  society  in  Great  Britain  are  kept,)  a 
clerk  is  hired  to  have  the  care  of  them  ; 
but  except  a  few  clerks  of  this  kind,  and 
persons  who  have  the  care  of  meeting- 
houses, none  receive  any  stipend  or  gratuity 
for  their  services  in  our  religious  society." 
See  a  pamphlet  entitled  A  Summary  of  the 
History,  Doctrine,  and  Discijiline  of  the 
Quakers.  Sewell's  and  Hulty's  Hist,  of  the 
Quakers.  Hesse's  Sujfferings  of  the  Qua- 
kers. Penn's  Works.  Barclay's  Apology 
for  the  Quakers.  jVcaPs  Hist,  of  the  Puri- 
tans. Claridge's  Life  and  Posi/iumous 
Works-  Bevan's  Dtfnce  of  the  Doctrines 
of  the  Quaker's.  Adam's  Vienv  of  Religions. 
Tuke's  Principles  of  Religion  us  professed 
by  the  Quakers.  Gough's  Hist,  of  Quakers. 
Clarkson's  Portraiture  of  Quakerism. 

QUIETIS TS,  a  sect  famous  towards  the 
close  of  the  seventh  century.  They  were 
so  called  from  a  kind  of  absolute  rest  and 
inaction,  which  they  supposed  the  soul  to  be 
in  wlien  arrived  at  that  state  of  perfection 
which  they  called  the  unitive  life  ;  in  which 
state  they  imagined  the  soul  wholly  employ- 
ed in  contemplating  its  God,  to  whose  intlii- 
ence  it  was  entirely  submissive,  so  that  he 
could  turn  and  drive  it  where  and  how  he 
would. 

Molinos,  a  Spanish  priest,  is  the  reputed 
author  of  Quietism  ;  though  the  lUuminati, 
in  Spain,  had  certainly  taught  something 
like  it  before.  Molinos  had  numerous  disci- 
jjles  in  Italy,  Spain,  France,  and  the  Ne- 
therlands. One  of  tiie  principal  patrons  and 
propagators  of  Quietism  in  France,  was 
Marie  Bouvitres  de  la  Motte  Guyon,  a  v/o- 


REA 


442 


REA 


iTian   of  fashion,    and  remarkable    for  her 
piety.     Her    religious   sentiments   made  a 
great  noise  in  the  year  1687,  and  were  de- 
clared unsound  by  several  learned  men,  es- 
pecially Bossuet,  who  opposed  them  in  the  ■ 
year  1697,    Hence  arose  a  controversy  be-  j 
tween  the  prelate  last  mentioned  and  Pene-  [ 
Ion,   archbishop  of  Cambray,  wlio  seemed  ! 
disposed  to  favour  the  system    of  Guyon,  | 
and  who,  in  1697,  published  a  book  contain- 
ing several  of  lier  tenets.     Fenelon's  book, 
by  means  of  Bossuet,  was  condemned  in  the 
year   1699,  by  Innocent  XII ;  and  the  sen- 
tence of  condemnation  was  read  by  Fenelon 
liimself  at  Cambray,  who  exhorted  thepeo- 
nle  to  respect  and  obey  the  papal  decree. 
Notwithstanding  this  seeming  acquiescence, 
the  archbisliop  persisted  to  the   end  of  his 
days  in  the  sentiments,  which,  in  obedience 
to  the  order  of  the  pope,  he  retracted  and 
condemned  in  a  public  manner. 

A  sect  similar  to  this  appeared  at  Mount , 
jlthos,  in  Thessaiy,  near  the  end  of  tiie  1 
fourteenth  century,  called  Hesychasts,  mean- 
ing the  same  with  Quietists.  "  They  were  a 
branch  of  tiie  Mystics,  or  those  more  per- 
fect monks,  who,  by  long  and  intense  con- 
templation, endeavoured  to  arrive  at  a  tran- 
quillity of  mind  free  from  every  degree  of 
tumult  and  perturbation. 

QUIETNP].SS,  in  a  moral  sense  is  oppo- 
sed to  disorderly  motion,  to  turbulency,  to 
contention,  to  pragmatical  curiosity,  to  all 
such  ex(irl)itant  behaviour,  whereljy  the 
right  of  otliers  is  infringed,  their  peace  dis- 
turbed, their  just  interest  or  welfare  any 
ways  prejudiced.  It  is  a  calm,  steady,  re- 
gular way  of  proceeding  within  the  bounds 
and  measures  prescribed  by  reason,  justice, 
and  charity,  modestv  and  sobriety.  It  is 
of  such  importance,  that  we  find  it  enjoined 
in  the  sacred  scripture  ;  and  we  are  com- 
manded to  study  and  pur.sue  it  with  the 


greatest  diligence  and  care,  1  Thes.  iv.  11. 
The  great  Dr.  Barrow  has  two  admirable 
sermons  on  this  subject  in  the  first  volume 
of  liis  Works.  He  justly  observes,  1.  That 
quietness  is  just  and  equal. — 2.  It  indicates 
humility,  modt-sty,  and  sobriety  of  mind. — 
3.  It  is  beneficial  to  the  world,  prcs.-rving 
the  general  order  of  things. — 4.  It  preserves 
concord  and  amity. — 5.  It  begets  tranquillity 
and  peace. — 6.  It  is  a  decent  and  lovely 
thing,  indicating  a  good  disposition,  and 
producing  good  effects. — 7.  It  adorneth  any 
profession,  bringing  credit  and  respect  there- 
to.— 8.  It  is  a  safe  practice,  keeping  us  from 
needless  incumbrances  and  hazards ;  where- 
as, pragmaticalness,  interfering  with  the 
business  and  concern  of  others,  often  raises 
dissenlions,  involves  in  guilt,  injures  others, 
shews  our  vanity  and  pride,  and  exposes  to 
continual  trouble  and  danger 

QUINQUAGESIMA,  a  Sunday,  so  call- 
ed, because  it  is  the  fiftieth  day  before 
Easter,  reckoned  in  whole  numbers,  Shrove 
Sunday. 

QUINTILIANS,  a  sect  that  appeared 
in  Phrygia,  about  189 ;  thus  called  from  their 
prophetess  Quintilia  In  this  sect  the  wo- 
men were  admitted  to  j^erform  the  sacer- 
dotal and  episcopal  functions.  They  attri- 
buted extraordinary  gifts  to  Eve,  for  having 
first  eaten  of  the  tree  of  knowledge  ;  told 
great  things  of  Mary,  the  sister  of  Moses, 
as  having  been  a  prophetess,  &c.  They 
added,  that  Philip  the  Deacon  had  four 
daughters,  who  were  all  prophetesses,  and 
were  of  their  sect.  In  these  assemblies  it 
was  usual  to  see  the  virgins  entering  in 
white  robes,  personating  prophetesses.  The 
errors  of  the  Quintilians  were  at  first  look- 
ed upon  as  folly  and  madness ;  but,  as  they 
appeared  to  gain  ground,  the  council  of 
Laodicea,  in  320,  condemned  it. 


R. 


RANTERS,  a  denomination  which  arose 
in  the  year  1645.  They  set  up  the  light  of 
nature  under  the  name  of  Christ  in  men. 
With  regard  to  the  church,  scripture,  mi- 
nistiy,  &c.  their  sentiments  were  the  same 
as  the  Seekers.    See  Seekers. 

RASHNESS  consists  in  undertaking  an 
actipn,  or  pronouncing  an  opinion,  without 
a  due  examination  of  the  grounds,  mo- 
tives, or  arguments,  that  ought  first  to  be 
weighed. 

RASH  JUDGING.  See  Judging  Rash. 

READING  (public)  OF  THE  SCRIP- 
TURES.   See  Scriptures. 


REALISTS,  a  term  made  use  of  to 
denote-  those  Trinitarians  who  are  the  most 
orthodox  in  opposition  to  the  Socinian  and 
SabeUian  schemes.  It  was  also  the  name 
of  a  sect  of  school  philosophers,  formed  in 
opposition  to  the  Nominalists.  The  former 
believed  that  univei'sals  are  realities,  and 
have  an  actual  existence  out  of  the  mind  ; 
while  the  latter  contended  that  they  exist 
only  in  the  mind,  and  are  only  ideas. 

REASON,  a  faculty  or  power  of  the  mind, 

whereby  it  draws  just  conclusions  from  ti\ie 

and  clear  principles.     Many  attempts  have 

I  been  made  to  prove  reason  inimical  to  rcve- 


REC 


443 


REC 


lation  ;  but  nothing^  can  be  more  evident  than 
that  it  is  of  considerable  use  in  knownv.-., 
distinguishing,  proving,  and  defending  th^- 
mystcries  of  revelation  ;  although  it  must 
not  be  considered  as  a  perfect  standard  by 
•which  all  the  mysteiies  of  religion  must  b-. 
measured  before  tiiey  are  received  by  faitti. 
**  In  things,"  says  Dr.  Watts,  '•  which  arc 
plainly  and  expressly  asserted  in  scripture, 
and  that  in  a  sense  which  contradicts  not 
other  parts  of  scripture,  or  natural  light, 
our  reason  must  submit,  and  believe  the 
thing,  though  it  cannot  find  the  modus  or 
manner  of  its  being :  so  in  the  doctrines  of 
the  Trinity  and  Incarnation,  which  are 
alxive  the  reach  of  our  reason  in  this  pre- 
sent state.  But  we  cannot,  nor  must  we, 
be  led  to  take  the  words  of  scripture  in 
such  a  sense  as  expressly  and  evidently 
contradicts  all  sense  and  reason,  as  tran- 
substantiation  ;  for  the  two  great  lights  of 
God,  reason  and  revelation,  never  con- 
tradict each  other,  though  one  be  superior 
to  the  other. 

"  Therefore  reason  has  a  great  deal  to 
do  in  religion,  viz.  to  find  out  the  rule,  (of  j 
faith)  to  compare  the  parts  of  this  rule , 
with  one  another,  to  explain  the  one  by  the  i 
other,  to  give  the  grammatical  and  logical ' 
sense  of  the  exprcssi  ais,  ai;d  to  exclude  i 
self-contradictory  interpretations,  as  well  as  | 
interpretations  c  ntrary  to  reason.  But  it  j 
is  not  to  set  itself  up  as  a  judge  of  those  ] 
truths  expressed  therein,  wliicli  are  assert- 1 
ed  by  a  superior  and  infallible  Dictat'  r,  God  | 
himselt ;  but  r-  ason  requires  and  commands 
even  the  subjection  of  all  its  own  powers  to' 
a  truth  thus  divinely  attested ;  for  it  is  as 
possible  and  as  proper  that  God  should  pro- 
posf  d'ctrines  X'-  our  understanding  which 
it  cannot  comprehend,  as  duties  to  our 
practice  which  we  cannot  see  the  reason 
of ;  for  he  is  equally  superior  to  our  under- 
standing and  will,  and  he  puts  the  obedi- 
ence of  both  to  a  trial."'  See  Religion 
and  Revelation,  and  books  there  recom- 
mended ;  also,  Porteus"  Sermons,  ser.  5. 
vol.  i.  Jenyns'  Internal  Evidence,  p.  1'22. 
Kyland's  Con t c mfi lation s,  vol.  i.  p.  83. 
Theological  Miscellany,  vol.  ii.  p  533.  ^n 
Mssay  on  the  Use  anil  Abuse  of  Reason  in 
Alatters  of  Religion,  by  li'itsins,  and 
translated  by  Carter.  Dr.  TVatts'  Strength 
and  Weakness  of  Human  Reason 

RECLUSE,  among  the  Papists,  a  person 
shut  up  in  a  small  cell  of  an  hermitage  or 
monastery,  and  cut  off  not  only  from  all 
conversation  with  the  world,  but  even  with 
the  house.  This  is  a  kind  of  vo!unt:n-v  im- 
prisonment from  a  motive  either  of  devotion 
or  penance 

RECONXILIATION,  the  restoring  to 
favour  or  friendship  those  who  were  at  va- 
riance. It  is  more  particularly  used  in  re- 
ference to  the  doctrine  of  the  atonement. 
Thus  Gf.d  is  said  to  reconcile  ns  to  him- 
self by  Jesus  ('hrist,  2  Cor.  v.  18.  Our 
state  by  nature  is  that  of  enmity,  dissatis- 
faction, and  disobedience.    But  by  the   suf- 


ferings and  merit  of  Christ  we  are  recon- 
ciled and  brought  near  to  God.      The  bles- 
suigs  of  reconciliation,   are   pardon,  peace, 
friendship,  confidence,   holiness,  and    eter- 
nal life.    The  judicious  Guyse  gives  us  an 
admirable  note  on   this  doctrine,   which   I 
shall  here  transcribe      "  When   the   scrip- 
ture  speaks  of  reconciliation   by  Christ,  or 
by  his  cross,  blood,  or  death,  it  is  common- 
ly  expressed    by  God's    reconciling   us   to 
/urn self,    and    ?7ot    by   his    being  reconciled 
unto  us  ;  tiie  reason  of  which  seems  to  be, 
because  God  is  the  offended  party,  and  we 
are  the  offenders,  who,  as  such,  have  need 
to  be  reconciled   to  him  :  and   the   piice  of 
reconciliation,    by   the   blood   of   Christ,  is 
paid  to  him,    and  not  to   us.     Grotius    ob- 
serves,   that,   in    heathen    authors,    men's 
being  reconciled  to  their  gods  is  always  un- 
dcrstot)d  to  signify  appeasing  the  anger  of 
their  gods.     Condemned  rebels  may  be  said 
to  be  reconciled  to  their  sovereign,  wheti  he, 
on    one    c<  nbideration    or  another,  pardons 
them  ;  though,  perhaps,  they  still  remain 
rebels  in   their  hearts  against   him.    And 
when  our  Lord  ordered  the  offending  to  go 
and  be  reconciled  to  his   offended   brother. 
Matt.  v.  23,  24.  the  plain  meaning    is,  that 
he  should  go  and  try  to  appease  his  anger, 
obtain  his  forgiveness,  and  regain  his  favour 
and  friendship,  by  humbling  himself  to  him, 
asking  his  pardon,  or  satisfying  him  for  any 
injury  that  he   might  have  done   him.    In 
like  maiHier,    God's  reconciling  us  to  him~ 
self  by  the  cross  of  Christ  does  not  signify, 
as  the  Socinians  contend,   our  being  recon- 
ciled by  conversion  to  a  religious  rurn  in  our 
hearts  to  God,  but   is  a  reconciliation   that 
results  from  God's  graciously  providing  and 
accepting   an    atonement    for    us,    that    he 
j  mi^ht  not    inflict   the   punishment  upon  us 
which  we  deserved,  and  the  law  condemned 
I  us  to  ;    but  might  be  at  peace  with  us,  and 
I  receive  us  into   favour  on  Christ's   account. 
For    this   reconciliation,    by    the    cross    of 
Christ,  is  in  a  way  of  atonement  or  satisfac- 
tion to  Divine  justice  for  sin ;    and  with  re- 
spect liereunto,  we  are  said  to  be  reconciled 
to  God  by  the  death  of  his    Son  vjhUe  ive 
are  enemies,  which  is   of  much   the   same 
import  vjith  Christ's  dying  for  the  ungodly , 
and  while  we  were  yet  ninners,  Rom.  v.   6, 
8,  10.     And   our  being  reconciled  to  God, 
by  approving  and  acceptir.g  of  his   method 
of  reconciliation   by  Jesus   Ciirist,   and,  on 
that  enccuratement,   turning  to  him,  is  dis- 
tinguished from  his  reconcili^ig  us   to   /lim- 
self,  and  not  imfiuting  our  fres.^/iasses    to 
us,  on  account  of  ■  hrist' s  having  been  made 
sin  for  us,  tliat  we  might  be  made  the  righ- 
teousness of  God  in  hmi,  2  Cor.  v.  18,  21. 
This  is  ca'led  Christ's  mating  reconciliation 
for  iniquity,  and  making  reconciliation  for 
the  sins  of  the  fieofile,  Dan.  ix.  24.    Heb.  ii. 
17.  and  answers  to  the  ceremonial  and  ty- 
pical reconciliation  v.hich  was  made  by  the 
blood  of  the   sacrifices  under   the    law,  to 
make  atonement  a7id  reconciliation  for  Israel, 
2  Chron.  xxix.  24.    Ezek.  xlv.  15, 17.  an^ 


RED 


444 


REF 


■which  was  fi'equently  styled  making  atone- 
ment for  sin,  and  an  atonement  for  their 
souls.  Now  as  all  the  legal  sacrifices  oi 
atonement,  and  the  truly  exi:)iatory  sacrifices 
of  Christ,  were  oftered  not  to  the  offenders 
but  to  God,  to  reconcile  him  to  them,  what 
can  recondliarion  by  the  death,  blood,  or 
cross  of  Christ  mean,  but  that  the  law  and 
justice  of  God  were  thereby  satisfied,  and  all 
obstructions,  on  his  part,  to  peace  and 
friendship  toward  sinners  are  removed, 
that  he  might  not  pursue  his  righteous  de- 
mands upon  them,  according  to  tlie  lioly  re- 
sentments of  his  nature  and  will,  and  the 
threateni;igs  of  his  law  for  their  sins ;  but 
might  mercifully  forgive  them,  and  take 
them  into  a  state  of  favour  with  himself, 
upon  their  receiving  the  atonement,  or 
{%ccla,X>iX,yyj\i^  reconciliatio7i  (Rom.  v.  11.)  by 
faith,  after  the  oflferice  diat  sin  had  given 
him,  and  the  breach  it  had  made  upon  the 
original  friendship  between  him  and  them  ?" 
See  articles  Atonement,  Mediator,  and 
Propitiation,  (irot.  de  satisf.  cap.  7. 
Dr.  Owen's  Answer  to  Biddle's  Catechism. 
Guyse's  J^ote  on  Coloss.  i.  20.  Charnock's 
Works,  vol.  ii.  page  241,  Jo/to  Reynolds 
on  Reconciliation, 

RECTITUDE,  or  Uprightness,  is  the 
choosing  and  pursuing  those  things  which 
the  mind,  upon  due  inquiry  and  attetjtion, 
clearly  perceives  to  be  good,  'iud  avoidinj^ 
those  that  are  evil. 

RECTOR,  a  term  applied  to  scA'eral  per- 
.sons  whose  offices  are  very  different,  as,  ]. 
The  rector  of  a  parish  is  a  clergyman 
that  has  the  charge  and  care  of  a  parish, 
and  possesses  all  the  tithes,  &c. — 2.  The 
same  name  is  also  given  to  the  chief  elec- 
tive officer  in  several  forrii^n  universities, 
and  also  to  the  head  master  of  large  schools. 
— 3.  Rector  is  also  used  in  several  convents 
for  the  superior  officer  who  governs  the 
house.  The  Jesuits  give  this  name  to  the 
superiors  of  such  of  their  houses  as  were 
either  seminaries  or  colleges. 

RECUSANTS,  such  persons  as  acknow- 
ledge the  Pope  to  be  the  supreme  head  of 
the  church,  and  refuse-  to  acknowledge  tiie 
king's  supremacy ;  who  are  hence  called 
Popish  recusants 

REDEMPTION,  in  theology,  denotes  otir  i 
recovery  from  sin  and  death  by  the  obedi- 
ence and  sacrifice  of  Christ,  who,  on  this! 
account,  is  called  The  Redeemer,  Isaiah 
Jix.  20.  Job  xix.  25.  Our  English  word  re- 
demption, says  Dr.  Gill,  is  from  the  Latin 
'>:ongue,  and  signifies  buying  again  ;  and 
s  .veral  words,  in  the  Greek  language  of  tlie 
New  Testament,  are  used  in  the  affair  of 
our  redemption,  which  signify  the  obtaining 
'if  something  by  Jjaying  a   proper  ])rice  for 

■  :    sometimes  the  simple    verl)    u-yo^cn^at^ 
■1  buy,  is  used  :    so  the  redeemed  are  said 

in  be    bought   unto    God   by  the    blood    of 
riirist,  and  to  be  bought  from  the   earth., 

■  v'd  to  be  bought  from  among  men,   and  to 

bought  with  a  price;    that  is,  with   the 


price  of  Christ's  blood,  1  Cor.  vi.  20.  Hence 
the  church  of  God  is  said  to  be  purchased 
with  it,  Acts  XX.  28.    Sometimes  the  com- 
pound word  i%a,yo^a,Z^u  is  used  ;  which   sig- 
nifies to  buy  again,  or   out  of  the  hands  of 
another,  as  the  redeemed  are  bought  out  of 
the  hands  of  justice,  as  in  Gal.  iii.  13.   and 
(ial.  iv.  5.     In  other  places  >,vr^ou  is  used, 
or  others  derived  from  it,  which    signifies 
the  deliverance  of  a  slave  or  captive  from 
thraldom,  by  paying  a  ransom  price  for  him  ; 
so  the  saints   are  said  to  be  redeemed  not 
with  silver  or  gold,  the  usual  price  paid  for 
a  ransom,  but  Avith  a  far  greater  one,  the 
blood  and  life  of  Christ,  which  he  came  in- 
to this  world  to  give  as  a  ransom  price  for 
many,  and  even  himself,  which  is  «vT/Aur^«i', 
an  answerable,  adequate,  and  full  price  for 
them,  1  Pet.  i.  IS.    The  evils  from  which 
we  arc  redeemed  or  delivered  are  the  curse 
of  the  law,  sin,  Satan,  the  world,  death,  and 
hell.     The  moving  cause  of  redemption  is 
the  love  of  God,  John  iii.  16.    The  procu- 
ring cause,    Jesus   Christ,  1  Pet.  i.  18,  19. 
The  ends  of  redemption  are,  that  the  jus- 
tice of  God  might  be  satisfied ;  his  people 
reconciled,  adopted,  sanctified,  and  brought 
to  glory.    The  Jirofiertics  of  it  are  these  : 
1.  It  is  agreeable  to  all    the   perfections  of 
(lod. — 2.  What  a  creature  never  could  ob- 
tain, and  therefore  entirely  of  free  grace. — 
3.  It  is  special  and  particular. — 4.  Full  and 
complete. — And,  5,  lastly.   It  is  eternal  as 
j  to  its  blessings.  See  articles  Propitiation, 
Reconciliation    Satisfaction;    and 
Edwards^    History   of   Redemption.    Cole 
on   the    Sovereignty  of  God.     Lime  Street 
Lectures,   Itc.   5.      IVati.'i'    Ruin  and  Re- 
covery.    Dr.  Owen  on  the  Death  and  Sa- 
tiffaclion   of  Christ.      Gill^s  Body  of  Di- 
vinity. 

REFORMATION,  in  general,  an  act  of 
reforming  or  correcting  an  error  or  abuse  in 
religion,  discipline,  or  the  like.  By  way 
of  eminence,  the  word  is  used  for  that  great 
alteration  and  refcj-mati'  n  in  tlie  corrupted 
system  of  Christianity,  began  by  Luther  in 
the  year  LilT". 

Before  the  period  of  the  reformation,  the 
pope  had  in  tlic  most  audacious  manner  de- 
clared himself  the  sovereign  of  the  whole 
world.  All  the  parts  of  it  which  were  in- 
habited by  those  who  were  not  Christians, 
he  accounted  to  be  inhabited  by  nobody ; 
and  if  Christians  took  it  into  their  heads  to 
possess  any  of  those  countries,  he  gave 
them  full  liberty  to  make  war  upon  the  in- 
habitants without  any  provocation,  and  to 
treat  them  with  no  more  humanity  than 
they  would  have  treated  wild  beasts.  The 
countries,  if  conquered,  were  to  be  parcel- 
led out  according  to  the  pope's  pleasure ; 
and  dreadful  was  tlie  situation  of  that  prince 
who  refused  to  obey  the  will  of  the  holy 
pontiff.  In  consequence  of  this  extraordina- 
ry authority  which  the  pope  had  assumed, 
he  at  last  granted  to  the  king  of  Portugal  all 
the  countries  to  the  eastward  of  Cape  Non 


REF 


445 


REF 


in  Africa,  and  to  the  king  of  Spain  all  the  i 
countries  to  the  westward  of  it.      In  this  I 
was  completed  in  his  person  the  character  I 
of  Aniichrist  sitting  in  the  temjite  of  God, 
and  shewing  himself  as  God.    He  had  long 
before  assumed  the  supremacy  belonging  to  ! 
the  Deity  himself  in  spiritual  matters  ;  and 
now  he  assumed   the  same   supremacy  in 
worldly  matters  also,  giving  the  extreme  re- 
gions of  the  earth  to  whom  he  pleased. 

Every  thing  was  quiet,  every  heretic  ex- 
terminated, and  the  whole  Christian  world 
supinely  acquiesced  in  the  enormous  absurd- 
ities which  were  inculcated  upon  them ; 
when,  in  1517,  the  empire  of  superstition 
began  to  decline,  and  has  continued  to  do  so 
ever  since.  The  person  who  made  the  f.rst 
attack  on  the  extravagant  superstitions  then 
prevailing  was  Martin  Luther,  the  occasion 
of  which  is  fully  related  under  the  article 
Lutherans. 

The  reformation  began  in  the  city  of 
Wittemberg,  in  Saxony,  but  was  not  long 
confined  either  to  that  city  or  province.  In 
1520,  the  Franciscan  friars,  who  had  the 
care  of  promulgating  indulgences  in  Swit- 
zerland, were  opposed  by  Zuinglius,  a  man 
not  inferior  in  understanding  and  knowledge 
to  Luther  himself.  He  proceeded  with  the 
greatest  vigour,  even  at  the  veiy  beginning, 
to  overturn  the  whole  fabric  of  p'  pery : 
but  his  opinions  were  declared  erroneous 
by  the  universities  of  Cologne  and  Louvain. 
Notwithstanding  this,  the  magistrates  of 
Zurich  approved  of  his  proceedings  :  and 
that  whole  canton,  together  with  those  of 
Bern,  Basil,  and  Chaiiausen,  embraced  his 
opinions. 

In  Germany,  Luther  continued  to  make 
grtat  advances,  without  being  in  the  least 
intimidated  by  the  ecclesiastic^il  censures 
which  were  thundered  against  him  from  all 
quarters,  he  being  continually  protected  by 
tlie  German  ]Minces,  either  from  religious 
or  political  motives,  so  that  his  adversaries 
could  not  accomplish  his  destruction,  as 
they  had  done  that  of  others.  Melancthon, 
Carlostadius,  and  other  men  of  eminence, 
also  great!)-  forwarded  the  work  of  Luther ; 
and  in  all  probability  the  popish  hierarchy 
would  have  soon  come  to  an  end,  in  the 
noi-thern  parts  of  Europe  at  least,  had  not 
the  emperor  Charles  V.  given  a  severe 
<:heck  to  the  progress  of  reformation  in 
Germany. 

During  the  confinement  of  Luther  in  a 
castle  near  Warburg,  the  reformation  ad- 
vanced rapidly ;  almost  eveiy  city  in  Saxo- 
ny embracing  the  Lutheran  opinions.  At 
this  time  an  alteration  in  the  established 
forms  of  worship  was  first  ventured  upon 
at  Wittemburg,  by  abolishing  the  celebra- 
tion of  private  masses,  and  by  giving  the 
cup  as  well  as  the  bread  to  the  laity  in  the 
Lord's  supper.  In  a  short  time,  however, 
the  new  opinions  were  condemned  by  the 
university  of  Paris,  and  a  refutation  of  them 
was  attempted  by  Henry  VIII.  of  England. 
R'it  Luther  was  not  to  be  thus  intimidated. 


He  published  his  animadversions  on  botU 
wiih  .is  much  acrimony  as  if  he  had  been 
refuting  the  meanest  adversary :  and  a  con- 
troversy managed  by  such  illustrious  anta- 
gonists drew  a  general  attention,  and  the  re- 
formers daily  gained  new  converts  both  in 
France  and  England. 

But  while  the  efforts  of  Luther  were 
thus  every  where  crowned  with  success, 
the  divisions  began  to  prevail  which  have 
since  so  much  agitated  the  reformed  church- 
es.— The  first  dispute  was  between  Luther 
and  Zuinglius  concerning  the  manner  in 
which  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ  were 
present  in  the  eucharist.  Both  parties 
maintained  their  tenets  with  the  utmost  ob- 
stinacy ;  and  by  their  divisions  first  gave  their 
adversaries  an  argument  against  them, 
which  to  this  day  the  Catholics  urge  with 
great  force ;  namely  that  the  Protestants 
are  so  divided,  that  it  is  impossible  to  know 
who  are  right  or  wrong;  and  that  there 
cannot  be  a  stronger  proof  than  these  divi- 
sions that  the  whole  doctrine  is  false.  To 
these  intestine  divisions  were  added  the 
horrors  of  a  civil  war,  occasioned  by  oppres- 
sion on  the  one  hand,  and  enthusiasm  on 
the  other.    See  Anabaptists. 

These  proceedings,  however,  were  check- 
ed.   Luther  and  Melancthon  were  ordered 
i  by  the  elector  of  Saxrny  to  di-a^v  uj)  a  body 
I  of  laws  relating  to  the  torm  of  ecclesiastical 
j  government,  the  method  of  public  worship, 
j  Sec.  which  was  to  be  proclaimed  by  heralds 
!  throughout  his   dominii  ns.    He,  with  Me- 
j  lancthon,    had    translated  part  of  the  New 
I  Testament  in  1522;  on  the  reading  of  which 
!  the  people  were  astoiiished  to  find  how  dif- 
i  ferent  the  laws  of  Christ    were   to   those 
j  which  t).iey  had  imposed  by  the  pope,  and  to 
I  which  they  had  been  subject.     The  princes 
and  the  people  saw  that  Luther's  cpinious 
Avere  founded  on  truth.    They  openly    re- 
nounced the  papal  supremacy,  and  the  hap- 
py morn  of  the  reformation  was  welcomed 
by  those   who  had  long  sat  in  supersLitious 
darkness. 

This  open  resolution  so  exasperated  the 
patrons  of  popery,  that  they  intended  to 
I  make  war  on  the  Lutherans,  who  prepared 
!  for  defence.  In  1526,  a  diet  was  assembled 
at  Spire,  when  the  emperor's  ambassadors 
were  desired  to  use  their  utmost  endeavour*, 
to  suppress  all  disputes  about  religion,  and 
to  insist  upon  the  vigorous  execution  of  the 
sentence  which  had  been  pronounced  against 
Luther  at  Worms.  But  this  opinion  was 
opposed,  and  the  diet  proved  favourable  to 
the  reformation.  But  this  tranquillity,  which 
they  in  consequence  enjoyed,  did  net  last 
long.  In  1529,  a  new  diet  was  formed,  and 
the  power  which  had  been  granted  to  prin- 
ces  of  managing  ecclesiastical  affaii-s  till  the 
meeting  of  a  general  council,  was  now  re- 
voked, and  every  ciiange  declared  unlawful 
that  should  be  introduced  into  the  doctrine, 
discipline,  or  worship,  of  the  established 
religion,  before  the  determination  of  the 
approaching  council  was  known.    This  de- 


REF 


446 


REF 


cree  was  considered  as  iniquitous  and  intole- 
rable by  several  members  of  the  diet ;  and 
when  tiiey  found  that  all  their  arguments 
and  remonstrances  were  in  vain,  they  entei'- 
ed  a  solemn  protest  against  the  decree  on 
the  19th  of  April,  and  appealed  to  the  em- 
peror and  a  future  council.  Hence  arose 
the  denomination  of  Protestants,  which 
from  that  time  has  been  given  to  those  who 
separate  from  the  church  of  Rome. 

(Miarles  V.  was  in  Italy,  to  whom  the  dis- 
senting princes  sent  ambassadors  to  lay  their 
grievances  before  him  ;  but  they  met  with 
no  encouraging  rece])tion  from  him.  The 
pope  and  the  emperor  were  in  close  union 
at  this  time,  and  they  had  interviews  upon 
the  business.  The  pope  thought  the  em- 
peror to  be  too  clement,  and  alleged  that  it 
was  his  duty  to  execute  vengeance  upon 
the  heretical  faction.  To  this,  however, 
the  emperor  paid  no  regard,  looking  upon 
it  as  unjust  to  condemn,  unheaul,  a  set  of 
mm  wlio  had  always  approved  themselves 
good  citizens.  The  emptror  therefore,  set 
out  for  Germany,  having  already  appointed 
a  diet  of  the  empire  to  be  held  at  Augs- 
burg, where  he  arrived,  and  found  there  a 
full  assembly  of  the  members  of  the  diet. 
Here  the  gentle  and  pacific  Milancthcn  had 
been  ordered  to  draw  up  a  confession  of 
their  faith,  which  he  did,  and  expressed 
his  sentiments  and  doctrine  with  the  great- 
est elegance  and  perspicuity  ;  and  thus 
camf.  forth  to  view  the  famous  conjtssion  of 
Augsburg. 

1  his  was  attempted  to  be  refuted  by  the 
divines  of  the  church  of  Home,  and  a  con- 
troversy took,  place,  whicli  the  emperor  en- 
deavoured to  reconcile,  but  without  success 
all  hopes  of  bringing  about  a  coalition  seem- 
ed utterly  desperate.  Tlie  votaries  of  the 
church  of  Rome,  therefore,  had  recourse 
to  the  powerful  aiguments  of  imperial  edicts 
and  the  force  of  the  secular  arm  :  and,  on 
the  19th  of  November,  a  decree  was  issued 
by  the  empen  r's  orders  every  way  injurious 
to  the  reformers.  Upon  wiiich  thty  assem- 
bled at  Smalcald,  whtre  tliey  concluded  a 
league  of  mutual  defence  against  all  aggres- 
sors, by  which  fthey  formed  the  Protes- 
tant states  into  one  body  and  resolved  to 
apply  to  the  kings  of  France  and  England, 
toimjjlore  them  to  patronise  their  new  con- 
federacy. The  king  of  France,  being  the 
avowed  rival  of  the  emperor,  determined 
secretly  to  cherish  those  sparks  of  political 
discord  ;  and  the  king  of  England,  highly 
incensed  against  Charles,  in  complaisance 
to  whom  the  ))ope  had  long  retarded,  and 
now  openly  opposed,  his  long  solicited  di- 
vorce, was  equally  disjwsed  to  strengthen 
a  league  which  might  be  rendered  formida- 
ble to  the  emperor.  Being,  however,  so  ta- 
ken up  with  the  scheme  of  divorce,  and  of 
abolishini.',  the  papal  jurisdiction  in  Eui^^land, 
he  had  but  little  leism-e  to  attend  to  them. 
Meanwhile  Charles  was  convinced  that  it 
was  not  a  time  to  extirj^ate  heresy  by  vio- 
lence;   and   at   last   terms  of  pacification 


were  agreed  upon  at  Nuremberg,  and  rati- 
fied solemnly  in  the  diet  at  Ratisbon  ;  and 
affairs  so  ordered  by  Divine  Providence, 
that  the  Protestants  obtained  terms  which 
amounted  almost  to  a  toleration  of  their 
religion. 

Sfflin  'after  the  conclusion  of  the  peace  at 
Nuremberg,  died  John  elector  of  Saxony, 
who  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Joiin  Frede- 
rick, a  prince  of  invincible  fortitude  and 
magnanimity,  but  whose  reign  was  little 
better  than  one  continued  train  of  disap- 
pointments and  calamities.  The  religious 
truce,  however,  gave  new  vigour  to  the  re- 
formation. Those  who  had  hitlierto  been 
only  secret  enemies  to  the  Roman  pontiflF, 
now  publicly  threw  cfF  his  yoke  ;  and  various 
cities  and  provinces  of  Germany  enlisted 
themselves  under  the  religious  standards  of 
Luther.  On  the  other  hand,  as  tlie  emperor 
had  now  no  other  hope  of  terminating  the 
religious  disputes  but  by  the  meeting  of  a 
genei-al  council,  he  repeated  his  requests 
to  the  pope  for  that  purpose.  The  pontiff 
(Clemt  nt  VII.)  whom  the  history  of  past 
councils  filled  with  the  greatest  uneasiness, 
endeavoured  to  retard  what  he  could  not 
with  decency  refuse.  At  last,  in  1533,  he 
made  a  proposal,  by  his  legate,  to  assemble 
a  council  at  Mantau,  Placentia,  or  Bologna  ; 
but  the  Protestants  refused  their  consent  to 
the  nomination  of  an  Italian  council,  and 
insisted  that  a  controversy  which  had  its 
rise  in  the  heart  of  Germany  should  i)e  de- 
termined within  the  limits  of  the  empire. 
The  pope,  by  his  u.sual  artifices,  eluded  the 
performance   of  his  own  promise;    and  in 

1534,  was  cut  off  by  death,  in  the  midst  of 
his  stratagem.  His  successor,  Paul  III. 
seemed  to  shew  less  reluctance  to  the  as- 
sembling »  general  council,  and,  in  the  year 

1535,  expressed  his  inclination  to  convoke 
one  at  Mantua ;  and  in  the  year  following, 
actually  sent  circular  letters  for  that  pur- 
pose through  all  the  states  and  kingdoms 
under  his  jurisdiction.  Tliis  council  was 
summoned  by  a  bull  issued  out  on  the  se- 
cond of  June,  1536,  to  meet  at  Mantua  the 
following  year;  but  several  obstacles  pre- 
vented its  meeting  ;  one  of  the  most  mate- 
rial of  which  was,  that  Frederick,  duke 
of  Mantua  had  no  inclination  to  receive  at 
once  so  many  guests,  some  of  them  very 
turbulent,  into  the  place  (^f  his  residence. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  protestants  were 
firmly  persuaded,  that,  as  the  council  was 
assembled  in  Italy,  and  by  the  authority  of 
the  pope  alone,  the  latter  must  have  had  an 
undue  influence  in  that  assembly  ;  of  conse- 
quence, that  all  things  must  have  been  car- 
ried by  the  votaries  of  R(ime.  For  this  rea- 
son they  assembled  at  Smalcald  in  the  >  ear 
1537,  where  they  solemnlj-  ])roteRted  against 
this  jiartial  and  corrupt  council  ;  and,  at 
the  same  time,  had  a  new  summary  of 
their  doctrine  drawn  up  by  Luther,  in  order 
to  present  it  to  the  assembled  bisho])s,  if  it 
should  be  required  of  them.  This  summary, 
which  had  the  title  of  The  Jriklcs  of  i>mal- 


REF 


44r 


REF 


cnld,  is  commonly  joined  with  the  creeds  and 
confessions  of  the  Lutheran  church. 

After  the  meeting  of  the  general  coun- 
cil in  Mantua  was  thus  prevented,  many 
schemes  of  accommodation  were  proposed 
both  by  the  emperor  and  the  Protestants  ; 
but,  by  the  artifices  of  the  church  of  Rome, 
all  of  them  came  to  nothing.  In  1541,  the 
empciror  appointed  a  meeting  at  Worms  on 
the  subject  of  religion,  between  persons  of 
pitty  and  learning,  chosen  from  the  con- 
tending parties.  This  conference,  however, 
was,  for  certain  reasons,  removed  to  the 
diet  that  was  to  be  held  at  Ratisbon  the 
same  >ear,  and  in  which  the  principal  sub- 
ject of  deliberation  was  a  memorial  present- 
ed by  a  person  unknown,  containing  a  pro- 
ject of  peace.  But  the  conference  produ- 
ced no  other  effect  than  a  mutual  agrceir.ent 
of  the  contending  parties  to  refer  their  mat- 
ters to  a  general  council,  or,  if  the  meeting 
of  such  a  council  should  be  prevented,  to  the 
next  tierman  diet. 

The  resolution  was  rendered  ineffectual 
by  a  variety  of  incidents,  which  widened  I 
the  breach,  and  put  off  to  a  farther  day  the 
deliberations  which  were  designed  to  heal 
it.  The  pope  ordered  his  legate  to  declare 
to  the  diet  of  Spire,  assembled  in  1542,  that 
he  would,  according  to  the  promise  he  had 
already  made,  assemble  a  general  council, and 
that  Trent  should  be  the  place  of  its  meet- 
ing, if  the  diet  had  no  objection  to  that  city. 
Ferdinand,  and  the  princes  who  adhered 
to  the  cause  of  the  pope,  gave  their  consent  ^ 
to  this  proposal ;  but  it  was  vehemently  ob- 
jected to  by  the  Protestants,  both  because 
the  council  was  summoned  by  the  authority 
of  the  pope  only,  and  also  because  the  place 
was  within  the  jurisdiction  of  the  pope ; 
whereas  they  desired  a  free  council,  which 
should  not  be  biassed  by  the  dictates  nor 
awed  by  the  proximity  of  the  pontiff.  But 
this  protestation  jiroduced  no  effect.  Paul 
III.  persisted  in  his  purpose,  and  issued  out 
his  circular  letters  for  the  convocation  of 
the  council,  with  the  approbation  of  the 
emperor.  In  justice  to  this  pontiff,  how- 
ever, it  must  be  observed,  that  he  shewed 
himself  not  to  be  averse  to  every  reforma- 
tion. He  appointed  four  cardinals,  and 
three  other  persons  eminent  for  their  learn- 
ing, to  draw  up  a  plan  for  the  reformation 
of  the  church  in  general,  and  of  the  church 
of  Rome  in  particular.  The  reformation 
proposed  in  this  plan  was,  indeed,  extreme- 
ly superficial  and  paitial;  yet  it  contained 
some  particulars  which  could  scarcely  have 
been  expected  from  those  who  composed  it. 

All  this  time  the  emperor  had  been  la- 
bouiing  to  persuade  the  Protestants  to  con- 
sent to  the  meeting  of  the  council  at  Trent ;  j 
but,  when  he  found  them  fixed  in  their  op- 
position to  this  measure,  he  began  to  listen  i 
to  the  sanguinary  measures  of  the  pope,  and 
resolved  to  terminate  the  disputes  by  force  j 
of  arms.    The  elector  of  Saxony  and  land- 
grave of  Hesse,  who  were  the  chief  suppor-  ] 
ters  of  the  Protestant  cause,  upon  tliis  took  ' 


proper  measures  to  prevent  their  being  sur- 
prised and  overwhelmed  by  a  superior  force; 
but,  before  the  horrors  of  war  commenced,  ^ 
the  great  reformer  Luther  died  in  peace  at 
Ayselben,  the  place  of  his  nativity,  in  1546. 

The  emperor  and  the  pope  had  mutually 
resolved  on  the  destruction  of  all  who  should 
dare  to  oppose  the  council  of  I'rent.  The 
meeting  ot  it  was  to  ser\e  as  a  signal  for 
taking  up  arms  ;  and  accordingly  its  deli- 
berations were  scarcely  begun,  in  1546,  when 
the  Protestants  perceived  undoubted  signs 
of  the  approaching  storm,  and  a  formida- 
ble union  betwixt  the  emperor  and  pope, 
which  threatened  to  crush  and  overwhelm 
them  at  once.  Tliis  year,  indeed,  there  had 
been  a  new  Ci-mference  at  Ratisbon  upon  the 
old  subject  of  accommodating  differencfs  in 
religiijii ;  but,  from  the  manner  in  vhich 
the  debates  were  carried  on,  it  plainly  ap- 
peared that  these  differences  could  only  be 
decided  in  the  field  of  battle.  The  council 
of  Trent,  in  the  mean  time,  promulgated 
their  decrees ;  while  the  refoniied  princes, 
in  the  diet  of  Rutisbon,  protested  against 
their  authority,  and  were  on  that  account 
proscribed  by  the  emperor,  who  raised  an 
army  to  reduce  them  to  (;bedience. 

The  elector  of  Saxony  and  the  landgrave 
of  Hesse  led  their  forces  into  Bavaria  against 
the  emperor,  and  cannonaded  his  camp  at 
Ingoidstadt.  It  was  supposed  that  this  would 
bring  on  an  engagement,  which  would  pro- 
bably been  advantageous  to  the  cause  of  the 
reformed  ;  but  this  was  prevented  chiefly 
by  the  perfidy  of  Maurice  duke  of  Saxony, 
who  invaded  the  dominions  of  his  uncle. 
Divisions  were  also  fomented  among  the 
confederate  princes  by  the  dissimulation  of 
the  emperor ;  and  France  failed  in  paying 
the  subsidy  which  had  been  promised  by 
its  monarch :  all  which  so  discouraged  the 
heads  of  the  Protestant  party,  that  their 
army  soon  dispersed,  and  the  elector  of 
Saxony  was  obliged  to  direct  his  march 
homewards.  But  he  was  pursued  by  the 
emperor,  who  made  several  forced  marches 
with  a  view  to  destroy  his  enemy  before  he 
should  have  time  to  recover  his  vigour.  The 
two  armies  met  near  Muhlberg,  on  the  Elbe, 
on  the  24th  of  April,  1547 ;  and,  after  a 
bloody  action,  the  elector  was  entirely  de- 
feated, and  himself  taken  prisoner.  Mau- 
rice, who  had  so  basely  betrayed  him,  was 
now  declared  elector  of  Saxony  ;  and,  by  his 
entreaties,  Philip,  landgrave  of  Hesse,  the 
other  chief  of  the  Protestants,  was  persuad- 
ed to  throw  himself  on  the  mercy  of  the 
emperor,  and  to  implore  his  jiardon.  To  this 
he  consented,  relying  on  the  promise  of 
Charles  for  obtaining  forgiveness,  and  being 
restored  to  liberty ;  but,  notwithstanding 
these  expectations,  he  was  unjustly  detain- 
ed prisoner,  by  a  scandalous  violation  of  the 
most  solemn  convention. 

The  affairs  of  the  Protestants  now  seemed 
to  be  desperate.  In  the  diet  of  Augsburgh, 
which  was  soon  after  called,  the  emperor 
required  the  Protestants  to  leave  the  deci- 


REF 


448 


REF 


sion  of  these  religious  disputes  to  the  wis- 
dom of  the  council  which  was  to  meet  at 
Trent.  The  greatest  part  of  the  members 
consented  to  this  proposal,  being  convinced 
by.  the  powerful  argument  of  an  imperial 
army,  which  was  at  hand  to  dispel  the 
darkness  from  the  eyes  of  such  as  might 
otherwise  have  been  blind  to  the  force  of 
Charles's  reasoning.  However,  this  general 
submission  did  not  produce  the  effect  vvhich 
was  expected  from  it.  A  plague  which  broke 
out,  or  was  said  to  do  so,  in  the  city,  caused 
the  greatest  part  of  the  bishops  to  retire  to 
Bologna,  by  which  means  the  council  was  in 
effect  dissolved ;  nor  could  all  the  entreaties 
and  remonstrances  of  the  emperor  prevail 
upor,  the  pope  to  re-assemble  it  without  de- 
lay. During  this  interval,  therefore,  the 
emperor  judged  it  necessary  to  fall  npon 
some  method  of  accommodating  the  religi- 
ous differences,  and  maintaining  peace  until 
the  council  so  long  expected  should  be  final- 
ly obtained.  With  dais  view  he  ordered 
Julius  Pelugius,  bishop  of  Naumberg,  Mi- 
chael Sidonius,  a  creature  of  the  pope,  and 
John  Agricola,  a  nativeof  Ayselben,  to  draw 
up  a  formulary  which  might  serve  as  a  rule 
of  faith  and  worship  till  the  council  should 
be  assembled ;  but  as  this  was  only  a  tem- 
porary expedient,  and  had  not  the  force  of 
a  permanent  or  perpetual  institution,  it 
thence  obtained  the  name  of  the  Interim. 

This  project  of  Charles  was  formed  part- 
ly with  a  design  to  vent  his  resentment 
against  the  pope,  and  partly  to  answer  other 
political  purposes.  It  contained  all  the  es- 
sential doctrines  of  the  church  of  Rome, 
though  considerably  softened  by  the  artful 
terms  which  were  employed,  and  which 
were  quite  different  from  those  employed 
before  and  after  this  period  by  the  council  of 
Trent.  There  was  even  an  affected  ambi- 
guity in  many  of  the  expressions,  which 
made  them  susceptible  of  different  senses, 
and  applicable  to  the  sentiments  of  both 
communions.  The  consequence  of  all  this 
was,  that  the  imperial  creed  was  reprobatd 
by  both  parties.  [See  Interim.]  In  the 
year  1542,  the  pope  (Paul  III.)  died;  and 
was  succeeded  by  Julius  III.  who,  at  the 
repeated  solicitations  of  the  emperor,  con- 
sented to  the  re-assembling  of  a  council  of 
Trent.  A  diet  was  again  held  at  Augs- 
burg, under  the  cannon  of  an  imperial  army, 
and  Charles  laid  the  matter  before  the  prin- 
ces of  the  empire.  Mnst  of  those  present 
gave  their  consent  to  it,  and,  amongst  the 
rest,  Maurice  elector  of  Saxony ;  who  con- 
sented on  the  following  conditions-  1.  That 
the  points  of  doctrine  which  had  already 
been  decided  there  should  be  re-examined. 
— 2.  That  this  examination  should  be  made 
in  presence  of  the  Protestant  divines.  3. 
That  the  Saxon  Protestants  should  have  a 
liberty  of  voting  as  well  as  of  deliberating 
in  the  council. — 4.  That  the  pope  should  not 
pretend  to  preside  in  the  assembly,  either 
m  person  or  by  his  legates.  This  declara- 
tion of  Maurice  was  read  in  the  diet,   and 


his  deputies  insisted  upon  its  being  entered 
into  the  registers,  which  the  archbishop  of 
Mentz  obstinately  refused.  The  diet  was 
concluded  in  155 1 ;  and,  at  its  breaking  up, 
the  emperor  desired  the  assembled  princes 
and  states  to  prepare  all  things  for  the  ap- 
pi'oaching  council,  and  promised  to  use  his 
utmost  endeavours  to  procure  moderation 
and  harmony,  impartiality  and  charity,  in 
the  transactions  of  that  assembly. 

On  the  breaking  up  of  the  diet,  the  Pro- 
testants took  such  steps  as  they  thought  most 
proper  for  their  own  safety.  The  Saxons 
employed  Melancthon,  and  Hie  Wirtember- 
gers  Brengius,  to  draw  up  confessions  of  faith 
to  be  laid  before  the  new  council.  The  Sax- 
on divines,  however,  proceeded  no  farther 
than  Nuremberg,  having  received  secret 
orders  from  Maurice  to  stop  there ;  for  the 
elector  perceiving  that  Charles  had  formed 
designs  against  the  liberties  of  the  German 
princes,  resolved  to  take  the  most  effectual 
measures  for  crushing  his  ambition  at  once. 
He  therefore  entered  with  the  utmost  se- 
crecy and  expedition  into  an  alliance  with 
the  king  of  France  and  several  of  the  Ger- 
man princes,  for  the  security  of  the  righi.s 
and  liberties  of  the  empire ;  after  which, 
assembling  a  powerful  army  in  1552,  he 
marched  against  the  emperor,  who  lay 
with  a  handful  of  troops  at  Inspruck,  and 
expected  no  such  thing.  By  this  sudden 
and  unforeseen  accident,  Charles  was  so 
much  dispirited,  that  he  was  willing  to  make 
peace  almost  on  any  terms.  The  conse- 
quence of  this  was,  that  he  concluded  a  treaty 
at  Passau,  which  by  the  Protestants  is  con- 
sidered as  the  basis  of  their  i-eligious  liberty. 
By  the  first  three  articles  of  this  treaty  it 
was  agreed  that  Maurice  and  the  confeder- 
ates should  lay  down  their  arms,  and  lend 
their  troops  to  Ferdinand,  to  assist  him 
against  the  Turks ;  and  that  the  landgrave 
of  Hesse  should  be  set  at  liberty.  By  the 
fourth  it  was  agreed  that  the  rule  of  faith 
called  the  Interim  should  be  considered  as 
null  and  void ;  that  the  contending  parties 
should  enjoy  the  free  and  undisturbed  exer- 
cise of  their  religion,  until  a  diet  should  be 
assembled  to  determine  amicably  the  pre- 
sent disputes  (which  diet  was  to  meet  in  the 
space  of  six  months;)  and  that  this  religious 
liberty  should  continue  always,  in  case  it 
should  be  found  impossible  to  come  to  an  uni- 
formity in  doctrine  and  worship.  It  was  also 
determined,  that  all  those  who  had  suffered 
banishment,  or  anyother  calamity ,on  account 
of  their  having  been  concerned  in  the  league 
or  war  of  Smalcald,  should  be  reinstated  in 
their  privileges,  possessions,  and  employ- 
ments ;  that  the  imperial  chamber  at  Spire 
should  be  open  to  the  Protestants  as  well  as 
to  the  CathoHcs ;  and  that  there  should  al- 
ways be  a  certain  number  of  Lutherans  in 
tha't  high  court.  To  this  ])eace  Albert, 
marquis  of  Brandenbureh,  refused  to  sulj- 
scribe;  and  continued  the  war  against  the 
Roman  Cal'.iolics,  committing  such  ravages 
in  the  empire,  that  a  confederacy  M-a^  at. 


REF 


449 


REF 


last  formed  against  him.  At  the  head  of 
this  confederacy  was  Maurice,  elector  of 
Saxony,  v/ho  died  of  a  wound  he  received 
in  a  battle  fought  on  the  occasion  in  1553. 

The  assembly  of  the  dift  pronusec!  by 
Charles  was  prevented  by  various  accidents; 
however,  it  met  at  Augsburg,  in  1555, 
where  it  was  opened  by  Ferdinand  in  tJie 
name  of  the  emperor,  and  terminated. those 
deplorable  calamities  which  had  so  long 
desolated  the  empire.  After  various  de- 
bates the  following  acts  were  passed,  on 
the  twenty-fifth  of  September ; — That  the 
Protestants  who  followed  the  confession  of 
Augsbui'g  should  be  for  the  future  consider- 
ed as  entirely  free  from  the  jurisdiction  of 
the  Roman  pontiff,  and  from  the  authority 
and  superintendance  of  the  bishops ;  that 
they  were  left  at  perfect  liberty  to  enact 
laws  for  themselves  relating  to  their  reli- 
gious sentiments,  discipline,  and  worship  ; 
that  all  the  inhabitants  of  the  German  em- 
pire should  be  allowed  to  judge  for  them- 
selves in  religious  matters,  and  to  join  them- 
selves to  that  church  whose  doctrine  and 
worship  they  thought  the  most  pure  and 
consonant  to  the  spirit  of  true  Christianity  ; 
and  that  all  those  who  should  injure  or  pro- 
secute any  person  under  religious  pretences, 
and  on  account  of  their  opinions,  should  be 
declared  and  proceeded  against  as  public 
enemies  of  the  empire,  invaders  of  its  liber- 
ty, and  disturbers  of  its  peace. 

Thus  was  the  reformation  established  in 
many  parts  of  the  German  empire,  where  it 
continues  to  this  day ;  nor  have  the  efforts 
of  the  popish  powers  at  any  time  been  able 
to  suppress  it,  or  even  to  prevent  its  gaining 
ground.  It  was  not,  however,  in  Germany 
alone  that  a  reformation  of  religion  took 
place.  Almost  all  the  kingdoms  of  Europe 
began  to  open  their  eyes  to  the  truth  about 
the  same  time.  The  reformed  religion 
was  propagated  in  Sweden,  soon  after 
Luther's  i'ui)ture  with  the  church  of  Rome, 
by  one  of  his  disciples  named  Olaus  Pair'i. 
The  zealous  efforts  of  this  missionary  were 
seconded  by  Gustavus  Vasa,  whom  the 
Swedes  had  raised  to  the  throne  in  the  place 
of  Christiern,  king  of  Denmark,  whose  hor- 
rid barbarity  lost  him  the  crown.  This 
prince,  however,  was  as  prudent  as  he  was 
zealous;  and,  as  the  minds  nf  tlie  Swedes 
were  in  a  fluctuating  state,  he  wisely  avoid- 
ed ail  kind  of  vehemence  and  precipitation 
in  spreading  the  new  doctrine.  Accordingly' 
the  first  object  of  his  attention  was  the  in- 
struction of  his  people  in  the  sacred  doc- 
trines of  the  holy  scriptures  ;  for  which  |;ur- 
pose  he  invited  into  his  dominions  several 
learned  Germms,  and  spread  abroad  through 
the  kingdom  the  Swedish  translation  of  the 
Bible  that  had  been  made  by  Olaus  Petri. 
Same  time  after  this,  in  1526,  he  appointed 
a  cont';rence  at  Upsal,  between  the  n  form- 
er and  Peter  Gallius,  a  zealous  defender  of 
the  ancient  superstition,  in  which  each  of  tiie 
champions  v/as  to  bring  forth  his  arguments, 
that  it  might  be  seen  on  which  side  the  truth 

3L 


lay.  In  this  dispute  Olaus  obtained  a  signal 
victory  ;  which  contributed  much  to  coniirm. 
Gustavus  in  his  persuasion  of  the  truth  of 
Luther's  doctrine,  and  to  proiTioie  its  pro- 
gress in  Sweden.  The  following  year  gave 
the  finishing  stroke  to  its  propagation  and 
success.  '\\\\l  ^'as  the  assembly  of  the 
states  at  Westeraas,  wuCrtf  Gustavus  re- 
commended the  doctrine  of  the  reformers 
with  such  zeal,  that,  after  warm  debates, 
fomented  by  the  clergy  in  general,  it  was 
unanimously  resolved  that  the  reformation 
introduced  by  Luther  should  have  place  in 
Sweden.  This  resolution  was  principally 
owing  to  the  firmness  and  magnanimity  of 
Gustavus,  who  declared  publicly,  that  he 
would  lay  down  the  sceptre,  and  retire  from 
the  kingdom,  rather  than  rule  a  pe(;ple  en- 
slaved by  the  orders  and  authority  of  the 
pope,  and  niore  controlled  by  the  tyranny 
of  their  bishoi)s  than  by  the  laws  of  their 
monarch.  From  this  time  the  papal  empire 
in  Sweden  was  entirely  overthrown,  and 
Gustavus  declared  head  of  the  church. 

In  Denmark,  the  reformation  was  intro- 
duced as  early  as  the  year  1521,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  ardent  desire  discovered  by 
Christiern  II.  of  having  his  siibjects  instruct- 
ed in  the  doctrines  of  Luther.  This  mo- 
narch, notwithstanding  his  cruelty,  for  which 
his  name  has  been  rendered  odious,  was 
nevertheless  desirous  of  delivering  his  do- 
minions from  the  tyranny  of  the  church  of 
Rome.  For  this  purpose,  in  the  year  1520, 
he  sent  for  Martin  Reinard,  one  of  the  dis- 
ciples of  Carlostadt,  out  of  Saxony,  and  ap- 
pointed him  professor  of  divinity  at  Hasnia  ; 
and  after  his  death,  which  happened  in 
1521,  he  invited  Carlostadt  himself  to  fill 
that  important  place. — Carlostadt  accepted 
of  his  office,  indeed,  but  in  a  short  time  re- 
turned to  Germany  ;  upon  which  Christiern 
used  his  utmost  endeavours  to  engage  Lu- 
ther to  visit  his  dominions,  but  in  vain.  How- 
ever, the  progress  of  Christiern  in  reforming 
the  religion  of  his  subjects,  or  rather  of  ad- 
vancing his  own  power  above  that  of  the 
church,  was  checked,  in  the  year  1523,  by 
a  conspiracy,  by  wb.ich  he  was  deposed  and 
banished  ;  his  uncle  Frederic,  duke  of  Hol- 
stein  and  Sleswic,  being  appointed  his  suc- 
cessor. 

Frederic  conducted  the  reformation- with 
much  greater  prudence  than  his  predeces- 
sr,r.  He  permitted  the  Protestant  doctors  to 
preach  publicly  the  sentiments  of  Luther, 
but. did  not  venture  to  change  the  establish- 
ed go\'erin-nent  and  discipline  of  the  church. 
However,  he  contributed  greatly  to  the  pro- 
gress of  the  reformation  by  liis  successful 
attempts  in  fivcur  of  religious  hberty  in  an 
assemiily  of  the  states  held  at  Odensee  in 
1527.  Here  he  procured  the  publication  of 
a  famous  edict,  hy  which  every  subject  of 
Denmark  was  dcclaied  free  either  to  ad- 
here to  the  tenets  of  t'ic  church  of  Rome, 
or  to  the  doctrine  of  Luther.  The  papal 
tyranny  was  totally  destroyed  by  his  succes- 
sor Christiern  III, '  He  began  by  suppressing 


11  EF 


450 


REF 


tiie  despotic  authority  of  the  bishops,  and 
restoring  to  their  lawiul  owners  a  great  part 
of  the  wealth  and  possessions  which  the 
church  had  acrjuii'ed  by  various  stratagems. 
Tiris  was  followed  by  a  plan  of  religious 
doctrine,  worship,  and  discipline,  laid  down 
by  Bugenhagius,  whom  t!^.&  king  had  sent 
for  from  Wtt'.er.iberg  for  that  purpose ;  and 
in  1539  an  assembly  of  the  states  at  Odensee 
gave  a  solemn  sanction  to  all  these  trans- 
actions. 

In  France,  also,  the  reformation  began  to 
make  some  progress  very  early.  Margaret 
queen  of  Navarre,  sister  to  Francis  I.  the 
jjcrpetual  rival  of  Charles  V.  was  a  great 
friend  to  the  new  doctrine,  and  it  appears 
that,  as  early  as  the  year  1523,  there  were 
in  several  of  the  provinces  of  France  great 
numbers  of  people  who  had  conceived  the 
greatest  aversion  botlx  to  the  doctrine  and 
tyranny  of  the  church  of  Rome  ;  among 
whom  were  many  of  the  first  rank  and 
dignity,  and  even  some  of  the  episcopal  or- 
der. But  as  their  number  increased  daily, 
and  troubles  and  commotions  were  excited 
in  several  places  on  account  of  the  religious 
differences,  the  authority  of  the  king  inter- 
vened, and  many  persons  eminent  for  their 
X'irtue  and  piety  were  put  to  death  in  the 
most  barbarous  manner.  Indeed,  Francis, 
•who  had  either  no  religion  at  all,  or,  at  best,  no 
fixed  and  consistent  system  of  religious 
principles,  conducted  himself  towards  the 
Protestants  in  such  a  manner  as  best  an- 
swered his  private  views.  Sometimes  he 
resolved  to  invite  Melancthon  into  France, 
probably  with  a  view  to  please  his  sister,  the 
queen  of  Navarre,  whom  he  loved  tender- 
ly, and  who  had  strongly  imbibed  the  Pro- 
testant principles.  At  other  times  he  exer- 
cised the  most  infernal  cruelty  towards  the 
reformed  ;  and  once  made  the  following  mad 
declaration,  That,  if  he  thought  the  blood  of 
his  arm  was  tainted  by  the  Lutheran  here- 
sy, he  would  have  it  cut  off;  and  that  he 
would  not  even  spare  his  own  children,  if 
they  entertained  sentiments  contrary  to 
those  of  the  Catholic  Cliurcli. 

About  this  time  the  famous  Calvin  began 
to  draw  the  attention  of  thepuljlic,  but  more 
especially  of  the  queen  of  Navarre.  His 
zeal  exposed  him  to  danger ;  and  the 
friends  of  the  reformation,  whom  Francis 
"svas  daily  committing  to  the  tlames,  placed 
him  more  than  once  in  the  most  perilous 
situation,  from  which  b.e  was  delivered  by 
the  interposition  of  the  queen  of  Navarre. — 
He  therefore  retired  out  of  France  to  Basil, 
in  Switzerland,  where  he  published  his 
Christian  Institutions,  and  became  after- 
wards so  famous. 

Those  among  the  French  who  first  re- 
nounced the  jurisdiction  of  the  Romish 
church  are  commonly  called  lAiihcrans  by 
the  writers  of  tliose  early  times ;  hence  it 
has  been  supposed  that  they  had  all  imljibtd 
the  peculiar  sentiments  of  I^ither.  But  this 
appears  by  no  means  to  have  been  the  case  ; 
fur  the  vicinity  of  the  cities  of  Geneva,  Lau- 


sanne, Sec.  which  had  adopted  the  doctrines 
of  Calvin,  produced  a  remarkable  effect  upon 
the  French  protestant  churches;  insomuch 
that,  about  the  middle  of  this  century,  tliey 
all  entered  into  communion  with  the  church 
of  Geneva.  The  French  Protestants  were 
calhd  Huguenots  [see  Huguenots]  by 
their  adversaries,  by  way  of  contempt. 
Their  fate  was  very  severe,  being  persecu- 
ted with  unparalleled  fury ;  and  though 
many  princes  of  the  bloud,  and  of  the  first 
nobility,  had  embraced  their  sentiments,  yet 
in  no  pait  of  the  world  did  the  reformers 
suffer  so  much.  At  last,  all  commotions 
were  quelled  by  the  fortitude  and  magna- 
nimity of  Henry  IV.  who,  in  the  year  1598, 
granted  all  his  subjects  full  liberty  of  con- 
science by  the  famous  edict  of  Nantes,  and 
seemed  to  have  thoroughly  established  the 
reformation  throughout  his  dominions.  Du- 
ring the  minority  of  Louis  XIV.  however, 
this  edict  was  revoked  by  cardinal  Maza- 
rine, since  which  time  the  Protestants  have 
often  been  cruelly  persecuted  ;  nor  was  the 
profession  of  the  reformed  religion  in  France 
at  any  time  so  safe  as  in  most  other  coun- 
tries of  Europe. 

In  other  parts  of  Europe  the  opposition  to 
the  church  of  Rome  was  but  faint  and  am- 
biguous before  the  diet  of  Augsburg.  Before 
that  period,  however,  it  appears,  from  un- 
doubted testimony,  that  the  doctrine  of  Luther 
had  made  a  considerable,  though  probably 
secret  progress  through  Spain,  Hungary,  Bo- 
hemia, Britain,  Poland,  and  the  Netherlands ; 
and  had  in  all  these  countries,  many  friends,  of 
whom  several  repaired  to  Wittemberg,  in 
order  to  enlarge  their  knowledge  by  means 
of  Luther's  conversation.  Some  of  these 
countries  threw  off  the  Romish  yoke  entire- 
ly, and  in  others  a  prodigious  number  of 
families  embraced  the  principles  of  the  reform- 
ed religion.  It  is  certain,  indeed,  and  the  Ro- 
man Catholics  themselves  acknowledge  it 
without  hesitation,  that  the  papal  doctrines  and 
authority  would  have  fallen  into  ruin  in  all 
parts  of  the  world  at  once,  had  not  the  force 
of  the  secular  arm  been  employed  to  sup- 
port the  tottering  edifice.  In  the  Nether- 
lands, particularly,  the  most  grievous  perse- 
cutions took  place,  so  that  by  the  emperor 
Charles  V.  upwards  of  100,000  were  destroy- 
ed, while  still  greater  cruelties  were  exer- 
cised upon  the  people  by  his  son  Philip  II. 
The  revolt  of  the  United  Provinces  however, 
and  motives  of  i-eal  policy,  at  last  put  a  stop 
to  these  furious  proceedings ;  and  though,  in 
many  provinces  of  the  Netherlands,  the 
establishment  of  the  Popish  religion  was 
still  continued,  the  Protestants  have  been 
long  free  of  the  danger  of  persecution  on 
account  of  their  principles. 

The  reformation  made  a  considerable  pro- 
gress in  S])ain  and  Italy  soon  after  the  rup- 
ture between  Luther  and  the  Roman  pontiff. 
In  all  the  provinces  of  Italy,  but  more  espe- 
cially in  the  territories  of  Venice,  Tuscany, 
and  Naples,  the  superstition  of  Rome  lost 
ground,  and  great  numbers  of  people  of  all 


REF 


451 


REF 


i-anks  expressed  an  aversion  to  the  papal 
yoke.  This  occasioned  violent  and  dange- 
rous commotions  in  the  kingdom  of  Naples 
in  the  year  1546 ;  which,  however,  were 
at  last  quelled  by  the  united  efforts  of 
Charles  V.  and  his  viceroy  Don  Pedro  de 
Toledo.  In  several  places  the  pope  put  a 
stop  to  the  progress  of  the  reformation  by 
letting  loose  the  inquisitors,  who  spread 
dreadful  marks  of  their  barbarity  through 
the  greatest  part  of  Italy.  These  formida- 
ble ministers  of  sujjerstition  put  so  many  to 
death,  and  perpetrated  such  hon'id  acts  of 
cruelty  and  oppression,  that  most  of  the  re- 
formed consulted  their  safety  by  a  voluntary 
exile,  while  others  returned  to  the  religion 
of  Rome,  at  least,  in  external  appearance. 
But  the  inquisition,  which  frightened  into 
the  profession  of  popery  several  Protestants 
in  other  parts  of  Italy,  could  never  make 
its  way  into  the  kingdom  of  Naples :  nor 
could  either  the  authority  or  entreaties  of 
the  pope  engage  the  Neapolitans  to  admit 
even  visiting  inquisitors. 

In  Spain,  several  people  embraced  the 
Protestant  religion  not  only  from  the  contro- 
versies of  Luther,  but  even  from  those  di- 
vines whom  Charles  V.  had  brought  with 
him  into  Germany  in  order  to  refute  the 
doctrines  of  Luther ;  for  these  doctors  im- 
bibed the  pretended  heresy,  instead  of  re- 
futing it,  and  propagated  it  more  or  less  on 
their  return  home.  But  the  inquisition, 
which  could  obtain  no  footing  in  Naples, 
reigned  triumph -t:it  in  Spain:  and  by  the 
most  dreadful  methods  frightened  the  peo- 
ple back  into  popery,  and  suppressed  the 
desire  of  exchanging  their  superstition  for  a 
more  rational  plan  of  religion.     It   was,  in- 


ration  for  the  writings  of  Tiiomas'  Aquinas. 
Being   informed  that  Luther  spoke  of  his 
favourite  author  with  contemjjt,  he  conceiv- 
ed a  violent  prejudice  against  the  reformer, 
and  even  wrote  against  him,   as  we   have 
already  observed.    Luther  did  not   hesitate 
at  writing    against    his  majesty,   overcame 
him  in   argument,   and   treated   him    with 
very  little  ceremony.   The  first  step  towards 
public  reformation,  however,  was  not  taken 
until  the  year  1529.     Gi'eat  complaints  had 
been  made  in  England,  and  of  a  very  an- 
cient date,  of  the  usurpations  of  the  clergy  ; 
and,    by   the    prevalence  of  the    Lutheran 
opinions,  these  complaints  were  now  become 
more  general  than   befure.    The  House  of 
Commons,  finding  the  occasion  favourable, 
passed  several  bills,  restraining  the  imposi- 
tions of  the  clergy  :  but  what  tlireatened  the 
i  ecclesiastical  order  with  the  greatest  dan- 
I  ger,  were  the  severe  reproaches  thrown  out 
!  almost    without    opposition    in    the    House 
!  against   the   dissolute  lives,  ambition,   and 
j  avarice  of  the  priests,  and  their  continual 
'  encroachments  on  the  privileges  of  the  laity. 
'■  The  bills  for  regulating  the  clei*gy  met  with 
j  opposition  in  the  House  of  Lords ;  and  bi- 
1  shop  Fisher  imputed  them  to  want  of  faith 
j  in  the  Commons,   and  to  a  formed  design, 
I  proceeding  from   heretical    and    Lutheran 
i  principles,  of  robbing  the  church  of  her  pa- 
trimony, and  overturning  the   national   reli- 
gion.   The  Commons,  however,  complained 
!  to  the  king,  by  their  speaker,  sir  'I'homas 
Audley,    of  these    rejections    thrown   out 
against  them  ;  and  the  bishop  was  obliged 
to  retract  his  words. 

Though  Henry  had  not  the  least  idea  of 
rejecting  any,  even  of  the  most  absurd  Ro- 


deed,  presumed  that  Charles  himself  died  I  mish  superstitions,  yet,  as  the  oppressions  of 
a  Protestant;  and,  it  seems  to  be  certain,  I;  the  clergy  suited  very  ill  with  tlie  violence 
that,  when  the  approach  of  death  had'' of  his  own  temper,  he  was  pleased  witii 
dissipated  those  schemes  of  ambition  and  ji  every  opportunity  cf  lessening  their  power, 
grandeur  which  had  so  long  blinded  him,  'in  tlie  parliament  of  1531  he  shewed  hisde- 
his  sentiments  became  much  more  rational    sign  of  humbling  the  clergy  in  the   most  ef- 


and  agreable  to  Christianity  than  they  had 
ever  been.  All  the  ecclesiastics  who  had 
attended  him,  as  soon  as  he  expired,  were 
sent  to  the  inquisition,  and  committed  to  the 
flames,  or  put  to  death  by  some  other  me- 
thod equally  terrible.  Such  was  the  fate  of 
Augustine  Casal,  the  emperor's  preacher ; 
of  Constantine  Pontius,  his  confessor ;  of 
Egidius,  whom  he  had  named  to  the  bi- 
shopric of  Tortosa;  of  Bartholomew  de 
Caranza,  a  Dominican,  who  had  been  con- 
fessor to  king  Philip  and  queen  Mary  ;  with 
twenty  others  of  less  note. 

In  England,  the  principles  of  the  reforma- 
tion began  to  be  adopted  as  soon  as  an  ac- 
count of  Luther's  doctrines  could   be  con- 


fectual  manner.  An  obsolete  statute  was 
I  revived,  from  which  it  was  pretended  that 
it  was  criminal  to  submit  to  the  legatinc 
[power  which  had  been  exercised  by  Cardi- 
inal  Wolsey.  By  this  stroke  the  whole  body 
I  of  clergy  was  declared  guilty  at  once. 
iThey  were  too  well  acquainted  with  Hen- 
ry's disposition,  however,  to  reply,  that  their 
I  ruin  would  have  been  the  certain  conse- 
i  quence  of  their  not  submitting  to  Wolsey's 
I  commission,  which  had  been  given  by  rcyal 
j  authorit)'.  Instead  of  making  any  defence 
'  of  this  kind,  they  chose  to  throw  themselves 
i  upon  the  mercy  of  their  sovereign  :  which 
however,  it  cost  them  118,840/.  to  procure. 
A  confession    was   likewise  extorted  from 


veyed  thither.  In  that  kingdom  there  |j  them,  that  the  king  was  protector  and 
were  still  great  remains  of  the  sect  called  Ppreme  head  of  the  church  of  EngLind  ; 
Lollards,  whose  doctrine  resembled  that  of  ||  though  some  of  them  had  the  dexterity  to 
Luther  and  among  whom,  of  consequence,  jiget  a  clause  inserted  which,  invalidated  the 
the  sentiments  of  our  reformer  gained  great  j]  whole  submission,  viz.  in  i.o  Jar  as  is  /leV' 
credit.  Henry  VIII.  King  of  England  at  \mined  by  the  laiv  of  Christ. 
that  time,  was  a  violent  partisan  of  the  jj  The  king,  having  thus  be:j,un  to  reduce 
church  of  Rome,  and  had  a  pai-ticular  vene-  '•!  the  power  of  the  clergy,  kept  no   bounds 


REF 


452 


^vith  them  afterwards.  He  did  not,  indeed, 
attempt  any  reformation  in  religious  mat- 
ters ;  nay,  he  persecuted  most  violent 
such  as  did  attempt  this  in  the  least.  In- 
deed, the  most  essential  article  of  his  creed 
seems  to  have  been  his  own  supremacy ; 
for  whoever  denied  this  was  sure  to  suffer 
the  most  severe  penalties,  whether  Protes- 
tant or  Papist. 

He  died  in  1547,  and  was  succeeded  bv 
his  only  son  Edward  VI.  This  amiable 
prince,  whose  early  youth  was  crowned  with 
that  wisdom,  sagacity,  and  virtue,  that 
%vou!d  have  done  honour  to  advanced  years 
gave  new  spirit  and  vigour  to  the  Protestant 
cause,  and  was  its  brightest  ornament,  as 
•well  as  its  most  effectual  support.  He  en- 
couraged learned  and  pious  men  of  foreign 
countries  to  settle  in  England,  and  addressed 
a  particular  invitation  to  Martin  Brucer  and 
Paul  Fagius,  whose  moderation  added  a 
lustre  to  their  other  virtues,  that,  by  the 
ministry  and  labours  of  these  eminent  men, 
in  concert  with  those  of  the  friends  of  the 
reformation  in  England,  he  might  purge  his 
dominions  from  the  sordid  fictions  of  pope- 
ry, and  establish  the  pure  doctrines  of 
Christianity  in  their  place.  For  this  pur- 
pose he  issued  out  the  wisest  orders  for  the 
restoration  of  true  religion  ;  but  his  reign 
■was  too  short  to  accomplish  fully  such  a 
glorious  purpose.  In  tlie  year  1553  he  was 
taken  from  his  loving  and'^aiflicted  subjects, 
■whose  sorrow  ■was  inexpressible,  and  suited 
to  their  loss.  His  sister  Mary  (the  daugh- 
ter ff  Catharine  of  Arragon,  from  whom 
Henry  had  been  separated  by  the  famous 
divorce,)  a  furir  us  bigot  to  the  church  of 
Rome,  and  a  pi-iriress  whose  natural  charac- 
ter, like  the  spiiit  of  her  religion,  was  des- 
potic and  cruel,  succi  eded  him  on  the  Bri- 
tish throne,  and  imprscd  anew  the  arbitra- 
ry laws  of  the  tyrannical  yoke  of  Rom.e 
upon  the  people  of  England.  Nor  were  the 
methods  which  she  employed  in  the  cause 
of  superstition  better  than  the  cause  itself, 
or  tempered  i)y  any  sentiments  of  equity  or 
compassion.  Barbarous  tortures  and  death, 
in  the  most  shocking  forms,  awaited  thc]se 
•\vho  opposed  her  will,  or  made  the  least 
stand  against  the  restoration  of  popery ; 
and,  among  many  other  victims,  the  learned 
and  pious  Cranmer,  archbishop  of  Canter- 
bur}',  who  had  been  one  of  the  most  illus- 
trious instruments  of  the  reformation  in 
3England,  fell  a  sacrifice  to  her  fury.  This 
odious  scene  of  persecution  was  happily 
concluded  in  the  year  1558  by  the  death  of 
the  queen,  who  left  no  i.ssue  ;  and,  as  soon 
as  her  successor  the  lady  Elizabeth  ascend- 
ed the  throne,  all  things  assumed  a  new 
and  pleasing  aspect.  This  illustrious  prin- 
cess, whose  sentiments,  crunsels,  and  pi'o- 
jects,  breathed  a  spirit  superior  to  the  natu- 
ral softness  and  delicacy  of  her  sex,  exerted 
this  vigorous  and  manly  spirit  in  the  de- 
fence of  oppressed  conscience  and  expiring 
liberty,  broke  anew  the  despotic  yoke  of 
yiapal  authority  and  superstition :  and,  de- 


REF 

livering  her  people  from  the  bondage  of 
Home,  established  that  form  of  religious 
doctrine  and  ecclesiastical  government 
which  still  subsists  in  England.  This  reli- 
gious establishment  difiers  in  some  respects 
from  the  plan  that  had  been  formed  by  those 
whom  Edward  VI.  had  employed  for  pro- 
moting the  cause  of  the  reformation,  and 
approaches  nearer  to  the  rites  and  disci- 
pline of  former  tmies ;  though  it  is  widely 
different,  and,  in  the  most  important  points, 
entirely  opposite  to  the  principles  of  the 
Roman  hierarchy. 

The  cause  of  the  reformation  underwent 
in  Ireland  the  same  vicissitudes  and  revo- 
lutions that  had  attended  it  in  England. 
When  Henry  VIII.  after  the  abolition  of 
the  pajjal  authority,  was  declared  supreme 
head  upon  earth  of  the  church  of  England, 
George  Brown,  a  native  of  England,  and  a 
monk  of  the  Augustine  order,  whom  that 
monarch  had  created,  in  the  year  1535, 
arclibishop  of  Dublin,  began  to  act  with  the 
utmost  vigour  in  consequence  of  this  change 
in  the  hierarchy  He  purged  the  churches 
of  his  diocese  from  superstition  in  all  its 
various  forms,  pulled  down  images,  destroy- 
ed relics,  abolished  absurd  and  idolatrous 
rites  ;  and  by  tlie  influence  as  well  as  autho- 
rity he  had  in  Ireland,  caused  the  king's 
supremacy  to  be  acknowledged  in  that  na- 
tion. Henry  shewed,  soon  after,  that  this 
supremacy  was  not  a  vain  title  ;  for  he  ban- 
ished the"  monks  out  of  that  kingdom,  con- 
fiscated their  revenues,  and  destroyed  their 
convents.  In  the  reign  of  Edward  VI.  still 
farther  progress  was  made  in  the  removal 
of  ])opish  superstitions  by  the  zealous  labours 
of  bishop  Brown,  and  the  auspicious  encou- 
ragement he  granted  to  all  who  exerted 
themselves  in  the  cause  of  the  reformation. 
But  the  death  of  this  excellent  prince,  and 
the  accession  of  queen  Mary,  had  like  to  have 
changed  the  face  of  affairs  in  Ireland  as  much 
as  in  England  ;  but  her  designs  were  disap- 
pointed by  a  very  curious  adventure,  of 
^yhich  the  following  account  has  been  copied 
from  the  papers  Richard  earl  of  Cork : — 
"  Queen  Mary  having  dealt  severely  with 
the  Protestants  in  England,  about  the  lat- 
ter end  of  her  reign,  signed  a  commission 
for  to  take  the  same  course  with  tliem  in 
Ireland;  and,  to  execute  the  same  with 
greater  force,  she  nominates  Dr.  Cole  one 
of  the  commissioners.  This  doctor  corning 
with  the  commission  to  Chester  on  his  jour- 
ney, the  mayor  of  that  city,  hearing  that 
her  majesty  was  sending  a  messenger  into 
Ireland,  and  he  being  a  churchman,  waited 
on  the  doctor,  who  in  disc*  urse  with  the 
mayor,  taketh  out  (f  a  cloke-bag  a  leather 
b^x,  saying  unto  him,  Hfre  is  a  comrnission 
that  ff/ia/l  lash  the  heretics  of  Irclarid,  call- 
irg  the  Protestants  by  that  title.  The  good 
I  woman  of  the  house  being  well  aflectcd  to 
'  the  Protestant  religion,  and  also  having  a 
'brother,  named  Jcdm  luhfionds,  of  the 
jsame,  then  a  citizen  in  Dublin,  was  much 
'  troubled  at  the  doctor's  words  ;  but,  watch- 


REF 


45: 


BEG 


ing  her  convenient  time  wliile  the  mayor 
took  his  leave,  and  the  doctor  compliment- 
ed him  down  the  stairs,  she  opens  the  box, 
takes  the  commission  out,  and  places  in  lieu 
thereof  a  sheet  of  paper  with  a  pack  of 
cards  wrapt  up  therein,  the  knave  of  clubs 
being  faced  uppermost.  The  doctor  coming 
up  to  his  clianiber,  suspecting  nothing  of 
what  had  been  done,  put  up  the  box  as 
formerly.  The  next  day,  going  to  the  wa- 
ter-side, wind  and  weather  serving  him,  he 
sails  towards  Ireland,  and  landed  on  the 
7th  of  October,  1558,  at  Dublin.  Then  co- 
ming to  the  castle,  the  lord  Fitz-Walter, 
being  lord-deputy,  sent  for  him  to  come  be- 
fore him  and  the  privy  council;  who  coming 
in,  after  he  had  made  a  speech  relating 
upon  what  account  he  came  over,  he 
presents  the  box  unto  the  lord-deputy : 
who  causing  it  to  be  opened,  that  the  secre- 
tary miglit  read  the  commission,  there  was 
nothing  save  a  pack  of  cards  with  the 
knave  of  clubs  uppermost ;  which  not  only 
startled  the  lord-deputy  and  council,  but 
the  doctor,  who  assured  them  he  had  a 
commission,  but  knew  not  h  w  it  was  gone. 
Then  the  lord -deputy  made  answer,  Let 
us  have  another  commission,  and  we  will 
shuffle  the  cards  in  the  mean  while.  The 
doctor  being  troubled  in  liis  mind,  went 
away,  and  returned  into  England,  and  com- 
ing to  the  court,  obtained  another  commis- 
sion ;  but  staying  for  a  wind  on  the  water- 
side, news  came  to  him  that  the  queen  was 
dead ;  and  thus  God  preserved  the  Protes- 
tants of  Ii-eland." — Queen  Elizabeth  was  so 
delighted  with  this  story,  which  was  related 
to  her  by  lord  Fitz-Walter  on  his  return  to 
England,  that  she  sent  for  Elizabeth  Ed- 
monds, whose  husband's  name  was  Matter- 
shad,  and  gave  her  a  pension  of  40/.  during 
her  life. 

In  Scotland,  the  seeds  of  reformation 
were  very  early  sown  by  several  noblemen 
■who  had  resided  in  Germany  during  the  re- 
ligious disputes  there  ;  but  for  n)any  years 
it  was  suppressed  by  the  power  of  the  pope, 
seconded  by  inhuman  laws  and  barbarous  ex- 
ecutions. The  most  eminent  opposer  of  the 
papal  jurisdiction  was  John  Knox,  a  disciple 
of  Calvin,  a  man  of  great  zeal  and  invinci- 
ble fortitude.  On  all  occasions  he  raised 
the  drooping  spirits  of  the  reformers,  and 
encouraged  them  to  go  on  with  their  work, 
notwithstanding  the  opposition  and  treache- 
ry of  the  queen-regent ;  till  at  last,  in  1561, 
by  the  assistance  of  an  English  arm)^  sent 
by  Elizabeth,  popery  was,  in  a  manner,  to- 
tally extirpated  throughout  the  kingdom. 
From  this  period  the  form  of  doctrine,  wor- 
ship, and  discipline,  established  by  Calvin, 
at  Geneva,  has  had  the  ascendency  in 
Scotland. 

On  the  review  of  this  article,  Avhat  reason 
have  we  to  admire  Infinite  Wisdom,  in 
making  human  events  apparently  fortuitous, 
subservient  to  the  spread  of  the  Gospel  ! 
What  reason  to  adore  that  Divine  Power 
wliich  was  here  evidently  manifested  in  op- 


position to  all  the  powers  of  the  world ! 
What  reason  to  praise  that  Goodness,  which 
thus  caused  light  and  truth  to  break  f(uth 
for  the  happiness  and  salvation  of  millions  of 
the  human  race. 

For  farther  information  on  this  interesting 
subject,  we  refer  our  readers  to  the  works 
of  tiurnet  and  Brant  ;  to  Beo.vsobre's  His- 
toire  de  la  Reformation  dans  CEmJiire,  et 
les  Etats  de  la  ConJ'ission  d'Augsbour^^  de- 
funs  1517-1530,  in  4  vols.  8vo  Berlin,  1785, 
Mosheim'a  Ecclesiastical  History ;  and  par- 
ticularly the  Apjiendix  to  vol.  iv.  p.  136,  on 
the  Sfivrit  of  the  Reformers,  by  Dr.  Mac- 
laine.  See  also  Sleidan  De  Statu  Religion- 
is  et  Reipublicx  Carlo  V.  Father  FauCs 
Hist,  of  the  Council  of  Trent.  Robertson's 
Hist,  of  Charles  V  Knox's  and  J)r.  Gil- 
bert Steward's  Hist,  of  the  Reformation  in 
Scotland.  Enc.  Brit,  yln  Essay  on  the 
S/iirit  and  Influence  of  the  Reformation  by 
Luther,  by  B.  C.  Filliers,  which  work  ob- 
tained the  prize  on  this  question  (proposed 
by  the  National  Institute  of  France,  in  the 
public  sitting  of  the  15th  Germinal,  in  the 
year  10,)  "  What  has  been  the  influence  of 
the  reformation  by  Luther  on  the  political 
situation  of  the  different  states  of  Europe, 
and  on  the  progress  of  knowledge?"  H, 
Moore's  Hints  to  a  Young  Princess,  vol.  ii. 
ch.  35. 

REFORMED  CHURCH.  See  Church 
Reformp:d. 

REFUGEES,  a  term  first  applied  to  the 
French  Protestants,  who,  by  the  revocation 
of  the  edict  of  Nantes,  were  constrained  to 
fly  from  persecution,  and  take  refuge  in 
foreign  countries.  Since  that  time,  how- 
ever, it  has  been  extended  to  all  such  as 
leave  their  country  in  times  of  distress. 
See  Huguenots. 

REGIUM  DONUM  MONEY,  money 
allowed  by  government  to  the  Dissenters. 
The  origin  of  it  was  in  the  year  1723.  As 
the  Dissenters  approved  themselves  strong 
friends  to  the  house  of  Brunswick,  they  en- 
joyed favour ;  and,  being  excluded  all  lu- 
crative preferment  in  the  church,  the  prime 
minister  wished  to  reward  them  for  their 
loyalty,  and,  by  a  retaining  fee,  preserve 
them  steadfast.  A  considerable  sum,  there- 
fore, was  annually  lodged  with  the  heads  of 
the  Presbyterians,  Independents,  and  Bap- 
tists, to  be  distributed  among  the  necessiti- 
ous  ministers  of  their  congregations. 

REflENERATION,  a  new  birth  ;  that 
work  of  the  Holy  Spirit  by  which  we  expe- 
rience a  change  of  heart.  It  is  to  be  dis- 
tinguished from  baptism  which  is  an  exter- 
nal rite,  though  some  have  confounded  them 
together.  Nor  does  it  signify  a  mere  refor- 
mation of  the  outward  conduct.  Nor  is  it  a 
conversion  from  one  sect  or  creed  to  ano- 
ther ;  or  even  from  atlieism.  Nor  are  new 
faculties  given  in  th's  change.  Nor  does  it 
consist  in  new  revelations,  succession  of  ter- 
rors or  consolations ;  or  any  whisper  as  it 
were  from  God  to  the  heart,  concerning 
his  secret  love,  choice  or  purpose  to  save 


REL 


454 


REL 


us.  It  is  expressed  in  scripture  by  being 
bom  again,  John  jii.  7.  born  from  above,  so 
it  may  be  rendered,  John  iii.  2,  7,  27.  being 
quickened,  Epheg.  ii.  1.  Christ  formed  in 
the  heart,  Gal.  iv.  12.  a  partaking  of  the 
Divine  nature,  2  Pet.  i.  4.  The  efficient 
cause  of  regeneration  is  the  Divine  Spirit. 
That  man  is  not  the  author  of  it  is  evident, 
if  we  consider,  1.  The  case  in  which  men 
are  before  it  takes  place ;  a  state  of  igno- 
rance and  inability,  John  iii.  4. — 2.  The  na- 
ture of  the  work  shews  plainly  that  it  is  not 
in  the  power  of  men  to  do  it :  it  is  called 
a  creation,  a  production  of  a  new  principle 
which  was  not  before,  and  which  man 
could  not  himself  produce,  Eph.  ii.  8,  10. — 
3.  It  is  expressly  denied  to  be  of  men,  but 
declared  to  be  of  God,  John  i.  12,  13.  1 
John  iii.  9.  The  instrumental  cause,  if  it 
may  be  so  called,  is  the  word  of  God,  Jam. 
i.  18.  1  Cor.  iv.  15.  The  evide?ices  of  it 
are,  conviction  of  sin,  holy  sorrow,  deep 
humility,  knowledge,  faith,  repentance,  love, 
and  devotedness  to  God's  glory.  The  firo-  j 
perties  of  it  are  these :  1.  It  is  a  passive  j 
work,  and  herein  it  differs  from  conversion,  j 
In  regeneration  we  are  passive,  and  receive  i 
from  God  ;  in  conversion  we  are  active,  and  ' 
turn  to  him. — 2.  It  is  an  irresistible,  or 
rather  an  invincible,  work  of  God's  grace, 
Eph.  iii.  8. — 3.  It  is  an  instantaneous  act, 
for  there  can  be  no  medium  between  life 
and  death  ;  and  here  it  differs  from  sancti- 
fication,  which  is  progressive. — 4.  It  is  a 
complete  act,  and  perfect  in  its  kind  ;  a 
change  of  the  whole  man  2  Cor  v.  17. — 5. 
It  is  a  great  and  important  act,  both  as  to 
its  author  and  effects.  Eph.  ii.  4,  5. — 6.  It 
is  an    internal  act,    not  consisting  in   bare 

outward  forms,   Ezek.    xxxvi.    26,    27 7. 

Visible  as  to  its  effects,  1  John  iii.  14. — 8. 
Delightful,  1  Pet.  i.  8. — 9.  N  cessary,  John 
iii.  3. — 10.  It  is  an  act,  the  bUssings  of 
which  we  can  never  finally  lose,  John  xiii.  1. 
See  Calling,  Conversion;  and  Char- 
?iock's  Works,  vol.  ii.  p.  i — 230.  Cole  and 
Wright,  but  especiallv  Witherspoon  on  Re- 
generatio7i.  Doddridge's  Ten  Sermons  on 
the  Subject.  Dr.  Gill's  Body  of  Divinity, 
article  Regeneration.  Dr.  Owen  on  the 
Spirit.    Lime  Street  Lectures,  ser.  8. 

RELICS,  m  the  Roman  church,  the  re- 
mains of  tht:  bodies  or  clothes  of  saints  or 
martyr.s,  and  the  instruments  by  which 
they  werep'jt  to  death,  devoutly  preserved, 
in  honour  to  their  memory ;  kissed,  reve- 
red, and  carried  in  procession. 

The  respect  which  was  justly  due  to  the 
martyrs  and  teachers  of  the  Christian  faith. 
In  a  few  ages,  increased  almost  to  adora- 
tion ;  and  at  length  adoration  was  really 
paid  both  to  departed  saints,  and  to  relics  of 
holy  men,  or  holy  things.  The  abuses  of 
the  church  of  Rome  with  respect  to  relics, 
are  very  flagrant  and  notorious;  for  such 
was  the  rage  for  them  at  one  time,  that, 
as  F.  Mabillon,  a  Benedictine,  justly  com- 
plains, Uie  altars  were  loaded  with  suspect- 
ed relics;   numerous  spurious  ones  being 


every  where  offered  to  the  piety  and  devo- 
tion of  the  faithful.  He  adds,  too,  that 
bones  are  often  consecrated,  which,  so  far 
from  belonging  to  saints,  probably  do  not 
belong  to  Christians.  Fi'om  the  catacombs 
numerous  relics  have  been  taken,  and  yet  it 
is  not  known  who  are  the  persons  interred 
therein.  In  the  eleventh  century,  relics 
were  tried  by  fire,  and  those  which  did  not 
consume  were  reckoned  genuine,  and  the 
rest  not.  Relics  were,  and  still  are,  pre- 
sented on  the  altars  whereon  mass  is  cele- 
brated :  a  square  hole  being  made  in  the 
middle  of  the  attar  big  enough  to  receive 
the  hand  ;  and  herein  is  the  relic  deposited, 
being  first  wrapped  in  red  silk,  and  enclos- 
ed in  a  leaden  box. 

The  Romani  ts  plead  antiquity  in  behalf 
of  relics  ;  for  the  Manichees,  out  of  hatred 
to  the  flesh,  which  they  considered  as 
an  evil  principle,  refused  to  honour  the 
relics  of  saints  ;  which  is  reckoned  a  kind 
of  proof  that  the  Catholics  did  it  in  the  first 
ages. 

We  know,  indeed,  that  the  touching  of 
linen  cloths,  or  relics,  from  an  opinion  of 
some  extraordinary  virtue  derived  there- 
from, was  as  ancient  as  the  first  ages,  there 
being  a  hole  made  in  the  cofiins  of  the 
forty  martyrs  at  Constantinople  expressly 
for  that  purpose.  The  honouring  the  relics 
of  saints,  on  which  the  church  of  Rome 
afterwards  founded  her  superstitions  and 
lucrative  use  of  them,  as  objects  of  devotion, 
as  a  kind  of  charms,  or  amulets,  and  as  in- 
struments of  pretended  miracles,  appears 
to  have  originated  in  a  very  ancient  custom 
that  prevailed  among  Christians  of  assem- 
bling at  the  cemeteries,  ■  or  buiying  places, 
of  the  martyrs,  for  the  purpose  of  comme- 
njorating  them,  and  of  performing  divine 
worship.  When  the  profession  of  Chris- 
tianity obtained  the  protection  of  civil  go- 
vernment, under  Constantine  the  Great, 
stately  churches  were  erected  over  sepul- 
chres, and  their  names  and  memories  were 
treated  with  every  possible  token  of  affec- 
tion and  respect.  This  reverence,  however, 
gradually  exceeded  all  reasonable  bounds ; 
and  those  prayers  and  religious  services 
were  thought  to  have  a  pecuUar  sanctity 
and  virtue  which  were  performed  over 
their  tombs:  hence  the  practice  which 
afterwards  obtained  of  depositing  relics  of 
saints  and  martyrs  under  the  altars  in  all 
churches.  This  practice  was  then  thought 
of  such  importance,  that  St.  Ambrose 
would  not  consecrate  a  church  because  it 
had  no  relics;  and  the  cuncil  of  Constan- 
tinople in  TruUo,  ordained,  that  those  altars 
should  be  demolished  under  which  there 
were  found  no  relics.  The  rage  of  procur- 
ing relics  for  this  and  other  purposes  of  a 
similar  nature  became  so  excessive,  that  in 
386,  the  emperor  Theodosius  the  Great  was 
obliged  to  pass  a  law,  forbidding  the  people 
to  dig  lip  the  bodies  of  the  martyrr,  and  to 
traffic  in  their  relics. 

Such  was  the  origin  of  that  respect  for 


REL 


455 


REL 


sacred  relics,  which  afterwards  was  per- 
verted into  a  formal  worship  of  them,  and 
became  the  occasion  of  innumerable  proces- 
sions, pilgrimages,  and  miracles,  from  which 
the  church  of  Rome  hath  derived  incredible 
advantage.  In  the  end  of  the  ninth  cen- 
tury, it  was  not  sufficient  to  reverence  de- 
parted saints,  and  to  confide  in  their  inter- 
cessions and  succours :  to  clothe  them  with 
an  imaginary  power  of  healing  diseases, 
working  miracles,  and  delivering  from  all 
sorts  of  calamities  and  dangers  ;  their  bones, 
their  clothes,  the  apparel  and  furniture 
they  had  possessed  during  their  lives,  the 
very  ground  which  they  had  touched,  or  in 
which  their  putrified  carcasses  were  laid, 
were  treated  with  a  stupid  veneration,  and 
supposed  to  retain  the  marvellous  virtue  of 
healing  all  disorders,  both  of  body  and 
mind,  and  of  defending  such  as  possessed 
them  against  all  the  assaults  and  devices  of 
the  devil.  The  consequence  of  all  this  was, 
that  every  one  was  eager  to  provide  himself 
with  these  salutary  remedies ;  consequently 
great  numbers  undertook  fatiguing  and 
perilous  voyages,  and  subjected  themselves 
to  all  sorts  of  hardships  ;  while  others  made 
use  of  this  delusion  to  accumulate  their 
riches,  and  to  impose  upon  the  miserable 
multitude  by  the  most  impious  and  shock- 
ing inventions.  As  the  demand  for  relics 
was  prodigious  and  universal,  the  clergy  em- 
ployed the  utmost  dexterity  to  satisfy  all 
demands,  and  were  far  from  being  nice  in 
the  methods  they  used  for  that  end.  The 
bodies  of  the  saints  were  sought  by  fasting 
and  prayer,  instituted  by  the  priest,  in  order 
to  obtain  a  divine  answer,  and  an  infallible 
direction ;  and  this  pretended  direction 
never  failed  to  accomplish  their  desires ; 
the  holy  carcass  was  always  found,  and 
that  always  in  consequence,  as  they  impi- 
ously gave  out,  of  the  suggestion  and  inspi- 
ration of  God  himself.  Each  discovery  of 
this  kind  was  attended  with  excessive  de- 
monstrations of  joy,  and  animated  the  zeal 
of  these  devout  seekers,  to  enrich  the  church 
still  more  and  more  with  this  new  kind  of 
treasure.  Many  travelled  Avith  this  view 
into  the  Eastern  provinces,  and  frequented 
the  places  which  Christ  and  his  disciples 
had  honoured  with  their  presence ;  that 
with  the  bones  and  other  sacred  remains  of 
the  first  heralds  of  the  Gospel,  they  might 
comfort  dejected  minds,  calm  trembling 
consciences,  save  sinking  states,  and  defend 
their  inhabitants  from  all  soils  of  calamities 
Nor  did  these  pious  travellers  return  home 
^mpty:  the  craft,  dexterity,  and  knavery 
of  the  Greeks,  found  a  rich  prey  ip  the 
stupid  credulity  of  the  Latin  relic-hunters, 
and  made  a  profitable  commerce  of  this 
new  devotion.  The  latter  paid  consider- 
able sums  for  legs  and  arms,  skulls  and 
jaw-bones  (several  of  which  were  Pagan, 
and  some  not  human,)  and  other  things 
that  were  supposed  to  have  belonged  to  the 
primitive  worthies  of  the  Christian  church  ; 
and  thus  the  Latin  churches   came  to  the 


Kossession  of  those  celebrated  relics  of  St. 
lark,  SL  James,  St.  Bartholomew,  Cyprian, 
Pantaleon,  and  others,  which  they  shew  at 
this  day  with  so  much  ostentation.  But  there 
were  many,  who,  unable  to  procure  for  them- 
selves these  spiritual  treasures  by  voyages 
and  prayere,  had  recourse  to  violence  and 
theft ;  for  all  sorts  of  means,  and  all  sorts  of 
attempts,  in  a  cause  of  this  nature,  were 
considered,  when  successful,  as  pious  and 
acceptable  to  the  Supreme  Being.  Besides 
the  arguments  from  antiquity  to  which  the 
Papists  refer  in  vindication  of  their  worship 
of  relics,  of  which  the  reader  may  form 
some  judgment  from  this  article,  Bellarmine 
appeals  to  scripture  in  support  of  it;  and 
cites  the  following  passages,  viz.  Exod  xiii. 
19.  Deut  xxxiv.  6.  2  Kings  xiii.  21.  2 
Kings  xxiii.  16,  17,  18.  Isaiah  xi.  10.  Matt, 
xi.  20,  21,  22.  Acts  v.  12,  15.  Acts  xix. 
11,  12. 

The  Roman  Catholics  in  Great  Britain 
do  not  acknowledge  any  worship  to  be  due 
to  relics,  but  merely  a  high  veneration  and 
respect,  by  which  means  they  think  they 
honour  God,  who,  they  say,  has  often 
wrought  very  extraordinary  miracles  by 
them.  But,  however  proper  this  veneration 
and  respect  may  be,  its  abuse  has  been  so 
great  and  so  general,  as  fully  to  warrant  the 
rejection  of  them  altogether. 

Relics  are  forbidden  to  be  used  or  brought 
into  England  by  several  statutes ;  and  jus- 
tices of  peace  are  empowered  to  search 
houses  for  popish  books  and  relics,  which 
when  found,  are  to  be  defaced,  and  burnt, 
&c.  ,'?.  Jac.  I.  cap.  26. 

RELIEF,  a  species  of  Dissenters  in  Scot- 
land, whose  only  difference  from  the  Scotch 
established  church  is  the  choosing  their 
own  pastors.  They  were  separated  from 
the  church  in  the  year  lf52,  occasioned  by 
Mr.  Thomas  Gillepsie  being  deposed  for 
refusing  to  assist  at  the  admission  of  a  mi- 
nister to  a  parish  who  were  unwilling  to 
receive  him.  When  Mr.  Gillepsie  was  de- 
prived of  his  parish,  he  removed  to  Dum- 
fermline,  and  preached  there  to  a  congrega- 
tion who  were  attached  to  him,  and  vehe- 
mently opposed  the  law  of  patronage.  Being 
excluded  from  the  communion  of  the  church, 
he,  with  two  or  three  other  ministers,  con- 
stituted themselves  into  a  presbytery,  called 
the  Presbytery  of  Relief;  willing  to  afford 
rehef  to  all  "  who  adhered  to  the  constitu- 
tion of  the  church  of  Scotland,  as  exhibited 
in  her  creeds,  canons,  confessions,  and  forms 
of  worship."  They  are  unwilling  it  is  said, 
to  be  reckoned  seceders.  Their  licentiates 
are  educated  under  the  established  church 
professors,  whose  certificates  they  acknow- 
ledge. Many  of  their  people  receive  the 
Lord's  supper  with  equal  readiness  in  the 
established  church  as  in  their  own.  The 
relief  synod  consists  of  about  sixty  congrega- 
tions, and  about  36,000  persons. 

RELIGION  is  a  Latin  word,  derived, 
according  to  Cicero,  from  relegere,  "  to 
re-consider;"  but,  according  to  Servjus  and 


REL 


456 


PRO 


most  modern  gx*ammarians,  from  religare, 
"■  to  bind  fast."  If  the  Ciceronian  etymiio- 
gy  be  the  true  one,  the  word  religion  will 
denote  the  diligent  study  of  whatever  per- 
tains to  the  worship  of  God  ;  but,  according 
to  the  other  derivation,  it  denotes  that  obli- 
gation which  we  feel  on  our  minds  from  the 
relation  in  which  we  stand  to  some  superior 
Power.  The  word  is  sometimes  used  as 
synonymous  with  sect ;  but,  in  a  practical 
sense,  it  is  generally  considered  as  the  same 
•with  godliness,  or  a  life  devoted  to  the  wor- 
ship and  fear  of  God.  Dr.  Doddridge  thus 
defines  it :  "  Religion  consists  in  the  resolu- 
tion of  the  will  for  God,  and  in  a  constant 
care  to  avoid  what  ever  we  are  persuaded 
he  would  disapprove,  to  despatch  the  work 
he  has  assigned  us  in  life,  and  to  promote 
his  glory  in  the  happiness  of  mankind." 
[See  Godliness.]  The  foundation  of  all 
religion  rests  on  the  belief  of  the  existence 
of  God.  As  we  have,  however,  already 
considered  the  evidences  of  the  Divine  ex- 
istence, they  need  not  be  enumerated  again 
in  this  place ;  the  reader  will  find  them 
under  the  article  Existence  of  God. 

Religion  has  been  divided  into  natural  and 
revealed.  By  natural  religion  is  meant  that 
knowledge,  veneration,  and  love  of  God, 
and  the  practice  of  those  duties  to  him,  our 
fellow-creatures,  and  ourselves,  which  are 
discoverable  by  the  right  exercise  of  our  ra- 
tional faculties,  from  considering  the  nature 
and  perfections  of  God,  and  our  relation  to 
him  and  to  one  another.  By  revealed  religion 
is  understood  that  discovery  which  he  has 
made  to  usof  his  mind  and  will  in  the  holyscrip- 
tures.  As  it  respects  natural  religion,  some 
doubt  whether,  properly  speaking,  there  can 
be  any  such  thing ;  since,  through  the  fall, 
reason  is  so  depraved,  that  man  without  re- 
velation is  under  the  greatest  darkness  and 
misery,  as  may  be  easily  seen  by  consider- 
ing the  history  of  those  nations  who  are 
destitute  of  it,  and  who  are  given  up  to  bar- 
barism, ignorance,  cruelty,  and  evils  of  every 
kind.  So  far  as  this,  however,  may  be  ob- 
served, that  the  light  of  nature  can  give  us 
no  proper  ideas  of  God,  nor  inform  us  what 
worship  will  be  acceptable  to  him.  It  does 
not  tell  us  how  man  became  a  fallen  sinful 
creature,  as  he  is,  nor  how  he  can  be  re- 
covered. It  afifords  us  no  intelligence  as  to 
the  immortality  of  the  soul,  the  resurrection 
of  the  body,  and  a  future  state  of  happiness 
and  misery.  The  apostle,  indeed,  observes, 
that  the  Gentiles  have  the  law  written  on 
their  hearts,  and  are  a  law  unto  themselves ; 
yet  the  greatest  moralists  among  them  were 
so  blinded  as  to  be  guilty  of,  and  actually  to 
countenance  the  greatest  vices.  Such  a  sys- 
tem, therefore,  it  is  supposed,  can  hardly  be 
said  to  be  religious  which  leaves  man  in 
such  uncertainty,  ignorance,  and  impiety. 
[See  Revelation.]  On  the  other  side  it 
is  observed,  "  that,  though  it  is  in  the  high- 
est degree  probable  that  the  parents  of  man- 
kind received  all  their  theological  know- 


ledge by  sufiernatural  means,  it  is  yet  ob- 
vious that  some  parts  of  that  knowledge 
must  have  been  capable  of  a  proof  purely 
rational,  otherwise  not  a  single  religious 
truth  could  have  been  conveyed  tlirough  the 
succeeding  generations  of  the  human  race 
but  by  the  immediate  inspiration  of  each  in- 
dividual. We,  indeed,  admit  many  propo- 
sitions as  certainly  true,  upon  the  sole  au- 
thority of  the  Jewish  and  Christian  scrip- 
tures, and  we  receive  these  scriptures  with 
gratitude  as  the  lively  oracles  of  God  ;  but 
it  is  self-evident  that  we  could  not  do  either 
the  one  or  the  other,  were  we  not  convin- 
ced by  natural  means  that  God  exists ;  that 
he  is  a  being  of  goodness,  justice,  and  pow- 
er;  and  that  he  inspired  with  divine  wis- 
dom the  penmen  of  these  sacred  volumes. 
Now,  though  it  is  very  possible  that  no  man, 
or  body  of  men,  left  to  themselves  from  in- 
fancy in  a  desert  world,  would  e^•er  have 
made  a  theological  discovery,  yet,  Avhatever 
propositions  relating  to  the  being  and  attri- 
butes of  the  First  Cause,  and  duty  of  man, 
can  be  demonstrated  by  human  reason,  inde- 
pendent of  written  revelation,  may  be  call- 
ed  natural  theology,  and  are  of  the  utmost 
importance,  as  being  to  us  the  first  princi- 
ples of  all  religion.  Natural  theology,  in 
this  sense  of  the  word,  is  the  foundation  of 
the  Christian  revelation ;  for,  without  a  pre- 
vious knowledge  of  it,  we  could  have  no 
evidence  that  the  scriptures  of  the  Old  and 
New  Testaments  are  indeed  the  word  of 
God." 

The  religions  which  exist  in  the  woi'ld 
have  been  generally  divided  into  four,  the 
Pagan,  the  Jewish,  the  Mahometan,  and  the 
Cliristian ;  to  which  articles  the  reader  is 
referred.  The  various  duties  of  the  Chris- 
tian religion  also  are  stated  in  their  differ- 
ent places.  See  also,  as  connected  with 
this  article  the  articles  Inspiration,  Re- 
velation, and  THEOLOGy,  and  books 
there  recommended. 

RELIGIOUS,  in  a  general  sense,  some- 
thing that  relates  to  religion.  It  is  also  used 
for  a  person  engaged  by  solemn  vows  to  the 
monastic  life ;  or  a  person  shut  up  in  a  mo- 
nasteiy,  to  lead  a  life  of  devotion  and  aus- 
terity under  some  rule  or  institution.  The 
male  religious  are  called  monAs  and/riars  ; 
the  females,  nuns  and  canoneases. 

RELLYANISTS,  or  Relly an  Uni ver- 
balists, the  followers  of  Mr.  James  Kelly. 
He  first  commenced  his  ministerial  charac- 
ter in  connection  with  Mr.  VVIiite field,  and 
was  received  with  great  popularity.  Upon 
a  change  of  his  views,  he  encountered  re- 
proach, and  was  pronounced  by  many  as  an 
enemy  to  godliness.  He  be'ieved  that  Christ 
as  a  mediator  was  so  united  to  mankind, 
that  his  actions  were  theirs,  his  obe- 
dience and  sufiTcriiigs  theirs ;  and,  conse- 
quently, that  he  has  as  fully  restored  the 
whole  human  race  to  the  divine  favour,  ^ns 
if  all  had  obeyed  and  suffered  in  their  own 


REM 


457 


REP 


persons ;  and  upon  this  persuasion  he  preach- 
ed a  fiiiislied  salvation,  called  hy  the  apostle 
Jude,  "  The  comiiinn  salvation."    JMany  ot 
his  followers  are  removed  to  the  world  of 
spirits,  but  a  branch  still  survives,  and  meets 
at  the  chapel  in  Windmill  street,  Moorfields, 
London ;  where  tliere  are  different  brethren 
to  speak.     They  are  not  observers  of  ordi- 
nances, sucii  as  water-baptism  and  the  sa- 
crament; professing  to  believe  only  in  one 
baptism,   which  they  call  an  immersion  of 
the  mind  or  conscience  into   truth   by  the 
teaching  of  the  Spirit  of  God  ;  and  by  the 
same  bpirit  tiiey  are  enabled  to  feed  on 
Christ  as  the  bread  of  life,  professing  that 
in   and   with  Jesus  they  possess   all  things. 
I'hey  inculcate   and   maintain  good  works 
for   necessary   purposes;    but  contend   tliat 
the  principal  and  only  works  wliicii  ought 
to  be  attended   to,   is  the   doing  real  good 
without  religious  ostentation  ;    that   to  re- 
Keve  the  miseries  and  distresses  of  mankind 
according  to  our  ability,  is  doing  more  real 
good  than  the   superstitious  observance  of 
religious  ceremonies.     In  general   they  ap- 
pear to  believe  that   there  -will  be  a   resur- 
rection to  life,   and  a  resurrection   to  con- 
demnation ;    that    believers    only    will    be 
among  the  form.er,   who  as  first  fruits,  and 
kings  and  priests,  will  have  part  in  the  first 
resuiTection,  and  sliall  reign  with  Christ  in 
his  kingdom  of  the  millennium;  that  unbelie- 
vers who  are  after  raised,  must  wait  the 
manifestation  of  the  Saviour  of  the  world, 
under  the  condemnation  ( f  conscience  which 
a  mind  in  darkness  and  wrath  must  neces- 
sarily feel ;  that  believers,  called  kings  and  ' 
priests,   will  be  made  the  medium  of  com- 1 
munication  to   their  condemned   brethren ;  1 
and  like  Joseph  to  his  brethren,  though  he  j 
spoke  roughly  to  them,  in  reality  overflow- 
ed with  affection  and  tenderness ;  that  ulti- 
mately every   knee  shall  bow,   and  eveiy 
tongue  confess  that  in  the  Lord  they  have 
righteousness  and  strength  ;  and  thus  every 
enemy  shall  be  subdued  to  the  kingdom  and  I 
glory  of  the  Great  Mediator.    A  Mr.  Mur- 
ray belonging  to  this   society  emigrated  to 
America,  and  preached  these  sentiments  at 
Boston  and  elsewhere.    Mr.  Rellv  publish- 
ed several  works,   the  principal   of  which 
v/ere,    "  Union."    "  The  Trial  of  Spirits." 
"  Christian    Liberty"      "  One    Baptism." 
"  The  Salt  of  Sacrifice."    "  Antichrist  re- 
sisted."    "  Letters  on  Universal  Salvation." 
■"  The  Chernbimical  Mystery." 

REMEDL^L  LAW.  See  Law;  and  ar- 
ticle JlTSTIFIC.^TION.   p.  455.    vol.  1. 

REMONSTRANTS,  a  title  given  to  the 
Arminifins,  by  reason  of  the  remonstrance 
which,  in  1610,  they  made  to  the  states  of 
Holland  against  the  seritfnce  of  the  Svnod 
of  Dnrt,  which  condemned  them  as  here- 
tics. T-Lpiscopius  and  Grotins  were  at  the 
head  of  the  Remonstrants,  whose  principles 
were  first  onenly  patronized  in  Englavd  bv 
archbishop  Laud.  In  Holland,  the  Calvi- 
nists  presented  an  address  in  opposition  to 
the  remonstrance  of  tlie  Arminians,   and 

3M 


\  called  it  a  counfcr-remonstrance.    See  Ar- 
HUMAN'S,  and  Dort- 

RKiVIOHSE,  uneasiness  occasioned  by  a 
consciousness  of  guilt.  When  it  is  blended 
witli  the  fear  of  punishment,  and  arises  to 
despair,  it  constitutes  the  bupreme  wretch- 
edness of  the  mind. 

REPENTANCE,  in  general,  is  sorrow 
for  any  thing  past.  In  theology  it  signifies 
that  son-ow  for  sin  which  produces  newness 
ot  lite.  The  Greek  word  most  frequently 
used  in  the  New  Testament  for  repentance  is 
y-el^.voix,  which  properly  denotes  an  after- 
thought, or  the  soul  recollecting  its  own  act- 
ings; and  that  in  such  a  manner  as  to  pro- 
duce sorrow  in  the  review,  and  a  desire  of 
amendment.  Another  word  also  is  used 
'ju.e]ci,u.iXa/,uti,)  which  signifies  anxiety  or 
uneasiness  upon  the  consideration  of  what  is 
df)ne.  There  ar  ,  however,  various  kinds  of 
repentance ;  as,  1.  A  natural  repentance, 
or  what  is  merely  the  effect  of  natural  con- 
science.— 2.  A  national  repentance,  such  as 
the  Jews  in  Babylon  were  called  unto  ;  to 
which  temporal  blessings  were  promised, 
Ezek.  xviii.  30. — 3.  An  fx^errra/ repentance, 
or  an  outward  humiliation  for  sin,  as  in  the 
case  of  .\hab  — 4.  A  Inifiocritical  repentance, 
as  represented  in  Ei)hraim,  Hos.  vii.  16 — 
5.  A  legal  repentance.  Avhich  is  a  mera 
work  of  the  law,  and  the  effect  of  convic- 
tions of  sin  by  it,  which  in  time  wear  off, 
and  come  tonoti'ing. — 6.  An  evangelical  re- 
pentance,  which  consists  in  conviction  of 
sin  ;  sorrow  for  it ;  confession  of  it ;  hatred 
to  it ;  and  renunciation  of  it.  A  legal  and 
evangelical  repentance  are  distinguished 
thus:  1.  A  legal  repentance  Hows  only 
from  a  sense  of  danger  and  fear  of  wrath  ; 
but  an  evangelical  repentance  is  ."i  true 
mourning  for  sin,  and  an  earnest  desire  of 
deliverance  from  it. — 2.  A  legal  repentance 
flows  from  unbelief,  but  evangelical  is  always 
the  fruit  and  consequence  of  a  saving  faith. 
— 3.  A  legal  repentance  flows  from  an  aver- 
sion to  God  and  to  his  holy  law,  but  an  evan- 
gelical from  love  to  both. — 4.  A  legal  re- 
pentance ordinarily  flows  from  discourage- 
ment and  despondency,  but  evangelical  from 
encouraging  hope — 5.  A  legal  repentance  is 
temporary,  but  evangelical  is  the  daily  ex- 
ercise of  the  true  Christian — 6.  A  legal  re- 
pentance does  at  most  produce  only  a  par- 
tial and  external  reformation,  but  an  evan- 
gelical is  a  total  change  of  heart  and  life. 

The  author  of  true  repentance  is  God, 
Acts  v.  31.  The  stibjects  of  it  are  sinners, 
since  none  but  those  who  have  sinned  can 
repent.  Ihe  means  of  repentance  is  the 
Word,  and  the  ministers  of  it:  yet  some- 
times consideration,  sanctified  afflictions, 
conversion,  &c.  have  i)een  the  instruments 
of  repentance.  The  blessings  connected 
with  repentance  are,  pardon,  peace,  and 
everlasting  life.  Acts  xi.  18.  The  ti?ne  of 
repentance  is  the  pn  sent  life,  Isaiah  Iv.  6. 
Eccl.  ix.  50  The  evidences  of  repentance 
are,  faith,  humility,  prayer,  and  obedience, 


REP 


458 


RE  S 


Zech.  xii.  10.  The  ^^cc^rss/r!/ of  repentance 
appears  evident  from  the  evil  of  sin ;  the 
misery  it  involves  us  in  here :  the  com- 
mands given  us  to  repent  in  God's  word  ; 
the  promises  made  to  the  penitent ;  and  the 
absolute  incapability  of  enjoying  God  here  or 
hereafter  without  it.  See  Dickmson's  Let- 
ters, let  9.  Dr.  Owen  on  the  130th  Psalm. 
Gill's  liody  of  DivinJty,  article  Repentance, 
liidgley's  Body  of  Divinity,  question  76. 
Davics"  Sermons.,  ser.  44.  vol.  iii.  Case's 
Ser})io7is,  ser.  4.  lVhitfehrsSer7no7is.Saurin'fi 
Sermons,  s^er.  9.  vol.  iii.  Robinso?i's  Trans- 
lation. Scott's  Treatise  on  Repentance. 

REPROACH,  the  act  of  finding  fault  in 
opprobrious  terms,  or  attempting  to  expose 
to  infamy  and  disgrace.  In  whatever  cause 
we  engage,  however  disinterested  our  mo- 
tives, however  laudable  our  designs,  re- 
proach is  what  we  must  expect.  But  it  be- 
comes us  not  to  retaliate,  but  to  bear  it  pa- 
tiently ;  and  so  to  live,  that  every  charge 
brought  against  us  be  groundless.  If  we  be 
repi'oached  for  righteousness  sake,  we  have 
no  reason  to  be  ashamed  nor  to  be  afraid. 
All  good  men  have  thus  suffered,  Jesus 
Christ  himself  especially.  We  have  the 
greatest  ])romises  of  support.  Besides,  it 
has  a  tendency  to  humble  us,  detach  us 
from  the  world,  and  excite  in  us  a  desire 
for  that  state  of  blessedness,  where  all  i^e- 
proach  shall  be  done  away, 

REPROBATION,  the  act  of  abandoning, 
or  state  of  being  abandoned  to  eternal  de- 
struction, and  is  applied  to  that  decree  or 
resolve  which  God  has  taken  from  all  eter- 
nity to  punish  sinners  who  shall  die  in  im- 
penitence ;  in  which  sense  it  is  opposed  to 
election.  See  Election  and  Predesti- 
nation. 

REPROOF,  blame  or  reprehension  spoken 
to  a  person's  face.  It  is  distinguished  from 
a  repri?nand  thus  :  He  who  reproves  ano- 
ther, points  out  his  fault,  and  blames  him. 
lie  who  refinmands,  affects  to  punis's  and 
mortifies  the  offender.  In  giving  reproof 
the  following  rules  may  be  observed,  1.  We 
should  not  be  forward  in  reproving  our 
elders  or  superiors,  but  rather  to  remon- 
strate and  supplicate  for  redress.  What  the 
ministers  of  God  do  in  this  kind,  they  do 
by  special  commission,  as  those  that  must 
give  an  account,  1  Tim.  v.  1.  Heb.  xiii.  17. 
—2.  We  must  not  repi'ove  rashly;  the-e 
should  be  proof  before  reproof. — 3.  We 
sliould  not  reprove  for  slight  matters,  for 
such  faults  or  defects  as  proceed  from  natu- 
ral frailty,  from  inadvertency,  or  mistake  in 
mattersof  small  consequence — 4.  We  should 
never  reprove  unseasonably,  as  to  the  time, 
the  place,  or  the  circumstances. — 5.  We 
should  reprove  mildly  and  sweetly,  in  the 
calmest  manner,  in  the  gentlest  terms. — 6. 
W'^e  should  not  affect  to  be  reprehtnsive  : 
perha])s  there  is  no  one  considered  more 
troublesome  than  he  who  delights  in  finding 
)  fault  with  others.  In  receiving  reproof  it 
may  be  observed,  1.  That  we  should  not 
.     reject  it  merely  because  it  may  conic  from 


those  who  are  not  exactly  on  a  level  with 
ourselves. — 2.  We  should  consider  whether 
tlie  repi'oof  given  be  not  actually  deserved  ; 
and  that,  if  the  reprover  knew  all,  whether 
the  reproof  would  not  be  sharper  than  what 
it  is. — 3.  Whethei',  if  taken  humbly  and  pa- 
tiently, it  will  not  be  of  gi'eat  advantage  tp 
us. — 4.  I'hat  it  is  nothing  but  pride  to  sup- 
pose that  we  are  never  to  be  the  subjects  of 
reproof,  since  it  is  human  to  err- 

RESENTMENT,  generally  used  in  an  ill 
sense,  implying  a  determination  to  return  an 
injury.  Dr.  Johnson  observes,  that  resent- 
ment is  an  union  of  sorrow  with  malignity  ; 
a  combination  of  passion  which  all  endea- 
vour to  avoid,  with  a  passion  which  all  con- 
cur to  detest.  The  man  who  retires  to 
meditate  mischief,  and  to  exasperate  his 
own  rage,  whose  thoughts  are  employed 
only  on  means  of  distress  and  contrivances 
of  ruin,  whose  mind  never  pauses  from  the 
remembrance  of  his  own  sufferings,  but  to 
indulge  some  hope  of  enjoying  the  calamities 
of  another,  may  justly  be  numbered  among 
the  most  miserable  of  human  beings;  among 
those  who  are  guilty  ;  who  have  neither  the 
gladness  of  prosperity,  nor  the  calm  of  inno- 
cence. 

RESIGNATION,  a  submission  without 
discontent  to  the  will  of  God.  The  obliga- 
tions to  this  duty  arise  from,  1.  The  perfec- 
tions of  God,  Deut.  xxxii.  4. — 2.  The  pur- 
poses  of  God,    Eph,   i.   11 3.  The  coin- 

mands  of  God,  Heb.  xii.  9. — 4.  The  promises 
of  God,  1  Pet.  v.  7. — 5.  Our  own  interest, 
Hos.  ii.  14,  15. — 6.  The  prospect  of  eternal 
felicity,  Heb.  iv.  9.  See  articles  Afflic- 
tion, Despair,  and  Patience,  li'or- 
thington  on  Resignatio?i.  Grosvener's 
Mourner.  Brooks'  Mute  Christian,  and 
Books  under  Affliction. 

RESTITUTION,  that  act  of  justice  by 
which  we  restore  to  our  neighbour  what- 
ever we  have  unjustly  deprived  him  of, 
Exod.  xxii.  1.  Luke  xix.  8. 

M(  ralists  observe  respecting  restitution, 
1.  That  w  here  it  can  be  made  in  kind,  or  the  in- 
juiycan  be  certainly  valued,  we  are  to  restore 
the  thing  or  the  value. — 2.  We  are  bound 
to  restore  the  thing  with  the  natural  increase 
of  it,  that  is  to  satisfy  for  the  loss  sustained 
in  the  mean  time,  and  the  gain  hindered. — 
3.  Where  the  thing  cannot  be  restored,  and 
the  value  of  it  is  not  certain,  we  are  to  give 
reasonable  satisfaction,  according  to  a  middle 
estimation. — 4.  We  are  at  least  to  give  by 
way  of  restitution,  what  the  law  would  give, 
for  that  is  generally  equal,  and  in  most  cases 
rather  favourable  than  rigorous. — 5.  A  man 
is  not  only  bound  to  restitution  for  the  injury 
he  did,  but  for  all  that  directly  follows  upon 
the  injurious  act.  For  the  fiist  injury  being 
wilful,  we  are  supposed  to  will  all  that 
which  follows  upon  it.  Tillotson's  Serm. 
ser.  170,  171  ;  Chilli7;g7vorth's  Works,  ser.  7. 
RESURRECTIOis\  a  raising  again  fiom 
the  state  of  the  dead  ;  generally  applied  to 
the  resurrection  of  the  last  day.  This  doc- 
trine is  argued,  1.  From  the  resurrection  of 


RES 


459 


RE  S 


Christ,  1  Cor.  xr. — 2.  From  the  doctrine  of 
grace,  as  union,  election,  redemption,  8cc. — 

0.  From  scripture  testimonies.  Matt.  xxii. 
23,  &c.  Job  xix.  25,  27.  Isaiah  xxvi.  19. 
Phil.  ii.  20.  1  Cor.  xv.  Dan.  xii.  2.  1  Thess. 
iv.  14.  Rev.  XX.  13 — 4.  From  the  general 
judgment,  which  of  course  requires  it.  As 
to  the  nature  of  this  resurrection,  it  will  be, 

1.  General,  Rev.  xx.  12.  15.  2  Cor.  v.  10. — 

2.  Of  the  same  body.  It  is  true,  indeed, 
that  the  body  has  not  always  the  same  par- 
ticles, which  are  continually  changing,  but 
it  has  always  the  same  constituent  parts, 
which  proves  its  identity ;  it  is  the  same 
body  that  is  born  that  dies,  and  the  same 
that  dies  that  shall  rise  again ;  so  that  Mr. 
Locke's  objection  to  the  idea  of  the  same 
body  is  a  mere  quibble. — The  resurrection 
will  be  at  the  commavd  of  Christ,  and  by 
his  power,  John  v.  28,  29. — 4.  Perhaps 
as  to  the  manner  it  will  be  successive  ;  the 
dead  in  Christ  rising   first,   1  Cor.  xv.  23. 

.  1  Thess.  iv.  16.    This  doctrine  is  of  great 
use  and  imfiortance.    It  is  one  of  the  first 


I  guard,  and  to  elude,  or  overcome,  soldiei^ 
armed  and  aware  of  danger  ?  If  Jesus  Christ 
I  were  not  risen  again  (I  speak  the  language 
I  of  unbelievers,)  he  had  deceived  his  ciisci- 
ciples  with  vain  hopes  gf  his  resurrection. 
How  came  the  disciples  not  to  discover  the 
imposture!*  VVciuld  they  have  hazarded 
themstr-lves  by  undertaking  an  enterprise  so 
perilous  in  favour  of  a  man  who  had  so 
cruelly  imposed  on  their  credulity  ?  But, 
were  we  to  grant  that  they  f  irmt-d  the  de- 
sign of  removing  the  body,  how  could  they 
have  executed  it.'  How  could  soldiers  armed, 
and  on  guard,  sutit-r  themsflves  to  i;e  over- 
reached by  a  few  timorous  people  ?  Either^ 
says  St.  Augustine,  they  nvere  asleep  or 
awake:  if  they  nvere  awake,  why  should 
they  suffer  the  body  to  be  taktn  away  ?  If 
asleep,  how  could  they  know  that  the  disci- 
files  took  it  away?  How  dare  they  then, 
depose  that  it  was  stolen?" 

The  testimony  of  the  apostles  furnishes 
us  with  arguments,  and  there  are  eiglit  con- 
siderations which  give  the  evidence  suffi- 


principles  of  the  doctrine  of  Christ;   the  ij  cient  weight.     1.  The  nature  of  these  wit- 


whole  Gospel  stands  or  falls  with  it.  It 
serves  to  enlarge  our  views  of  the  divine 
perfections.  It  encourages  our  faith  and 
trust  in  God  under  all  the  difficulties  of  life. 
It  has  a  tendency  to  regulate  our  aflFections, 
and  moderate  our  desires  after  earthly 
things.  It  supports  the  saints  under  the  loss 
of  near  relations,  and  enables  them  to  rejoice 
in  the  glorious  prospect  set  before  them. 
See  Hody  on  the  Resurrection.  Pearson  on 
the  Creed.  Lime  Street  Led.  ser.  10. 
Watts'  Ontology.  Young's  Last  Day. 
Locke  on  the  Understanding,  1.  ii,  c.  27. 
fVarburton's  Legation  of  Moses,  vol.  ii.  p. 
553,  &c.  tiishop  JVewton's  Works,  vol.  iii. 
p.  676,  683. 

RESURRECTION  OF  CHRIST.  Few 
articles  are  more  important  than  this.  It 
deserves  our  particular  attention,  because  it 
is  the  grand  hinge  on  which  Christianity 
turris.  Hence,  says  the  apostle,  he  was  de- 
livered for  our  offences,  and  raised  again  for 
cur  jus tif  cation.  Infidels,  however,  have 
disbelieved  it,  but  with  what  little  reason  we 
may  easily  see  on  considering  the  suliject. 
"  If  the  body  of  Jesus  Christ,"  says  Saurin, 
*'  were  not  raised  from  the  dead,  it  must 
have  been  stolen  away.  But  this  theft  is 
incredible.  Who  committed  it.'  The  ene- 
mies of  Jesus  Christ  ?  Would  they  have 
contributed  to  his  gloiy  by  countenancing  a 
report  of  his  resurrection  i*  Would  his  dis- 
ciples ?  It  is  probable  they  would  not,  and 
it  is  next  to  certain  they  could  not.  How 
could  they  have  undertaken  to  remove  the 
body  ?  Frail  and  timorous  creatures,  people 
who  fled  as  soon  as  they  saw  him  taken  into 
custody  :  even  Peter,  the  most  courageous, 
trembled  at  the  voice  of  a  servant  girl,  and 
three  times  denied  that  he  knew  him.  Peo- 
ple of  this  character,  would  they  have  dared 
to  resist  the  authority  of  the  governor .'' 
Would  they  have  undertaken  to  oppose  the 


nesses.  They  were  not  men  of  power,  riclies, 
eloquence,  credit,  to  impose  upon  the  W(.rld^ 
they  were  poor  and  mean, — 2.  The  number 
of  these  witnesses.  See  1  Cor.  xv.  Luke 
xxiv.  34.  Mark  xvi.  14.  Matt,  xxviii.  10.  It 
is  not  likely  that  a  collusion  shr^uld  have 
been  held  among  so  many  to  support  a  lie, 
which  would  be  of  no  utility  t(.  them. — 3. 
The  facts  themselves  which  they  avow ; 
not  suppositions,  distant  events,  or  events 
related  by  others,  but  real  facts  which  thev 
saw  with  their  own  eyes,  1  John  i  — 4,  The 
agreement  of  their  evidence :  they  all  de- 
posed the  same  thing. — 5.  Observe  the  tri- 
bunals before  which  they  gave  evidence : 
Jews  and  heathens,  philosophers  and  rabbies, 
courtiers  and  lawyers.  If  they  had  beeii 
impostors,  the  fraud  certainly  would  have 
been  discovered. — 6.  The  place  in  which 
they  bore  their  testimony.  Net  at  a  dis- 
tance, where  they  might  not  easily  have 
been  detected,  if  false,  but  at  Jerusalem,  in 
the  synagogues,  in  the  Pretoriiim. — 7.  The. 
time  of  this  testimony  :  not  years  after,  but 
three  days  after,  they  declared  he  was 
risen  ;  yea,  before  their  rage  was  quelled, 
while  Calvary  was  yet  dyed  with  the  blood 
thf^y  had  spilt.  If  it  had  been  a  fraud,  it  is 
not  likely  they  would  have  come  forward  in 
such  broad  day-light,  amidst  so  nnich  oppo- 
sition.— 8.  Lastly,  the  motives  which  indu- 
ced them  to  publish  the  resurrection  :  not  to 
gain  fame,  riches,  glory,  profit ;  no,  they 
exposed  themselves  to  suffering  and  death, 
and  proclaimed  tlie  truth  from  conviction  of 
its  importance  and  certainty, 

*'  Collect,"  says  Saurin,  "  all  these  proofs 
together;  consider  them  in  one  point  of 
view,  and  see  how  many  extravagant  sup- 
positions must  be  advanced,  if  the  resurrec- 
tion of  o\ir  Saviour  be  denied.  It  must  be 
supposed  that  guards,  who  had  been  parti-' 
cularly  cautioned  by  their  officers,  sat  down 


detei'mination  of  thr  Sanhedrim,  to  force  a  "  to  sleep;  and  that  ho'vvever,  they  deserved 


RET 


460 


REV 


credit  when  they  said  the  body  of  Jesus 
Christ  was  stolen.  It  must  be  supposed  that 
iTien,  who  had  been  imposed  on  in  the  most 
odious  and  cruel  manner  in  the  world,  ha- 
zarded their  dearest  enjoyments  for  the 
glory  of  an  impostor.  It  must  be  supposf.-d 
that  ignorant  and  illiterate  men,  who  had 
neither  reputation,  fortune,  nor  eloquence, 
possessed  the  art  of  fascinating  the  eyes  of 
all  the  church.  It  must  be  supposed  either 
that  five  hundred  persons  were  all  deprived 
of  their  senses  at  a  time,  or  that  they  were 
all  deceived  in  the  plainest  matters  of  facts  ; 
or  that  this  multitude  of  false  witnesses  had 
found  out  the  secret  of  never  contradicting 
themselves  or  one  another,  and  of  being  al- 
ways uniform  in  their  testimony.  It  must 
be  supposed  that  the  most  expert  courts  of 
judicature  could  not  find  out  a  shadow  of 
contradiction  in  a  palpable  imposture.  It 
must  be  supposed  that  the  apostles,  sensible 
men  in  other  cases,  chose  precisely  those 
places  and  those  times  which  were  most  un- 
favourable to  their  views.  It  must  be  sup- 
posed that  millions  madly  suffered  imprison- 
ments, tortures,  and  crucifixions,  to  spread 
an  illusion.  It  must  be  supposed  that  ten 
thousand  miracles  were  wrought  in  favour 
of  falsehood,  or  all  these  facts  must  be  deni- 
ed ?  and  then  it  must  be  supposed  that  the 
apostles  were  idiots ;  that  the  enemies  of 
Christianity  were  idiots  ;  and  that  all  the 
primitive  Christiaws  were  idiots." 

The  doctrine  of  the  resurrection  of  Christ 
affords  us  a  variety  of  useful  ir.structions. 
Here  we  see  evidence  of  divine  power'; 
prophecy  accomplished ;  the  character  of 
Jesus  established  ;  his  work  finished  ;  and 
a  future  state  proved.  It  is  a  ground  of 
faith,  the  basis  of  hope,  a  source  of  conso- 
lation, and  a  stimulous  to  obedience.  See 
Sazirin's  Sermons,  ser.  8.  vol.  ii.  Rodin- 
son's  Translation.  Ditton  and  West  on 
the  Resurrection.  Cook's  Illustration  oj 
the  general  evidence  establishing  the  reality 
of  Christ's  rcsurrectioJi,  p.  323.  Ecc.  Rev. 
vol.  4.  but  especially  a  small  but  admirable 
Jissay  on  the  Resurrectioii  of  Christ,  by 
Mr.  Dore. 

KETIREMENT,  the  state  of  a  person 
who  quits  a  public  station  in  order  to  be 
alone.  Retirement  is  of  great  advantage  to 
a  wise  man.  To  him  "the  hour  of  solitude 
is  the  hour  of  meditation.  He  communes 
with  ills  own  heart.  He  reviews  the  action 
of  his  past  life.  He  corrects  what  is  amiss. 
He  rejoices  in  what  is  right ;  and  wiser,  by 
experience,  lays  the  plan  of  his  future  life. 
The  great  and  the  noble,  the  wise  and  the 
learned,  the  pious  and  the  good,  have  been 
lovers  of  serious  retirement.  On  this  field 
the  patriot  forms  his  schemes,  the  philoso- 
pher pursues  his  discoveries,  the  saint  im- 
proves himself  in  wisdom  and  goodness. 
Solitude  is  the  hallowed  ground  which  reli- 
gion in  every  age  has  adopted  as  its  own. 
There  her  sacred  inspiration  is  felt,  and 
her  holy  mysteries  elevate  the  soul  ;  there 
devotion  hits  up  the  voice ;  there  falls  the 


tear  of  contrition  ;  there  the  heart  pours  it>« 
self  forth  before  him  who  made,  and  him 
who  redeemed  it.  Apart  from  men,  we 
live  with  nature,  and  converse  with  God." 
Loga7i's  Sermons,  vol.  ii.  Ser.  2.  Blai7-'s 
Sermons,  Ser.  ix.  vol.  i.  Bates'  Rural 
Philoso/ihy.  Brewster's  Recluse.  Zim- 
merman  on  Solitude. 

REVELATION,  the  act  of  revealing  or 
making  a  thing  pul^lic  that  was  before  un- 
kiKiwn  ;  it  is  also  used  f <  r  the  discoveries 
made  by  God  to  his  prophets,  and  by  them 
to  the  world  ;  and  moi'e  particularly  for  the 
I  books  of  the  Old  and  New  Testament.  A 
revelation  is,  in  the  first  place,  possible, 
God  may,  for  any  thing  we  can  certainly  tell, 
think  proper  to  make  some  disco\ery  to  his 
creatures  which  they  knew  not  before.  As 
he  is  a  being  of  infinite  power,  we  may  be 
assvu'ed,  he  cannot  be  at  a  loss  for  means  to 
communicate  his  will,  and  that  in  such  a 
manner  as  will  sufficiently  mark  it  his 
own. — 2.  It  is  desirable.  For,  whatever  the 
light  of  nature  could  do  for  man  before  rea- 
son was  depraved,  it  is  evident  that  it  has 
done  little  for  man  since.  Though  reason 
be  necessary  to  examine  tiie  authority  of 
Divine  revelation,  yet,  in  the  present  state 
it  is  incapable  of  giving  us  proper  discove- 
ries of  God,  the  way  of  salvation,  or  of 
bringing  us  into  a  state  of  comniunidn  with 
God.  It  therefore  follows. — 3.  That  it  is 
7iecessary.  Without  it  we  can  attain  to  no 
certain  knowledge  of  God,  of  Christ,  of 
the  Holy  Ghost,  of  pardon,  of  justification, 
of  sanctification,  of  happiness,  of  a  futui'« 
state  of  rewards  and  punishments. — 4.  No 
revelation,  as  Mr.  Brown  observes,  relative 
to  the  redemption  of  mankind  could  answer 
Its  respective  ends,  unless  it  were  sufficiently 
marked  with  internal  and  external  eviden- 
ces. That  the  Bible  hath  internal  evidence, 
is  evident  from  the  ideas  it  gives  us  of 
God's  perfections,  of  the  law  of  nature,  of 
redemption,  of  the  state  of  man,  &c.  As 
to  its  external  evidence,  it  is  easily  seen 
by  the  characters  of  the  men  who  compo- 
sed it.  the  miracles  wrought,  its  success, 
the  fulfilment  of  its  predictions,  8cc.  [See 
Scripture.] — 5.  The  contents  of  revela- 
tion are  agreeable  to  reason.  It  is  true 
there  are  some  things  above  the  reach  of 
reason ;  but  a  revelation  containing  such 
things  is  no  contradiction,  as  long  as  it  is 
not  against  reason ;  for  if  every  thing  be 
rejected  which  cannot  be  exactly  compre- 
hended, we  must  become  unbelievers  at 
once  of  almost  every  thing  around  us.  The 
doctrines,  the  institutions,  tlie  threatenings, 
the  precepts,  the  promises,  of  the  Bible, 
are  ev  ry  way  reasonable.  The  matter, 
form,  and  exhii)ition  of  revelation  are  con- 
sonant with  reason. — 6.  The  revelation  con- 
tained in  our  Bible  is  perfectly  credible-  It 
is  an  address  to  the  reason,  judgment,  and 
affections  of  men.  l"he  Old  Testament 
abounds  with  the  finest  specimens  of  histo- 
ry, sul)limity,  and  intei-esting  scenes  of 
Providence.    The  facts  of  the  New  Te&la- 


REV 


461 


RI  G 


ment  are  supported  by  undoubted  evidence 
from  enemies  and  friends.  The  attestations 
to  the  early  existence  of  Cliristianity  are 
numerous  from  Ignatius,  Polycarp,  Irenxi  s, 
Justin  Martyr,  and*'litian,  who  were  Cljris 
tians ;  and  by  Tacitus,  Sueton,  Serenus. 
PHny,  8cc.  who  were  Heathens  [See 
Christianity  ] — 7  The  revelations  con- 
tained ill  our  Bible  are  divinely  ins/ured. 
The  matter,  the  manner,  the  sco;  i,  the 
predictions,  miracles,  preservation,  &.c  ike 
all  pHjve  this.  [See  Inspiration.] — fi. ' 
Kevrlation  is  intended  for  imiveraal  bencjit.' 
It  is  a  common  objection  to  it,  that  hitherto 
it  has  been  confined  to  few,  and  therefore  j 
could  not  come  from  (iod,  who  is  so  benev-j 
oleiit ;  but  this  mode  of  arguing  will  equal-! 
ly  hold  against  the  permission  of  sin,  the  in- 
equalities of  Providence,  the  dreadful  evils 
and  miseries  of  mankind  which  God  could 
have  prevented.  It  must  be  farther  observ- 
ed, that  none  deserve  a  revelation;  that 
men  have  despised  and  abused  the  early  re- 
velations he  gave  to  his  people.  This  reve- 
lation we  have  reason  to  believe,  shall  be 
made  known  to  mankind  Already  it  is 
spreading  its  genuine  influence.  In  the  cold 
regions  of  the  North,  in  the  burning  regions 
of  the  Siuth,  the  Bible  begins  to  be  known  ; 
and  from  the  jjredictions  it  contains,  we  be- 
lieve the  glorious  sun  of  revelation  shall 
shine  and  illuminate  the  whole  globe. — 9. 
The  effects  of  revelation  which  have  alrea- 
dy taken  place  in  the  world,  have  been  as- 
tonishing. In  proportion  as  the  Bible  has 
been  known,  arts  and  sciences  have  been 
cultivated,  peace  and  liberty  have  been  dif- 
fused, ciVil  and  moral  obligation  have  been 
attended  to.  Nations  have  emerged  from 
ignorance  and  barbarity,  whole  communi- 
ties have  been  morally  reformed,  unnatural 
practices  aboHshed,  and  wise  laws  instituted. 
Its  spiritual  eiFects  have  been  wonderful. 
Kings  and  peasants,  conquerors  and  philo- 
sophers, the  wise  and  the  ignorant,  the  rich 
and  the  poor,  have  been  brought  to  the  fo'it 
of  the  cross;  yea,  millions  have  been  en- 
lightened, improved,  reformed,  and  made 
happy  by  its  influences.  Let  any  one  denv 
this,  and  he  must  be  an  hardened,  ignorant 
infidel,  indeed.  (ireat  is  the  truth,  ai.d 
must  prevail  See  iJr.  Leland's  J^^eces&ity 
of  Revelation.  "This  work,"  says  Mr. 
Ryland,  "  has  had  no  answer,  and  I  am 
persuaded  it  never  Avill  meet  with  a  so'irl 
confutation."  Halyburton  against  the  De- 
ists. Leland's  View  of  Dei.^tical  IVriters- 
Brou-n's  Compendium  of  Maural  and  Re- 
-ocaltd  Religion,  Utillingf  eel's  Origines 
^Sacrce,  is,  perhaps,  one  of  the  ablest  de- 
fences of  reveak'fl  rehgion  ever  written 
JJelany's  Revelation  examined  nvith  Can- 
dour. Arch  Camfibfil  on  Revelation  El- 
lis on  Divine  Things,  Gale's  Court  of 
the  Gentiles. 

REVENGE  means  the  return  of  injury 
for  injury,  or  the  infliction  of  pain  on  ano- 
ther in  consequence  of  an  injury"  received 
from  him,  farther  than  the  just  ends  of  re- 


paration or  punishment  require.  Revenge 
differs  materially  from  resentment,  which. 
rises  in  the  mind  immediately  on  being  in- 
jured; but  revenge  is  a  cool  and  deliberate 
wickedness,  and  is  often  executed  years  af- 
ter the  offence  is  given.  By  some  it  is  con- 
sidered as  a  perversion  of  anger.  Anger,  it 
is  said,  is  a  passion  given  to  man  for  wise 
and  proper  purposes,  but  revenge  is  the 
corruptiun  of  anger;  is  unnatural,  and 
therefore,  ought  to  be  suppressed.  It  is  ob- 
servable that  the  proper  objf  ct  of  anger  is 
vice  ;  but  the  object  in  general  of  revenge 
is  man.  It  transfers  the  liatred  due  to  the 
vice  to  the  man,  to  whom  it  is  not  due.  It 
is  forbidden  by  the  scriptures,  and  is  unbe- 
coming the  character  and  spirit  of  a  ])eace- 
ful  follower  of  Jesus  Christ.      See  Anger. 

REVEREND,  venerable ;  deserving  awe 
and  respect.  It  is  a  title  of  respect  given 
to  ecclesiastics.  The  religious  abroad  are 
called  reverend  fathers  ;  and  abbesses,  pri- 
oresses, &c.  reverend  mothers.  In  England 
bishops  are  right  reverend,  and  archbishops 
most  reverend;  and  private  clergymen,  re- 
verend. In  France,  beftre  the  revolution, 
their  bishops,  archbishops,  and  abbots,  were 
all  alike,  most  reverend.  In  Scotland,  the 
clergy  individually  arc  reverend ;  a  synod 
is  very  reverend ;  and  the  general  issem- 
bly  is,  venerable.  The  Dissenters,  also,  in 
England,  have  the  title  of  reverend  ;  though 
some  of  them  suppose  the  term  implies  too 
much  to  be  given  to  a  mere  creature,  and 
that  of  God  only  it  may  be  said  with  pro- 
priety, "  holy  and  reverend  is  his  name," 
Psalm  cxi.  4. 

REVERENt;E,  awful  regard ;  an  act  of 
obeisance ;  a  submissive  and  humble  de- 
portment. See  Lord's  Name  taken  in 
Vain. 

RIGHTEOUSNESS,  justice,  holiness. 
The  righteousness  of  God  is  the  absoUite 
and  essential  perfecti'.ns  of  his  nature ; 
sometimes  it  is  put  for  his  justice.  The 
righteousness  of  i.hrist  denotes  not  only  his 
absolute  perfections,  but  is  taken  for  his  per- 
fect obedience  to  the  law,  and  suffering  the 
penalty  therer^f  in  our  stead  The  righteous- 
ness of  the  law  is  that  obedience  which 
the  law  requires.  The  righteousness  of 
faith  is  the  righteousness  of  Christ  as  re- 
ceived iw  faith.  The  saints  i^avp  a  three- 
fold righteousness.  1.  The  righteousness  of 
their  persons,  as  in  Christ,  his  merit  being 
imputed  to  them,  and  they  accepted  on  the 
account  therecf.  2  Cor.  v,  21.  Eph  v.  27. 
Isa.  xlx.  24 — 2.  The  righteousness  of  their 
principles  being  derivecl  from,  and  formed 
according  to  the  rule  of  right.  Psalm  cxix. 

11 3.  The    righteousness    of    their    lives, 

produced  bv  the  s:n:Ctifying  influence  of 
the  Ho!v  Spirit,  without  which  no  man  shall 
sethe  Ltrd  H-.b.  X'ii.  14  1  Cor.  vi.  11. 
See  Imputation,  'ustification,  Sanc- 
tification  Dickinson's  Lctt<'rs,  let  12. 
IV'htrspoon^s  Kssay  on  Trnjiuted  Righ- 
teousness. Hervey'n  Tlieron  and  Aspafiio. 
Dr.  Owe7i  on  Justification.   Watts'  JVorks, 


SAB 


462 


SAB 


p.  532,  vol,  iii.  oct.  ed.    Jenks  oil  Submia- 
sion  to  the  Righteousness  of  God. 

RITE,  a  solemn  act  of  religion ;  an  ex- 
ternal ceremony.  (See  Ceremony.)  For 
the  rites  of  the  Jews,  see  Lowmari's  He-, 
brctt)  Ritual.  Sfiencer  de  Heb.  Leg.  Du- 
rell  on  the  Mosaic  Institution.  Bishop, 
Z,aw*s  Theory  of  Religion,  p.  89,  6th  ed. 
Godivyn''s  Moses  and  jiaron.  Edtvard's 
Survey  of  all  Religions,  vol.  i.  oh.  8,  Jen- 
fiings'  Jewish  yintiquities. 

RITUAL,  a  book  directing  tlie  order 
and  manner  to  be  observed  in  performing 
divine  service  in  a  particular  church,  dio- 
cese, or  the  like. 

ROGEREENS,  so  called  from  John  Ro- 
gers, their  chief  leader.  They  appeared  in 
New-England  about  1677.  The"  principal 
distinguishing  tenet  of  this  denomination 
was,  that  worship  performed  the  first  day 
of  the  week  was  a  species  of  idolatry  which 
they  ought  to  oppose.  In  consequence  of 
this,  they  used  a  variety  of  measures  to 
disturb  those  who  were  assembled  for  pub- 
lic worship  on  the  Lord's  day. 

ROMISH  CHURCH.  See  Church,  and 
Popery. 

ROSARY,  a  bunch  or  string  of  beads  on 
which  the  Roman  Catholics  count  their 
prayers. 

ROSICRUCIANS,  a  name  assumed  by 
a  sect  or  cabal  of  hermetical  philosophers, 
who  arose,  as  it  has  been  said,  or  at  least 
became  first  taken  notice  of,  in  Germa- 
ny, in  the  beginning  of  the  fourteenth  cen- 


tury. They  bound  themselves  together  by 
a  solemn  secret,  which  they  all  swore  invi- 
olably to  preserve;  and  obliged  themselves ^ 
at  their  admission  into  the  order,  to  a  strict 
observance  of  certain  established  rules. 
They  pretended  to  know  all  sciences,  and 
chiefly  medicine ;  whereof  they  published 
themselves  the  restorers.  They  pretended 
to  be  masters  of  abundance  of  important 
secrets,  and,  among  others,  that  of  the  phi- 
losopher's stone  ;  all  which  they  affirmed 
to  have  received  by  tradition  from  the  an- 
cient Egyptians,  Chaldeans,  the  Magi,  and 
Gymnosophists.  They  have  been  distin- 
guished by  several  names,  accommodated 
to  the  several  branches  of  their  doctrine. 
Because  they  pretend  to  protract  j;he  period 
of  human  life  by  means  of  certain  nos- 
trums, and  even  to  restore  youth  ;  they 
were  called  Immortales,  as  they  pretended 
tn  know  all  things,  they  have  been  called 
Illuminati ;  and  because  they  have  made 
no  appearance  for  several  years,  unless  the 
sect  of  Illuminated  which  lately  started  up 
on  the  continent  derives  its  origin  from 
them  :  they  have  been  called  the  Invisible 
Brothers.  Their  society  is  frequently  sign- 
ed by  die  letters  F.  R  C.  which  some 
among  them  interpret  Fratres  Roris  Cocti  f 
it  being  pretended  that  the  matter  of  the 
philosipher's  stone  is  dew  concocted,  exalt- 
ed, &c. 

RUSSIAN    CHURCH.       See    GREEk 
Church. 


s. 


SABBATARIANS,  those  who  keep  the 
seventh  day  as  the  sabbath.  They  are  to 
be  found  principally,  if  not  wlioUy,  among 
the  Baptists.  They  object  to  the  reasons 
which  are  generally  alleged  for  keeping 
the  first  day  ;  and  assert,  that  the  change 
from  tlie  seventh  to  the  first  v/as  effected 
by  Cnnstantine  on  his  conversion  to  Chris- 
tianity The  three  following  propositions 
contain  a  summary  of  their  principles  as  to 
this  article  of  the  sabbath,  by  which  they 
stand  distinguished.  1.  That  God  hath  re- 
quired the  observation  of  the  seventh,  or 
last  day  of  every  week,  to  be  observed  by 
mankind  universally  for  the  weekly  sab- 
bath.— 2.  That  this  command  of  God  is  per- 
petually binding  on  man  till  time  shall  be 
no  more. — And,  3.  That  this  sacred  rest  of 
the  seventh  clay  sabbath  is  not  (by  Divine 
authority)  changed  from  the  seventh  and 
last  to  the  first  day  of  the  week,  or  that  the  \ 
scripture  doth  no  where  require  the  obser- 1 
vation  of  any  other  day  of  the  week  for  the  I 


weekly  sabbath,  but  the  seventh  day  only. 
They  hold,  in  common  with  other  Chris- 
tian?,, the  distinguishing  doctrines  of  Chris- 
tinnity.  There  are  two  congregations  of  the 
S;ibbatarians  in  London ;  one  among  the  ge- 
neral Baptists,  meeting  in  Mill  Yard ;  the 
other  among  the  particular  Baptists,  in 
Cripplegate.  There  are,  also,  a  few  to  be 
found  in  different  parts  of  the  kingdom, 
and  some,  it  is  said,  in  America.  A  tract, 
in  support  of  this  doctrine,  was  published 
by  Mr.  Cornthwaite,  in  1740.  See  Evan's 
Sketch  of  the  Denominations  of  the  Chris- 
tian World ;  and  b(X)ks  under  next  article. 
SABBATH,  in  the  Hebrew  language  sig- 
nifies rest,  and  is  the  seventh  day  of  the 
week;  a  day  appointed  for  religious  duties, 
and  a  total  cessation  from  work,  in  com- 
memoration of  fiod's  resting  on  the  seventh 
day ;  and  likewise  in  memorial  of  the  re- 
demption of  the  Israelites  from  Egyptian 
bondage. 
Concerning  the  time  wheh  the  sabbath 


SAB 


465 


SAB 


was  first  instituted  there  have  been  dififer- 
opinions.  Some  have  maintained  that  the 
sanctification  of  the  seventh  day  mentioned  in 
Gen.  ii.  is  only  there  spoken  of  S'tx  tt^oA/j^'/?, 
or  by  anticipation ;  and  is  to  be  understood 
of  the  sabbath  afterwards  enjoined  in  tlie 
wilderness ;  and  that  the  historian,  writing 
after  it  was  instituted,  there  gives  the  rea- 
son of  its  institution ;  and  this  is  supposed  to 
be  the  case,  as  it  is  never  mentioned  during 
the  patriarchal  age.  But  against  this  sen- 
timent it  is  urged,  1.  That  it  cannot  be  ea- 
sily supposed  that  the  inspired  penman 
would  have  mentioned  the  sanctification  of 
the  seventh  day  among  the  primeval  trans- 
actions, if  such  sanctification  had  not  taken 
place  until  2500  years  afterwards. — 2  That 
considering  Adam  was  restored  to  favour 
through  a  Mediator,  and  a  religious  service 
instituted,  which  man  was  required  to  ob- 
serve, in  testimony  not  only  of  his  depen- 
dence on  the  Creator,  but  also  of  his  faith 
and  hope  in  the  promise,  it  seems  reasona- 
ble that  an  institution  so  grand  and  solemn, 
and  so  necessary  to  the  observance  of  this 
service,  should  be  then  existent. — 3.  That 
it  is  no  proof  against  its  existence  because 
it  is  not  mentioned  in  the  patriarchal  age, 
no  more  than  it  is  against  its  existence  from 
Moses  to  the  end  of  David's  reign,  which 
was  near  440  years. — 4.  That  the  sabbath 
was  mentioned  as  a  well  known  solemnity 
before  the  promulgation  of  the  law.  Exodus 
xvi.  23.  For  the  manner  in  which  the  Jews 
kept  it,  and  the  awful  consequences  of  ne- 
glecting it,  we  refer  the  reader  to  the  Old 
Testament,  Lev.  xxvi.  34,  35.  Neh.  xiii. 
16,  18.  Jer.  xvii.  21.  Ezek.  xx.  16,  17. 
Numb.  XV.  23—35. 

Under  the  Christian  dispensation,  the  sab- 
bath is  altered  from  the  seventh  lo  the  first 
day  of  the  week.  The  arguments  for  the 
change  are  these :  1.  As  the  seventh  day 
was  observed  by  the  Jewish  church  in  me- 
mory of  the  rest  of  God  after  the  works  of 
the  creation,  and  their  deliverance  from 
Pharaoh's  tyranny,  so  the  first  day  of  the 
week  has  always  been  rbserved  by  the 
Christian  church  in  memrry  of  Christ's 
resurrection.— -2.  Christ  made  repeated  vi- 
sits to  his  disciples  on  that  day. — 3.  It  is  call- 
ed the  Lord's  day.  Rev.  i.  10. — 4.  On  this 
day  the  apostles  were  assembled,  when  tlie 
Holy  Ghost  came  down  so  visibly  upon 
them,  to  qualify  them  for  the  conversion  of 
the  world. — 5.  On  this  day  we  find  St.  Paul 
preaching  at  Troas,  when  the  disciples  came 
to  break  bread.— 6.  The  directions  the  aprs- 
tles  give  to  the  Christians  plainly  allude  to 
tlieir  religious  assemblies  on  the  first  day. 
— 7.  Pliny  bears  witness  of  the  first  day  of 
the  v/eek  being  kept  as  a  festival,  in  hon- 
our of  the  i-esurrection  of  C'hrist ;  and  the 
primitive  Christians  kept  it  in  the  mcst 
solemn  manner. 

These  arguments,  however,  are  not  sitis- 
factory  to  some,  and  it  mu«t  be  conff-ssed 
that  there  is  no  law  in  the  Ni-w  Testairient 
concerning  tlie  first  day.    However,  it  may 


be'  observed  that  it  is  not  so  much  the  pre- 
cise time  that  is  universally  binding,  as  that 
one  day  out  of  seven  is  to  be  regarded.  "  As 
it  is  impossible,"  says  Dr.  Doddridge,  *'  cer- 
tainly to  determine  which  is  the  seventh 
day  from  the  creation ;  and  as,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  spherical  form  of  the  earth, 
and  the  absurdity  of  the  scheme  which  sup- 
poses it  one  great  plain,  the  change  of  place; 
will  necessarily  occasion  some  alteration  in 
the  time  of  the  beginning  and  ending  of  any 
day  in  question,  it  being  always  at  the  same 
time,  somewhere  or  ether,  sun-rising  and 
sun-setting,  noon  and  midnight,  it  seems 
very  unreasonable  to  lay  such  a  stress  upon 
the  particular  day  as  some  do.  It  seems 
abundantly  suflBcient  that  there  be  six  days ; 
of  labour  and  one  of  religious  rest,  which 
there  will  be  upon  the  Christian  and  the 
Jewish  scheme." 

As  the  sabbath  is  of  Divine  institution, 
so  it  is  to  be  kept  holy  unto  the  Lord,  Nu- 
merous have  been  the  days  appointed  by 
men  for  religious  services;  but  these  are 
not  binding  because  of  human  institution. 
Not  so  the  sabbath.  Hence  the  fourth  com- 
mandment is  ushered  in  with  a  peculiar 
emphasis — "  Remember  that  thou  keep  holy 
the  sabbath  day."  This  institution  is  nuise 
as  to  its  ends :  That  God  may  be  worship- 
ped; man  instructed;  nations  benefited; 
and  families  devoted  to  the  service  of  God. 
It  is  lasting-  as  to  its  duration.  The  aboli- 
tion of  it  would  be  unreasonable ;  unscrip- 
tural,  Exod.  xxxi.  13;  and  even'  way  disad- 
vantageous to  the  body,  to  society,  to  the 
soul,  and  even  to  the  brute  creation.  It  is, 
however,  awfully  violated  by  visiting,  feast- 
ing, indolence,  buying  and  selling,  working, 
worldly  amusements,  and  travelling.  "  Look 
into  the  streets,"  says  bishop  Porteus,  "  on 
the  Lord's  day,  and  see  whether  they  con- 
vey the  idea  of  a  day  of  rest.  Do  not  our 
servants  and  our  cattle  seem  to  be  almost 
as  fully  occupied  on  that  day  as  on  any 
other  ?  And,  as  if  this  was  not  a  sufficient 
infringement  of  their  rights,  we  contrive,  by 
needless  entertainments  at  home,  and  need- 
less journies  abroad,  which  are  often  by 
choice  and  inclination  reserved  for  this  very 
day,  to  take  up  all  the  little  remaining  part 
of  their  leisure  time.  A  sabbath  day's 
journey  was  among  the  Jews,  a  proverbial 
expression  for  a  very  short  one;  among  us 
it  can  have  no  such  meaning  affixed  to  it. 
That  day  seems  to  be  considered  by  too 
many  as  set  apart,  by  divine  and  human 
authority,  for  the  purpose  not  of  rest,  but 
of  its  direct  opposite,  the  labour  of  trax*el- 
ling,  thus  adding  one  day  mnj-e  of  torment 
to  those  generous  but  wix?tchcd  animals 
whose  services  they  hire ;  and  who,  being 
generally  straitied  beyond  their  strength  the 
other  six  days  of  the  week,  have,  of  all 
creatures  under  heaven,  the  best  and  mcst 
equitable  claim  to  suspension  of  labour  on 
the  seventh." 

These  are  evils  greatly  to  be  lamented ; 
i  they  are  an  insult  to  God,  an  injury  to  our- 


SAC 


464 


SAC 


selves,  and  an  awful  example  to  our  ser- 
vants, our  children,  and  our  friends.  To 
sanctify  this  day,  we  should  cnnsider  it,  1 
A  day  of  rest;  not,  indeed,  to  exclude 
■works  of  mercy  and  charity,  but  a  cessa- 
tion from  all  labour  and  care. — 2.  As  a  day 
ai  remembrance  ;  of  creation,  preservation, 
redemption. — 3.  As  a  day  of  meditation  and 
prayer,  in  which  we  should  cultivate  com- 
munion with  God,  Rev.  i,  10 — 4.  As  a  day 
oi  fiudlic  worship.  Acts  xx.  7  John  xx.  19. 
— 5.  As  a  day  cijoy.  Is.  Ivi.  2.  Ps.  cxviii. 
24 — 6,  As  a  day  of  firaine,  Ps.  cxvi.  12 — 
14. — 7.  As  a  day  of  ajiticipation  ;  looking 
forward  to  that  holy,  happy,  and  eternal 
saWiath,  that  remains  for  the  people  of 
God. 

See  Chandkr''s  t^vo  Sermons  on  the  Sab- 
bath. Wright  on  the  Sabbath.  U'atts' 
Hoi.  of  Times  and  Places  Orion's  six 
Disc  on  the  Lord''s  Day.  Kennicott's  Ser- 
mons and  Dialogues  on  the  Sabbath-  Bp. 
Portciis'  Sermons,  ser.  ix.  vol.  i.  TFatts' 
Ser?}ions,  ser.  Ivii.  vol.  i.  5.  Pabner's  Jfio- 
logy  for  the  Christian  Sabbath.  Kennicott 
on  the  Oblations  of  Cain  and  Abel,  page 
184,  185. 

SA.BELLIANS,  a  sect  in  the  third  cen- 
tury that  embraced  the  opinions  of  Sabellius, 
a  philosopher  of  Egypt,  who  openly  taught 
that  there  is  but  one  person  in  the  God- 
head. 

The  Sabellians  maintained  that  the  Word 
and  the  Holy  Spirit  are  only  virtues,  ema- 
nations, or  functions  of  the  Deity  ;  and  held 
that  he  who  is  in  heaven  is  the  Father  of 
all  things;  that  he  descended  into  the  Vir- 
gin, became  a  child,  and  was  born  of  her 
as  a  son  ;  and  that,  having  accomplished 
the  mystery  of  our  salvation,  he  diffused 
himself  on  the  apostles  in  tongues  of  fire, 
and  was  then  denominated  the  Holy  Ghosi- 
This  they  explained  by  resembhng  God  to 
the  sun ;  the  illuminated  virtue  or  qualit\ 
of  which  was  the  Word,  and  its  warming 
virtue  the  Holy  Spirit.  The  Word,  they 
taught,  was  darted,  like  a  divine  ray,  to  ac- 
complish the  work  of  redemption  ;  and  that, 
being  re-ascended  to  heaven,  the  influences 


of  the  Father  were  communicated  after  a'  Jsts  and  f:ther  Protestants 


like  manner  to  the  apostles. 

SACOPHORl,  a  denomination  in  the  fourth 
century,  so  called,  because  they  always  went 
clothed  in  sackclodi,  and  affected  a  great 
deal  of  austerity  and  penance 

SACRAMENT  is  derived  from  the  Latin 
viov^  .lacramentum,  which  signifies  an  oath, 
particularly  the  oath  taken  by  soldiers  to  be 
true  to  their  country  and  general. — The 
word  was  adopted  by  the  writers  of  the 
Latin  church,  to  denote  those  ordinances  of 
religion  by  which  Christians  came  under  an 
obligation  of  obedience  to  God,  and  which 
obligation,  they  supposed,  was  equally  sacred 
with  that  of  an  oath.  [See  Vow]  Of  sa- 
craments, in  tliis  sense  of  the  word,  Pro- 
testant churches  admit  of  but  two ;  and  it 
is  not  easy  to  conceive  how  a  greater  num- 
ber can  be  made  out  frcm  scripture,  if  the 


definition  of  a  sacrament  be  just  which  Is 
given  by  the  church  of  England.  Bv  that 
church,  the  meaning  of  the  word  sacranient 
is  declared  to  be  "  an  oytward  and  visible 
sign  of  an  inward  and  spiritual  grace  given 
unto  us,  ordained  by  Christ  himself,  as  a 
means  whereby  we  receive  the  same,  and  a 
pledge  to  assure  us  thereof" — According  to 
this  definition,  baptism  and  the  Lord's  sup- 
per are  certainly  sacraments,  for  each  con- 
sists of  an  outward  and  visible  sign  of  what 
is  believed  to  be  an  inward  and  spiritual  grace : 
both  were  ordained  by  Christ  himself,  and 
in  the  reception  of  each  does  the  Christian 
solemnly  devote  himself  to  the  service  of 
his  Divine  Master.  [See  B.\ptism,  and 
Lord's  Suppf.r.]  The  Romanists,  how- 
ever, add  to  this  number  covfrmatioii,  pen- 
ance, extreme  nnctvm,  orrI:ni'ioJ7,  and  mar- 
riage, holding  in  all  sev"ift  sacraments.  [See 
Popery. 1  Numerous,  however,  as  the  sa- 
craments of  tlie  Romish  church  are,  a  sect 
of  Christians  sprang  up  in  England,  eaily 
in  the  last  century,  who  increased  their 
number.  The  founder  of  this  sect  was  a 
Dr.  Deacon.  According  to  these  men,  eveiy 
rite,  and  every  phrase,  in  the  book  called 
the  Apostolical  Constitutions,  were  certain- 
ly in  use  among  the  apostles  themselves. 
Still,  however,  they  make  a  distinction  be- 
tween the  greater  and  the  lesser  sacraments. 
The  greater  sacraments  are  only  two,  bap- 
tism and  the  Lord's  supper.  The  lesser 
are  n(>  fewer  than  ten,  viz.  five  belonging  to 
baptism,  exorcism,  anointing  with  oil,  the 
white  gar7}ie?it,  a  taste  of  inillc  and  honeVy 
and  anointing  with  chrism  or  ointment. 
The  other  five  are,  the  sign  of  the  cross, 
imposition  of  hands,  unction  of  the  sick; 
holy  orders,  and  matrimony.  This  sect, 
however,  if  not  extinguished,  is  supposed  to 
be  in  its  last  wane.  Its  founder  published,  in 
1748,  his  full,  true,  and  comprehensive  view 
of  Chri^tianitv,  in  two  catechisms,  octavo. 

SACHAMENTARIANS,  a  general  name 
given  for  all  such  as  have  held  erroneous 
opinions  respecting  the  Lord's  supper.  The 
term  is  chiefly  applied  among  Catholics,  by 
way  of  i-epn  arh  to  the  Lutherans,  Calvin- 


SACRTFICE,  an  offering  made  to  God  on 
an  altar,  h\  means  of  a  regular  minister;  as 
an  acknnwledgment  of  his  power,  and  a 
jiayment  of  homage.  Sacrifices  (though  the 
term  is  sometimes  used  to  comprehend  all 
the  oflTerings  made  to  God,  or  in  any  way- 
devoted  to  his  service  and  honour)  differ 
from  mere  oblations  in  this,  that  in  a  sacri- 
fice there  is  a  real  destruction  or  change  of 
the  thing  offered  ;  whereas  an  oblation  is 
only  a  simple  offering  or  gift,  without  any 
such  change  at  all :  thus,  all  sorts  of  tithes, 
and  first  fruits,  and  whatever  ff  men's 
worldly  substance  is  consecrated  to  God  for 
the  support  of  his  worship  and  the  mainte- 
nance of  his  ministers,  are  offerings,  or  ob- 
lations ;  and  these,  under  the  Jewish  law, 
wei'e  either  of  living  creatures,  or  other 
things :  but  sacrifices,  in  the  rnqre  peculiar 


SAC 


465 


SAC 


sense  of  the  term,  were  either  wholly  or  in 
part  consumed  by  fire.  They  have,  by  di- 
vines, been  divided  into  bloody  and  unbloody. 
Bloody  sacrifices  were  made  of  living  crea 
tures ;  unbloody,  of  the  fruits  of  the  earth. 
They  have  also  been  divided  into  exjnatory, 
imjietratory  and  eiicharistical.  The  first 
kind  were  offered  to  obtain  of  God  the  for- 
giveness of  sins ;  the  second,  to  procure 
some  favour;  and  the  third,  to  express 
thankfulness  for  favours  already  received. 
Under  one  or  other  of  these  heads  may  all 
sacrifices  be  arranged,  though  we  are  told 
that  the  Egyptians  iiad  six  hundred  and 
sixty -six  different  kinds ;  a  number  surpass- 
ing all  credibility.  Various  have  been  the 
opinions  of  the  learned  concerning  the  origin 
of  sacrifices.  Some  suppose  that  they  had 
their  origin  in  superstition,  and  wei'e  merely 
the  inventions  of  men ;  others,  that  they  ori- 
ginated in  the  natural  sentiments  of  the 
human  heart :  others  imagine  that  God,  hi 
order  to  prevent  their  being  offered  to  idols, 
introduced  them  into  his  service,  though  he 
did  not  approve  of  them  as  good  in  them- 
selves, or  as  proper  rites  of  worship.  "  But 
that  animal  sacrifices,"  says  a  learned  au- 
thor, "  were  not  instituted  by  man,  seems 
extremely  evident  from  the  acknowledged 
universalUu  of  the  practice  ;  from  the  won- 
derful sameness  of  the  manner  in  which  the 
whole  world  offered  these  sacrifices ;  and 
from  the  expiation  which  was  constantly 
supposed  to  be  effected  by  them. 

"  Now  human  reason,  even  among  the 
most  strenuous  opponents  of  the  divine  insti- 
tutions, is  allowed  to  be  incapable  of  pointing 
out  the  least  natural  fitness  or  congruity  be- 
tween blood  and  atonement ;  between  killing 
of  God's  creatures  and  the  receiving  a  pardon 
for  the  violation  of  God's  laws.  This  con- 
sequence of  sacrifices,  when  properly  offered, 
was  the  invariable  opinion  of  the  heathens, 
but  not  the  whole  of  their  opinion  in  this 
matter ;  for  they  had  also  a  traditionary 
belief  among  them,  that  these  animal  sacri- 
fices were  not  only  expiations,  but  vicarious 
commutations,  and  substituted  satisfactions : 
and  they  called  the  animals  so  offered  [their 
uiTt^vx,''-']  the  ransoms  of  their  souls. 

"  But  if  these  notions  are  so  remote  from, 
nay,  so  contrary  to,  any  lesson  that  nature 
teaches,  as  they  confessedly  are,  how  came 
the  whole  world  to  practice  the  rites  found- 
ed upon  them  ?  It  is  certain  that  the  wisest 
Heathens,  Pythagorus,  Plato,  Porphyry,  and 
others,  slighted  the  religion  of  such  sacrifi- 
ces, and  wondered  how  an  institution  so 
dismal  (as  it  appeared  to  them,)  and  so  big 
with  absurdity,  could  diffuse  itself  through  the 
world. — An  advocate  for  the  sufficiency  of 
reason  [Tindall]  supposes  the  absurdity 
prevailed  by  degrees ;  and  the  priests,  who 
shared  with  their  gods,  and  reserved  the 
best  bits  for  themselves,  had  the  chief  hand 
in  this  gainful  superstition.  But,  it  may  \vell 
be  asked,  who  wei*e  the  priests  in  the  days 
of  Cain  and  Abel  ?  Or,  what  gain  could  this 
superstition  be  to  them,  when  the  one  gave 

3  N 


away  his  fruits,  and  the  other  his  ani; 
mal  sacrifice,  without  being  at  liberty  to 
taste  the  least  part  of  it  ?  And  it  is  wortfi 
remarking,  that  what  this  author  wittily 
calls  the  best  bits,  and  appropriates  to  the 
priests,  appear  to  have  been  the  skin  of  the 
burnt  offering  among  the  Jews,  .and  the  skin 
and  feet  among  the  Heathens." 

Dr.  Spencer  observes  [De  Leg.  Heb.  lib. 
iii.  §  2,]  that  "  sacrifices  were  looked  upon 
as  gifts,  and  that  the  general  opinion  was. 
that  gifts  would  have  the  same  effect  with 
God  as  with  man  ;  would  appease  wrath, 
conciliate  favour  with  the  Deity,  and  testify 
the  gratitude  and  affection  of  the  sacrificer : 
and  that  from  this  principle  proceeded  ex- 
piatory, pi'ecatory,  and  eucharistical  offer- 
ings. This  is  all  that  is  pretended  from 
natural  light  to  countenance  this  practice. 
But,  how  well  soever  the  comparison  may 
be  thought  to  hold  between  sacrifices  and 
gifts,  yet  the  opinion  that  sacrifices  would 
prevail  with  God  must  proceed  from  an  ob- 
servation that  gifts  had  prevailed  with 
men ;  an  observation  tuis  which  Cain  and 
Abel  had  little  opportunity  of  making.  And 
if  the  coats  of  skin  which  God  directed 
vVdam  to  make  were  the  remains  of  sacrifi- 
ces, sure  Adam  could  not  sacrifice  from  this 
observation,  when  there  were  no  subjects  in 
the  world  upon  whicli  he  could  make  these 
observations."  [K.-^nnicott's  second  Dissert, 
on  the  Offerings  of  Cain  and  Abel,  p.  201, 
See] 

But  the  grand  objection  to  the  divine  ori- 
gin of  sacrifices,  is  drawn  from  the  scrip- 
tures themselves,  particularly  the  following 
[Jer.  vii.  22,  23.    "  I  spake  not  to  your  fa- 
thers, nor  commanded  them,  at  the  time  that 
I  brought  them  out  of  Egypt,  concerning  the 
matters  of  burnt  offerings  or  sacrifices  ;  but 
only  this  very  thing  commanded  I  them, 
saying.   Obey  my  voice,  and  I  will  be  your 
God,  and  ye  shall  be  my  people."    The  in- 
genious wi-iter  atove  referred  to,  accounts 
ifor  this  passage  [p.  253  and  209]  by  refer- 
ring to  the  transaction  at  Marah  [Exod.  xv. 
23,  26,]  at  which  time   God  spake  nothing 
concerning  sacrifices :  it  certainly  cannot  be 
intended  to  contradict  the  whole   book   of 
Leviticus,    which   is  full  of  such   appoint- 
ments.    Another  learned  autluir,  to  acccuni 
for  the  above,   and  other  similar  passages, 
observes,  "  The  Jews  were  diligent  in  ])er- 
forming  the  external  services  of  religion  ;  in 
offering  prayers,  incense,  sacrifices,  oblations; 
but  these  prayers  were  not  offered    with 
faith  ;  and  their  oblations  were  made  more 
frequently  to  their  idols  than  to  the  God  of 
their  fathers.     The  Hebrew  idiom  excludes 
with  a  general  negative,   in  a  comparative 
sense,  one  of  two  objects  opposed  to  one  ano- 
ther,   thus:    '  I  will  have  mercy,   and   not 
sacrifice.'  [Hosea  vi.  6.]    '  For  I  spake  not 
to  your  fathers,  nor  commanded  them,  con- 
cerning burnt  offerings  or  sacrifices  ;  but  this 
thing  i  commanded  them,  saying.  Obey  my 
voice."  [Lowth  in  Isaiah  xliii.  22,  24.]    The 
ingenious  Dr.  Doddridge  remarks,  that,  gr.- 


SAD 


465 


SAM 


cording  to  the  genius  of  the  Hebrew  lan- 
guage, one  thing  seems  to  be  forbidden,  and 
another  commanded,  when  the  meaning  only 
is,  that  the  latter  is  greatly  to  be  preterred 
to  the  former.  The  text  before  us  is  a  re- 
markable instance  of  this;  as  likewise  Joel 
ii.  13.  Matt.  vi.  19,  20.  J.'hn  vi.  27.  Luke  xii. 
4,  5.  and  Col.  iii.  2.  >  And  it  is  evident  that 
Gen  xlv.  8.  Exod.  xvi.  3.  John  v.  30  John 
vii.  19  and  many  other  passages,  are  to  be 
expounded  in  the  same  comparative  sense. 
[Paraph,  on  the  New  Test.  sect.  59.]  So 
that  the  whole  may  be  resolved  into  the  apo- 
thegm of  the  wise  man  [Prov.  xxi.  3 :] 
"  To  do  justice  and  judgment  is  move  ac- 
ceptable to  the  Lord  than  sacrifice."  See 
Kennicotty  above  referred  to;  Eckvarcls' 
Jiistorij  of  Redemption,  p.  76,  note.  Outrain 
de  Sacrificns.  TVarburloji's  Divine  Leg:  b. 
9.  c.  2.  Bishop  Law's  Theory  of  Re  I  p.  50, 
to  54.  Jennings''  Jewish  ^ntic/.  vol.  I  p.  26, 
28.  Fleury's  Manners  of  the  Israelites,  part 
iv.  ch.  4.  'M'Ewen  on  the  Types. 

SACRILEGE,  the  crime  of  profaning  sa- 
cred things,  or  things  devoted  toGid.  The 
ancient  church  distinguished  several  sorts  of 
sacrilege.  The  first  was  the  diverting  things 
appropriated  to  sacred  purposes  to  other  uses. 
— 2.  Robbing  the  graves,  or  defacing  and  spoil - 
iiig  the  monuments  of  the  dead. — 3.  Those 
•were  considered  as  sacrilegious  persons  who 
delivered  up  their  Bibles  and  thesacred  uten- 
sils of  the  church  to  the  Pagans,  in  the  time 
of  the  Dioclesian  persecution. — 4.  Profaning 
the  sacraments,  churches,  altars,  &c. — 5. 
Molesting  or  hindering  a  clergyman  \n  the 
performance  of  his  office. — 6.  Depriving 
men  of  the  use  of  the  scriptures  or  the  sa 
craments,  particularly  the  cup  in  the  eucha- 
rist.  The  Romish  casuists  acknowledge  all 
these  but  the  last. 

SADDUCEES,  a  famous  sect  among  the 
Jews  ;  so  called,  it  is  said,  from  their  found- 
er, Sadoc.  It  began  in  the  time  of  Antigo- 
nus  of  Socho,  president  of  the  Sanhediim  at 
Jerusaletn,  and  teacher  of  the  law  in  the 
principal  divinity  school  of  that  city.  Anti 
gonus  having  often,  in  his  lectures,  incul- 
cated to  his  scholars  that  they  ought  not  to 
serve  God  in  a  servile  manner,  but  only  out 
of  filial  love  and  fear,  two  of  his  scholars, 
Sadoc  and  Baithus,  thence  inferred  that 
there  were  no  rewards  at  all  after  this  life  ; 
and,  therefore,  separating  from  the  school  of 
their  master,  they  thought  there  was  no  re- 
surrecti(*n  nor  future  state,  neither  angel  nor 
spirit.  Matt.  xxii.  23.  Acts  xxiii.  8.  They 
seem  to  agree  greatly  with  the  Epicureans ; 
difi'ering,  however,  in  this,  that,  though  they 
denied  a  future  state,  yet  they  allowed  the 
power  of  God  to  create  the  world  ;  whereas 
the  followers  of  Epicurus  denied  it.  It  is 
said,  also,  that  they  rejected  the  Bible,  ex- 
cept the  Pentateuch  ;  denied  predestination  ; 
and  taught,  that  God  had  made  man  abso- 
lute master  of  all  his  actions,  without  assis- 
tance to  good,  or  restraint  from  evil. 

SAINT,  a  person  eminent  for  godliness. 
The  word  is  generally  applied  by  us  to  the 


apostles  and  other  holy  persons  mentioned 
in  the  scripture :  but  the  Romanists  make 
its  application  much  more  extensive ;  as, 
according  to  them,  all  who  are  canonized 
are  made  saints  of  a  high  degree.  See 
Canonization. 

SALVATION  means  the  eafety  or  pre- 
servation cf  any  thing  that  has  been  or  is  in 
danger  :  but  it  is  more  particularly  used  by 
us  to  denote  our  deliverance  from  sin  and 
hell,  and  the  final  enjoyment  of  God  in  a 
fuUire  state,  through  the  mediation  of  Jesus 
Christ.  See  articles  Atonement,  Propi- 
tiation, Reconciliation,  Redejip- 
TioN,  and  Sanctification. 

SAMARITANS,  an  ancient  sect  among 
the  Jews,  whose  origin  was  in  the  time  of 
king  Rehoboam,  under  whose *reign  the  peo- 
pie  of  Israel  were  divided  into  two  distinct 
kingdoms,  that  of  Judah  and  that  of  Israel. 
The  capital  of  the  kingdom  of  Israel  was 
Samaria,  whence  the  Israelites  took  the 
name  of  Samaritans.  Shalmanescr,  king  of 
Assyria,  having  besieged  and  taken  Sama- 
ria, carried  away  all  the  people  captives 
into  th<"  remotest  parts  of  his  dominions,  and 
filled  their  place  with  Babylonians,  Cuthe- 
ans,  and  other  idolaters.  These,  finding 
tiiat  they  were  exposed  to  wild  beasts,  de- 
sired that  an  Israelitish  priest  might  be  sent 
among  them,  to  instruct  th«m  in  the  ancient 
religion  and  customs  of  the  land  they  inha- 
bited. This  being  granted  them,  they  were 
delivered  from  the  plague  of  wild  beasts, 
and  embraced  the  law  of  Moses,  with  which 
they  mixed  a  great  part  of  their  ancient 
idolatry.  Upon  the  return  of  the  Jews  from 
the  Babylonish  captivity,  it  appears  that  they 
had  entirely  quitted  the  worship  of  their 
idols.  But  though  they  were  united  in  reli- 
gion, they  were  not  so  in  affection  with  the 
Jews  ;  for  they  employed  various  calumnies 
and  stratagems  to  hinder  their  rebuilding 
the  temple  of  Jerusalem  ;  and,  when  they 
coultl  not  prevail,  they  erected  a  temple  on 
Mount  Gezirim,  in  opposition  to  that  of  Je- 
rusalem. [See  2  Kings  xvii.  Ezra  iv.  v. 
vi.]  The  Samaritans  at  present  are  few  in 
number,  but  pretend  to  great  strictness  in 
their  observation  of  the  law  of  Moses.— 
They  are  said  to  be  scattered  ;  some  at  Da- 
mascus, some  at  Gaza,  and  some  at  Grand 
Cairo,  in  Egvpt. 

SAMARITAN  PENTATEUCH,  the 
collection  of  the  five  books  of  Moses,  writ- 
ten in  Samaritan  or  Phoenician  characters  ; 
and,  according  to  some,  the  ancient  He- 
brew characters  which  were  in  use  before 
the  captivity  of  Babylon — This  Pentateuch 
was  unknown  in  Europe  till  the  seventeenth 
century,  though  quoted  by  Eusebius,  Jerome, 
&c.  Archbishop  Usher  was  the  first,  or  at 
least  among  the  first,  who  procured  it  out 
of  the  East,  to  the  number  of  five  or  six 
copies.  Pietro  della  Valle  purchased  a  very 
neat  copy  at  Damascus,  in  1616,  for  M.  de 
Sansi,  then  ambassador  of  France  at  Con- 
stantinople, and  afterwards  bishop  of  St. 
Male.    This  book  was  presented   to  the 


SAN 


467 


SAN 


Fathers  of  the  Oratory  of  St.  Honore,  where 
perhaps  it  is  still  preserved  -,  and  from 
which  Father  Morinus,  in  1632,  printed  the 
first  Samaritan  Pentateucli,  which  stands 
in  Le  J.iy's  Polyglot,  but  more  correctly  in 
Walton's  from  three  Samaritan  manuscripts, 
which  belonged  to  Usher.  The  generality 
of  divines  hold,  that  the  Samaritan  Penta- 
teuch, and  that  of  the  Jews,  are  one  and 
the  same  work,  written  in  the  same  lan- 
guage, only  in  different  characters ;  and 
that  the  difference  between  the  two  texts  is 
owing  to  the  inadvertency  and  inaccuracy 
of  transcribers,  or  to  the  affectation  »f  the 
Samaritans,  by  interpolating  what  migiit 
promote  their  interests  and  pretensions  ; 
that  the  two  cojjies  were  originally  the 
very  same,  and  that  the  additions  were 
afterwards  inserted.  And  in  this  respect 
the  Pentateuch  of  the  Jews  must  be  allow- 
ed the  preference  to  that  of  the  Samaritans; 
whereas  others  prefer  the  Samaritan,  as  an 
original,  preserved  in  the  same  character 
and  the  same  condition  in  which  Moses  left 
it  The  variations,  additions,  and  transpo- 
sitions which  are  found  in  the  Samaritan 
Pentateuch,  are  carefully  collected  by  Hot- 
tinger,  and  may  be  seen  on  confronti'ig  the 
two  texts  in  the  last  volume  of  the  English 
Polyglot,  or  by  inspecting  Kennicott's  edi- 
tion of  the  Hebrew  Bible,  where  the  vari- 
ous i-eadings  are  inserted.  Some  of  these 
interpolations  serve  to  illustrate  the  text  ; 
others  are  a  kind  of  paraphrase,  expressing 
at  length  what  was  only  hinted  at  in  the 
original ;  and  others,  again,  such  as  favour 
their  pretensions  against  the  Jews ;  name- 
ly, the  putting  Gerizim  for  Ebal.  Besides 
the  Pentateuch  in  Phcrnician  characters, 
there  is  another  in  the  language  which 
was  spoken  at  the  time  that  Manasseh, 
first  high  priest  of  the  temple  of  Gerizim, 
and  son-in-law  of  Sanballat,  governor  of 
Samaria,  under  the  king  of  Persia,  took 
shelter  among  the  Samaritans.  The  lan- 
guage of  tliis  last  is  a  mixture  of  Chaldee, 
Syriac,  and  Phoenician.  It  is  called  the 
Samaritan  version,  executed  in  favour  of 
those  who  did  not  understand  pure  Hebrew  . 
and  is  a  literal  translation,  expressing  the 
text  word  for  word. 

SANCTIFICATION,  that  work  of  God's 
^race  by  which  we  are  renewed  after  the 
Image  of  God,  set  apart  for  his  service, 
and  enabled  to  die  unto  sin  and  live  unto 
righteousness.  It  must  be  carefully  consi- 
dered in  a  twofold  light,  1.  As  an  inestima- 
ble privilege  granted  us  from  God,  1  Thes. 
V.  23. — And,  2.  As  an  all-comprehensive 
duty  required  of  us  by  his  hf>iy  word,  1 
Thes.  iv.  3.  It  is  distinguished  from  justifi- 
cation thus :  Justiiication  changeth  our 
state  in  law  before  Gotl  as  a  3i}(]^e ;  sanc- 
tification  changeth  our  heait  and  life  before 
him  as  our  Father. — Justification  precedes 
and  sarictiiication  follows,  as  the  fruit  and 
evidence  of  it.  The  surety-righteousness  of 
Christ  imputed  is  our  justifying  righteous- 
:iess ;  but  \he  grace  of  God   implanted  is 


the  matter  of  our  sanclification.  Juslificatioa 
is  an  act  done  at  once  ;  sanctification  is  a 
work  wliich  is  gradual.  Justification  re- 
lUfnes  the  guilt  of  sin  ;  sanclification  the 
pnv.'er  of  it.  Justification  delivers  us  from 
tlie  avenging  wrath  of  God  ;  sanctification 
conforms  us  to  his  image  Yet  Justification 
and  Sanctification  arc  inseparably  connect- 
ed in  the  promise  of  God,  Rom.  viii.  28 — 30; 
in  the  covenant  of  grace,  Heb.  viii.  10 ;  iu 
the  doctrines  and  promises  of  the  gospel. 
Acts  v.  ol  ;  and  in  the  experience  of  all 
true  believers,  1  Cor.  vi.  11.  Sanctification 
IS,  1.  A  divine  work,  and  not  to  be  begun 
or  carried  on  by  the  power  of  man.  Tit.  iii. 
5 — 2.  A  firogressive  work,  and  not  perfect- 
ed at  once,  Prov.  iv.  18. — 3,  An  internal 
work,  not  consisting  in  external  prcfession 
or  bare  morality,  Psalm  li.  6. — 4.  A  neces- 
sary work  ;  necessaiy  as  to  the  evidence 
four  stale,  the  honour  of  our  characters, 
the  usefulness  of  our  lives,  the  happiness  of 
our  minds,  and  the  eternal  enjoyment  of 
God's  presence  in  a  future  world,  John  iii.  3. 
Heb.  xii.  14  Sanctification  evidences  itself 
by,  1.  A  holy  reverence,  Nehem.  v  15.— 2. 
Earnest  regard  Lam.  iii  24 — 3.  Patient 
submission,  Psalm  xxxix.  9. — Hence  Abp. 
Usher  said  of  it,  "  Sanctification  is  nothing 
less  than  for  a  man  to  be  brought  to  an  en- 
tire resignation  of  his  wiU  to  the  will  of 
God,  and  to  live  in  the  offerhig  up  of  his 
soul  continually  in  the  flames  of  love,  and 
as  a  whole  burnt-offering  to  Christ." — 4.  In- 
creasing hatred  to  sin,  Psal.  cxix.  133.— 5. 
Communion  with  God,  Isaiah  xxvi.  8  — 6. 
Delight  in  his  word  and  ordinances,  Psal. 
xxvii  4. — 7.  HumiUty,  Job  xlii.  5,  6.-8. 
Prayer,  Psal.  cix.  4 — 9.  Holy  confidence, 
Psal.  xxvii.  I. — 10  Praise,  Psal.  ciii.  1. — 11. 
U!;if  rm  obedience,  John  xv.  8.  See  Mar- 
shall on  Sanctijication.  Dr.  Owen  on  iivs 
Holy  'ipirit.  Witsii  (Economia,  lib.  iii.  c. 
12.  Broivri's  J\''at.  and  Rev.  Theology,  p. 
447.  Hanueis'  Sermons,  ser.  11,  12,  13. 
Scougal's  Works.  See  articles  Holiness, 
Works. 

S.\NCTIONS  Divine,  are  those  acts 
or  laws  of  the  Supreme  Being  which  ren- 
der any  thing  obligatory.     See  Law. 

S.\NDEMAN1ANS.  a  sect  that  origina.- 
ted  in  Scotland  about  the  year  1728 ;  where 
it  is,  at  this  time,  distinguished  by  the  name 
of  Glassites.  after  its  founder,  Mr.  John 
Glas,  who  was  a  minister  of  the  establish- 
ed church  in  that  kingdom ;  but  being 
charged  Avith  a  design  of  subverting  the 
national  covenant  and  sapping  the  founda- 
tion of  all  national  establishments,  by  main- 
taining that  ihe  kingdom  of  Christ  is  not  of 
this  world,  was  expelled  from  the  synod  by 
ihe  church  of  Scotland.  His  sentiments  are 
fully  explained  in  a  tract,  published  at  that 
lini '.  entitled,  "  the  Testimony  of  the  King 
of  M.irtyrs,"  and  preserved  in  the  first 
volume  of  his  wrrks.  In  consequence  of 
Mr.  Glas's  expulsion,  his  adherents  formed 
themselves  into  churclies,  conformable,  in 
their    institution    and  discipline,   to  what 


SAN 


468 


SAN 


ihey  apprehended  to  be  the  olan  of  the 
lii'st  churches  recorded  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment. Soon  after  the  3  ear  1755,  Mr.  Ro- 
bert Saiideman,  an  elder  in  one  of  these 
churches  in  Scotland,  published  a  series  of 
letters  addressed  to  Mr.  Hervey,  occasioned 
by  his  Theron  and  Aspasio,  in  which  he 
endeavours  to  shew  that  Ms  notion  of  faith 
is  contradictory  to  the  scripture  account  of 
it,  and  could  only  serve  to  lead  men,  pro- 
fessedly holding  the  doctrines  called  Cal- 
viiilstic,  to  establish  their  own  righteousness 
upon  their  frames,  feelings,  and  acts  of 
faith.  In  these  letters  Mr.  Sandeman  at- 
tempts to  prove  that  justifying  faith  is  no 
more  than  a  simple  belief  of  the  truth,  or 
the  divine  testimony  passively  received  by 
tlie  understanding  ;  and  that  this  divine 
testimony  can-ies  in  itself  sufficient  ground 
of  hope  to  every  one  who  believes  it, 
"without  any  thing  wrought  in  us,  or  done 
by  us,  to  give  it  a  particular  direction  to 
ourselves 

Some  of  the  popular  preachers,  as  they 
were  called,  had  taught  that  it  was  of  the 
essence  of  faith  to  &lieve  that  Christ  is 
outs :  but  Mr.  Sandeman  contended,  that 
that  which  is  believed  in .  true  faith  is  the 
truth,  and  what  would  have  been  the  truth, 
though  we  had  never  believed  it  Thty 
dealt  largely  in  calls  and  invitations  to 
repent  and  believe  in  Christ,  in  order  to 
forgiveness ;  but  he  rejects  the  whole  of 
them,  maintaining  that  the  Gospel  contain- 
ed no  oflFer  but  that  of  evidence,  and  that  it 
was  merely  a  record  or  testimony  to  be 
credited.  They  are  taught  that  though 
acceptance  with  God,  which  included  the 
forgiveness  of  sins,  was  merely  on  account 
of  the  imputed  righteousness  of  Christ,  yet 
that  none  was  accepted  of  God,  iior  for- 
given, till  he  repented  of  his  sin,  and  receiv- 
ed Christ  as  the  only  Saviour :  but  he  in- 
sists that  there  is  acceptance  with  Gfxi 
through  Christ  for  sinners,  while  such,  or 
befo'-e  "  any  act,  exercise,  or  t-xenion  of 
then-  mmds  whatsoever :"  consequently  be- 
fore repentance ;  and  that  "  a  passive  be- 
lief of  this  quiets  the  guilty  conscience, 
begets  hope,  and  so  lays  the  foundation  for 
love."  It  is  by  this  passive  belief  of  the 
truth  that  we,  according  to  Mr.  Sandeman, 
are  justified,  and  that  boasting  is  excluded. 
If  any  act,  exercise,  or  exertion  of  tlie 
mind,  were  necessary  to  our  being  accepted 
of  God,  he  conceives  there  would  be  where- 
of to  gloiy  ;  and  Justification  by  faith  could 
not  be  oppose.i,  as  it  is  in  Kom.  iv.  4,  5.  to 
Jusufication  by  works. 

The  authors  to  whom  Mr.  Sandeman  re- 
fers, under  the  title  of  "  Popular  preach- 
ers," are  Flavel,  Boston,  Guthrie,  the 
Erskines,  &c.  whom  he  has  treated  with 
acrimony  and  contempt.  "  I  would  be  far," 
says  he,  "  from  refusing  even  to  the  popu- 
lar preachers  themselves  what  they  so 
much  grudge  to  others, — the  benefit  of  the 
one  instance  of  a  hardened  sinner  finding 
mercy  at  last ;  for  I  know  of  no  sinners 


more  hardened,  none  greater  destroyers  of 
mankind,  than  they."  There  have  not  been 
wanting  writers,  however,  who  have  vin- 
dicated these  ministers  from  his  invectives, 
and  have  endeavoured  to  shew  that  Mr.  ' 
Sandeman's  notion  of  faith,  by  excluding  all 
exercise  or  concurrence  of  the  will  with  the 
Gospel  way  of  salvation,  confounds  the 
faith  of  devils  with  that  of  Christians,  and 
so  is  calculated  to  deceive  the  souls  of  men. 
It  has  also  been  observed,  that  though  Mr. 
Sandeman  admits  of  the  acts  of  faith  and 
love  as  fruits  of  believing  the  truth,  yet 
"  all  his  godliness  consisting  (as  he  acknow- 
ledges to  Mr.  Pike)  in  love  to  that  which 
Jirst  relieved  him"  it  amounts  to  nothing 
but  self-love.  And  as  self-love  is  a  stran- 
ger to  all  those  strong  affections  expressed 
in  the  cxixth  Psalm  towards  the  law  of 
God,  he  cannot  admit  of  them  as  the  lan-> 
guage  of  a  good  man,  but  applies  the  whole 
psalm  to  Christ,  though  the  person  speaking 
acknowledges,  that  "  before  he  was  afflicted 
he  went  astray" — Others  have  thought, 
that  from  the  same  principle  it  was  easy  to 
account  for  the  bitterness,  pride,  and  con- 
tempt, which  distinguish  the  system  ;  for 
self-love,  say  they,  is  consistent  with  the 
greatest  aversion  to  all  beings,  divine  or  hu- 
man, excepting  so  far  as  they  become  sub- 
servient to  us. 

The  chief  opinion  and  practices  in  which 
this  sect  differs  from  other  Christians,  are 
their  weekly  administration  of  the  Lord's 
supper;  their  love  feasts,  of  which  every 
member  is  not  only  allowed  but  required  to 
partake,  and  which  consists  of  their  dining 
together  at  each  other's  houses  in  the  in- 
terval between  the  morning  and  afternoon 
service.  Their  kiss  of  charity  used  on  this 
occasion  at  the  admission  of  a  new  member, 
and  at  other  times  when  they  deem  it  ne- 
cessary and  proper ;  their  weekly  collection 
before  the  Lord's  supper,  for  the  support  of 
the  poor,  and  defraying  other  expences; 
mutual  exhortation ;  abstinence  from  blood 
and  things  strangled ;  washing  each  other's 
feet,  when,  as  a  deed  of  mercy,  it  might 
be  an  expression  of  love,  the  precept  con- 
cerning whicli,  as  well  as  other  precepts, 
they  understand  literally  ;  community  of 
goods,  so  far  as  that  every  one  is  to  con- 
sider all  that  he  has  in  his  possession  and 
power  liable  to  the  calls  of  the  poor  and  the 
church  ;  and  the  unlawfulness  of  laying  up 
treasures  upon  earth,  by  setting  them  apart 
for  any  distant,  future  and  uncertain  use. 
They  allow  of  public  and  private  diversions, 
so  far  as  they  are  unconnected  with  cir- 
cumstances really  sinful :  but  apprehending 
a  lot  to  be  sacred,  disapprove  of  lotteries, 
playing  at  cards,  dice,  &:c. 

They  maintain  a  plurality  of  elders,  pas 
tors,  or  bishops,  in  each  church ;  and  the 
necessity  of  the  presence  of  two  elders  iu 
every  act  of  discipline,  and  at  the  adminis- 
tration of  the  Lord's  supper. 

In  the  choice  of  these  elders,  want  of 
learning  and  engagement  in   trade   are  nr 


SAT 


469 


SAT 


sufficient  objection,  if  qualified  according  to 
the  instructions  given  to  Timothy  and  Ti- 
tus ;  but  second  marriages  disqualify  for 
the  office  ;  and  they  are  ordained  by  prayer 
and  fasting,  imposition  of  hands,  and  giving 
the  right  hand  of  fellowship. 

In  their  discipline  they  are  strict  and  se- 
vere, and  think  themselves  obliged  to  sepa- 
rate from  the  communion  and  worship  of 
all  such  religious  societies  as  appear  to  them 
not  to  profess  the  simple  truth  for  their  only 
ground  of  hope,  and  who  do  not  walk  in 
obedience  to  it.  We  shall  only  add,  that 
in  every  transaction  they  esteem  unanimity 
to  be  aosolutely  necessary.  Glaa^  Testimo- 
ny of  the  King  of  Martyrs.  Sandettian's 
Z,etcers  on  Tlieron  and  Asfiasio,  letter 
11.  Backus*  Discourse  on  Faith  and  its 
Influence,  p.  7 — 30  Adams''  View  of  Re- 
ligions. JSellamy's  JVature  and  Glory  of  the 
Gospel,  Lon.  ed.  notes,  p.  65 — 125,  Hist. 
of  Dis.  Church,  p.  265,  v.  i.  Fuller's  Let- 
ters on  Sandemanianism. 

SANHEDRIM,  a  council  or  assembly  of 
persons  sitting  together ;  the  name  whereby 
the  Jews  called  the  great  council  of  the 
nation,  assembled  in  an  apartment  of  the 
temple  of  Jerusalem,  to  determine  the 
most  important  affairs  both  of  church  and 
state. 

SARABAITS,  wandering  fanatics,  or 
rather  impostors,  of  the  fourth  century, 
who,  instead  of  procuring  a  subsistence  by 
honest  industry,  travelled  through  various 
cities  and  provinces,  and  gained  a  main- 
tenance by  fictitious  miracles,  by  selling 
relics  to  the  multitude,  and  other  frauds  of 
a  like  nature. 

SATAN  is  an  Hebrew  word,  and  signi- 
fies an  adversary,  or  enemy,  and  is  com- 
monly applied  in  scripture  to  the  devil,  or 
the  chief  of  the  fallen  angels.  "  By  collect- 
ing the  passages,"  says  Cruden,  "where 
satan,  or  the  devil,  is  mentioned,  it  may  be 
observed  that  he  fell  from  Heaven  with  all 
his  company ;  that  God  cast  him  down 
from  thence  for  the  punishment  of  his 
pride;  that,  by  his  envy  and  malice,  sin, 
death,  and  all  other  evils  came  into  the 
world  ;  that,  by  the  permission  of  God,  he 
exercises  a  sort  of  government  in  the  world 
over  his  subordinates,  over  apostate  angels 
■like  himself;  that  God  makes  use  of  him 
to  prove  good  men,  and  chastise  bad  ones ; 
that  he  is  a  lying  spirit  in  the  mouth  of 
false  prophets,  seducers,  and  heretics;  that 
it  is  he,  or  some  of  his,  that  torment  or  pos- 
sess men  ;  that  inspire  them  with  evil  de- 
signs, as  he  did  David,  when  he  suggested 
to  him  to  number  his  people ;  to  Judas,  to 
Jbetray  his  Lord  a»d  Master ;  and  to  Ana- 
nias and  Sapphira,  to  conceal  the  price  of 
their  field.  That  he  roves  full  of  rage  like 
a  roaring  lion,  to  tempt,  to  betray,  to  de- 
stroy, and  to  involve  us  in  guilt  and  wicked- 
ness ;  that  his  power  and  malice  are  re- 
strained within  certani  limits,  and  controul- 
ed  by  the  will  of  God.  In  a  word,  that  he 
is  an  enemy  to  God  and  man,  and  uses  his 


utmost  endeavours  to  rob  God  of  his  gloiy, 
and  men  of  their  souls."  See  articles  An- 
gel, Devil,  Temptation.  Moi-e  par- 
ticularly as  to  the  temptations  of  Satan.  #. 
•'  He  adapts  them  to  our  temper  and  cir- 
cumstances.— 2.  He  chooses  the  fittest  sea- 
son to  tempt  ;  as  youth,  age,  poverty,  pros- 
perity, public  devotion,  after  happy  mani- 
festations ;  or  when  in  a  bad  frame ;  after 
some  signal  source  ;  when  alone,  or  in  the 
presence  of  the  object :  when  unemployed 
and  oft"  our  guard  ;  in  death. — 3.  He  puts 
on  the  mask  of  religious  friendship.  2  Cor. 
xi.  14  Matt.  iv.  6.  Luke  ix.  50.  Gen. 
iii. — 4.  He  manages  temptation  with  the 
greatest  utility.  He  asks  but  little  at  first ; 
leaves  for  a  season  in  order  to  renew  his  at- 
tack.— 5.  He  leads  men  to  sin  with  a  hope 
of  speedy  repentance. — 6.  He  raises  suitable 
instruments,  bad  habits,  relations.  Gen.  iii. 
Job  ii.  9,  10.  Gilpin  on  Temptations. 
Brooks  on  Satan's  Devices.  Bishop  Por- 
tcus'  Sermons,  vol.  ii.  p.  63.  Burgh's  Cri- 
to,  vol.  i.  ess.  3;  vol.  ii.  ess.  4.  Howe's 
Works,  vol.  ii.  p.  360.  GurnaWs  Christian 
Armour. 

SATANIANS,  a  branch  of  the  Messa- 
lians,  who  appeai*ed  about  the  year  390.  It 
is  said,  among  other  things,  that  they  be- 
lieved the  devil  to  be  extremely  powerful, 
and  that  it  was  nmch  wiser  to  respect  and 
adore  than  to  curse  him. 

SATISFACTION,  in  general,  signifies 
the  act  of  giving  complete  or  perfect  plea- 
sure. In  the  Christian  system  it  denotes 
that  which  Christ  did  and  suffered  in  order 
to  satisfy  Divine  justice,  to  secure  the 
honours  of  the  Divine  government,  and 
thereby  make  an  atonement  for  the  sins  of 
his  people.  Satisfaction  is  distinguished 
from  merit  thus  :  The  satisfaction  of  Christ 
consists  vn  his  answering  the  demands  of 
the  law  on  man  which  were  consequent  on 
the  breach  of  it.  These  were  answered  by 
suffering  its  penalty.  The  merit  of  Christ 
consists  in  what  he  did  to  fulfil  what  the 
law  demanded,  before  man  sinned,  which 
was  obedience.  The  satisfaction  of  Christ 
is  to  free  us  from  misery,  and  the  merit  of 
("hrist  is  to  purchase  happiness  for  us.  See 
Atonement  and  Propitiation.  Also 
Dr.  Oiven  on  the  Satisfaction  of  Christ. 
Gill's  Body  of  Divinity,  article  Satisfac- 
tion. Stilliyigjieet  on  Satisfaction.  Watts' 
Redeemer  and  Sanctif.er,  p.  28,  32.  Her- 
vey's  Theron  and  Asjiasio. 

SATURNIANS,  a  denomination  which 
arose  about  the  year  115.  They  derived 
their  name  from  Saturnius  of  Antioch,  one 
of  the  principal  Gnostic  chiefs.  He  held 
the  doctrine  of  two  principles,  whence  pro- 
ceeded all  things ;  tlie  one,  a  wise  and  be- 
nevolent Deity  ;  and  the  other  matter,  a 
principle  essentially  evil,  and  which  he 
supposed  acted  under  tiie  superintendance 
of  a  certain  intelligence  of  a  malignant 
nature. 

The  world  and  its  inhabitants  were,  ac- 
cording to  the  system  of  Saturnius,  created 


SAV 


4ro 


SCH 


by  seven  angels,  which  presided  over  the 
seven  planets.  This  work,  was  carried  on 
without  the  knowledge  of  the  benevolent 
Deity,  and  in  opposition  to  the  will  <jf  the 
material  principle.  The  former,  however, 
beheld  it  with  approbation,  and  honoured  it 
with  several  marks  of  his  beneficrnce.  He 
endowed  with  rational  souls  the  beings  who 
inhabited  this  new  system,  to  whom  thtir 
creators  had  imparted  nothing  more  than 
the  animal  life  ;  and,  having  divided  the 
world  into  seven  parts,  he  distributed  them 
among  the  seven  angelic  architects,  one  of 
whom  was  the  God  of  the  Jews,  and  reserv- 
ed to  himself  the  supreme  empire  over  all. 
To  these  creatures,  whom  the  benevolent 
principle  had  endowed  with  reasonable 
souls,  and  with  dispos  tions  that  led  to  good- 
ness and  virtue,  the  evil  being,  to  maintain 
his  empire,  added  anotlier  kind,  whom  he 
formed  of  a  wicked  and  malignant  charac- 
ter ;  and  hence  the  differences  we  see 
among  men.  When  the  creatures  of  the 
world  fell  from  their  allegiance  to  the  su- 
preme Deity,  God  sent  from  heaven  into 
our  globe  a  restorer  of  order,  whose  name 
was  Christ.  This  Divine  conqueror  came 
clothed  with  a  corporeal  appearance,  but 
not  with  a  real  body.  He  came  to  destroy 
the  empire  of  the  material  principle,  and  to 
point  out  to  virtuous  souls  the  way  by  which 
they  must  return  to  God.  This  way  is  be- 
set with  difficulties  and  sufferings,  since 
those  souls  who  propose  returning  to  the  Su- 
preme Being  must  abstain  from  wine,  flesh, 
wedlock,  and  in  short,  from  every  thing 
that  tends  to  sensual  gratification  or  even 
bodily  refreshment.    See  Gnostics. 

SAVIOUR,  a  person  who  delivers  'from 
danger  and  misery.  Thus,  Jesus  Christ  is 
called  the  Saviour,  as  he  delivers  us  from 
the  greatest  evils,  and  brings  us  into  the 
possession  of  the  greatest  good.  See  Jesus 
Christ,  LiBERTy,  Propitiation,  Re- 
demption. 

Order  of  St.  Saviour,  a  religious  order 
ef  tlie  Romish  Church,  founded  by  St. 
Bridget,  about  the  year  1345 :  and  sn  called 
from  its  being  pretended  that  our  Saviour 
himself  declared  its  constitution  and  rules 
to  the  foundress. 

SAVOY  CONFERENCE,  a  conference 
held  at  the  Savoy,  in  1661,  between  the 
episcopal  divines  and  the  Presbyterians,  in 
ord!  r  to  review  the  book  of  Common  Pray- 
er ;  but  which  was  carried  f  n  the  side  of 
the  Episcopalians.  See  JVeafs  History  of 
the  Puritans.,  vol.  ii.  page  601.  quarto  edi- 
tion, or  Introduction  to  Paituei's  JVo7ico?i- 
formists''  Memorial. 

SAVOY  CONFESSION  OF  FAITH,  a 
declaration  of  the  faith  and  order  of  the  In 
dependents,  agreed  upon  by  their  elders 
and  messengers  in  their  meeting  at  the  Sa- 
voy, in  the  year  1658.  This  was  re-pvintefi 
in  the  year  1729.  See  JVcal's  History  oj 
the  Fziritans,  vol.  ii.  page  50",  .quarto 
edition. 


SCEPTIC,  c*!t«wT«eo{  from  vfAxrofou 
"  I  consider,  look  about,  or  deliberate,"  pro- 
perly signifies  consiaei  ative  and  inquisitive  ; 
or  one  who  IS  aiwajs  weighing  reasons  on 
one  side  and  the  other,  without  ever  de- 
cidir.g  between  them — The  word  is  applied 
to  an  ancient  sect  of  philosophers  founded 
by  Pyrrho,  who  denied  the  real  existence 
of  all  qualities  in  bodies,  except  those 
which  are  essential  to  primary  atoms ; 
and  referred  every  thing  else  to  the  per- 
ceptions of  the  mind  produced  by  exter- 
nal objects  ;  in  other  words,  to  appearance 
and  opinion.  In  modern  times  the  word 
has  been  applied  to  Deists,  or  those  who 
doubt  of  the  truth  and  authenticity  of  the 
sacred  scriptures.  One  of  the  greatest 
sceptics  in  latter  times  was  Hume :  he  en- 
deavoured to  introduce  doubts  into  every 
branch  of  physics,  metaphysics,  history, 
ethics,  and  theology.  He  has  been  con- 
futed, however,  by  the  doctors,  Reid, 
Campbell,  Gregory,  and  Beattie,  See  In- 
fidelity. 

SCHEWENKFELDIANS,  a  denomina- 
tion in  the  sixteenth  century ;  so  called 
from  one  Gasper  Schewenkfeldt  a  Silesian 
knight.  He  difTered  from  Luther  in  the 
three  following  points.  Tht  Jirst  of  these 
points  related  to  the  doctrine  concerning 
the  eucharist.  Schewenkfeldt  inverted  the 
following  words  of  Christ,  This  is  my  body: 
and  insisted  on  their  being  thus  understood. 
My  body  is  this,  i.  e.  such  as  this  bread 
which  is  broken  and  consumed ;  a  true  and 
real  f(xid,  which  nourisheth,  satisfieth,  and 
delighteth  the  soul.  My  blood  is  this,  that 
is,  such  its  effects,  as  the  wine  which 
strengthens  and  refresheth  the  heart.  Se- 
condly, he  denied  that  the  eternal  word 
which  is  committed  to  writing  in  the  holy 
scriptures  was  endowed  with  the  power  of 
heaUng,  illuminating,  and  renewing  the 
mind ;  and  he  ascribed  this  power  to  the 
internal  word,  which  according  to  his  notion, 
was  Christ  himself.  Thirdly,  He  would 
not  allow  Christ's  human  nature,  in  its  ex- 
alted state,  to  be  called  a  creature  or  a 
created  substance,  as  such  a  denomination 
appeared  to  him  infinitely  below  its  majes- 
tic dignity  ;  united  as  it  is  in  tliat  glorious 
state  with  the  Divine  essence. 

SCHISM,  from  txhh-'^^  a  rent,  clift,  fis- 
sure ;  in  its  general  acceptation  it  signifies 
division  or  separation ;  but  is  chiefly  used_ 
in  speaking  of  separations  happening  from' 
diversity  of  opinions  among  people  of  the 
same  religion  and  faith.  All  separations, 
howeevr,  must  not,  properly  speaking,  be 
considered  as  schisms. 

Schism,  says  Mr.  Arch,  Hall,  is,  proper- 
Iv,  a  division  among  those  wlio  stand  in  one 
connection  of  fellowship  :  but  where  the 
;',ifference  is  carried  so  far,  that  the  parties 
cr.ncerned  entirely  break  up  all  communion 
one  with  another,  and  go  into  distinct  con- 
nections for  obtaining  the  general  ends  of 
that  religious  fellowship  which   they  one© 


SCH 


471 


SCH 


did,  but  now  do  not  carry  on  and  pursue  with 
anited  endeavours,  as  one  church  juined  in 
the  bonds  of  individual  society  ;  where  this 
is  the  case,  it  is  undeniable  there  is  some- 
thing very  different  fruni  schism  :  it  is  nu 
longer  a  schism  in,  but  a  separation  from, 
the  body. — Dr.  Campbell  supposes  that  the 
word  schism  in  scripture,  does  not  always 
signify  open  separation,  but  that  men  may 
be  guilty  of  schism,  by  such  an  alienation  of 
affection  from  their  brethren,  as  violates 
the  intei-nal  union  suljsisting  in  the  hearts 
of  Christians,  though  there  be  no  error  in 
doctrine  nor  separation  from  communion. 
See  1  Cor.  iii.  3,  4.    1  Cor.  xii.  24—26. 

The  great  schism  of  the  West  is  that 
which  happened  in  the  times  of  Clement 
VII.  and  Urban  VI.  which  divided  the 
church  for  forty  or  fifty  years,  and  was  at 
length  ended  by  the  election  of  Martin  V. 
at  the  council  of  Constance. 

The  Romanists  number  thirty -four  schisms 
in  their  church :  they  bestow  the  name 
£ngliah  schism  on  the  reformation  of  reli- 
gion in  this  kingdom.  Those  of  the  church 
of  England,  apply  the  term  schism  to  the 
separation  of  the  Presbyterians,  Indepen- 
dents, Anabaptists  and  Methodists. 

"  The  sin  of  sc'iism,"  says  the  learned 
Blackstone,  "  as  such,  b  by  no  means  the 
object  of  temporal  coercion  and  punish- 
ment.— If,  through  weakness  of  intellect, 
through  misdirected  piety,  through  per- 
verseness  and  acerbity  of  temper,  or  through 
a  prospect  of  secular  advantage  in  herding 
with  a  party,  men  quarrel  with  the  ecclesi- 
astical establishment,  the  civil  magistrate 
has  nothing  to  do  with  it ;  unless  their  tenets 
and  practice  are  such  as  threaten  ruin  or 
disturbance  to  tlie  state.  All  persecution  for 
diversity  of  opinions,  however  ridiculous  and 
absurd  they  may  be,  is  contrary  to  every 
principle  of  sound  policy  and  civil  freedom. 
The  names  and  subordination  of  the  clergy, 
the  posture  of  devotion,  the  materials  and 
colour  of  a  minister's  garment,  the  joining 
in  a  known  or  unknown  form  of  prayer,  and 
other  matters  of  the  same  kind,  must  be 
left  to  the  option  of  every  man's  private 
judgment."  The  following  have  been  pro- 
posed as  remedies  for  schism.  "  1.  Be  dis- 
posed to  support  your  brethren  by  all  the 
friendly  attentions  in  your  power,  speaking 
justly  of  their  preaching  and  charactt  r.  Ne- 
ver withhold  these  proofs  of  your  brotherly 
love,  unless  they  depart  from  the  doctrines 
or  spirit  of  the  gospel. — 2.  Discountenance 
the  silly  reports  you  may  hear,  to  the  inju- 
ry ot  any  of  your  brethren.  Oppose  back- 
biting and  slander  to  the  utmost. — 3  When- 
ever any  brother  is  sinking  in  the  esteem  of 
his  flock,  through  their  caprice,  perverse- 
ness,  or  antinomianism,  endeavour  to  hold 
up  his  hands  and  his  heart  in  his  work. — 4 
Never  espouse  the  part  of  the  factious  schis- 
matics, till  you  have  heard  your  brother's 
account  of  their  conduct — 5.  In  cases  of 
open  separation,  do  not  preach  for  separa- 
tists till   it   be  evident  that  God   is  with 


them.  Detest  the  thought  of  wounding  a 
brother's  feelings  thi*ough  the  contemptible 
influence  of  a  party  spirit ;  for  through  this 
abominable  principle,  schisms  are  sure  to  be 
mu;tipiied. — 6.  Let  the  symptoms  of  dis- 
ease m  the  patients,  arouse  the  benevolent 
atv  ^ntion  of  the  physicians.  Let  them  check 
the  forward,  humble  the  proud,  and  warn 
the  unruly  ;  and  many  a  schismatic  distem- 
per will  receive  timely  cure. — 7.  Let  elderly 
ministers  and  tutors  of  academies  pay  more 
attention  to  these  things,  in  proportion  as 
the  disease  may  prevail ;  for  much  good 
may  be  accomplished  by  their  influence." 
See  King  on  the  Primitive  Churchy  p  152. 
Hales  and  Henry  g?i  Schism  Dr.  CamfibeWs 
Prel.  Disc  to  the  Gospels,  part  3.  Haweis* 
JJ}pen.  to  the  first  -vol.  of  /lis  Church  His- 
tory. Archibald  HaWs  View  of  a  Gospel 
Church.  Dr.  Owen's  View  of  the  Nature 
of  Schism.  Buck's  Sermons  ser.  6,  on  Di- 
visions. 
SCHISM  BILL.     See  conclusion  of  the 

article  NoNCONFOIlMIST.      - 

SCHOLASTIC  DIVINITY  is  that  part 
or  species  of  divinity  which  clears  and  dis- 
cusses questions  by  reason  and  argument ; 
in  which  sense  it  stands,  hi  some  measure, 
opposed  to  positive  divinity,  which  is  found- 
ed on  the  authority  of  fathers,  councils,  &c. 
The  school  divinity  is  now  fallen  into  con- 
tempt, and  is  scarcely  regarded  any  where 
but  in  some  of  the  universities,  where  they 
are  still  by  their  charters  obliged  to  teach  it. 

SCHO()LMEN,  a  sect  of  men,  in  the 
twelfth,  thirteenth,  and  fourteenth  centuries, 
who  framed  a  new  sort  of  divinity,  called 
Scholastic  Theology,  [See  last  article.] 
Their  divinity  was  founded  upon  and  con- 
firmed by  the  philosophy  of  Aristotle,  and 
lay,  says  Dr.  Gill,  in  contentions  and  liti- 
gious disputations,  in  thorny  questions  and 
subtle  distinctions.  Their  whole  scheme 
was  chiefly  directed  to  support  Antichris- 
tianism ;  so  that  by  their  means,  Popish 
darkness  was  the  more  increased,  and 
Christian  divinity  almost  banished  out  of  the 
world. 

"  Considering  them  as  to  their  metaphy- 
sical researches,"  says  an  anonymous  but 
excellent  writer,  *'  they  fatigued  their  read- 
ers in  the  pursuit  of  endless  abstractions  and 
distinctions;  and  their  design  seems  rather 
to  have  been  accurately  to  arrange  and  de«- 
fine  the  objects  of  thought  than  to  explore 
the  mental  faculties  themselves.  The  na- 
ture of  particular  and  universal  ideas,  time, 
space,  infinity,  together  with  the  mode  of 
existence  to  he  ascribed  to  the  Supreme 
Being,  chiefly  engaged  the  attention  of  the 
mightiest  minds  in  the  middle  ages.  Acute 
in  the  highest  degree,  and  endued  with  a 
wonderful  patience  of  thinking,  they  yet,  by 
a  mistaken  direction  of  their  powers,  wasted 
themselves  in  endless  logomachies,  and  dis- 
played more  of  a  teazing  subtlety  than  of 
philosophical  dt  pth.  They  chose  rather  to 
strike  into  the  dark  and  intricate,  by  paths 
of  metaphysical  science,  than  to  pursue  g 


SCR 


472 


SCR 


career  of  useful  discovery ;  and  as  their  dis- 
quisitions were  neither  adorned  by  taste,  nor 
reared  on  a  basis  of  extensive  knowledge, 
they  gradually  fell  into  neglect,  when  juster 
views  in  philosophy  made  their  appearance, 
btill  they  remain  a  mighty  monument  of  the 
utmost  of  winch  the  mind  of  man  can  ac- 
complish in  the  field  of  al>straction.  If  the 
metaphysician  does  not  find  in  the  school- 
men the  materials  of  his  work,  he  will  per- 
ceive the  study  of  their  writings  to  be  of 
excellent  benefit  in  sharpening  his  tools. 
They  will  aid  his  acuteness,  though  they 
may  fail  to  enlarge  his  knowledge." 

Some  of  the  most  famous  were.  Dama- 
scene Lanfranc,  P.  Lombard,  Alex.  Hales, 
Bonavent^ure,  Thomas  Aquinas,  Duns  Sco- 
tus,  and  Durandus.  Gili'a  Body  of  Div. 
Preface.  Electic  Rev.  for  Dec.  1805.  H. 
Moore's  Hints  to  a  Young  Princess,  vol.  ii. 
p.  267,  268, 

SCORNER,  one  who  treats  any  person  or 
thing  with  contempt:  "He  deems,"  Says 
Mr.  Scott,  "  his  own  understanding  equal  to 
the  discovery,  investigation,  and  even  com- 
prehension, of  ever}' subject:  he  therefore 
rejects  as  false  whatever  he  cannot  account 
for;  what  he  finds  contrary  to  his  precon- 
ceived sentiments,  and  what  is  out  of  the 
reach  of  his  reason ;  and  indeed,  all  that 
tends  to  condemn  his  conduct,  or  expose  his 
folly." 

SCOTISTS,  a  sect  of  school  divines  and 
philosophers;  thus  called  from  their  founder, 
J.  Duns  Scotus,  a  Scottish  cordelier,  who 
maintained  the  immaculate  conception  of 
the  Virgin,  or  that  she  was  born  without  j 
oi'iginal  sin,  in  opposition  to  Thomas  Aqui-j 
nas  and  the  Thomists. 

SCRIBE.  This  word  has  different  sig-j 
nifications  in  scripture.  1.  A  clerk,  or  wii-i 
ter,  or  secretary,  2  Sam.  viii.  17. — 2.  A 
commissary,  or  muster  master  of  the  army, 
2  Chron.  xxvi.  11.  2  Kings  xxv.  19 — 3.  A 
man  of  learning,  a  doctor  of  the  law,  1  Chron. 
xxvii.  32. 

SCRIPTURE  is  a  word  derived  from  the 
Latin  scrifitura,  and  in  its  original  sense  is 
of  the  same  import  with  tvriting,  signifying 
"  any  thing  written."  It  is,  however,  com- 
monly used  to  denote  the  writings  of  the 
Old  and  New  Testaments,  which  are  called 
sometimes  the  scri/iiures,  sometimes  the 
sacred  or  holy  scriptures,  and  sometimes 
ca?ionical  scriptures.  These  books  are  call- 
ed the  scriptui'es  by  way  of  eminence,  as 
thev  are  the  most  important  of  all  writings. 
— They  are  said  to  be  holy  or  sacred  on  ac- 
count of  the  saci-ed  doctrines  which  they 
teach  ;  and  they  are  termed  canonical,  be- 
cause, when  their  number  and  authenticity 
were  ascertained,  their  names  were  inserted 
in  ecclesiastical  canons,  to  distinguish  them 
from  other  books,  which,  being  of  no  autho- 
rity, were  kept  out  of  sight,  and  therefore 
styled  apocryphal.    See  Apocrypha. 

Among  otlier  arguments  for  the  divine 
authority  of  the  scriptures,  the  following 
may  be  considered  as  worthy  of  our  atten- 
tion: 


"  1.  The  sacred  penmen,  the  propheta 
and  apostles,  were  holy  excellent  men,  and 
would    not — artless,    illiterate    men,    and 
therefore  could  not,  lay  the  horrible  scheme 
of  deluding  mankind.    The  hope  of  gain 
did  not  infiuence  them,  for  they  were  self- 
denying  men,  that  left  all  to  follow  a  Mas- 
ter who  had  not  where  to  lay  his  head  ;  and 
whose  grand  initiating  maxim  was.  Except 
a  man  forsake  all  that  he  hath,  he  cannot  be 
my  disciple. — They  were  so  disinterested, 
that  they  secured  nothing  on  earth  but  hun- 
ger   and   nakedness,    stocks    and    prisons, 
racks  and  tortures ;  which,  indeed,  was  all 
that  they  could  or  did  expect,   in  conse- 
quence  of    Christ's    express    declarations. 
Neither  was  a  desire  of  honour  the  motive 
of  their  actions,  for  their  Lord  himself  was 
treated  with  the  utmost  contempt,  and  had 
more    than   once  assured  them  that  they 
should  certainly  share  the  same  fate :  be- 
sides  they  were   humble   men,   not  above 
working  as  mechanics,  for  a  coarse  mainte- 
nance ;   and  so  little  desirous  of  human  re- 
gard, that  they  exposed  to  the  world  the 
meannes'-  of  their   birth   and  occupations, 
their  great  ignorance  and  scandalous  falls. 
Add  to  this,  that  they  were  so  many,  aiid 
lived  at  such  distance  of  time  and  place 
from  each  other,  that,  had  they  been  impos- 
tors, it  would  have  been  impracticable  for 
them  to  contrive  and  carry  on  a  forgery 
without  being  detected.    And,  as  they  nei- 
ther would  nor  could  deceive  the  world,  so 
they  neither  could  nor  would  be  deceived 
themselves ;  for  they  were  days,  months,  and 
years,  eye  and  ear-witnesses  of  the  things 
which  they  relate ;  and,  when  they  had  not 
the  fullest'evidence  of  important  facts,  diey 
insisted  upon  new  proofs,   and  even   upon 
sensible   demonstrations;    as,   for  instance, 
Thomas  in  the  matter  of  our  Lord's  resur- 
rection,  John  XX.  25.  and,    to'  leave   us  no 
room   to   question  their  sincerity,    most  of 
them  joyfully  sealed  the  truth  of  their  doc- 
trines with  their  own  blood.    Did  so  many 
and  such  marks  of  veracity  ever  meet  in 
any  other  authors .-' 

"  2.  But  even  while  they  lived  they  con- 
firmed their  testimony  by  a  variety  of  mira- 
cles wrought  in  divers  places,  and  for  a 
number  of  years;  sometimes  before  thou- 
sands of  their  enemies,  as  the  miracles  of 
Christ  and  his  disciples ;  sometimes  before 
hundreds  of  thousands,  as  those  of  Moses." 
See  Miracle. 

"  3.  Reason  itself  dictates  that  nothing 
but  the  plainest  matter  of  fact  could  induce 
so  many  thousands  of  prejudiced  and  perse- 
suting  Jews  to  embrace  the  humbling  self- 
denying  doctrine  of  the  cross,  which  they  so 
much  "despised  and  abhorred.  Nothing  but 
the  clearest  evidence  arising  from  undoubted 
truth  could  make  multitudes  of  lawless, 
luxurious  heathens  receive,  follow,  and 
transmit  to  posterity,  the  doctrine  and  ^yri- 
ting  of  the  apostles ;  especially  at  a  time 
when  the  vanity  of  their  pretensions  to  mi- 
racles, and  the  gift  of  tongues,  could  be  so 
easily  discovered,  had  they  been  impostors ; 


SCR 


473 


SCR 


and  when  tlie  profession  of  Christianity  ex- 
posed persons  of  all  ranks  lo  the  greatest 
contemiJt  and  most  imminent  danger. 

"  4.  When  the  authenticity  of  tlie  mira- 
cles Was  attested  by  thousand:-:  of  living  wit- 
nesses, religioils  rites  were  instituted  and 
performetl  by  hunch'eds  of  thousands,  agree- 
able to  scripture  injunctions,  in  order  to  per- 
petuate that  authenticity:  and  tlkese  solemn 
ceremonies  have  ever  since  been  kept  up  in 
all  parts  of  the  world ;  the  Patssover  by  the 
Jews,  in  remembrance  of  Moses'  miracles  in 
Egypt ;  and  the  Eucharist  by  Christians,  as 
a  memorial  of  Chrisfs  death,  and  the  mira- 
cles that  accompanied  it,  some  of  which  are 
recorded  by  Phlegon  the  Trallian,  an  heathen 
historian . 

"  5.  The  Scriptui'es  have  not  only  the 
external  sanction  of  miracles,  but  the  eter- 
nal stamp  of  the  omniscient  God  by  a  va- 
riety of  prophecies,  some  of  which  have 
already  been  most  exactly  confirmed  by  the 
event  predicted."    See  Prophecv. 

"  6.  The  scattei'ed,  despised  people,  the 
Jews,  tiie  irreconcilable  enemies  of  the 
Christians,  keep  with  amazing  care  the 
Old  Testament,  full  of  the  prophetic  history 
of  Jesus  Christ,  and  by  that  means  atiord 
the  world  a  striking  proof  that  the  New 
Testament  is  true  ;  and  Christians,  in  their 
turn,  shew  that  the  Old  I'estament  is  abun- 
dantly confirmed  and  explained  by  the  New. 
See  Jews,  §  4. 

"  7.  To  say  nothing  of  the  harmony, 
venerable  antiquity,  and  wonderful  preser- 
vation of  those  books,  some  of  which  are  by 
far  the  most  ancient  in  the  world  ;  to  pass 
over  the  inimitable  simplicity  and  true  su- 
blimity of  their  style  ;  the  testimony  of  the 
fathers  and  the  priinitive  Christians ;  they 
carry  with  them  such  characters  of  truth, 
as  command  the  respect  of  every  unpreju- 
diced reader. 

"  They  open  to  us  the  mystery  of  the 
creation  ;  the  nature  of  God,  angels,  and 
man  ;  the  immortality  of  the  soul ;  the  end 
for  which  we  were  made;  the  origin  and 
connection  of  moral  and  natural  evil ;  the 
vanity  of  this  world,  and  the  glory  of  the 
next.  There  we  see  inspired  shepherds, 
tradesmen,  and  fishermen,  surpassing  as 
much  tlie  greatest  jihilosnphers  as  these  did 
the  herd  of  mankind  both  in  meekness  of 
wisdom  and  sublimity  of  doctrine. —  I'here 
we  admire  the  purest  morality  in  the  world, 
agreeable  to  the  dictates  of  sound  reason, 
confirmed  by  the  witness  which  God  has 
placed  for  himself  in  our  breast,  and  exem- 
plified in  the  lives  of  men  of  like  passions 
with  ourselves. — There  we  discover  a  vein 
of  ecclesiastical  history  and  theological  truth 
consistently  running  through  a  collection  of 
sixty-six  diflerent  books,  written  by  various 
authors,  in  different  languages,  during  the 
space  of  above  1500  years.-::^There  we  find, 
as  in  a  deep  and  pure  spring,  all  the  genu- 
ine dr<)])s  and  streams  of  spiiitual  know- 
ledge which  can  possibly  be  mt  t  with  in  the 
largest  libraries. — Tli^re    the  workings  of 

3  O 


the  human  heart  are  described  in  a  man- 
ner that  demonstrate  the  inspiration  of  the 
Searcher  of  Hearts. — There  we  have  a  par- 
ticular account  of  all  our  spiritual  maladies, 
with  their  various  symptcnis,  and  the 
nittliod  iif  a  certain  cure;  a  cure  that  has 
been  witnessed  by  multitudes  of  martyrs  and 
departed  saints,  and  is  now  enjoyed  by  thou- 
sands of  good  men,  wl>o  would  account  it  an 
honour  to  seal  the  truths  of  the  scriptures 
with  their  own  blood. — There  you  meet  with 
the  noblest  strains  of  penitential  and  joyous 
devotion,  adapted  to  the  dispositions  and 
states  of  all  travellers  to  Sion. — And  there 
you  read  those  awful  threatenings  and  cheer- 
ing promises  which  are  daily  fulfilled  in  the 
consciences  of  men,  to  the  admiration  of  be- 
lievers, and  the  astonishment  of  attentive 
infidels. 

"  8.  The  wonderful  eflTicacy  of  the  scrip- 
tures is  another  proof  that  they  are  of  God. 
When  they  are  faithfully  opened  by  his 
ministers,  and  powerfully  apjilied  by  his 
Spirit,  they  ivciuid  and  heal,  they  Aill  arid 
make  alive  ;  they  alarm  the  careless,  direct 
the  lost,  supptirt  tlie  tempted,  strengthen 
the  weak,  comfort  mourners,  and  nourish 
pious  souls. 

"  9.  To  conclude :  It  is  exceedingly  re- 
markable, that  the  more  humble  and  holy 
people  are,  the  more  they  read,  admire,  and 
value  the  scriptures  :  and,  on  the  contrary, 
the  moi'e  self-conceited,  worldly-minded,  and 
wicked,  the  moi'e  they  neglect,  despise,  and 
asperse  them. 

"  As  for  the  objections  which  are  raised 
against  their  perspicuity  and  consistency, 
those  who  are  both  pious  and  learned,  know 
that  they  arc  generally  founded  on  prepos- 
session, and  the  Avant  of  understanding  in 
spiritual  things ;  or  on  our  ignorance  of  se- 
veral customs,  idioms,  and  circumstances, 
which  were  perfectly  known  when  those 
books  were  written.  Frequently,  also,  the 
immaterial  error  arises  merely  from  a  wrong 
punctuation,  or  a  mistake  of  copiers,  prin- 
tei  s,  or  translators ;  as  the  daily  discoveries 
of  pious  critics,  and  ingenuous  confessions  of 
unprejudiced  enquirers,  abundantly  prove." 

'I'o  understand  the  scriptures,  says  Dr. 
Campbell,  we  should,  1.  Get  acquainted 
with  each  writer's  style. — 2.  Enquire  care- 
fully into  the  character,  the  situation,  and 
the  oBice,  of  the  writer;  the  time,  the 
place,  the  occasion,  of  his  writing ;  and  the 
people  for  whose  immediate  use  he  origi- 
nally intended  his  work. — 3.  Considfr  the 
principal  scope  of  the  bonk,  and  the  parti- 
culars chiefiy  observable  in  the  method  by 
whicii  the  writer  has  purposed  to  execute 
his  de3ign.-^4.  Where  the  phrase  is  obscure, 
the  context  must  be  consulted.  This,  how- 
ever, will  not  always  answer. — 5.  If  it  do 
not,  consider  whether  the  phrase  be  any  of 
the  writer's  peculiarities :  if  so,  it  must  be 
enquired  what  is  the  acceptation  in  which 
lie  employs  it  in  other  plact-s. — 6.  If  this  be 
not  sufficient,  recourse  should  be  had  to  the 
parallel  passages,  if  there  be  any  such,  in 


S  C  R 


4r4 


SEC 


the  other  sacred  writers — 7.  If  this  throws 
no  light,  consult  the  New  Testament  and 
the  Septuagint,  where  the  word  may  be  used. 
— 8.  If  the  term  be  only  once  used  in  scrip- 
ture, then  recur  to  the  ordinary  acceptation 
of  the  term  in  classical  authors. — 9.  Some- 
times reference  may  be  had  to  the  fatliers. 
— 10.  The  ancient  versions,  as  well  as  mo- 
dern scholiasts,  annotators,  and  translators, 
may  be  consulted. — 11.  The  analogy  of  faith, 
and  the  etymology  of  the  word,  must  be  used 
with  caution. 

Above  all,  let  the  reader  unite  prayer 
with  his  endeavours,  that  his  understai'.ding 
may  be  illuminated,  and  his  heart  impress- 
ed with  the  great  truths  which  the  sacred 
scriptures  contain. 

As  to  the  iiublic  reading  of  the  Scriptures, 
it  may  be  remarked,  that  this  is  a  very  I 
laudable  and  necessary  practice.  "  One  i 
circumstance,"  as  a  writer  observes,  "  why 
this  should  be  attended  to  in  congregations 
is,  that  numbers  of  the  hearers,  in  many 
places,  cannot  read  them  themselves,  and 
not  a  few  of  them  ever  hear  them  read  in 
the  families  where  they  reside.  It  is  strange 
that  this  has  not  long  ago  struck  every  per- 
son of  the  least  reflection  in  all  our  chui'ches, 
and  especially  the  ministei's,  as  a  most  con- 
clusive and  irresistible  argument  for  the 
adoption  of  this  practice. 

"  It  surely  would  be  better  to  abridge  the 
preaching  aiid  singing,  and  even  the/irayets, 
to  one  half  of  their  length  or  more,  thai;  to 
neglect  the  public  reading  of  the  Scriptures. 
Let  these  things,  therefore,  be  duly  consi- 
dered, together  with  the  following  reasons 
and  observations,  and  let  the  reader  judge 
and  determine  the  case,  or  the  matter,  for 
himself. 

"  Remember  that  God  no  sooner  caused 
any  part  of  his  will,  or  word,  to  be  written, 
than  he  also  commanded  the  same  to  be 
read,  not  only  in  the  family,  but  also  in  the 
congregation^  and  that  even  when  all  Israel 
were  assembled  together  (the  men,  women, 
and  children,  and  even  the  strangers  that 
were  within  their  gates ;)  and  the  end  was, 
that  they  might  /uar,  and  that  they  might 
learn,  and  year  the  Lord  their  God,  and  ob- 
serve to  do  all  the  words  of  his  law,  Deut. 
xxxi.  12. 

•'  Afterward,  when  synagogues  were 
erected  in  the  land  of  Israel,  that  the  peo- 
ple might  every  Sabbath  meet  to  worship 
God,  it  is  well  known  that  the  public  read- 
ing of  the  scripture  was  a  main  part  of  the 
service  there  performed  ;  so  much  so,  that 
'no  less  than  threefourths  of  the  time  was 
generally  employed,  it  seems,  in  reading 
and  expounding  the  scriptures.  Even  tlie 
prayers  and  songs  used  on  those  occasions 
appear  to  have  been  all  subservient  to  tliat 
particular  and  principal  employment  or  ser- 
vice, the  reading  oj  the  law. 

*'  This  ^vork,  or  practice,  of  reading  the 
scripture  in  the  congregation,  is  warranted 
and  recommended  in  the  New  Testament, 


.  as  well  as  in  the  Old.  As  Christians,  it  is 
I  fit  and  necessary  that  we  should  first  of  all 
looA-  unto  Jesus,  who  is  the  author  and  fin- 
isher of  our  faith.  His  example,  as  well  as 
his  precept,  is  full  of  precious  and  most  im- 
portant instruction ;  and  it  is  a  remarkable 
circumstance,  which  ought  never  to  be  for- 
gotten, that  he  began  his  public  ministry,  in 
the  synagogue  at  Nazareth,  by  reading  a 
portion  (^scripture  out  of  the  book  of  the 
prophet  Isaiah ;  Luke  iv.  15 — 19  This 
alone,  one  would  think,  might  be  deemed 
q\iite  suflRcient  to  justify  the  practice  among 
his  disciples  through  all  succeeding  ages, 
and  even  inspire  them  with  zeal  for  its  con- 
stant observance. 

"  The  apostle  Paul,  in  pointing  out  to 
Timothy  his  ministerial  duties,  pai-ticularly 
mentions  reading,  1  Tim.  iv.  13.  Give  at- 
tenda7ice  (says  he)  to  reading,  to  exhorta- 
tion, to  doctrine,  evidently  distinguishing 
reading  as  one  of  the  public  duties  incumbent 
upon  Timothy.  There  can  be  no  reason 
for  separating  these  thi'ee,  as  if  the  former 
was  only  a  private  duty,  and  the  otlaers 
public  ones :  the  most  natural  and  consistent 
idea  is,  that  they  were  all  three  public 
duties;  and  that  the  reading  here  spoken 
of,  was  no  other  than  the  reading  of  the 
scriptures  in  those  Christian  assemblies  where 
Timothy  was  concerned,  and  which  the 
apostle  world  have  him  by  no  means  to  ne- 
glect. If  the  puhhc  reading  of  the  scrip- 
tures was  £0  ncce»s?.ry  and  important  in 
those  religious  assemblies  which  had  Timo- 
thy for  their  minister,  how  much  more  must 
it  be  in  our  assemblies,  and  even  in  those 
which  enjoy  the  labours  of  our  most  able 
and  eminent  ministers." 

On  the  subject  of  the  scriptures,  we  must 
refer  the  reader  to  the  articles  Bible, 
Canon,  Inspiration,  Prophecy,  and 
Revelation  See  also  Browns  Intro- 
duction to  his  Bible.  Dr.  Campbell's  Pre- 
liminary Dissertations  to  his  Transi  of  the 
Gospels.  Fletcher's  ./Appeal.  Simon's  Cri- 
tical  History  of  the  Old  and  A<fw  Test. 
Ostervald's  Arguments  of  the  Books  and 
Characters  of  the  Old  and  A^ew  Test-  Co- 
sin's  Scholastic  Hist,  of  the  Canon  of  Scrip. 
Warden's  System  of  Revealed  Religion. 
Wells'  Geography  of  the  \Old  and  JVew 
Test.  The  Use  of  Sacred  History,  espe- 
cially as  illustrating  and  confirming  the 
Doctrine  of  Revelation,  by  Dr.  .Tamieson. 
Dick  on  Inspiration.  Blacknvell's  Sacred 
Classics.  I^IichaeTs  Introduction  to  the 
.Vew  Test.  Melmoth's  Sublime  and  Beau- 
tiful of  the  Scriptures.  Dwight's  Disser- 
tation  on  the  Poetry,  History,  and  Klo- 
quence  of  the  Bible.  Edwards  on  the  Au- 
thority, Style,  and  PerfcctioTi  of  Scripture, 
Stackhoitse's  History  of  the  Bible.  Kenni- 
cott's  Sta'e  of  the  Hebrew  Text.  Jones 
on  the  Figurative  Language  of  Scripture. 
and  books  under  articles  Bible,  Commen- 
tary, Christianity,  andREvELATioN. 
SECEDEKS,  a  numerous  body  of  Pres- 
byterians in  Scotland,  who  have  withdrawn 


SEC 


475 


SE  C 


from    the  communion  cf  the   established 
church. 

In  1732,  more  than  forty  ministers  pre- 
sented an  address  to  the  general  assembly, 
specifying,  in  a  variety  ot  instances,  what 
they  considered  to  be  great  defections  from 
the  established  constitution  of  the  church, 
and  craving  a  redress  of  these  grievances. 
A  petition  to  the  same  effect,  subscribed  by 
several  hundreds  of  elders  and  private 
Christians,  was  offered  at  the  same  time ; 
but  the  assembly  refused  a  hearing  to  both 
and  enacted,  that  the  election  of  ministers 
to  vacant  charges,  where  an  accepted  pre- 
sentation did  not  take  place,  should  be  com- 
petent only  to  a  conjunct  meeting  of  elders 
and  heritors,  being  Protestants.  To  this 
act  many  objections  were  made  by  numbers 
of  ministers  and  private  Christians.  They 
asserted  that  more  than  thirty  to  one  in  eveiy 
parish  were  not  possessed  of  landed  property, 
and  were,  on  that  account,  depi'ived  of  what 
they  deemed  their  natural  right  to  choose 
their  own  pastors.  It  was  also  said,  that 
this  act  was  extremely  prejudicial  to  the 
honour  and  interest  of  the  church,  as  well 
as  to  the  edification  of  the  people  ;  and,  in 
fine,  that  it  was  directly  contrary  to  the  ap- 
pointment of  Jesus  Christ,  and  the  practice 
of  the  apostles,  when  they  filled  up  the  first 
vacancy  in  the  apostolic  college,  and  ap- 
pointed the  election  of  deacons  and  elders 
in  the  primitive  church.  Many  of  those 
also  who  were  thought  to  be  the  best  friends 
of  the  chui'ch  expressed  their  fears  that 
this  act  would  have  a  tendency  to  overturn 
the  ecclesiastical  constitution  which  was 
established  at  the  revolution. 

Mr.  Ebenezer  Erskine,  minister  at  Stir- 
ling, distinguished  himself  by  a  bold  and 
determined  opposition  to  the  measures  of 
the  assembly  in  1732.  Being  at  that  time  mo- 
derator of  the  synod  cf  Perth  and  Sterling, 
he  opened  the  meeting  at  Perth  with  a  ser- 
mon from  Psalm  cxviii.  22.  "  The  stone 
which  the  builders  rejectea,  is  become  the 
head  stone  of  the  corner."  In  the  course 
of  his  sermon,  he  remonstrated  with  no 
small  degree  of  freedom  against  tiie  act  of 
the  preceding  assembly,  with  regard  to  the 
settlement  of  ministers ;  and  alleged  that  it 
was  contrary  to  the  word  of  God  and  the 
established  constitution  of  the  church.  A 
formal  complaint  was  lodged  against  him 
for  uttering  several  offensive  expressions 
in  his  sermon  before  the  synod.  Many  of 
the  members  declared  that  they  heard 
him  utter  nothing  but  sound  and  seasonable 
doctrine ;  but  his  accusers,  insisting  on  their 
complaint,  obtained  an  appointment  of  com- 
mittee of  synod  to  collect  what  were  called 
the  offensive  expressions,  and  to  lay  them 
before  the  next  diet  in  writing.  'I'his  was 
done  accordingly;  and  Mr.  Erskine  gave 
in  his  answers  to  every  article  of  the  com- 
plaint. After  three  days'  warm  reasoning 
on  this  affair,  the  synod,  by  a  majority  of 
six,  found  him  censurable;  against  which  j 
sentence  he  protested,  and  appealed  to  the 


next  general  assembly.  When  the  assembly 
met  in  May  1733,  it  affirmed  the  sentence 
of  the  synod,  ^nd  appointed  Mr.  Erskine  to 
be  rebuked  and  admonished  from  the  chair. 
Upon  which  he  protested,  that,  as  the  as- 
sembly had  found  him  censurable,  and  had 
rebuked  him  for  doing  what  he  conceived 
to  be  agreeable  to  the  word  of  God  and  the 
standards  of  the  church,  he  should  be  at 
liberty  to  preach  the  same  truths,  and  to 
testify  against  the  same  or  similar  evils,  on 
every  proper  occasion.  To  this  protest 
Messrs.  William  Wilson,  minister  at  Perth, 
Alexander  Moncrief,  minister  at  Aberneth)', 
and  James  Fisher,  minister  at  Kinclaven, 
gave  in  a  written  adherence,  under  the  form 
of  instrument ;  and  these  four  withdrew, 
intending  to  return  to  their  respective 
charges,  and  act  agreeably  to  their  protest 
whenever  they  should  have  an  opportunity. 
Had  the  affair  rested  here,  there  never 
would  have  been  a  secession ;  but  the  assem- 
bly resolving  to  cany  the  process,  cited, 
them,  by  their  officer,  to  compeer  next  day. 
They  obeyed  the  citation;  and  a  committee 
was  appointed  to  retire  with  them,  in  order 
to  persuade  them  to  withdraw  their  protest. 
The  committee  having  reported  that  they 
still  adhered  to  their  protest,  the  assembly 
ordered  them  to  appear  before  the  com- 
mission in  August  following,  and  retract 
their  protest;  and  if  they  should  not  com- 
ply and  testify  their  sorrow  for  their  con- 
duct, the  commission  was  empowei'ed  to 
suspend  them  from  the  exercise  of  their 
ministry ,  with  certification  that,  if  they  should 
act  contrary  to  the  said  sentence,  the  com- 
mission should  proceed  to  an  higher  cen- 
sure. 

The  commission  met  in  August  accord- 
ingly ;  and  the  four  ministers,  still  adher- 
ing to  their  protest,  were  suspended  from 
the  exercise  of  their  office,  and  cited  to  the 
next  meeting  of  the  commission  in  Novem- 
ber following.  From  this  sentence  several 
ministers  and  elders,  members  of  the  com- 
mission dissented.  The  commission  met  in 
November,  and  the  suspended  ministers 
compeered.  Addresses,  representations,  and 
letters,  from  several  synods  and  presby- 
teries, relative  to  the  business  now  before 
the  commission,  were  received  and  read. 
The  synod  of  Dumfries,  Murray,  Ross, 
Angus  and  Mearns,  Perth  and  Stirling, 
craved  that  the  commission  would  delay 
proceeding  to  an  higher  censure.  The  synods 
of  Galloway  and  Fife,  as  also  the  iJiesby- 
tery  of  Dornoch,  addressed  the  commission 
for  lenity,  tenderness,  and  forbearance,  to- 
wards the  suspended  ministers ;  and  the 
presbytery  of  Aberdeen  represer.ted,  that,  in 
their  judgment,  the  sentence  of  suspension 
inflicted  on  the  aforesaid  ministers  was  too 
high,  and  that  it  was  a  stretch  of  ecclesias- 
tical authority.  Many  members  of  the  com- 
mission reasoned  in  the  same  manner,  and 
alleged,  that  the  act  and  sentence  of  last 
assembly  did  not  oblige  them  to  pn^ceed  to 
an  higher  censure  at  this  meetiug  of  tlie 


^  SEC 


476 


SEC 


commis-iion.  The  question,  however,  was 
put, — Proceed  to  an  higher  censure  or  not  ^ 
and  the  voles  being  numbered,  were  found 
equal  on  both  sides  :  upon  which  Mr.  John 
Goldie,  the  moderator,  gave  his  casting 
vote  to  proceed  to  an  liigher  censure ; 
which  stands  in  their  minutes  in  these 
words: — "The  commission  did  and  hereby 
do  loose  the  relation  of  Mr.  Ebenezer  Er- 
skinc,  minister  at  Sdding,  Mr.  Wiiham 
Wilson,  minister  at  Perth,  Mr.  Alexander 
Moncrief,  minister  at  Abernethy,  and  Mr- 
James  Fisher,  minister  at  Kinclaven,  to 
their  respective  charges,  and  declare  them 
no  longer  ministers  of  this  church  ;  and  do 
hereby  prohibit  all  ministers  of  this  church 
to  employ  them,  or  any  of  them,  in  any 
ministerial  function.  And  the  commission 
do  declai-e  the  churches  of  the  said  minis 
ters  vacant  from  and  after  the  date  of  this 
sentence." 

This  sentence  bsing  intimated  to  them, 
they  protested  tliat  their  ministerial  ofhce 
and  relation  to  their  respective  charges 
should  be  held  as  valid  as  if  no  such  sen- 
tence had  passed  ;  and  that  tliey  wei-e  now 
obliged  to  make  a  secession  from  the  pre- 
vailing party  in  the  ecclesiastical  courts; 
and  that  it  shall  be  lawful  and  warrantable 
for  them  to  preach  the  Gospel,  and  dis- 
charge every  branch  of  the  pastoral  office, 
according  to  tlie  word  of  God,  and  the  es- 
tablished principles  of  the  church  of  Scot- 
land. Mr.  Ralph  Erskine,  minister  at  Dun- 
fermline, Mr.  Thomas  Mair,  minister  at 
Orv/el,  Mr.  John  M'Laren,  minister  at  Edin- 
burgh, Mr.  John  Currie,  minister  at  King- 
lassie,  Mr  James  VVardlaw,  minister  at 
Dunfermline,  and  r\Ir.  Thomas  Nairn,  mini- 
ster at  Ablwtshall,  protested  against  the  sen- 
tence of  the  commission,  and  that  it  should 
be  lawful  for  them  to  complain  of  it  to 
any  subsequent  general  assembly  of  the 
church. 

The    secession    properly    commenced    at 
tliis  date.      And    accordingly   tlie    ejected 
ministers   declared    in  their    protest,    that 
tiiey  were  laid  under  the  disagreeable    ne- 
cessity of  seceding,  not  from  the  principles 
and  constitution  of  the  c'aurch  of  Scotland, 
to   which,   they    f^'d,  they  steadfastly  ad- 
hered,  but  from  the  present  cliurch -courts, 
which  had  thrown  them  out  from  ministe- 
rial communion.    Tiie   assembly,  however, 
vrhich  met  in  May  1734,  did   so  far  modify 
the  above  sentence,   that  they  empowered 
the  synod  of  Perth  and  Stirling  to  receive 
the  ejected  ministers  into  the  communion  of 
,^he  church,  and  restore   them  to  their  re- 
>spective  charE^es ;     but    with    this    express 
dii'ection,  "  that  t!"ie  said  synod   should    not 
take  upon  them  to  jvidgc  of  the  legality  or 
foriuaUty  of  the    former  procedure  of  the 
church  judicatories  in  relation  to  this  affair, 
or  to  either  approve  or  censure  the  same." 
As   th.is    appointment    neither    condemned 
the  act  of  the  preceding  assembly,  nor  tlu' 
conduct  of   the    commission,    the    seceding 
aunisters  considered  it  to  be  rather  an  act 


of  grace  than  of  justice ;  and  therefore, 
they  said,  they  could  not  return  to  the 
churc'n-courts  upon  this  ground  ;  and  they 
published  to  the  Avorld  the  reasons  of 
their  refusal,  and  the  terms  upon  which 
they  were  willing  to  return  to  the  com- 
munion of  the  established  church.  They 
now  erected  themselves  into  an  ecclesias- 
tical court,  which  they  called  the  ^^ssoci- 
aled  Presbytery,  and  preached  occasional- 
ly to  numbers  of  the  people  who  joined 
them  in  different  paits  of  tlie  country. 
'I'hey  also  published  what  they  called  an 
Act,  Declaration,  and  Testimony,  to  the 
doctrine,  worship,  government,  and  disci- 
pline of  the  church  of  Scotland ;  and 
against  several  instances,  as  they  said,  of 
defection  from  these,  both  in  former  and 
in  the  present  times.  Some  time  after 
this,  several  ministers  of  the  established 
church  joined  them,  and  tlie  Associated 
Presbytery  now  consisted  of  eight  ministers^ 
But  the  general  assembly  which  met  in 
1738,  finding  that  the  number  of  Seceders 
was  much  increased ;  ordered  the  eight 
ministers  to  be  served  with  a  libel,  and  to 
be  cited  to  the  next  meeting  of  the  assem- 
bly, in  1739.  They  now  appeared  at  the 
bar  as  a  constituted  presbytery,  and  having 
formally  declined  the  assembly's  authority, 
they  immediately  withdrew.  The  assem- 
bly which  met  next  year  deposed  them 
from  the  office  of  the  ministry  ;  which, 
however,  they  continued  to  exeixise  in  their 
respective  congregations,  who  still  adhered 
to  them,  and  erected  meeting-houses,  where 
they  preached  till  their  death.  Mr.  James 
Fisher,  the  last  survivor  of  them,  was  by 
an  unanimous  call,  in  1741,  translated  froni 
Kinclaven  to  Glasgow,  where  he  continued 
in  the  exercise  of  his  ministry  among  a 
numerous  congregation,  respected  by  all 
ranks  in  that  large  city,  and  died  in  1775, 
much  regretted  by  his  people  and  friends. 
In  1745,  the  seceding  ministers  were  be- 
come so  numerous,  that  they  were  erected 
into  three  different  presbyteries  under  one 
synod,  when  a  very  unprofitable  dispute  di- 
vided them  into  two  parties. 

The  burgess  oath,  in  some  of  the  royal 
boroughs  of  Scotland,  contains  the  following 
clause :  "  I  profess  and  allow  with  my 
heart  the  true  religion  presently  professed 
within  this  realm,  and  authorised  by  the 
laws  thereof.  I  will  abide  at  and  defend 
the  same  to  my  life's  end,  renouncing  the 
Romish  religion,  called  Paiiistry."  Messrs. 
Ebenezer  and  Ralph  Erskine,  James- Fisher, 
and  others,  affirmed,  that  this  clause  was 
no  way  contrary  to  the  principles  upon 
which  the  secession  was  formed,  and  that 
therefore  every  Seceder  might  lawfully 
swear  it  Me.srs.  Alexander  Moncrief, 
Thomas  Mair,  Adam  Gib,  and  others,  con- 
tended, on  the  other  hand,  that  tlie  swear- 
ing of  the  above  clause  was  a  virtual  re- 
mmciation  of  their  testimony  ;  and  this 
controversy  was  so  keenly  agitated,  that 
they  split   into  two  different   jjarties,   and 


SEC 


477 


S  EC 


now  meet  in  different  synods.  Those  of 
them  who  assert  the  lawfuhiess  of  swearing 
the  burgess  oath  are  called  Burghers ; 
and  the  other  party,  who  condemn  it,  are 
called  Antiburgher  Seceders.  Each  party 
claiming  to  itself  the  lawful  constitution  of 
the  Associate  Synod,  the  Antiburghers, 
after  several  previous  steps,  excf.mmunica- 
ted  the  Burghers,  on  the  ground  of  their 
sin,  and  of  their  contumacy  in  it.  This 
rupture  took  place  in  1747,  since  which 
period  no  attempts  to  effect  a  re-union 
have  been  sviccessful.  They  remain  un- 
der the  jurisdiction  of  different  synods,  and 
hold  separate  communion,  although  much 
of  their  former  hostility  has  been  laid  aside. 
The  Antiburghers  consider  the  Burghers 
as  too  lax,  and  not  sufficiently  steadfast 
to  their  testimony.  The  Burghers,  on  the 
other  hand,  contend  that  the  Antiburg- 
hers are  too  rigid,  in  that  they  have  in- 
troduced new  terms  of  communion  into  the 
society. 

What  follows  in  this  article  is  a  farther 
account  of  those  who  are  commonly  called 
the  Burg/ier  Seceders.  As  there  were 
among  tiiem,  from  the  commencement  of 
their  secession,  several  students  who  had 
been  educated  at  one  or  other  of  the  uni- 
versities, they  appointed  one  of  their  mini- 
sters to  give  lectures  in  theology,  and  train 
up  candidates  for  the  ministry. 

Where  a  congregation  is  very  numerous, 
as  in  Stirling,  Dunfermline,  and  Perth,  it  is 
formed  into  a  collegiate  charge,  and  pro- 
vided with  two  ministers.  They  are  erect- 
ed into  six  different  presbyteries,  united  in 
one  general  synod,  which  commonly  meets 
at  Edinburgh  in  May  and  September. 
They  have  also  a  synod  in  Ireland,  com- 
posed of  three  or  four  different  presbyte- 
ries. They  are  legally  tolerated  in  Ireland; 
and  government,  some  years  ago,  granted 
500/.  Jier  annum,  and  of  late  an  additional 
500/.  which  when  divided  among  them, 
affords  to  each  minister  about  20/.  over  and 
above  tl\e  stipend  v^^hich  he  receives  from 
his  hearers.  These  have,  besides,  a  pres- 
bytery in  Nova  Scotia ;  and,  some  years 
ago,  it  is  said,  that  the  Burgher  and  the 
Antiburgher  ministers  residing  in  the  United 
States  formed  a  coalition,  and  joined  in  a 
general  Synod,  which  they  call  the  Synod 
of  JVeiv  York  and  Pennsylvania.  They  all 
pi'each  the  doctrines  contained  in  the 
Westminister  Confession  of  Faith  and  Cate- 
chisms, as  they  believe  these  to  be  founded 
on  the  sacred  Scriptures. — They  catechize 
their  hearers  publicly,  and  visit  them  from 
house  to  house  once  every  yeai-.  They  will 
not  give  the  Lord's  supper  to  those  who 
are  ignorant  of  the  principles  of  the  Gospel, 
nor  to  such  as  are  scandalous  and  immoral 
in  their  lives.  They  condemn  private  bap- 
tism ;  nor  will  they  admit  those  who  are 
grossly  ignorant  and  profane  to  be  sponsors 
for  their  children.  Believing  that  the  peo- 
ple  have  a  natural  right  to  choose   their 


own  pastors,  the  settlement  of  their  mini- 
sters always  proceeds  upon  a  popular  elec- 
tion ;  and  the  candidate,  who  is  elected  by 
the  majority,  is  ordained  among  them.  Con- 
vinced that  the  charge  of  souls  is  a  trust  of 
the  greatest  importance,  they  carefully 
watch  over  the  morals  of  their  students, 
and  direct  them  to  such  a  course  of  read- 
ing and  study  as  they  judge  most  proper  to 
qualify  them  for  the  profitable  discharge 
of  the  pastoral  duties.  At  the  ordination 
of  their  ministers,  they  use  a  formula  of 
the  same  kind  with  that  of  the  established 
church,  which  their  ministers  are  bound  to 
subscribe  when  calletl  to  it  ;  and  if  any  of 
them  teach  doctrines  contrary  to  the  scrip- 
tures, or  the  Westminster  Confession  of 
Faith,  they  are  sure  of  being  thrown  out 
of  their  communion.  By  this  means,  unifor- 
mity of  sentiment  is  preserved  among  them; 
nor  has  any  of  their  ministers,  excepting 
one,  been  prosecuted  for  error  in  doc- 
trine since  the  commencement  of  their  se- 
cession. 

They  believe  that  the  holy  scriptures  are 
the  sole  criterion  of  truth,  and  the  only 
rule  to  direct  mankind  to  glorify  and  enjoy 
God,  the  chief  and  eternal  good  ;  and  that 
"  the  Supreme  Judge,  by  which  all  contro- 
versies of  religion  are  to  be  determined, 
and  all  the  decrees  of  councils,  opiniwns  of 
ancient  writers,  doctrines  of  men  and  pri- 
vate spirits,  are  to  be  examined,  and  in 
whose  sentence  we  are  to  rest,  can  be  no 
other  but  the  Holy  Spirit  speaking  in  the 
scriptures."  They  are  fully  persuaded, 
however,  that  the  standards  of  public 
authority  in  the  church  of  Scotland  exhibit 
a  just  and  consistent  view  of  the  meaning 
and  design  of  the  holy  scriptures  with  re- 
gard to  doctrine,  worship,  government,  and 
discipline  ;  and  they  so  far  differ  from  the 
Dissenters  in  England,  in  that  they  hold 
these  standards  to  be  not  only  articles  of 
peace  and  a  test  of  orthodoxy,  but  as  a  bond 
of  union  and  fellowship.  They  consider  a 
simple  declaration  of  adherence  to  the 
scriptures  as  too  etjui vocal  a  proof  of  unity 
in  sentiment,  because  Arians,  Socinians,  "and 
Arminians,  make  such  a  confession  of  their 
faith,  while  they  retain  sentiments  which 
they  (the  Seceders)  apprehend  are  subver- 
sive of  the  great  doctrines  of  the  Gospel. 
They  believe  that  Jesus  Christ  is  the  only 
King  and  Head  of  the  church,  which  is  his 
body  ;  that  it  is  his  sole  prerogative  to  en- 
act laws  for  the  government  of  his  kingdom 
which  is  not  of  this  world ;  and  that  the 
church  is  not  possessed  of  a  legislative,  but 
only  of  an  executive  power,  to  be  exercised 
in  explaining  and  applying  to  their  proper 
objects  and  end,  those  laws  which  Christ 
hath  published  in  the  Scriptures.  Those 
doctrines  which  they  teach  relative  to  faith 
and  practice  are  exhibited  at  great  length 
in  an  Explanation  of  the  Westminster 
Assembly's  Shorter  Catechism,  by  way  of 
question  and  answer,  in  two  volumes,  com- 


SEC 


478 


SEL 


posed  chiefly  by  Mr.  James  Fisher,  late  of 
Glasgow,  and  published  by  desii'e  of  their 
synod. 

For  these  fifty  years  past,  the  grounds  of 
their  secession,  they  allege,  have  been  great- 
ly enlarged  by  the  public  administrations  of 
the  established  church,  and  particularly  by 
the  uniform  execution  of  the  law  respecting 
patronage,  which,  they  say,  has  obliged 
many  thousands  of  private  Christians  to 
withdraw  from  the  parish  churches,  and 
join  their  society. 

In  most  of  their  congregations,  they  cele- 
brate the  Lord's  supper  twice  m  the  year; 
and  they  catechize  their  young  people  con- 
cerning their  knowledge  of  the  principles 
of  religion  previously  to  their  admission  to 
that  sacrament.  When  any  of  them  fall 
into  the  sin  of  fornication  or  adultery,  the 
scandal  is  i*egularly  purged  according  to 
the  form  of  process  in  the  established 
church ;  and  those  of  the  delinquents  who 
do  not  submit  to  adequate  censure,  are 
publicly  declared  to  be  fugitives  from  dis- 
cipline, and  are  expelled  the  society.  They 
never  accept  a  sum  of  money  as  a  commu- 
tation for  the  offence. — They  condemn  all 
clandestine  and  irregular  marriages  ;  nor 
will  they  marry  any  persons  unless  they 
have  been  proclaimed  in  the  parish  church 
on  two  different  Ijord's  days  at  least 

The  constitution  of  the  Antiburgher 
church  differs  very  little  from  that  of  the 
Burghers.  The  supreme  court  among  them 
is  designated  The  General  Associate  Synod, 
having  under  its  jurisdiction  three  provincial 
synods  in  Scotland  and  one  in  Ireland. 
They,  as  well  as  the  Burgher  Seceders, 
have  a  professor  of  theology,  whose  lectures 
every  candidate  for  the  office  of  a  preacher 
is  obliged  to  attend. 

SECT,  a  collective  term,  comprehending 
all  such  as  follow  the  doctrines  and  opinions 
of  some  divine,  philosopher,  &c.     The  word  | 
sect,    says     Dr.  Campbell  (Prelim     Diss.)  j 
among  the  Jews,   was  not  in  its  application  I 
entirely  coincident  with  the  same  term  as  I 
applied  by  Christians   to   the    subdivisions 
subsisting'  among    themselves.      We,  if    l| 
mistake  not,  invariably  use  it  of  those  who ' 
form    separate  communions,    and    do    not  1 
associate  with  one  another  in  religious  wor-  j 
ship  and  ceremonies.    Thus,  we  call  Papists,  [ 
Lutherans,  Calvinists,  different  sects,  riot  so 
much  on  account  of  their  differences  in  opi- 
nion, as  because  they  have  established  to 
themselves  different  fraternities,  to  .which, 
in  what  regards  public  worship,  they  con- 
fine themselves;  the  several   denominations 
above  mentioned  having  no  inter-community 
with  one  another  in  sacred  matters.     High 
church  and  low  church  we  call  only  parties, 
because  they  have  not  formed  separate  com- 
munions.   Great  and  known  differences  in 
opinion,  when  followed  by  no  external  breach 
in  the  society,  ai'e  not  considered  with  us  as 
constituung  distinct  sects,  tliough  their  dif- 
ferences in  opinion  may  give  rise  to  mutual 
aversion.    Now,  in  the  Jewish  sects  (if  we  \ 


except  the  Samaritan,)  there  were  no  sepa- 
rate communities  erected.  The  same  tem- 
ple, and  the  same  synagogues,  were  atterid- 
ed  alike  by  Pharisees  and  by  Sadducees,  nay, 
there  wei-e  often  of  both  denominations  in 
the  Sanhedrim,  and  even  in  the  priesthood. 
— Another  difference  was  also,  that  the 
name  of  the  sect  was  not  applied  to  all  the 
people  who  adopted  the  same  opinions,  but 
solely  to  the  men  of  eminence  among  them 
who  were  considered  as  the  leaders  of  the 
party. 

SECULAR  CLERGY.  See  Clergy. 

SECUNDIANS,  a  denomination  in  the 
second  century,  which  derived  their  name 
from  Secundus,  a  disciple  of  Valentine.  He 
maintained  the  doctrine  of  two  eternal  prin- 
ciples, viz  -light  and  darkness,  whence 
arose  the  good  and  evil  that  are  observable 
in  the  universe.    See  Valentinians. 

SEDUCER,  one  who  decoys  or  draws 
away  anotlier  from  that  which  is  right. 

SEEKERS,  a  denomination  which  arose 
in  the  year  1645.  They  derived  their  name 
from  their  maintaining  tliat  the  true  church 
ministry,  scripture,  and  ordinances,  were 
lost  for  which  they  were  seeking.  They 
taught  that  the  scriptures  were  uncertain ; 
that  present  miracles  were  necessary  to 
faith ;  that  our  ministry  is  without  autho- 
rity ;  and  that  our  worship  and  ordinances 
are  unnecessary  or  vain. 

SELEUCIANS,  disciples  of  Seleucus,  a 
philosopher  of  Galatia,  who,  about  the  year 
380,  adopted  the  sentiments  of  Hermoge- 
nes  and  those  of  Audxus.  He  taught  with 
the  Valentinians,  that  Jesus  Christ  assumed 
a  body  only  in  appearance.  He  also  main- 
tained that  the  world  was  not  made  by  God, 
but  was  co-eternal  with  him  ;  and  that  the 
soul  was  only  an  animated  'fire,  created  by 
the  angels ;  that  Christ  does  not  sit  at  the 
right  hand  of  the  Father  in  a  human  body, 
but  that  he  lodged  his  body  in  the  sun  ac- 
cording to  Ps.  xix.  4;  and  that  the  plea- 
sures of  beatitude  consisted  in  corporeal  de- 
light. 

SELF-DECEPTION,  includes  all  those 
various  frauds  which  we  practise  on  our- 
selves in  forming  a  judgment,  or  receiving 
an  impression  of  our  own  state,  character 
and  conduct ;  or  those  deceits  which 
make  our  hearts  impose  on  us  in  making  us 
promises,  if  they  may  be  so  termed,  which 
are  not  kept,  and  contracting  engagements 
which  are  never  performed.  Self-deception, 
as  one  observes,  appears  in  the  following  ca- 
ses.— *'  1.  In  judi^ing  of  our  own  character,  on 
which  we  too  easily  confer  the  name  of  self- 
examination,  how  often  may  we  detect  our- 
selves in  enhancing  the  merit  of  the  good 
qualities  we  possess  ;  and  in  giving  ourselves 
credit  for  others,  which  we  really  have  not. 
— 2.  When  several  motives  or  passions  con- 
cur in  prompting  us  to  any  action,  we  too 
easily  assign  the  chief  place  and  effect  to 
the  best. — 3.  We  are  too  prone  to  flatter 
ourselves  by  indulging  the  notion  that  our 
habits  of  \ice  are  but  individual  acts,  into 


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which  we  have  been  seduced  by  occasional 
temptations,  while  we  are  easily  led  to  as- 
sign the  name  of  habits   to  our  occasional 
acts  and  individual   instances  of  virtue. — 
We  confound  the  mere  assent  of  the  under- 
standing naturally,  attended   by  some  cor- 
respondent  but  transient  sensibilities,  with 
the  impulses  of  the  affections  and  determi- 
nation of  the  will. — 5.  We  are  apt  to  as- 
cribe to  settled  principles  the  good  actions, 
which  are  the  mere  effect  of  natural   tem- 
per.— 6.  As  sometimes   in    estimating  the 
character  of  others,  we  too  hastily  infer  the 
right  motive  from  the  outward  act ;  so  in 
judging  of  ourselves  we  over-rate  the  worth, 
by  over-valuing  the  motives  of  our  actions. 
— 7.  VVe  often  confound  the  nonappearance 
of  a  vicious  affection  with  its  actual  extinc- 
tion.— 8.   We   often   deceive   ourselves   by 
comparing  our  actual  with  om*  former  cha- 
racter and  conduct,  and  perhaps  too  easily 
ascribing  to  the  extirpation  of  vicious,  or  the 
implantation  of  virtuous  habits,  that  improve- 
ment which  is  owing  merely  to  the  lapse  of 
time,  advancing  age,  altered  circumstances, 
&c. — 9.  Another  general  and  fertile  source 
of  self-deception  is  our  readiness  to  excuse 
or  at  least  to  extenuate  the  vices  of  our  par- 
ticular station ;  while  we  congratulate  our- 
selves on  the  absence  of  other  vices  which 
we  are  under  no  temptation   to  commit. — 
10.  We  deceive  ourselves  by  supposing  our 
remorse  for  sin  is  genuine,   when  alas,  it 
does  not  lead  to  repentance. — 11.  By  forming 
improper  judgments  of  others,  and  forming 
our  own  conduct  upon  theirs."    From  this 
view  we  may  learn,  1.  That  the  objects  as 
to  which  men  deceive  themselves  are  very 
numerous,    God,    Jesus   Christ,    the   Holy 
Spirit,  the  bible  and  gospel  doctrines,  reli- 
gious experieilce,  sin,    heaven,  hell,   &c.— 
2.  the  causes  are  great  and  powerful ;  sin, 
satan,  the  heart,  the  world,  interest,  preju- 
dice.— 3.  The  numbers  who  deceive  them- 
selves are  great,  the  young,  the  aged,  the 
rich,  the   poor,    self-righteous,   hypocrites, 
apostates,  the  ungodly. — 4.  The  evUs    are 
many  and  awful.     It  renders  us  the  slaves 
of    procrastination,    leads   us    to  over-rate 
ourselves,  flatters  us  with  an  idea  of  easy 
victory,  confirms  our  evil  habits,  and  expo- 
ses   us   to    the  greatest    danger. — 5.    We 
should  endeavour  to  understand  and  prac- 
tise the  means  not  to  be    deceived ;    such 
as  strict  self-enquiry,  prayer,  watchfulness, 
and   ever  taking  the    scriptures     for    our 
guide. — 6.  And  lastly,    we  should  learn  to 
ascertain  the  evidences  of  not  being  deceiv- 
ed, which  are  such   as  these  :  when  sin  is 
the  object  of  our  increasing   fear  stated,  a 
tenderness  of  conscience,  when  we  can  ap- 
peal to  God  as  to  the  sincerity  of  our  mo- 
tives and  aims,  when  dependent  on  God's 
promise,  providence,  and  grace,  and,  when 
conformed  to  him  in  all  righteousness  and 
true  holiness.  Christ.  Obs.  1802.  page  632, 
633. 

SELF  DEDICATION  ;  the  giving  up  of 
ourselves  unreservedlv  to   God ;    that    we 


may  serve  him  in  righteousness  and  true 
holiness.  See  Howe's  Works,  vol.  i.  oct. 
edit. 

SELF-DEFENCE  implies  not  only  the 
preservation  of  one's  hfe,  but  also  the  pro- 
tection of  our  property,  because  without  pro- 
perty life  cannot  be  preserved  in  a  civilized 
nation. 

Some  condemn  all  resistance,  whatsoever 
be  the  evil  offered,  or  whosoever  be  the 
pei-son  that  offers  it ;  others  will  not  admit 
that  it  should  pass  any  farther  than  bare  re- 
sistance ;  others  say,  that  it  must  never  be 
carried  so  far  as  hazarding  the  life  of  the 
assailant ;  and  others  again,  who  deny  it  not 
to  be  lawful  in  so7ne  cases  to  kill  the  aggres- 
sor, at  the  same  time  affirm  it  to  be  a 
thing  more  laudable  and  consonant  to  the 
gospel,  to  choose  rather  to  lose  one's  life  in 
imitation  of  Christ,  than  to  secure  it  at  the 
expence  of  another's,  in  pursuance  of  the 
permission  of  nature.     But, 

"Notwithstanding,"  says  Grove,  "the 
great  names  which  may  appear  on  the 
side  of  any  of  these  opinions,  I  cannot  but 
think  self-defence,  though  it  proceeds  on  the 
killing  of  another  to  save  one's  self,  is  in 
common  cases  not  barely  fiermitted  but  en- 
joined by  nature  ;  and  that  a  man  would 
be  wanting  to  the  Author  of  his  being,  to 
society,  and  to  himself,  to  abandon  that  life 
with  which  he  is  put  in  trust.  That  a  pei'- 
son  forfeits  his  own  life  to  the  sword  of  jus- 
tice, by  taking  away  anothei-'s  unprovoked, 
is  a  principle  not  to  be  disputed.  This  being 
so,  I  ask  w  hence  should  arise  the  obligation  to 
let  another  kill  me,  rather  than  venture  to 
save  myself  by  destroying  my  enemy  ?  It 
cannot  arise  from  a  regard  to  society,  which 
by  my  suffering  another  to  kill  me,  loses 
tnvo  lives ;  that  of  an  honest  man  by  unjust 
violence,  and  that  of  his  murderer,  if  it  can 
be  called  a  loss,  by  the  hand  of  justice. 
Whereas,  by  killing  the  invader  of  my  hfe, 
I  only  take  a  hfe,  which  must  otherwise 
have  been  forfeited,  and  preserve  the  life 
of  an  innocent  person.  Nor,  for  the  same 
reason,  can  there  be  any  such  obligation 
arising  from  the  love  of  our  neighbour  i 
since  I  do  not  really  save  his  life  by  part- 
ing with  my  own,  but  only  leave  him  to  be 
put  to  death  after  a  more  ignominious  man- 
ner by  the  public  'executioner.  And  if  it 
be  said  that  1  despatch  him  with  his  sins 
upon  him  into  the  other  world,  which  he 
might  have  lived  long  enough  to  repent  of, 
if  legally  condemned :  as  he  must  answer 
for  that,  who  brought  me  under  a  necessity 
of  using  this  method  for  my  own  presei'va- 
tion;  so  1  myself  may  not  be  prepared,  or 
may  not  think  myself  so,  or  so  well  assured 
of  it  as  to  venture  into  the  presence  of  my 
great  Judge  ;  and  no  charity  obliges  me  to 
prefer  the  safety  of  another's  soul  to  my 
own.  Self-defence,  therefore,  may  be  with 
justice  practised,  1.  In  case  of  an  attempt 
made  upon  the  life  of  a  person,  against 
which  he  has  no  other  way  of  securing 
himself  but  repelling  force  by  force.— 2.  It 


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is  generally  esteemed  lawful  to  kill  in  the 
defence  of  chastity,  supposing  there  be  no 
other  way  of  prtservhig  it."  See  Grove's 
Moral  Fhilosojiliy.  Also,  Hints  on  the 
I^aivjiilness  of  Self-defence ,  by  a  Scotch 
Dissenter. 

SELF-DENIAL,  a  term  that  denotes 
our  relinquishing  every  thing  that  stands  in 
opposition  to  the  Divine  command,  and  our 
own  spiritual  welfare,  Matthew  xvi.  24.  It 
does  not  consist  in  denying  what  a  man  is, 
or  what  he  has ;  in  refusing  favours  confer- 
red on  us  in  the  course  of  Providence ;  in 
rejecting  the  use  of  God's  creatures  ;  in  be- 
ing careless  of  life,  health,  and  family ;  in 
macerating  the  body,  or  abusing  it  in  any  re- 
spect ;  but  in  renouncing  all  those  pleasures, 
profits,  views,  connections,  or  practices, 
that  are  prejudicial  to  the  true  interests  of 
the  soul.  The  understanding  must  be  so 
far  denied  as  not  to  lean  upon  it,  indepen- 
dent of  divine  instruction,  Prov.  iii.  5,  6. 
The  will  must  be  denied,  so  far  as  it  oppo- 
ses the  will  of  God,  Eph.  v.  17.  The  af- 
fections, when  they  become  inordinate.  Col. 
iii.  5.  The  gratification  of  the  members  of 
the  body  must  be  denied  when  out  of  their 
due  course,  Rom.  vi.  12,  13.  The  honours 
of  the  world,  and  praise  of  men,  when  they 
become  a  snare,  Heb.  xi.  24 — 26.  Woi'ldly 
emoluments,  when  to  be  obtained  in  an  un- 
lawful way,  or  when  standing  in  opposition 
to  rehgion  and  usefulness.  Matt.  iv.  20,  21. 
Friends  and  relatives,  so  far  as  they  oppose 
the  truth,  and  would  influence  us  to  Appose 
it  too.  Gen.  xii.  1.  Our  own  righteousness, 
so  as  to  depend  upon  it,  Phil.  iii.  8,  9.  Life 
itself  must  be  laid  down,  if  called  for,  in 
the  cause  of  Christ,  Matt.  xvi.  24,  25.  In 
fine,  every  thing"  that  is  sinful  must  be  de- 
nied, however  pleasant,  and  apparently  ad- 
vantageous, since,  without  holiness,  no  man 
shall  see  the  Lord,  Heb.  xii.  14.  To  ena- 
ble us  to  practice  this  duty,  let  us  consider 
the  injunction  of  Christ,  Matt.  xvi.  24 ;  his 
eminent  example,  Phil.  ii.  5.  8 ;  the  encou- 
ragement he  gives.  Matt.  xvi.  25  :  the  ex- 
ample of  his  saints  in  all  ages,  Heb.  xi. 
the  advantages  that  attend  it,  and,  above 
all,  learn  to  imploi-e  the  agency  of  that 
Divine  Spirit,  without  whom  we  can  do 
nothing. 

SELF-EXAMINATION,  is  the  calling 
ourselves  to  a  strict  account  for  all  the  ac- 
tions of  our  livfs;  comparing  them' with 
the  word  of  God,  the  rule  of  duty  ;  consi- 
dering how  much  evil  we  have  committed, 
and  good  we  have  t)mitted.  It  is  a  duty 
founded  on  a  divine  command,  2  Cor.  xiii. 
5.  and  ought  to  be,  1.  Deliberately. — 2. 
Frequcnth'. — 3.  Im])artially. — 4.  Diligently. 
— 5.  Wisely. — And,  6.  with  a  desire  of 
amendment.  This,  though  a  legal  diitti, 
as  some  modern  Christians  would  call  it,  is 
essential  to  our  improvement,  our  felicity, 
and  interest. — "  They,"  says  Mr.  Wilber- 
force  {Pract.  J'ieiv,)  "  who,  in  a  crazy  ves- 
sel, navigate  a  sea  wherein  arc  shoals  and 


currents  innumerable,  if  they  would  keep 
their  course,  or  reach  their  port  in  safety, 
must  carefully  repair  the  smallest  injuries, 
and  often  throw  out  their  line,  and  take  their 
observations.  In  the  voyage  oi:  life,  also,  the 
Christian  who  would  not  make  shipwreck 
of  his  faith,  while  he  is  habitually  watchful 
and  provident,  must  make  it  his  express 
business  to  look  into  his  state,  and  ascertain 
his  progress." 

SELF-EXISTENCE  OF  GOD  is  his  en- 
tire existence  of  himself,  not  owing  it  to 
any  other  being  whatsoever :  and  thus  God 
would  exist,  if  there  were  no  other  being 
in  the  whole  compass  of  nature  but  him- 
self. See  Existence  and  Eternity  of 
Gon. 

SELF-GOVERNMENT.    See   Heart. 

SELFISHNESS     See  Self-Seeking. 

SELF-KNOWLEDGE,  the  knowledge  of 
one's  own  character,  abilities,  duties,  prin- 
ciples, prejudices,  tempers,  secret  springs 
of  action,  thoughts,  memory,  taste,  views  in 
life,  virtues,  and  vices.  This  knowledge  is 
commanded  in  the  scriptures.  Psalm  iv.  4. 
2  Cor.  xiii.  5.  and  is  of  the  greatest  utility, 
as  it  is  the  spring  of  self-possession,  leads 
to  humility,  steadfastness,  charity,  modera- 
tion, self-denial,  and  promotes  our  useful- 
ness in  the  world.  To  obtain  it,  there 
should  be  watchfulness,  frequent  and  close 
attention  to  the  operations  of  our  own 
minds,  regard  had  to  the  opinions  of  others, 
conversation,  reading  the  scriptures,  and 
dependence  on  Divine  grace.  See  Mason 
on  Self  knowledge.  Baxter's  Self Acquain-- 
tance-  Locke  on  the  Understanding.  Watts' 
Imfirovement  of  the  Mind. 

SELF-LOVE  is  that  instinctive  principle 
which  impels  every  animal,  rational  and 
irrational,  to  preserve  its  life  and  promote 
its  own  happiness.  "  It  is  very  generally 
confounded  with  selfishness  ;  but  perhaps, 
the  one  propensity  is  distinct  from  the 
other.  Every  man  loves  himself,  but  every 
man  is  not  selfish.  The  selfish  man  grasps 
at  all  immediate  advantages,  regardless  of 
the  consequences  which  his  conduct  may 
have  upon  his  neighbour.  Self-love  only 
prompts  him  who  is  actuated  by  it  to  pro- 
cure to  himself  the  greatest  possible  sum 
of  happiness  during  the  whole  of  his  ex- 
istence. In  this  pursuit  the  rational  self- 
lover  will  often  forego  a  present  enjoyment 
to  obtain  a  greater  and  more  permanent  one 
ill  reversion  ;  and  he  will  as  often  submit 
to  a  present  pain  to  avoid  a  greater  here- 
after. Self-love,  as  distinguished  from  self- 
ishness, always  comprehends  the  whole  of 
a  man's  existence;  and,  in  that  extended 
sense  of  the  phrase,  every  man  is  a  self- 
lover  ;  for  with  eternity  in  his  view,  it  is 
surely  not  possible  for  the  most  disinter- 
ested of  the  human  race  not  to  prefer  him- 
self to  all  other  men,  if  their  future  and 
everlasting  interests  could  come  into  com- 
petition. This,  indeed,  they  never  can  do; 
for  though    the   introduction  of   evil  into 


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the  world,  and  the  difft^rent  ranks  M'liich  ] 
it  makes  necessary  in  scciety,  put  it  in  the 
power  i.f  a  man  to  raise  himself  in  the 
pi'fsent  state  by  the  depression  of  his 
neij^hljour,  or  by  the  practice  of  injustice,  i 
yet,  in  the  pursuit  of  the  glori'us  prize 
■which  is  set  before  us,  there  can  be  no 
rivaiship  among  the  competitors.  The 
success  of  one  is  no  injury  to  another  ;  and 
therefore,  in  this  sense  of  the  phrase,  self- 
love  is  not  only  lawful,  but  absolutely  un- 
avoidable," Self-love,  however,  says  Jortin 
(ser.  13.  vol. iv.)  is  vicious,  1.  When  itleads 
lis  to  judge  too  favourably  of  our  faults. — 2. 
When  we  think  too  well  of  our  righteous- 
ness, and  over-value  our  good  actions,  and 
are  pure  in  our  ov/n  ejes. — 3.  When  we 
over-value  our  abilities,  and  entertain  too 
good  an  opinion  of  our  knowledge  and  capa- 
city.— 4.  When  we  are  proud  and  vain  of 
inferior  things,  and  value  ourselves  upon 
the  station  and  circumstances  in  which  not 
our  own  deserts,  but  some  other  cause,  has 
placed  us. — 5.  When  we  make  our  worldly 
interest,  convenience,  ease  or  pleasure,  the 
great  end  of  our  actions. 

Much  has  been  said  alxiut  the  doctrine  of 
disinterested  love  to  God.  It  must  be  con- 
fessed, that  we  ought  to  love  him  for  his 
own  excellencies  ;  yet  it  is  difficult  to  form 
an  idea  how  we  can  love  God  unconnect- 
ed with  any  interest  to  ourselves.  What, 
indeed,  we  ought  to  do,  and  what  we  really 
do,  or  can  do,  is  very  different.  There  is 
an  everlasting  obligation  on  men  to  love 
God  for  what  he  is,  however  incapable  of 
doing  it  ;  but,  at  the  same  time,  our  love  to 
him  is  our  interest ;  nor  can  we  in  the  pre- 
sent state,  I  think;  while  possessed  of  such 
bodies  and  such  minds,  love  God  without 
including  a  sense  of  his  relative  goodness. 
"  We  love  him,"  says  John,  "  because  he 
first  loved  us."     See  Love. 

SELF-SEEKING,  the  aiming  at  onr  own 
interest  only  in  every  thing  we  do.  It  must 
be  distinguished  from  that  regard  which 
we  ought  to  pay  to  the  preservation  of  onr 
health,  the  cultivation  of  our  minds,  the 
lawful  concerns  of  business,  and  the  salva- 
tion of  our  souls.  Self-seeking  evidences 
z7.se//'by  parsimriniousness,  oppression,  ne- 
glect and  contempt  of  others,  rebellion,  se- 
dition, egotism,  immoderate  attempts  to 
gain  fame,  powei-,  pleasure,  money,  and 
frequently  by  gross  acts  of  lying  and  injus- 
tice. Its  evils  are  numerous-  It  is  highlij 
dishonourable  and  abasing  ;  transforming  a 
man  iiito  any  thing  or  every  tlung  for  his 
own  interest.  It  is  sinful,  and  the  s'^urce 
of  innumerable  sins  ;  as  perjur>',  hypocrisy, 
falsehood,  idolatry,  persecution,  and  mur- 
der itself.  It  is  dcmgerous.  It  excites  con- 
tempt, is  the  source  of  tyranny,  discord, 
war,  and  makes  a  man  a  slave,  and  'ex- 
poses him  to  the  just  indignation  of  Grd. 
The  re?nedies  to  prjvent  or  sujijircss  this 
evil,  are  these.  Consider  that  it  is  ab.so- 
lutcly  prolribited,  Jerem  xlv.  5.  Luke  ix. 
23.    'Heb.  xiii.  5.     Col.  iii.  5.      A  mark  of  a 


wicked  degenerate  mind ;  that  the  most 
awful  curses  are  pronounced  against  it, 
Isa  V.  18.  Hab.  \\.  9—12.  Isa.  xv.  1,  2. 
Amos  vi.  1.  Mic.  ii.  1,  2.  that  it  is  con- 
trary to  the  example  of  all  wise  and  good 
mi;ii  :  that  the  most  awful  examples  of  the 
punishment  of  this  sin  are  recorded  in  scrip- 
ture ;  as  Pharaoh,  Achan,  Haman,  Gehazi, 
Absalom,  Ananias  and  Sapphira,  Judas  ami 
many  others. 

SEMBIANI,  so  called  from  Sembianus, 
their  leader,  who  condemned  all  use  of 
wine  as  evil  of  itself.  He  persuaded  his 
followers  that  wine  was  a  production  of 
Satan  and  the  earth,  denied  the  resurrec- 
tion of  the  body,  and  rejected  most  of  the 
books  of  the  Old  Testament. 

SEMI-ARIANS,  were  thus  denominated, 
because,  in  ]irofcssion,  they  condemned  the 
errors  of  the  Ai'iar.s,  but  in  reality  main- 
tained thdr  principles,  onlv  palliating  and 
concealing  them  under  softer  and  more 
moderate  teims.  They  would  not  allow, 
with  the  orthodox,  that  the  Son  was 
ifA.rjua-i'^,  of  the  same  siibstance,  but  only 
ofA-oinT:^,  of  a  like  substance,  with  the  Fa- 
ther ;  and  thus,  though  in  expression  they 
differed  from  the  orthodox  in  a  single  let- 
ter onlv,  yet  in  eifect  they  denied  the  di- 
vinity of  Jesus  Christ.  The  Semi-arianism 
of  the  moderns  consists  in  their  maintaining 
that  the  Son  was,  from  all  eternity,  begot- 
ten by  the  ivHl  of  the  Father ;  contrary  to 
the  doctrine  of  those  who  teach  that  the 
eternal  generation  is  nece&sary.  Such,  at 
least,  are  the  respective  opinions  of  Dr. 
Clarke  and  Bishop  Bull. 

SEMI  PELAGIANS,  a  name  anciently, 
and  even  at  this  day,  given  to  such  as  retain 
some  tincture  of  Pelagianism. 

Cassian,  who  had  been  a  deacon  of  Con- 
stantinople, and  was  afterwards  a  priest  at 
Marseilles,  was  the  chief  of  these  Semi- 
Pelagians,  whose  leading  principles  were, 
1.  That  God  did  not  dispense  his  grace  to 
one  more  than  another,  in  consequence  of 
predestination,  i.  e.  an  eternal  and  absolute 
decree,  but  was  willing  to  save  all  men,  if 
thev  complied  with  the  tei-ms  of  his  Gos- 
pel—2  That  Christ  died  for  all  men.— 3. 
That  the  grace  purchased  by  Christ,  and 
necessary  to  salvaticn,  was  offered  to_  all 
men.— 4.  That  man,  before  he  received 
grace,  was  capable  of  faith  and  holy  de- 
sires—5.  That  man  was  born  free,  and 
was,  consequently,  capable  of  resisting  the 
influences  of  grace,  or  of  complymg  with 
its  sugy;estion.— The  Serai-Pelagians  v/ere 
very  numerous;  and  the  doctrine  of  Cas- 
sian, though  variously  explained,  was  re- 
ceived in  the  greatest  part  of  the  monastic 
schools  in  Gaiil,  from  whence  it  spread  it- 
self far  and  wide  through  the  European 
provinces.  As  to  the  Greeks,  and  other 
Eastern  Christians,  they  had  embraced  the 
'  Semi-Pelagian  d(ictrines  before  Cassian.  In 
i  tiie  sixth  centurv  the  c^'Utroversy  between 
''■  tiir    Semi-Pelagians    and  tlie  disciples    of 


SEP 


482 


SEP 


Aiigustin  prevailed  much,    and    continued 
to  divide  the  Western  churches. 

SENSATION  properly  signifies  that  in- 
ternal act  by  which  we  are  made  conscious 
of  pleasure  or  pain  felt  at  the  organ  of 
sense.  As  to  sensations  and  feelings,  says 
Dr.  Ried,  some  belong  to  the  animal  part  of 
our  nature,  and  are  common  to  us  with  the 
brutes ;  others  belong  to  the  rational  and 
moral  part.  Th.e  first  are  more  properly 
called  sensations  ;  the  last,  feelings-  The 
French  word  sentiment  is  common  to  both. 
The  design  of  the  Almighty  in  giving  us 
both  the  painful  and  agreeable  feelings  is, 
for  the  most  part,  obvious,  and  well  de- 
serving our  notice.  1.  The  painful  sensa- 
tions are  admonitions  to  avoid  what  would 
hurt  us  ;  and  the  agreeable  sensations  to 
invite  us  to  those  actions  that  are  necessary 
to  the  preservation  of  the  individual  or  the 
kind. — 2.  By  the  same  means,  nature  invites 
us  to  moderate  bodily  exercise,  and  admon- 
ishes us  to  avoid  idleness  and  inactivity  on 
the  one  hand,  and  excessive  labour  on  the 
other. — 3.  The  moderate  exercise  of  all 
our  rational  powers  gives  pleasure. — 4. 
Every  species  of  beauty  is  beheld  with  plea- 
sure, and  every  species  of  defonnity  with 
disgust. — 5-  The  benevolent  aftections  are 
all  accompanied  with  an  agreeable  feeling ; 
the  malevolent  on  the  contrary  : — and,  6. 
The  highest,  the  noblest,  and  the  most  du- 
rable pleasure,  is  that  of  doing  well :  and 
the  most  bitter  and  painful  sentiment,  the 
anguish  and  remorse  of  a  guilty  conscience. 
See  Theorie  des  Sentiments  Agreables. 
Reid  on  the  Intellectual  Poxvers,  p.  332. 
Karnes'  Criticisms,  vol.  ii.  p.  501. 

SENSE,  a  faculty  of  the  soul,  whereby 
it  perceives  external  objects  by  means  of 
impressions  made  on  the  organs  of  the 
body. 

Moral  se7ise  is  said  to  be  an  apprehen- 
sion of  that  beauty  or  deformity  which 
ai'ises  in  the  mind  by  a  kind  of  natural  in- 
stinct, previously  to  any  reasoning  upon  the 
remoter  consequences  of  actions.  Whether 
this  really  exists  or  not,  is  disputed.  On 
the  affirmative  side  it  is  said,  that,  1.  We 
approve  or  disapprove  certain  actions  with- 
out deliberation. — 2.  This  approbation  or 
disapprobation  is  uniform  and  universal 
But  against  this  opinion  it  is  answered, 
that,  1.  This  uniformity  of  si^ntiment  does 
not  pervade  all  nations. — 2.  Approbation  of 
particular  conduct  arises  from  a  sense  of 
its  advantages.  The  idea  continues  when 
tlie  motive  no  longer  exists  ;  receives 
strength  from  authority,  imitation,  ,&c. 
The  efficacy  of  imitation  is  most  observable 
in  children 3.  There  are  no  maxims  uni- 
versally true,  but  bend  to  circinn stances. — 
4.  There  can  be  no  idea  without  an  object, 
and  instinct  is  inseparable  from  the  idea  of 
the  object.  Sec  Paley's  Moral  Philos.  vol. 
j.  chap.  V.  Hutcheson  07i  the  Passions, 
p.  245,  8cc.  Mason's  Ser?no7is,  vol.  i.  p. 
253. 

SEPTUAGINT,   the  name  giv&n  to  a 


Greek  version  of  the  books  of  the  Old 
Testament,  from  its  being  supposed  to 
be  the  work  of  seventy-two  Jews,  who 
are  usually  called  the  seventy  interpreters, 
because  seventy  is  a  round  number. 

Aristobulus,  who  was  tutor  to  Ptolemy 
Physion ;  Philo,  who  lived  in  our  Saviour's 
time,  and  was  contemporary  with  the  apos- 
tles ;  and  Josephus,  speaks  of  this  transla- 
tion  as  made  by  seventy-two  interpreters, 
by  the  care  of  Demetrius  Phalerus,  in  the 
reign  of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus.  All  the 
Christian  writers  during  the  first  fifteen 
centuries  of  the  Christian  aera  have  admit- 
ted this  account  of  the  Septuagint  as  an 
undoubted  fact ;  but,  since  the  reformation, 
critics  have  boldly  called  it  in  question. 
But  whatever  diffisrences  of  opinions  there 
have  been  as  to  the  mode  of  translation,  it 
is  universally  acknowledged  that  such  a  ver- 
sion, whole  or  in  part,  existed  ;  and  it  is 
pretty  evident  that  most  of  the  books  must 
have  been  translated  before  our  Saviour's 
time,  as  they  are  quoted  by  him.  It  must 
also  be  considered  as  a  wonderful  providence 
in  favour  of  the  religion  of  Jesus.  It  pre- 
pared the  way  for  his  coming,  and  after- 
wards greatly  promoted  the  setting  up  of 
his  kingdom  in  the  world  ;  for  hitherto  the 
scriptures  had  remained  locked  up  from  all 
other  nations  but  the  Jews,  in  the  Hebrew 
tongue,  which  was  understood  by  no  other 
nation  ;  but  now  it  was  translated  into  the 
Greek  language,  which  was  a  language 
commonly  understood  by  the  nations  of  the 
world.  It  has  also  been  with  great  pro- 
priety observed,  "  that  there  are  many 
words  and  forms  of  speech  in  the  New 
Testament,  the  true  import  of  which  can- 
not be  known  but  by  their  use  in  the  Sep- 
tuagint. This  version  also  preserves  many 
important  words,  some  sentences,  and  seve- 
ral whole  verses  which  originally  made  a 
part  of  the  Hebrew  text,  but  have  long  ago 
entirely  disappeared.  This  is  the  version, 
and  this  only,  which  is  constantly  used 
and  quoted  in  the  Gospels,  and  by  the  apos- 
tles, and  which  has  thereby  received  the 
highest  sanction  which  any  writings  can 
possibly  receive." 

There  have  been  various  editirns  of  the 
Septuagint;  such  as  Breitenger's  editions, 
1730;  Boss's  edition,  1709:  Daniel's  edition, 
1653  ;  Mills's  edition,  12mo.  1725  ;  bishop 
Pearson's,  printed  by  Field,  12mo.  1665 ; 
but  Grabes'sediiion,  published  in  1707,  is  in 
great  repute. 

Dr.  Holmes,  canon  of  Christ  Church, 
was  employed  for  some  years  on  a  correct 
edition  of  the  Septuagint.  He  had  been 
col  ating  from  more  than  three  hundred 
Gree';  manuscripts ;  from  twenty  or  more 
Coptic.  Syriac,  Arabic,  Sclavonian,  and 
Armenian  manuscripts ;  from  eleven  edi- 
tions of  the  Greek  text  and  versions  ;  and 
from  near  thirty  Greek  fathers,  when  death 
prevented  him  from  finishing  this  valuable 
work.  He  printed  the  whole  of  the  Penta- 
teuch in  five  parts  folio ;  and  lately  edited 


SER 


483 


SER 


the  prophecy  of  Daniel  according  to  Theo- 
dosian  and  the  LXX.  departing  from  his 
proposed  order,  as  if  by  a  presentiment  of 
his  end.  This  valuable  work  is  now  con- 
tinued by  Mr.  Parsons  of  Cambiidge. 

Those  who  desire  a  larger  account  of  this 
translation,  may  consult  Hodij  de  Bib.  Tcx- 
tibus.  Prideaux^s  Connections.  Ovjen^s 
Inquiry  into  the  Se/ituagint  Version.  .Aatr  s 
Lectures  on  the  Canon:  and Michalia's In- 
troduction to  the  JVew  Testament.  Clark's 
Bibliotheca. 

SEPTUAGESIMA,  the  third  Sunday  l)e- 
fore  the  first  Sunday  in  Lent ;  so  called  !)e- 
cause  it  was  about  70  days  before  Eas- 
ter. 

SEPTUAGINT  CHRONOLOGY,  the 
chronology  which  is  formed  from  the  dates 
and  periods  of  time  mentioned  in  the  Septua- 
gint  translation  of  the  Old  Testament.  It 
reckons  ISOOyears  more  from  the  creation  to 
Abraham  than  the  Hebrew  Bible.  Dr.  Ken- 
nicott,  in  the  dissertation  prefixed  to  his 
Hebrew  Bible,  has  shown  it  to  be  very  pro- 
bable that  the  chronrli-gy  of  the  Hebrew 
scriptures,  since  the  period  just  mentioned, 
was  corrupted  by  the  Jews  between  the 
years  175  and  200  .  and  that  the  chronology 
of  the  Septuagint  is  more  agreeable  to  truth. 
It  is  a  fact,  that,  during  the  seconfi  and 
third  centuries,  the  Hebrew  scriptures  were 
almost  entirely  in  the  hands  of  the  Jews, 
while  the  Septuagint  was  confined  to  the 
Christians-  The  Jews  had,  thei-efore,  a  very 
favourable  opportunity  for  this  corruption 
The  following  is  the  reason  which  is  given 
by  Oriental  writers:  It  being  a  very  ancient 
tradition  that  Messiah  was  to  come  in  the 
sixth  chiliad,  because  he  was  to  come  in  the 
last  days  (founded  on  a  mystical  applicatinn 
of  the  six  days  creation,)  the  contrivance 
was  to  shorten  the  age  of  the  world  from 
about  5500  to  3760;  and  thence  to  prove 
that  Jesus  could  not  be  the  Messiah.  Dr. 
Kennicott  adds,  that  some  Hebrew  copies, 
having  the  larger  chronology,  were  extant 
till  the  time  of  Eusebius,  and  some  till  the 
year  700. 

SERIOUSNESS,  a  term  often  used  as 
synonymous  with  Religion. 

SERMON,  a  discourse  delivered  in  pub- 
lic for  the  purpose  of  religious  instruction 
and  improvement. 

In  order  to  make  a  good  sermon,  the  fol- 
lowing things  may  be  attended  to.  The 
exordium  should  correspond  with  the  sub- 
ject on  which  we  are  about  to  treat.  For 
this  purpose  the  conte.Kt  often  forms  a  source 
of  appropriate  remark  ;  and  this,  though 
called  a  hackneyed  way,  is  one  of  the  best 
for  opening  gradually  to  the  subject ;  though, 
I  confess,  always  to  use  it  is  not  so  well,  as 
it  looks  formal.  There  are  some  subjects 
in  which  the  context  cannot  be  consulted  : 
then,  perhaps,  it  is  best  to  begin  with  some 
passage  of  scripture  opposite  to  the  subject, 
or  some  striking  observation.  It  has  been  de- 
bated indeedi  whether  we  should  begin  with 


any  thing  particularly  calculated  to  gain  the 
attention,  or  whether  we  should  rise  gradually 
in  the  strength  of  remark  and  aptness  of  senti- 
ment. As  to  this,  we  may  observe,  that,  al- 
though it  is  acknowledged  that  a  minister 
should  flame  most  towards  the  end,  perhaps 
would  be  well  to  guard  against  a  too  low  it 
and  feeble  manner  in  the  exordium.  It  has 
been  frequently  the  practice  of  making  apo- 
logies, by  way  of  introduction :  though  this 
may  be  admitted  in  some  singular  cases,  as 
on  the  sudden  death  of  a  minister,  or  dis- 
appointment of  the  preacher  through  unfore- 
seen circumstances  ;  yet  I  think  it  is  often 
made  use  of  where  it  is  entirely  unnecessa- 
ry, and  carries  with  it  an  air  of  affectation 
and  pride.  An  apology  for  a  man's  self  is 
often  more  a  reflection  than  any  thing  else. 
If  he  be  not  qualified,  why  have  the  effron- 
tery to  engage  *.  and,  if  qualified,  why  tell 
the  people  an  untruth  ? 

Exordiums  should  be  short :  some  give  us 
an  abridgment  of  their  sermon  in  their  in- 
troduction, which  takes  off  the  people's  at- 
tention afterwards,  others  promise  so  much, 
that  tiie  expectation  thereby  raised  is  often 
disappointed.  Both  these  should  be  avoid- 
ed ;  and  a  simple,  correct,  modest,  deli- 
berate, easy  gradation  to  the  text  attend- 
ed to. 

As  to  the  plan.  Sometimes  a  text  may 
be  discussed  by  exposition  and  inference  ; 
sometimes  by  raising  a  proposition,  as  the 
general  sentiment  of  the  text  from  which 
several  truths  may  be  deduced  and  insisted 
on  ;  sometimes  by  general  observations  ;  and 
sometimes  by  division.  If  we  discuss  by  ex- 
position, then  we  should  examine  the  au- 
thenticity of  the  reading,  the  accuracy  of 
the  translation,  and  the  scope  of  the  writer. 
If  a  proposition  be  raised,  care  should  be 
taken  that  it  is  founded  on  the  meaning  of 
the  text.  If  observations  be  made,  they 
should  not  be  too  numerous,  foreign,  nor 
upon  every  particle  in  the  text.  If  by  di- 
vision, the  heads  should  be  distinct  and  few, 
yet  have  a  just  dependance  on,  and  connec- 
tion one  with  the  other.  It  was  common  in  the 
two  last  centuries  to  have  such  a  multitude 
of  heads,  subdivisions,  observations,  and  in- 
ferences, that  hardly  any  one  could  remem- 
ber them  ;  it  is  the  custom  of  the  present 
day,  among  many,  to  run  into  the  other  ex- 
treme and  to  have  no  division  at  all.  Thi-j 
is  equally  as  injurious.  "  I  have  no  notion," 
says  one.  *'  of  the  great  usefulness  of  a  ser- 
mon without  heads  and  divisions.  They 
should  be  few  and  distinct,  and  not  coin- 
cide. But  a  general  harangiie,  or  a  ser- 
mon with  a  concealed  division,  is  ver)-  im- 
proper for  the  generality  of  hearers,  espe- 
cially the  common  people,  as  they  can  nei- 
ther remember  it,  nor  so  well  understand 
it."  Another  observes :  "  We  should  ever 
remember  we  are  speaking  to  the  plainest 
capacities;  and  as  the  arranging  our  ideas 
properly  is  necessary  to  our  being  under- 
stood,  so  the  giving  each  division   of  our 


SER 


484 


SER 


discourse  its  denomination  of  number  has  a 
happy  effect  to  assist  tlie  aitention  and  me- 
mory of  (jur  hearers." 

As  to  the  amjiVJication.  After  having 
laid  a  good  foundation  on  which  to  build, 
the  superstructure  should  be  raised  with 
care.  "  Let  every  text  have  its  true  mean- 
ing, every  truth  its  due  weiglit,  eveiy  hear- 
er his  proper  portion."  The  reasoning 
should  be  clear,  deliberate  and  strong.  N<> 
flight,  of  wit  should  be  indulged  ;  but  a  close 
attention  to  the  subject,  with  every  exertion 
to  inform  the  judgment  and  impress  the 
heart,  it  is  in  tliis  part  of  a  sermon  that 
it  will  be  seen  whether  a  man  understands 
his  subject,  enters  into  the  sj)irit  of  it,  or 
whether,  after  all  his  parade,  he  be  a  mere 
trifler.  I  have  known  some,  who,  after  hav- 
ing given  a  pleasing  exordium  and  ingenius 
plan,  have  been  very  deficient  in  the  am- 
plification of  the  subject ;  which  shews  that 
a  man  may  be  capable  of  making  a  good 
plan,  and  not  a  good  sermon,  which,  of  the 
two,  perhaps,  is  worse  than  n)aking  a  good 
sermon  without  a  good  plan.  The  best  of 
men,  however,  cannot  always  enter  into  the 
subject  with  that  ability  which  at  certain 
times  they  are  cap'ii)l'  nf.  If  in  our  at- 
tempts, therefore,  to  enlarge  on  particulars 
•we  find  our  thoughts  do  iiot  run  freely  on 
any  point,  we  sli-  uld  not  urge  them  too 
much — this  will  tire  and  jade  the  faculties 
too  son ;  but  pursue  our  plan.  Better 
th(;ughts  may  occur  aftervvards,  which  we 
may  occasionally  insert 

jls  to  the  a/iJilicaiio7i  It  is  much  to  be 
lamented  that  this  a  part  which  does  not 
belong  to  the  si  rmons  of  some  divines.  They 
can  discuss  a  topic  in  a  general  way,  shew 
their  abilities,  ai^d  give  pleasing  descriptions 
of  virtue  and  religion;  but  to  apply  they  think 
will  hurt  tiie  feelings  of  their  auditors.  But  I 
believe  it  has  been  found  that,  among  such, 
httle  good  has  been  done  ;  n(;r  is  it  likely, 
■when  the  people  are  never  led  to  suppose 
that  they  are  the  parties  interested  'Ihere 
are  also  some  doctrinal  preachers,  who  re- 
ject application  altogether,  and  who  afti^ct 
to  discharge  their  rffice  by  naiTating  and 
reasoning  only  :  but  such  should  remember 
that  reasoning  is  persuasion  ;  and  that  them- 
selves, as  often  as  any  m,en,  slide  into  per- 
sonal application,  especially  in  discussiig 
certain  favourite  points  in  divinity  Aj)pli- 
cation  is  certainly  one  of  the  most  important 
parts  of  a  sermon.  Here  both  the  ju.'  gment 
and  the  passions  should  be  powerfully  ad- 
dressed. Here  the  minister  must  reason, 
expostulate,  invite,  waim,  and  exhort;  and 
all  without  harshness  and  an  insulting  air. 
Here  pity,  love,  faithfulness,  cor.cern,  must 
be  all  displaj'ed.  The  application,  however, 
must  not  be  too  long ;  unnatural ;  nor,  I 
think,  concluded  abruptly. — ^'^'e  shall  now 
subjoin  a  few  remarks  as  to  style  and  deli- 
very. 

Js  to  style :  it  should  be  perspicuous. 
Singular  terms,  hard  words,  bombastic  ex- 
pressions, are  not  at  all  consistent.    Quoting 


Latin  and  Greek  sentences  will  be  of  little 
utility.  Loig  argumentations,  and  dry  me- 
taphysical reasoning,  should  be  avoided.  A 
plain  manly  style,  so  clear  that  it  cannot  be 
misunderstood,  should  be  ])ursued.  The 
scriptures  are  the  best  model.  Mr.  Flavel 
says,  "  The  devil  is  very  busy  with  minis- 
ters in  their  studies,  tempting  them  to  lofty 
language,  and  terms  of  art,  above  their  hear- 
ers' capacities." 

The  style  should  be  correct :  that  a  man 
may  preach,  and  do  good,  without  knowing 
much  of  grammar,  is  not  to  be  doubted ; 
but  certainly  it  cannot  be  pleasing  to  hear 
a  man,  who  sets  himself  up  as  a  teacher  of 
others,  continually  violating  all  the  rules  of 
Grammar,  and  rendering  h.mself  a  laugh- 
ing stock  to  the  more  intelligent  part  of  the 
congregation ;  and  yet,  says  one,  "  1  have 
heard  persons,  who  c^uld  scarce  utter  three 
sentences  without  a  false  construction,  make 
grammatical  criticisms  not  only  on  the  Eng- 
lish language,  but  on  Latin,  Greek,  and 
Hebrew." 

Care  should  always  be  taken  not  to  use  a 
redundancy  of  words,  and  a  jingle  of  sen- 
tences and  syllables,  as  they  carry  more  an 
air  of  pedantry  than  of  prudence. 

As  to  the  iise  qfjigures.  "  A  noble  me- 
taphor, when  it  is  placed  to  an  advantage, 
casts  a  kind  of  glory  round  it,  and  darts  a 
lustre  through  a  whole  sentence."  But  the 
present  and  the  past  age  have  abounded 
with  preachers  who  have  murdered  and 
distorted  figures  in  a  shameful  manner. 
Reach's  metaphors  are  run  beyond  all  due 
bounds.  Yet  1  know  of  no  method  so  use- 
ful in  preaching  as  by  figures,  when  well 
chosen,  when  they  are  not  too  mean,  nor 
diawn  out  into  too  many  parallels  The 
scriptures  abound  with  figures.  Our  Lord 
and  the  disciples  constantly  used  them  ;  and 
peiple  understand  a  subject  better  when  re- 
jjresented  by  a  figure,  than  by  learned  dis- 
quisitions. 

As  to  the  delivery  of  sermons,  we  refer 
to  the  articles  Declamation  and  Elo- 
quence. Sv^e  alsoMiNiSTER  andPi<EACH- 

ING 

SERPENT  INI  ANS,  or  Ophites,  here-^ 
tics  in  the  second  century,  so  called  from' 
the  veneration  they  had  for  the  serpent  that 
tempted  Eve,  and  the  worship  pjaid  to  a  real 
serpent :  they  pretended  that  the  serpent 
was  Jesus  Christ,  and  that  he  taught  men 
the  knowledge  of  good  and  evil.  They  dis- 
tinguished between  Jesus  and  Christ.  Jesus, 
they  said,  was  born  of  the  Virgin,  but  Christ 
caii'c  down  from  heaven  to  be  united  with 
him  :  Jesus  was  crucified,  but  Christ  had 
left  him  to  return  to  heaven.  They  dis- 
tiiguished  the  Cicd  of  the  Jews,  whom  they 
termed  Jaldabaoth,  from  the  sujireme  God: 
to  the  former  they  ascribed  the  body ;  to 
the  latter  the  sc^ul  of  men.  It  is  said  they 
had  a  live  serpent,  which  they  kept  in  a  kind 
of  cage ;  at  certain  times  they  opened  the 
cage-door,  and  called  the  serpent ;  the  ani- 
mal came  out,  and,  mounting  upon  the  table 


SHA 


485 


SIB 


twined  itself  about  some  loaves  of  bread. 
This  bread  they  broke,  and  distributed  it  to 
the  company  ;  and  this  they  called  their 
Euchariat. 

SERVANTS.  The  business  of  servants 
is  to  wait  upon,  minister  to,  support  and  de- 
fend their  masters ;  but  there  are  three  ca- 
ses, as  Dr.  Stennett  observes,  wherein  a 
servant  may  be  justified  in  refusing  obe- 
dience ;  1.  When  the  master's  commands 
are  contrary  to  the  will  of  God. — 2.  When 
they  are  required  to  do  what  is  not  in  their 
power. — 3.  When  such  service  is  demanded 
as  falls  not  witliin  the  compass  of  th'e  ser- 
vant's agreement.  The  obligations  ser- 
vants are  under  to  universal  obedience,  are 
from  these  considerations;  1  'Ihat  is  fit 
and  I'ight. — 2.  That  it  is  the  expressed  com- 
mand of  God. — 3.  That  it  is  for  the  interest 
both  of  body  and  soul. — 4.  That  it  is  a  cre- 
dit to  OUT  holy  religion.  Ihe  manner  in 
which  this  service  is  to  be  performed  is,  1. 
With  humility,  Prov.  xxx  21,  22.  Eccl. 
X.  7. — 2.  Fidelity,  Titus  ii.  10  Matt  xxiv. 
45. — 3.  Diligence,  Prov.  x.  4.  xxi.  r>.  1 
Thess.  iv.  11 — 4.  Cheerfulntss.  8tennet\ 
Domestic  Duties,  ser.  7.  Fleetivood's  Re- 
lative Duties,  ser.  14,  15.  Paley's  Moral 
Pliilosofihy,  vol.  chap.  xi. 

SERVirES,  a  religious  order  in  the 
church  of  Rome,  founded  about  the  year 
1233  by  seven  Florentine  merchants,  who, 
•with  the  approbation  of  the  bishop  of  Flo- 
rence, renounced  the  world,  and  lived  to- 
gether in  a  religious  community  on  Mount 
Senar,  two  leagues  from  that  city. 

SETHIANS,  heretics  who  paid  divine 
worship  to  Seth,  whom  they  looked  upon  to 
be  Jesus  Christ,  the  Son  of  God,  but 
who  was  made  by  a  third  divinity,  and  sub- 
stituted in  the  room  of  the  two  families  of 
Abel  and  Caia,  which  had  been  destroyed 
by  the  deluge.  They  appeared  in  Egypt 
in  the  second  century ;  and,  as  they  weie 
addcited  to  all  sorts  of  debauchery,  they  did 
not  want  followers.  They  continued  in  Egypt 
above  two  hundred  years. 

SEVENTY,  about   the   year  B.  C.  277, 
the    Old    Testament   was    translated    into 
Greek  by  tiie  united  labours  of  about  seven-  f 
ty  learned  Jews,  and  that   translated    has 
been  since  known  by  the  version  of  the  LXX. 
See  Septuagint. 
SEVERITES,    See  Angelites. 
SEXAGESIMA,  the  second  Sunday  be- 
fore Lent  ;  .so  called  because  about  the  60th 
day  before  Easter. 

SHAKERS,  a  sect  which  was  instituted 
about  the  year  1774,  in  America.  Anna 
Leese,  whom  they  style  the  Elect  Lady,  is 
the  head  of  this  party.  They  assert  that 
she  is  the  woman  spoken  of  in  the  12th 
chap,  of  Revelations,  and  that  she  speaks 
seventy-two  tongues ;  and  though  these 
tongues  are  unintelligible  to  the  living,  she 
converses  with  tlie  dead,  who  understand 
her  language. — They  add  farther,  that  she 
is  the  mother  of  all  the  Elect,  and  that  she 
tray  ails  for  the  whole  world ;  that,  in  fine, 


no  blessing  can  descend  to  any  person  but 

only  by  and  through  her,  and  that  in  the 
way  of  her  being  possessed  of  their  sins  by 
their  confessing  and  repenting  of  them,  one 
by  one,  according  to  her  direction.  They 
var>'  in  their  exercises :  their  heavy  dan- 
cing, as  it  is  called,  is  performed  by  a  per- 
petual springing  from  the  house-floor,  about 
four  inches  up  and  down,  both  in  the  men's 
and  women's  apartment,  moving  about  with 
extraordinary  transport,  singing  sometimes 
one  at  a  time,  and  sometimes  more.  This 
elevation  affects  the  nerves,  so  that  they 
have  intervals  of  shuddering,  as  if  they 
were  in  a  violent  fit  of  the  ague.  They 
sometimes  ciap  their  hands,  and  leap  so 
high  as  to  strike  the  joists  above  their 
heads.  They  throw  off  their  outside  gai-- 
ment  in  these  exercises,  and  spend  their 
strength  very  cheerfully  this  way ;  their 
chief  speaker  often  calls  for  their  attention, 
when  they  all  stop,  and  hear  some  ha- 
rangue, and  then  begin  dancing  agaii>. 
They  assert  that  their  dancing  is  the  token 
of  the  great  joy  and  happiness  of  the  Jeru- 
salem state,  and  denotes  the  victory  over 
sin.  One  of  their  most  favourite  exertions 
is  turning  round  very  swiftly  for  an  hour  or 
two.  This,  they  say,  is  to  shew  the  great 
power  of  God.  Such  is  the  account  which 
different  writers  have  given  us  of  this  sect ; 
but  others  observe,  that  though  at  first,  they 
used  these  violent  gesticulations,  now  they 
have  "  a  regular,  solemn,  uniform  dance,  or 
genuflection^  to  as  regular,  solemn,  a  hymn, 
which  is  sung  by  the  elders,  and  as  regu- 
larly conducted  as  a  proper  band  of  music." 
See  X-^w  York  Theol.  Mag.  for  Nov.  and 
Dec.  1795. 

SHAMEL,  a  painful  sensation,  occasioned 
by  the  quick  apprehension  that  reputation 
and  character  are  in  danger,  or  by  the  per- 
ception that  they  are  lost.  It  may  arise, 
says  Dr.  Cogan,  from  the  immediate  detec- 
tion, or  the  fear  of  detecdon,  in  something 
ignominious.  It  may  also  arise  from  native 
diffidence  in  young  and  ingenuous  minds, 
when  surprised  into  situations  where  they 
attract  the  peculiar  attention  of  their  superi- 
ors. The  glow  of  shame  indicates,  in  the 
first  instance,  that  the  mind  is  not  totally 
abandoned  ;  in  the  last,  it  manifests  a  nice 
sense  of  honour  and  delicate  feelings  uni- 
ted with  inexperience  and  ignorance  of  the 
world. 

SHASTER,  the  name  of  a  book  in  high 
estimation  among  the  idolators  of  Hindos- 
tan,  containing  all  the  dogmas  of  the  reli- 
gion of  the  Bramins,  and  all  the  ceremo- 
nies of  their  worship. 

SHROVE  TUESDAY.  The  day  before 
Ash  Wednesday  or  Lent,  on  which  in  for- 
mer times,  persons  went  to  the  parish 
churches  to  confess  their  sins. 

SIBYLLINE  ORACLES,  prophecies  de- 
livered, it  is  said,  by  ceitain  women  of  an- 
tiquity, shewing  the  fates  and  revolutions  of 
kingdoms.  We  have  a  collection  of  them 
in  eight  books.    Dr.  Jortin  observes,  that 


SIN 


486 


SIN 


they  were  composed  at  different  times  by 
different  persons:  first  by  Pagans,  and 
then,  perhaps,  by  Jews,  and  certainly  by 
Christians.  They  abound  with  phrases, 
words  facts,  and  passages,  taken  from  the 
LXX.  and  the  New  Testament.  They  are, 
says  the  Doctor,  a  I'emarkable  specimen  of 
astonishing  impudence  and  miserable  poet- 
ry, and  seem  to  have  been,  from  first  to 
last,  and  without  any  one  exception,  mere 
imposLures. 

SIMONY,  is  the  corrupt  presentation  of 
any  one  to  an  ecclesiastical  benefice,  for 
money,  gift,  or  reward.  It  is  so  called  from 
the  resemblance  it  is  said  to  bear  to  the 
sin  of  Simon  Magus,  though  the  purchasing 
of  holy  orders  seems  to  approach  nearer  to 
this  offence  It  was  by  the  canon  law  a 
very  grievous  crime  ;  and  is  so  much  the 
more  odious,  because,  as  Sir  Edward  Coke 
observes,  it  is  ever  accompanied  with  per- 
jury ;  for  the  presentee  is  sworn  to  have 
committed  no  simony.  However,  it  was 
not  an  offence  punishable  in  a  criminal  way 
at  the  common  law,  it  being  thought  suffi- 
cient to  leave  the  clerk  .to  ecclesiastical  cen- 
sures. But  as  these  did  not  affect  the  simo- 
niacal  patron,  nor  Avere  efficacious  enough 
to  repel  the  notorious  practice  of  the  thing, 
divers  acts  of  parliament  have  been  made 
to  restrain  it,  by  means  of  civil  forfeitures, 
which  the  modern  prevailing  usage  with 
regard  to  spiritual  preferments,  calls  aloud 
to  be  put  in  execution. 

SIN,  the  transgression  of  the  law,  or  want 
of  Conformity  to  the  will  of  God,  1  John 
iii.  4.  1.  Original  Sin  is  that  whereby  onr 
whole  nature  is  corrupted,  and  rendered 
contrary  to  the  law  of  God  :  or,  according 
to  the  9th  article  of  the  church  of  England, 
"  It  is  that  whereby  man  is  very  far  gone 
from  original  righteousness,  and  is,  of  his 
own  nature,  inclined  to  evil."  This  is  some- 
times called  indrjelling  sin,  Rom.  vii.  The 
imputation  of  the  sin  of  Adam  to  hts  poste- 
rity, is  also  what  divines  generally  call, 
with  some  latitude  of  expression,  original 
■sin. — 2  ylctual  sin  is  a  direct  violation  of 
■God's  law,  and  generally  applied  to  those 
who  are  capable  of  committing  moral  evil ; 
as  opposed  to  idiots  or  children,  who  have 
not  the  right  use  of  their  powers. — 3.  Sins 
of  omission  consist  in  the  leaving  those 
things  undone  which  ought  to  be  done.— 4. 
Sins  of  Commission  are  those  which  are 
committed  against  affirmative  precepts,  or 
doing  what  should  not  be  done. — 5.  Sins  of 
infirmity  are  those  which  arise  from  the 
infirmity  of  the  flesh,  ignorance,  surprise, 
snares  of  the  world,  Sec.  See  Infirmity. 
— 6.  Secret  sins  are  those  committed  in  se- 
cret, or  those  which  we,  through  blindness 
or  prejudice,  do  not  see  the  evil  of.  Psalm 
xix.  12 — 7.  Presumfituous  sins  are  those 
which  are  done  boldly,  and  igainst  light 
and  conviction.  [See  Presumption  ] — 
8.  Unpardonable  sin  is  the  denial  of  the 
truths  of  the  gospel,  with  an  open  and  ma- 
licious rejection  of  it.    The  reason  why  this 


sin  is  never  forgiven  is  not  because  of  any 
want  of  sufficiency  in  the  blood  of  Christ, 
nor  in  the  pardoning  mercy  of  God,  but  be- 
cause such  as  commit  it  never  repent  of  it,  but 
continue  obstinate  and  malignant  until  death. 

The  corruption  of  human  nature  is,  1. 
Universal  as  to  the  subjects  of  it,  Rom.  iii. 
23.  Isa.  liii.  6. — 2.  General,  as  to  all  the 
powers  of  man,  Isa.  i.  6. — 3.  fitful,  filling 
the  mind  with  constant  rebellion  against 
God  and  his  law. — 4,  Hateful  to  God,  Job 
XV.  16  :  and, — 5.  Punishable  by  him,  1 
Sam.  ii.  9,  10.  Rom.  ii.  9.  Why  the  Al- 
mighty permitted  it,  when  his  power  could 
have  prevented  it,  and  how  it  is  conveyed 
from  parents  to  their  children,  form  some  of 
those  deep  things  of  God,  of  which  we  can 
know  but  little  in  the  present  state ;  only 
this  we  are  assured  of,  that  he  is  a  God  of 
truth,  and  that  whatever  he  does,  or  permits, 
will  ultimately  tend  to  promote  his  glory. 
While  we  contemplate,  therefore,  the  na- 
ture, the  evil,  the  guilt,  the  consequence  of 
sin,  it  is  our  happiness  to  reflect,  that  he 
who  permitted  it  hath  provided  a  remedy 
for  it;  and  that  he  "so  loved  the  world, 
that  he  *^ave  his  only  begotten  Son,  thai 
whosoever  believeth  in  him  should  not  pe- 
rish, but  have  everlasting  life."  See 
Atonement,  Redemption  ;  and  Ed- 
wards, Wesley^  and  Taylor,  on  Original 
Sin.  Gill's  Body  of  Div  Article  Sin. 
King's  and  Jenyns'  Origin  of  E-vil.  Bur- 
roughs' exceeding  Sinfulness  of  Sin.  Dr. 
Oiven  on  Indwelling  Sin.  Dr.  Wright's. 
Deceifulness  of  Sin.  Fletcher's  Jlpfieal 
to  Matter  of  Fact,  Williams'  Answer 
to  Belsham.  Watts'  Ruin  and  Recovery. 
Howe's  Living  Temple,  p.  2.  c.  4.  Dr. 
Smith's  Sermon  on  the  Permission  of  Evil. 

SINCERITY,  freedom  from  hypocrisy 
or  dissimulation.  The  Latin  word  sincrrus, 
from  whence  our  English  word  sincere  is 
derived,  is  composed  of  sine  and  cera.  and 
signifies  without  wax,  as  pure  honey,  wl  ich 
is  not  mixed  with  any  wax;  thus  denoting 
that  sincerity  is  a  pure  and  upright  prir.ci- 
ple.  The  Greek  word  eiXtK^tveta,  transla- 
ted sincerity,  (2  Cor.  i.  12.)  signifies  pro- 
perly, a  judgment  made  of  things  by  the 
light  and  splendour  of  the  sun  ;  as,  in  traffic, 
men  hold  up  goods  they  are  buying,  to  the 
light  of  the  sun,  to  see  if  they  can  discover 
any  defect  in  them.  Thus,  those  who  are 
truly  sincere,  can  bear  the  test  of  light,  and 
are  not  afraid  of  having  their  principles  and 
practices  examined  by  it.  This  word,  how- 
ever, like  many  others,  is  abused,  and  often 
becomes  a  subterfuge  for  the  ungodly  and 
the  indolent,  who  think  that  their  practice 
is  nothing ;  but  that  sincerity,  or  a  good 
heart,  as  they  call  it,  is  all  in  all.  But  such 
deceive  themselves,  for  a  tree  is  known  by 
its  fruits;  and  true  godly  sincerity  will  evi- 
dence itself  by  serious  inquiry,  impartial 
examination,  desire  of  instruction,  unpreju- 
diced judgment,  devotedness  of  spirit,  and 
uniformity  of  conduct.  The  reader  will 
find  this  subject  ably  handled  in  Gurnall's 


SIN 


4.87 


SLA 


Christian  Armour,  vol.  ii.  p.  121 — 48.    See 
Hypocrisy. 

SINGING,  an  ordinance  of  divine  wor- 
ship, in  which  we  express  our  joy  in  God, 
and  gratitude  for  his  mercies.  It  has  always 
been  a  branch  both  of  natural  and  revealed 
religion,  in  all  ages  and  periods  of  time  It 
was  a  part  of  the  worship  of  the  Heathens. 
It  was  practised  by  the  people  of  God  be- 
fore the  giving  of  the  law  ot  Moses,  Exod. 
XV.  also  under  the  ceremonial  law.  Under 
the  Gospel  dispensation  it  is  particularly  en- 
joined Col.  iii.  16.  Eph.  v.  19.  It  was 
practised  by  Christ  and  his  apostles.  Matt 
xxvi.  30.  and  in  the  earliest  times  of  Chris- 
tianity. The  praises  of  God  may  be  sung 
privately  in  the  family,  but  chiefly  in  the 
house  of  God ;  and  should  be  attended  to 
with  reverence,  sincerity,  joy,  gratitude, 
and  with  the  understanding,  1  Cor.  xiv.  15. 
Among  the  Baptists,  during  the  early  part 
of  their  existence,  psalmody  was  generally 
excluded  as  a  human  ordinance  ;  but  some 
congregations  having  adopted  it  about  the 
beginning  of  the  18th  century,  a  violent 
controversy  was  excited.  About  the  mid- 
dle of  the  century,  however,  the  praises 
of  God  were  sung  in  every  Baptist 
church.  It  is  to  be  lamented,  however, 
that  this  ordinance  has  not  that  attention 
paid  to  it  which  it  deserves  That  great 
divine,  Dr.  Jonathan  Edwards,  observes, 
that  "  as  it  is  the  command  of  God  that  all 
should  sing,  so  all  should  make  conscience 
of  learning  to  sing,  as  it  is  a  thing  that  can- 
not be  decently  performed  at  all  without 
learning.  Those,  therefore,  (where  there  is 
no  natural  inability,)  who  neglect  to  learn 
to  sing,  live  in  sin,  as  they  neglect  what  is 
necessary  in  order  to  their  attending  one 
of  the  ordinances  of  God's  worship."  We 
leave  those  who  are  wilfully  dumb  in  God's 
house  to  consider  this  pointed  remark  ! 

Much  has  been  said  as  to  the  use  of  in- 
strumental music  in  the  house  of  God.  On 
the  one  side  it  is  observed,  that  we  ought 
not  to  object  to  it,  because  it  assists  devo- 
tion ;  that  it  was  used  in  the  worship  of 
God  under  the  Old  Testament;  and  that 
the  worship  of  heaven  is  represented  by  a 
delightful  union  of  vocal  and  instrumental 
music.  But,  on  the  other  side,  it  is  remark- 
ed, that  nothing  should  be  done  in  or  about 
God's  worship  without  example  or  precept 
from  the  New  Testament ;  that,  instead 
of  aiding  devotion,  it  often  tends  to  draw 
off  the  mind  from  the  right  object ; 
that  it  does  not  accord  with  the  simplicity 
of  Christian  worship  ;  that  the  practice  of 
those  who  lived  under  the  ceremonial  dis- 
pensation can  be  no  rule  for  us  ;  that  not 
one  text  in  the  New  Testament  requires  or 
authorises  it  by  precept  or  example,  by  ex- 
press words,  or  fair  inference  ;  and  that  the 
representation  of  the  musical  harmony  in 
heaven  is  merely  figurative  language,  deno- 
ting the  happiness  of  the  saints.  We  have 
not  room  here  to  prosecute  the  arguments 
on  either  side;  but  the  reader  ma v' refer  to 


p.  211  of  the  fourth  volume  of  Bishop  Be- 
veric/ge's  Thesaurus.  Stillingfleet's  and  Bp. 
Hornets  Sermons  on  Church  music-  No. 
630  of  the  eighth  vol.  of  the  Spectator. 
Bishop  Home  on  the  150th  Psalm.  Theol. 
Mag.  vol.  ii.  p.  427.  and  vol.  iv.  p.  333,  458. 
■'Hblical  Mag.  vol.  ii.  p.  35.  Ridgley's  Body 
of  Divinity,  ques.  155  Haiueis'  L'hurck 
History,  vol.  i.  p.  403.  Williams'  Historical 
Lssay  on  Church  Music,  prefixed  to  Psal- 
modia  Evangelica,  vol.  ii.  p.  56.  Bedford's 
Temple  Music.  Lyra  Evangelica.  Practi- 
cal Discourses  on  Singing  in  the  Worship, 
of  God,  preached  at  the  Friday  Evening 
Lecture  in  Eastcheap,  1708.  Dodivell's 
Treatise  on  the  Lawfulness  of  Instrumen- 
tal Music  in  Holy  Duties. 

SIX  ARTICLES,  law  of.  See  Statutes. 

SLANDER,  according  to  Dr.  Barrow,  is 
uttering  false  speeches  against  our  neighbour, 
to  the  prejudice  of  his  fame,  safety,  wel- 
fare ;  and  that  out  of  maUgnity,  vanity, 
rashness,  ill-nature,  or  bad  design.  The 
principal  kinds  of  slander  are  these:  1.  Charg- 
ing others  with  facts  they  are  not  guilty  of. 
—2.  Affixing  scandalous  names  and  odious 
characters  which  they  deserve  not.^ — 3.  As- 
persing a  man's  actions  with  foul  names, 
importing  that  they  proceed  from  evil  prin- 
ciples, or  tend  to  bad  ends,  when  it  doth  not 
or  cannot  appear. — 4.  Perverting  a  man's 
words  or  acts  disadvantageously  by  affected 
misconstruction. — 5.  Partial  or  lame  repre- 
sentation of  men's  discourse  or  practice, 
suppressing  some  part  of  the  truth  or  con- 
cealing some  circumstances  which  ought  to 
be  explained. — 6.  Instilling  sly  suggestions 
which  create  prejudice  in  the  hearers. — 
7.  Magnifying  and  aggravating  the  faults  of 
others. — 8.  Imputing  to  our  neighbour's 
practice,  judgment,  or  profession,  evil  conse- 
quences which  have  no  foundation  in  truth. 

Of  all  characters  in  society,  a  slanderer 
is  the  most  odious,  and  the  most  likely  to 
produce  mischief.  "  His  tongue,"  says  the 
great  Massilon,  "  is  a  devouring  fire,  which 
tarnishes  whatever  it  touches ;  which  exer- 
cises its  fury  on  the  good  grain  equally  as 
on  the  chaff;  on  the  profane  as  on  the  sa- 
cred ;  which  wherever  it  passes,  leaves  only 
desolation  and  ruin  ;  digs  even  into  the  boAv- 
els  nf  the  earth  ;  turns  into  vile  ashes  what 
only  a  moment  before  had  appeared  to  us 
so  precious  and  brillinnt;  acts  with  more 
violence  and  danger  than  ever,  in  the  time 
when  it  Avas  apparently  smothered  up,  and 
almost  extinct ;  which  blackens  what  it 
cannot  consume,  and  sometimes  sparkles 
and  delights  before  it  dtstroys.  It  is  an  as- 
semblage of  iniquity,  a  secret  pride,  which 
discovers  to  us  the  mote  in  our  brother's 
eye,  but  hides  the  beam  which  is  in  our 
own  ;  a  mean  envy,  which,  hurt  at  the 
talents  or  prosperity  of  otiiers,  makes  them 
the  subjects  of  its  censures,  and  studies  to 
dim  the  splendour  of  whatever  outshines- 
itself;  a  disguised  hatred,  which  sheds  in 
its  speeches  the  hidden  venom  of  the  heart ; 
an  unworthy  duplicity  which  praises  to  the 


«0B 


488 


soc 


face,  and  tears  in  pieces  behind  the  back  : 
a  shameful  levity,  which  has  no  commaiv' 
over  itself,  or  words,  and  often  sacrifice:- 
both  fortune  and  comfort  to  the  imprudenc 
of  an  amusing  conversation;  a  de;iberati 
barbarity,  which  goes  to  pierce  an  absent 
brother  ;  a  scandal,  where  we  become  a  suiv 
ject  of  shame  and  sin  to  those  who  listen  ti 
us ;  an  injustice,  where  we  ravish  from  our 
brother  what  is  dearest  to  him.  It  is  a  rest 
less  evil,  which  distui'bs  society ;  spreads 
dissentii.n  through  cities  and  countries;  dis- 
unites the  strictest  friendships ;  is  the  source 
of  hatred  and  revenge  ,  tills  wherever  it 
enters  with  disturbances  and  confusion  ;  and 
every  where  is  an  enemy  to  peace,  comfort, 
and  Christian  good  breeding  Lastly,  it  is 
an  evil  full  of  deadly  poison  :  whatever  Hows 
from  it  is  infected,  and  poisons  wliatevcr  it 
approaches  ;  even  its  praises  are  empoison 
ed  ;  its  applauses  malicious;  its  silence  cri 
minal ;  its  gestures,  motions,  and  looks,  have 
all  their  venom,  and  spread  it  each  in  their 
way.  Still  more  dreadful  is  this  evil  when 
it  is  found  among  those  who  are  the  pro- 
fessed disciples  of  Jesus  Christ.  Ah  I  the 
church  formerly  held  in  horror  the  exhibi- 
tions of  Gladiators,  and  denied  that  believers, 
brought  up  in  the  tenderness  and  benignity 
of  Jesus  Christ,  could  innocently  feast  their 
eyes  with  the  blood  and  death  of  these  un- 
fortunate slaves,  or  form  an  harmless  recrea- 
tion of  so  inliuman  a  pleasure :  but  these 
renew  more  detestable  shows ;  for  they 
bring  upon  the  stage  not  infamous  wretches 
devoted  to  death,  but  members  of  Jesus 
Christ,  their  brethren  ;  and  there  they  en- 
tertain the  spectators  with  wounds  which 
they  inflict  on  persons"  who  have  devoted 
themselves  to  God.  JBarrow's  Works,  vol 
i.  ser.  17, 18  ;  Massilo?i's  Sermons,  vol.  i.  ser 
5,  English  translation;  and  article  Evil 
Speaking. 

SOBRIETY,  freedom  from  any  inordinate 
passion.  "  Sobriety,"  as  one  observes,  is 
both  the  ornament  and  the  defence  of  a 
Christian.  It  is  requisite  in  every  situation, 
and  in  every  enterprise  ;  indeed  nothing  can 
be  well  done  without  it.  The  want  of  so- 
briety is  seen  and  felt  by  multitudes  every 
day.  Without  sobriety  a  man  is  exposed  to 
the  tossing  of  the  merciless  waves;  d- stitnte 
of  an  anchor.  Sobriety  is  a  security  agair.st 
the  baneful  influence  of  turbulent  passions ; 
it  is  self-possession  ;  it  is  self-defence.  It 
is  necessary  on  all  occasions :  when  wc 
read,  when  we  hear,  when  we  pray,  when 
we  converse,  when  we  form  schemes,  when 
we  pursue  them,  when  we  prosper,  when 
we  fail.  Sobriety  is  necessary  ffT  all  de- 
scriptions of  character  ;  it  is  necessarv  for 
the  young,  and  for  the  old ;  for  the  rich  and 
the  poor,  for  the  wise  and  for  the  illiterate, 
all  need  to  "  be  sober."  The  necessitv  (if 
sobriety  is  obvious,  1.  In  our  inquiries  after 
truth,  as  opposed  to  presuoiption. — 2.  In 
our  pursuit  of  this  world  as  opposed  ^o  co- 
vetousncss. — 3.  In  the  use  and  estimate  of 
the  things  of  this  world  as  opposed  to  ex- 


cess.— 4.  In  trials  and  afflictions  as  opposed 
to  impatience — 5.  In  forming  our  judgment 
'f  others,  as  opposed  to  censoriousness. — 6. 
In  speaking  of  one's  self,  as  opposed  to  ego- 
r  sm. — Many  motives  might  be  urged  to  this 
exercise,  as,  1.  Tlie  general  language  of 
cripture,  1  Pet.  v.  8  Phil.  iv.  5.  'I'lt.  ii.  12. 
1  Pet.  iv.  7. — 2  Our  profession  as  Christians. 
— 3.  The  example  of  Jesus  Christ,  and  4. 
The  near  approach  of  death  and  judgment." 
See  Drunkknness,  Moderation. 

SOCINIANS,  a  sect  so  called  from  Faus- 
tus  Socinius,  who  died  in  Poland  in  1604. 
There  were  two  who  bore  the  name  Soci- 
nius, uncle  and  nephew,  and  both  dissemi- 
nated the  same  doctrine  ;  but  it  is  the 
nephew  who  is  generally  considered  the 
founder  of  this  sect.  They  maintain  "  that 
Jesus  Christ  was  a  mere  man,  who  had  no 
existence  before  he  was  conceived  by  the 
Virgin  Mary ;  that  the  Holv  Ghost  is  no 
distinct  person  :  but  that  the  Father  is  truly 
and  properly  God.-  They  own  that  the 
name  of  God  is  given  in  the  holy  scriptures 
to  Jesus  Christ,  but  contend  that  it  is  only  a 
deputed  title,  which,  however,  invests  him 
with  a  great  authority  over  all  created  be- 
ings. 'I'hey  deny  the  doctrines  of  satisfac- 
tion and  imputed  righteousness,  and  say,  that 
Christ  only  preached  the  truth  to  mankind, 
set  before  them  in  himself  an  example  of 
heroic  virtue,  and  sealed  his  doctrines  with 
his  blood.  Original  sin  and  absolute  predes- 
tination they  esteem  scholastic  chimeras. 
Snme  of  them  likewise  maintain  the  sleep 
of  the  soul,  which,  they  say,  becomes  insen- 
sible at  death,  and,  is  raised  again  with  the 
body  at  the  resurrection,  when  the  good 
shall  be  established  in  the  possession  of  eter- 
nal felicity,  while  the  wicked  shall  be  con- 
signed to  a  fire  that  will  not  torment  them 
eternally,  but  for  a  certain  duration  propor- 
tioned to  their  demerits." 

There  is  some  difference,  however,  be- 
tween ancient  and  modern  Socinians :  the 
latter,  indignant  at  the  name  Socinian,  have 
appropriated  to  themselves  that  of  Unitari- 
ans, and  reject  the  notions  of  a  miraculous 
conception  and  the  worship  of  Christ ;  both 
which  were  held  by  Socinius.  Dr.  Priestly 
has  laboured  hard  in  attempting  to  defend 
tliis  doctrine  of  the  Unitarians :  but  Dr. 
Horsley,  l)ishop  of  Rochester,  has  ably  re- 
futed the  doctor  in  his  Theological  Tracts, 
which  are  worthy  the  perusal  of  every 
Ciiristian,  and  especially  every  candidate 
fi  r  the  ministry. 

Dr.  Price  agreed  with  the  Socinians  in 
the  main,  vet  his  system  was  somewhat 
('iff(  rent.  He  believed  in  the  pre-existence 
of  Christ,  and  likewise  that  he  v^as  more 
than  a  '>uman  being  ;  and  took  upon  him 
human  miture  for  a  higher  purpose  than 
merely  revealing  to  mankind  the  will  of 
God.  and  instiucting  them  in  their  duty  and 
in  the  doctrines  of  religion. 

'Ihe  Socinians  flourislied  greatlv  in  Poland 
.iiiout  the  vear  1551;  and  J.' Sientienius, 
palatine  of  Podoiia,  built  j^urposely  for  thei:; 


S  OR 


489 


SOU 


use  the  city  of  Racnw.  A  famous  cate- 
chism was  published,  called  the  Racovian 
catechism  ;  and  their  most  able  writers  are 
known  by  the  title  of  the  Polones  Fratres^ 
or  Polonian  Brethren.  Their  writings  v.ere 
re-published  together,  in  the  year  1656,  in 
one  great  collection,  consisting  of  six  vo- 
lumes in  folio,  under  the  title  of  Biblioiheca 
Fratrum.  An  account  of  these  authors  may 
be  seen  in  Dr.  Toubnin's  Life  of  Socmus. 
Some  of  the  writers  on  the  Socinian  doc- 
trine, besides  the  above-mentioned,  have 
been.  Hayncs  tn  his  ^^cnpture  Account  of 
the  .Attributes  and  iVorahip  of  God,  and  of 
the  Character  and  Offices  of  Jesus  Christ. 
Dr.  Lardner  on  the  Logos.  Piiestly's  His- 
tory of  early  Opinions  arid  Disguisicions- 
Lindsajy  in  his  Historical  View  of  Unitari- 
anism.  Carpenter's  U?iita7ianism.  and  Bel- 
sham's  Answer  to  IVilberforce.  Against  the 
Socinian  doctrine  may  be  consulted.  Dr. 
Home's  Sermon  on  the  Duty  of  contending 
for  the  Faith.  Dr.  Oiven  against  Biddle. 
Dr .  Hombeck" s  Confutation  of  Socinianism. 
Calovius'  Ditto  Macgonvan's  Socinianism 
brought  to  the  Test,  and  books  under  arti- 
cles Arians  and  Jesus  Christ. 

SOLDINS,  so  called  from  their  leader, 
one  Soldin  a  Greek  pi-iest.  They  appeared 
about  the  middle  of  the  fifth  century  in  the 
kingdonas  of  Saba  and  Godolia.  They  alter- 
ed the  manner  of  the  sacrifice  of  the  mass  ; 
their  priests  oflFered  gold,  their  deacons  in- 
cense, and  their  sub-deacons  myrrh ;  and 
this  in  memory  of  the  like  offerings  made  to 
the  infant  Jesus  by  the  wise  men. 

Very  few  authors  mention  the  Soldins, 
neither  do  we  know  whether  they  still 
subsist. 

SOLFIDIANS,  those  who  rest  on  faith 
alone  for  salvation,  without  any  connection 
with  works ;  or  who  judge  themselves  to  be 
Christ's  because  they  bilieve  they  are. 

SON  OF  GOD,  a  term  api>lied  in  the 
scriptures  not  only  to  magistrates  and  saints, 
but  more  particularly  to  Jesus  Christ. 
Christ,  says  bishop  Pearson,  has  a  fourfold 
right  to  this  title.  1.  By  generation,  as  be- 
gotten of  God,  Luke  i.  35. — 2.  By  commis- 
sion, as  sent  by  him,  John  x.  S4,  26. — 3.  By 
resurrection,  as  the  first  bom,  Acts  xiii.  32, 
33 — 4.  By  actual  possession,  as  heir  of  all, 
Heb.  i.  2,  5.  But,  besides  these  four,  many 
think  that  he  is  called  the  Son  of  God  in  such 
a  way  and  manner  as  never  any  other  was, 
is,  or  can  be,  because  of  his  own  Divine 
nature,  he  being  the  true,  proper,  and  natu- 
ral Son  of  God,  begotten  by  him  before  all 
Avorlds,  John  iii.  16  Rom.  viii.  3.  1  Jrhn  iv. 
9,  See  article  Gkneration,  Etern.^l, 
and  books  there  referred  to. 

SORCERY,  magic,  conjuration.  See 
Charms  and  Witchcraft. 

SORROW,  uneasiness  or  grief,  arising 
from  tlie  privatioii  of  some  goo;;  we  actually 
possessed.  It  is  the  opposite  to  jry.  Though 
sorrow  vnay  be  allowa'ole  under  a  sense  of 
sin,  and  wi::--'.  involved  in  troubles,  yet  we 
must  beware  of  an  extreme.     Sorrow,   in- 

3Q 


def d  bccrmcs  sinful  and  c>:ces?ive  when  ft 
lends  us  to  slight  our  mercies  ;  causes  us  ta 
be  inscnsilile  to  public  evils  ;  when  it  diverts 
us  from  duty  ;  so  oppresses  our  bodies  as  to 
eiulangei-  our  lives  ;  .sours  the  spirit  with 
discontent,  and  makes  us  inattentive  to  the 
precepts  of  God's  word,  and  advice  of  our 
friends.  In  order  to  moderate  cur  sorrows, 
we  should  consider  that  we  art  n-.ider  the 
direction  of  a  wise  and  merciful  Bc-iny  ;  that 
he  permits  no  evil  to  come  upon  us  without 
a  gracious  design  ;  that  he  can  make  our 
troubles  sources  of  spiritual  advantage  ;  that 
he  might  have  afflicted  us  in  a  far  greater 
degree ;  that,  though  he  has  taken  some, 
yet  he  has  left  many  other  comforts;  that 
he  has  given  many  promises  of  relief;  that 
he  h.is  supported  thousands  in  as  great 
troubles  as  our's  ;  and,  finally,  that  the  time 
is  coming  when  he  will  wipe  away  all  tears, 
and  give  to  them  that  love  him  a  crown  of 
glory  that  fadetl*  not  away.  See  Resigna- 
tion. 

SOUL,  that  vital,  immaterial,  active  sub- 
stance, or  principle,  in  man,  whereby  he 
perceives,  remembers,  reasons,  and -wills. 
It  is  rather  to  be  described  as  to  its  opera- 
tions, than  to  be  defined  as  to  its  tsstnce. 
Various,  indeed,  have  been  the  opinions  of 
philosophers  concerning  its  substance.  The 
Epicureans  thought  it  a  subtile  air,  com- 
posed of  atoms,  or  primitive  corpuscles. 
The  Stoics  maintained  it  was  a  flame,  or 
portion  of  heavenly  light.  The  Cartf^^sians 
ntiake  thinking  the  essence  of  the  soul. 
Some  hold  that  man  is  endowed  with  three 
kinds  of  soul,  viz.  the  rational,  which  is 
purely  spiritual,  and  infused  by  the  imme- 
diate insjiiration  of  God ;  the  irrational  or 
sensitive,  which  being  common  to  man  and 
brutes,  is  supposed  to  i)e  formed  of  the  ele- 
ments ;  and,  lastly,  the  vegetative  soul,  or 
principle  of  growth  and  nutrition,  as  the 
first  is  of  understanding,  and  the  second  cf 
animal  life. 

The  rational  soul  is  simple,  uncompound- 
ed,  and  immaterial,  net  composed  of  matter 
and  form  ;  for  matter  can  never  think  nnd 
move  of  itself  as  the  soul  does.  In  t!ie 
fourth  volume  of  the  Memoirs  of  the  Lite- 
raiy  and  Philosophical  Society  of  Manches- 
ter, the  reader  will  find  a  very  valuable 
paper,  by  Dr.  Fcrrier,  proving,  by  evidence 
apparently  complete,  that  every  part  of  the 
brain  has  been  injured  without  t'Secting  the 
act  of  thought.  It  will  be  difficult  for  any 
man  to  peruse  this  without  being  convinced 
that  the  modern  theory  of  the  Materialists  is 
shaken  from  its  very  foundation. 

The  immortality  of  the  soul  may  be 
argued  fnm  its  vast  capacities,  boundVss 
desires,  great  improvements,  dissatisfaction 
witii  tlie  present  state,  and  desire  of  some 
kind  cf  religion.  It  is  also  argued  from 
the  consent  of  all  nations;  the  conscicus- 
ncss  that  men  have  of  sinning;  the  sting 
of  conscience  :  the  justice  and  pv:-v;''cnce 
of  God.  How  far  these  argumetits  are 
conr.lu'sive  I  will  net  say  ;    but  the  isafest, 


sou 


490 


SPI 


and,  in  fact,  the  only  sure  ground  to  go 
upon  to  prove  this  doctrine  is  the  word  of 
God,  where  we  at  once  see  it  ciearly  esta- 
blished, Matt.  X.  28.  Matt.  xxv.  46.  Dan. 
xii.  2.  2  Tim.  i.  10.  1  Thess.  iv.  17,  18. 
.Tohn  X.  28.  But  as  this  article  belongs  ra- 
ther to  metaphysics  than  to  theology,  we 
refer  the  reader  to  A.  '>axter  on  the  soul. 
Locke  on  the  Understanding  Watts'  On- 
tology. Jackson  on  Matter  and  Spirit. 
Flavel  on  the  Soul.  More's  Immortality 
of  the  Soul.  Hartley  on  Man.  Bp.  Por- 
teus'  Ser?}ions,  ser  5,  6,  7.  vol.  i.  Dod- 
dridge's Lectures,  lect  92,  93,  94,  95, 96, 9? 
Drew's  Essay  on  the  Immateriality  a?id 
Immortality  of  the  Soul.  Care  of  the  Soul. 
See  Care. 

SCWTHCOT.TERS;  the  followers  of 
Joan  .:i  Southern,  well  known  at  this  time  in 
the  South  of  England  as  a  propht- tcss. 

The  book  in  which  Joanna  published  her 
prophecies,  is  dated  London,  April  25,  1804; 
and  she  begins  by  declaring,  she  herself 
did  not  undei'stand  the  communicatioiis 
given  her  by  the  spirit,  till  they  were 
afterward  explaiiied  to  her.  In  November 
1803,  she  was  told  to  mark  the  weather 
during  the  twenty-four  first  days  of  the 
succeeding  year,  and  then  the  spirit  in- 
forms her  that  the  weather  each  day  was 
typical  of  the  events  of  each  succi  eding 
month :  New  year's  day  to  cori-espond 
with  January,  January  2nd  with  February, 
&:c. 

After  this  she  relates  a  dream  she  had  in 
1792,  and  declares  she  foretold  the  death 
of  Bishop  Buller,  and  appeals  to  a  letter  put 
into  the  hands  of  a  clergyman  whom  she 
names. 

One  night  she  heard  a  noise  as  if  a  ball 
of  iron  was  rolling  down  the  stairs  three 
steps  ;  and  the  spirit  afterwards,  she  says, 
told  her  this  was  a  sign  of  three  great  evils 
which  were  to  fall  upon  this  land,  the  sword 
the  plague,  and  the  famine.  She  affirms 
that  the  late  war,  and  that  the  extraordina- 
ry harvest  of  1797  and  1800,  happened 
agreeably  to  the  predictions  which  she 
had  previously  made  known  ;  and  particu- 
larly appeals  to  the  people  of  Exeter, 
where  it  seems  she  was  brought  up  from  her 
infancy. 

In  November  1803,  she  says  she  was  or- 
dered to  open  her  Bible,  which  she  did  at 
Eccles.  ch.  i.  9.  and  then  follows  a  long  ex- 
planation of  that  chapter. 

When  she  was  at  Stockton  upon  Tees 
in  tlie  next  month,  she  informs  us  three 
methodist  preachers  !iad  the  confidence  to 
tell  her  s'.ie  utterod  lies ;  and  she  then 
refers  them  to  four  clergymen  who  could 
prove  she  and  her  friends  were  not  liars. 
.  After  this  she  gives  us  a  long  communi- 
cation on  Gen.  xlix  wherein  Jacob  warns 
his  sons  of  what  should  befal  ihem  in  the 
last  days,  and  which  she  applies  to  our  pre- 
sent times.  She  then  favours  her  readers 
with  a  long  essay  on  the  marriage  of  the 
Lamb;  and  as  variety  is  always  i)leajing, 


it  commences  in  sober   prose,  but  ends  in 
jingling  rhyme. 

Tlie  following  is  the  conclusion  of  a  com- 
munication which  she  had  at  Stockfort : 
"  As  wrong  as  they  are,  saying  thou  hast 
children  brought  up  by  the  parish ,  and  tnat 
thnu  art  Bouaparte's  brother,  and  that  thou 
hast  been  in  prison  so  calsc  is  their  sayings, 
thy  writings  can)e  from  the  devi!  rr  any 
spirit  but  the  spirit  of  the  living  (ioD  ; 
and  that  every  soul  in  this  nation  shall  know 
before  the  five  years  1  mentioned  to  thee 
in  1802  are  expired  ;  and  then  I  will  turn 
as  a  DIADEM  of  beauty  to  the  residence  of 
my  people,   and  they  shall  praist  the  God 

of  THEIR   SALVATION." 

In  March  1805,  we  find  Joanna  published 
a  pamphlet  in  Lund; d,  endeavouring  to  con- 
fute "  Five  Charges"  against  her, 
which,  had  appeared  in  the  Leeds  Mercu'-y, 
and  fo2ir  of  whicli  she  says  were  abso- 
lutely false  The  first  charge  w^s  respect- 
ing till-  sealitig  of  her  disciples.  The  se- 
cond on  the-  invasion.  The  third  m  the 
famine.  Tht fourth  on  her  misiicn.  The 
fifth  on  her  death.  Sealing^  -.  the  grand 
pecuiiarit"'  and  ordinance  of  t'lest  people. 
Joanna  gives  those  wiio  profess  btiif  f  inher 
mission,  and  wili  subscribe  to  the  things  re- 
vealed in  her  "  Warning,"  a  sealed  writ- 
ten paper  with  her  signatur, ,  and  hv  which 
they  are  led  t(i  think  they  '  le  .sealed  gainst 
the  day  of  redeniplion,  and  that  all  toose 
who  are  possessed  of  these  seals  >vill  be 
signally  honoured  by  the  Messiah  whc ):  he 
comes  this  sprinj^.  It  is  said  they  looked 
upon  Joanna  to  be  c'le  bride,  the  Lomb's 
wife;  and  that  as  man  ft-U  bv  a  woman;  he 
will  be  restored  by  a  woman.  Some  of  her 
followers  pretend  also  to  have  visions  and 
revelations.  At  present,  it  seems,  both 
warning  and  seahng  have  subsided  :  they 
ai'e  waiting,  probably  in  awful  suspense, 
for  the  commencement  of  tlie  thousand 
years'  reign  on  the  earth,  when  peace  will 
universally  prevail  Yet  it  is  said  they  do 
not  mean  that  Christ  will  come  in  person, 
but  in  spirit,  and  that  the  sealed  who 
are  dead  before  this  time,  will  be  raised 
from  their  graves  to  partake  in  this  happy 
state. 

SOVEREIGNTY  OF  GOD,  is  his  power 
and  right  of  dominion  over  his  creatures, 
to  dispose  and  determine  them  as  seemeth 
him  good.  This  attribute  is  eviciently  de- 
monstrated in  the  system.s  of  creation,  pro- 
vidence, and  grace ;  and  may  be  consider- 
ed as  absolute,  universal,  and  everlasting, 
Dan  iv.  35.  Eph  i.  11,  See  Dominion, 
Government,  Power,  and  Will  of 
God.  Coles  on  the  Sovereignty  of  God. 
and  Charnock  on  the  Dominion  of  God,  in 
his  Works,  vol.  i.  p.  690.  Ldwards'  Sermon's 
ser  4. 

SPINOCISM,  the  doctrines  of  Spinoza, 
who  was  born  a  Jew  at  Amsterdam  in 
1632.  The  chief  articles  in  his  system  are 
such  as  these  :  that  there  is  but  one  sub- 
stance in  nature,  and  that  this  only  sub- 


SPO 


491 


STO 


stance  is  endued  with  an  infinite  variety  of 
attributes,  among  whicli  are,  extension  and 
cogitation :  that  all  the  bodies  in  the  uni- 
verse are  modifications  of  this  substance, 
considered  as  extended ;  and  that  all  the 
souls  of  men  are  minlifications  of  the  same 
substance,  considered  as  cogitative ;  that 
God  is  a  necessary  and  infinitely  perfect 
Being,  and  is  the  cause  of  all  things  that 
exist,  but  not  a  different  Being  from  them  : 
that  there  is  but  one  Bei.ig,  and  one  nature; 
and  that  this  nature  produces  within  itself. 
by  an  ini-naneut  act,  all  those  which  we 
call  creatures  ;  and  that  this  Being  is,  at  j 
the  same  time,  both  agent  and  patient,  effi-  j 
cient  cause  and  subject,  but  that  he  pro- 
duces nothing  but  modifications  of  himself. 
Thus  is  the  Deity  made  the  sole  agent,  as 
well  rs  patient,  in  ail  evil,  both  physical 
and  moral.  If  this  impious  doctrine  be  not 
Atheism,  (or,  as  it  is  sometimes  called, 
Pantheism,)  I  know  not  what  is.  See  Pan- 
theism. 

SPIRIT,  an  incorporeal  being  or  in- 
telligence ;  in  which  sense  God  is  said 
to  be  a  Spirit,  as  are  angeis  and  the  human 
soul. 

HOLY  SPIRIT.    See  Holy  Ghost. 

SPIRITUALIFY  OF  GOD,  is  his  im- 
materiality, or  being  without  body.  It  ex- 
presses an  idea  (says  Dr.  Paley,)  made  up 
of  a  negative  part  and  of  a  positive  part. 
The  negative  part  consists  in  the  exclusion 
«f  some  of  the  known  properties  of  matter, 
especially  of  solidity  of  the  vis  inertisc,  and 
of  gravitation.  The  positive  part  compri- 
ses perception,  thought,  will,  power,  action, 
by  which  last  term  is  meant  the  origination 
of  motion.  J^'at.  TheoL  p.  481.    See'lNCOR- 

POREALITY  OF  GoD. 

SPIRITUAL  MINDEDNESS,  that  dispo- 
sition implanted  in  the  mind  by  the  Holy 
Spirit,  by  which  it  is  inclined  to  love,  de- 
light in,  and  attend  to  spiritual  things. 
The  Spiritual  minded  highly  appreciate 
spiritual  blessings — are  engaged  in  spiritual 
exercises — pursue  spiritual  objects — are  in- 
fluenced by  spiritual  motives — and  experi- 
ence spiritual  joys.  To  be  spiritually-mind- 
ed, says  St.  Paul,  is  life  and  peace,  Rom.  viii . 
6.  See  Dr  Chven's  excellent  Treatise  on 
this  subject. 

SPONSORS,  are  those  persons  who,  in 
the  office  of  baptism,  answer,  or  are  sure- 
ties, for  the  persons  baptized.  See  God- 
fathers. 

SPORTS.  Book  of,  a  book  or  declara- 
tion drawn  up  by  Bp.  Morton  in  the  reign 
of  King  James  I.  to  encourage  recreations 
and  sports  on  the  Lord's  day.  It  was  to 
this  effect :  "  That  for  his  good  people's 
recreation  his  majesty's  pleasure  was,  that, 
after  the  end  of  divine  service,  they  should 
not  be  disturbed,  letted,  or  discouraged, 
iVom  any  lawful  recreations ;  such  as  dan- 
cing, either  of  men  or  women  ;  archery  for 
men ;  leaping,  vaulting,  or  any  such  harm- 
less recreations  ;  nor  having  of  may-games, 


nvhitsonalesy  or  morrice- dances  ;  or  setting 
up  of  may-poles,  or  other  sports  therewith 
used,  so  as  the  same  may  be  had  in  due  and 
convenient  time,  without  impediment  or  let 
of  divine  service ;  and  that  women  should 
have  leave  to  carry  rushes  to  the  church 
for  the  decoi'ating  of  it,  according  to  their 
old  customs;  withal  prohibiting  all  unlaw- 
ful games  to  be  used  on  Sundays  only ;  as 
bear-bating,  bull-bating,  interludes,  and  at 
all  times  (in  the  meaner  sort  of  people 
prohibited)  bowling."  Two  or  three  re- 
strai!its  were  annexed  to  the  declartition, 
which  deserve  the  reader's  notice  :  1st. 
"  Nc  recusant,  (i.  e.  Papist)  was  to  have 
the  benefit  of  this  declaration — 2dly.  Nor 
such  as  were  not  present  at  die  whole  of 
divine  service. — Nor,  3dly,  such  as  did  not 
keep  to  their  own  parish  churches,  that  is 
Puritans." 

This  declaration  was  ordered  to  be  read 
in  all  the  parisli  churches  of  Lanca.shire, 
which  abounded  v/ith  Papists  ;  and  Wilson ' 
adds,  that  it  was  to  have  been  read  in  .all 
the  churches  of  England,  but  that  arch- 
bishop Abbot,  being  at  Croydon,  flatly  for- 
bade its  being  read  there.  In  the  reign  of 
king  Charles  I.  archbishop  Laud  put  tlie 
king  upon  republisiiing  this  declaration, 
which  was  accordingly  done.  The  court 
had  their  balls,  masquerades,  and  plays,  on 
the  Sunday  evenings ;  while  the  youth  of 
tlie  country  were  at  their  morrice-dances, 
may-games,  church  and  clerk  ales,  and  all 
such  kind  of  revelling.  The  severe  pres- 
sing of  this  declaration  made  sad  havoc 
among  the  Puritans,  as  it  was  to  be  read 
in  the  churclies.  Many  poor  clergymen 
strained  their  consciences  in  submission  to 
their  superiors.  Some,  after  publishing  it, 
immediately  read  the  fourth  commandment 
to  the  people:  "Remember  the  Sabbath- 
day,  to  keep  it  holy  ;"  adding,  "  This  is 
the  law  of  God :"  the  other,  "  The  injunc- 
tion of  man."  Some  put  it  upon  their  curates, 
whilst  great  numbers  absolutely  refused  to 
comply  ;  the  consequence  of  which  was, 
that  several  clergymen  were  actually  sus- 
pended for  not  reading  it. — Such,  alas,  was 
the  awful  state  of  the  times  I 

STATUTE  BLOODY,  or  the  law  of  the 
six  articles  ;  a  law  enacted  in  the  reign  of 
Henry  VIII.  which  denounced  death  against 
all  those  who  should  deny  the  doctrine  of 
transubstantiation  ;  or  maintain  the  necessity 
of  receiving  the  sacrament  in  both  kinds,  or 
affirm  that  it  was  lawful  for  priests  to  mar- 
ry, that  vows  of  celibacy  might  be  broken, 
that  private  masses  were  of  no  avail,  and 
that  auricular  confession  to  a  priest  was  net 
necessary  to  salvation. 

STEADFASTNESS.    See  Constancy. 

STOICS,  heatlien  philosophers,  who  took 
their  name  from  the  Greek  word  sioa,  sig- 
nifying a  porch  or  portico,  because  Zeno, 
the  head  of  the  Stoics,  kept  his  school  in  a 
porch  of  the  city  of  Atiiens.  It  is  supposed 
that  Zeno  borrowed  many  of  his  opinions 


SUB 


492 


SUB 


frrim  the  Jewish  scriptures  :  but  it  is  ceii;ain 
thai  Socrates  and  Plato  had  taught  much 
of  them  before.  The  Stoics  generaiiy  main- 
tained thatnature  impels  every  man  to  pursue 
T.'hatever  appears  to  him  to  be  good.  Ac- 
cording to  them,  silf- preservation  and  de- 
tence  is  the  first  law  of  animated  nature. 
All  animals  necessarily  derive  pleasure  from 
those  things  which  are  suited  to  them  »  but 
the  first  object  of  pursuit  is  not  pleasure, 
but  conformity  to  nature.  Every  one,  there- 
fore, who  has  a  right  discernment  of  what 
is  good,  will  be  chiefly  concerned  to  conform 
to  nature  in  all  his  actions  and  pursuits. 
This  is  the  origin  of  moral  obligation.  With 
respect  to  happiness  or  good,  the  stoical 
doctrine  was  altogether  extravagant :  they 
taught  that  all  external  things  are  indifferent, 
and  cannot  affect  the  happiness  of  man ;  that 
pain,  which  dots  not  belong  to  the  mind,  is 
not  evil ;  and  that  a  wise  man  will  be  hap- 
py in  the  midst  of  torture,  because  virtue 
itself  is  happiness. 

Of  all  the  sects,  however,  of  the  ancient 
philosophers,  it  is  said  that  the  Stoics  came 
nearest  to  tl.e  Christian ;  and  that  only  with 
respect  to  their  strict  regard  to  moral  vir- 
tue, but  also  oil  account  of  their  moral  prin- 
ciples; in  so  much,  that  Jerom  affirms  that 
in  many  things  they  agree  with  us.  They 
asserted  the  imity  of  the  Divine  Being — the 
creation  of  the  world  by  the  Aoy©-,  or  Word 
—the  doctrine  of  Providence — and  the  con- 
flagration of  the  universe.  They  believed 
in  the  doctrine  of  fate,  which  they  repre- 
sented as  no  other  than  the  will  and  pur- 
pose of  God,  and  held  that  it  had  no  ten- 
dency to  looseness  of  life. 

?>TYLIT'E'6,  /ti/lar  saints  ;  an  appellation 
given  to  a  kind  of  solitaries,  who  stood  mo- 
tionless upon  the  tops  of  pillars,  raised  for 
this  exercise  of  their  patience,  and  remain- 
ed there  for  several  years,  amidst  the  ad- 
miration and  applause  of  the  stupid  popu- 
lace. Of  these,  we  find  several  mentioned 
in  ancient  writers,  and  even  as  low  as  the 
twelfth  century,  when  they  were  totally 
suppressed. 

The  founder  of  the  order  was  St.  Simeon 
Stylites,  a  famous  anchoret  in  the  fifth  cen- 
tury, who  first  took  up  his  abode  on  a  column 
six  cubits  high  ;  then  on  a  second  of  twelve 
cubits ;  a  third  of  twenty-two ;  a  fourth  of 
thii'ty-six ;  and  en  another  of  forty  cubits, 
•where  he  thus  passed  thirty-seven  years  of 
his  life.  The  tops  of  these  columns  were 
only  three  feet  in  diameter,  and  were  de- 
fended by  a  rail  that  reached  almost  to  the 
jfirdle,  somewhat  resembling  a  pulpit. — 
There  was  no  lying  down  in  it.  The  Faquirs, 
or  devout  pe(jple  of  the  East,  imitate  this 
extraordinary  kind  of  life  to  this  day. 

SUR-DEACON.  an  inferior  minister,  who 
anciently  attended  at  the  altar,  prepared 
the  sacred  vessels,  delivered  them  to  the 
deacons  in  time  of  divine  service,  attended 
the  doors  of  the  church  during  communion 
service,  went  on  the  bishop's  embassies  with 
his  letters,  or  messages,  to  foreign  churches, 


and  was  invested  with  the  first  of  the  holy 
orders.  They  were  so  subordinate  to  the 
superior  rulers  of  the  church,  that,  by  a 
canon  of  the  council  of  Laodicea,  they  were 
forbidden  to  sit  in  the  presence  of  a  deacon 
without  his  lea\e. 

^  SUBLAPSARIANS;  those  who  hold  that 
God  permitted  the  first  man  to  fall  into 
transgression  without  absolutely  predeter- 
mining his  fall ;  or  that  the  decree  of  pre- 
destination regards  man  as  fallen,  by  an  abu^e 
of  that  freedom  which  Adam  had,  into  a 
state  in  which  all  were  to  be  left  to  neces- 
sary and  unavoidable  ruin,  who  were  not 
exempted  from   it  by  predestination.    See 

SUPRALAPSARIANS. 

SUBMISSION  TO  GOD  implies  an  en- 
tire giving  up  of  our  understanding,  will, 
and  affections,  to  him  ;  or,  as  Dr.  Owen  ob- 
sen'es,  it  consists  in,  1,  An  acquiescency  in 
his  right  and  sovereignty. — 2.  An  acknow- 
ledgment of  his  righteousness  and  wisdom. 
— 3.  A  sense  of  iiis  love  and  care. — 4.  A 
diligent  application  of  ourselves  to  his  mind 
and  will. — 5.  Keeping  our  souls  by  faith  and 
patience  from  weariness  and  despondency. 
— 6.  A  full  resignation  to  his  will.  See  Re- 
signation, Sorrow. 

SUBSCRIPTION  CLERICAL.  Sub- 
scription to  articles  of  religion  is  required  of 
the  clergy  of  every  established  church,  and 
of  some  churches  not  established.  But  it 
has  been  a  matter  of  dispute  whether  it  an- 
swers any  valuable  purpose  as  to  religion, 
however  necessary  as  a  test  to  loyalty.  All 
language  is  more  or  less  ambiguous,  so  that 
it  is  difficult  always  to  understand  the  exact 
sense,  or  the  animus  imfionentis,  especially 
when  creeds  have  been  long  established.  It 
is  said  that  the  clergy  of  the  churches  of 
England  and  Scotland  seldom  consider  them- 
selves as  fettered  with  the  Thirty-nine  Ar- 
ticles, or  the  Confession  of  Faith,  when 
composing  instructions  for  their  parishes,  or 
the  public  at  large. 

It  is  to  be  feared,  indeed,  that  many  sub- 
scribe merely  for  the  sake  of  emolument ; 
and  though  it  be  professedly  ex  animo,  it  is 
well  known  that  it  is  not  so  in  reality.  How 
such  will  answer  to  the  Great  Head  of  the 
church,  we  must  leave  them  to  judge.  They 
who  think  subscription  to  be  proper,  should 
remember  that  it  approaches  very  near  the 
solemnity  of  an  oath,  and  is  not  to  be  trifled 
with.  "  Great  care,"  says  Doddridge, 
"  ought  to  be  taken  that  we  subscribe  noth- 
ing that  we  do  not  firmly  believe.  If  the 
signification  of  the  words  be  dubious,  and 
we  believe  either  sense,  and  that  sense  in 
which  we  do  believe  them  is  as  natural  as 
the  other,  Ave  may  consistently  with  integri- 
ty subscribe  them  ;  or  if  the  sense  in  which 
we  do  believe  them  be  less  natural,  and  we 
explain  that  sense,  asd  that  explication  be 
admitted  by  the  person  requiring  the  sub- 
scription in  his  own  right,  there  can  be  no 
just  foundation  for  a  scruple.  Some  have 
added,  that,  if  we  have  reason  to  believe 
(though  it  is  not  expressly  declared)  that  he 


SUF 


493 


SUP 


who  imposes  the  subscription  does  not 
intend  that  we  should  hereby  declare  our 
assent  to  those  articles,  but  only  that  we 
should  ijay  a  compliment  to  his  authority, 
and  engage  ourselves  not  openly  to  contra- 
dict them,  we  may,  in  this  case,  subscribe 
what  is  inost  directly  contrary  to  our  belief: 
or  that,  it  we  deckire  our  belief  in  any  book, 
as,  for  instance,  the  Bible,  it  is  to  be  sup- 
posed that  we  'subscribe  other  articles  only 
so  far  they  are  consistent  with  that ;  because 
we  cannot  imagine  that  the  law  would  re- 
quire us  to  profess  our  belief  of  contrary 
propositions  at  the  same  time.  But  subscrip- 
tion upon  tliese  principles  seems  a  very  dan- 
gerous attacti  upon  sincerity  and  public  vir- 
tue, esi-^eciaily  in  tliose  designed  for  public 
offices  "  If  tue  reader  be  desirous  of  inves- 
tii^ating  tiie  subject,  he  may  consult  Palei/'s 
Mor.  Fhd.  vol.  i.  p.  218.  Dyer  on  S'ub- 
scri/ition.  Doddridge's  Lect.  lect.  70.  Co- 
ntjbearc's  Sermon  on  Subscri/ition.  Free 
and  Candid  DLtg  uisitions  relating  to  the 
Church  of  England;  and  The  Confes- 
sional. 

SUCCESSION  UNINTERRUPTED,  a 
term  made  use  of  by  the  Romanists,  and 
others,  in  reference  to  those  bishops  who 
are  supposed  to  have  derived  their  authori- 
ty from  the  apostles,  and  so  communicated 
that  authority  to  others  in  a  line,  or 
succession.  It  is  a  very  precarious  and 
uncomfortable  foundation  for  Christian 
hope  (says  Dr.  Doddridge)  which  is  laid  in 
the  doctrine  of  an  uninterrupted  succession 
of  bishops,  and  which  makes  the  validity  of 
the  administration  of  Christian  ministers 
depend  upon  such  a  succession,  since  there 
is  so  great  a  darkness  upon  many  periods  of 
ecclesiastical  history,  insomuch  that  it  is  not 
agreed  who  were  the  seven  first  bishops  of 
the  church  of  Rome,  though  that  church 
was  so  celebrated ;  and  Eusebius  himself, 
from  whom  the  greatest  patrons  of  this  doc- 
trine have  made  their  catalogues,  expressly 
owns  that  it  is  no  easy  matter  to  tell  who 
succeeded  the  apostles  in  the  government 
of  the  churches,  excepting  such  as  may  be 
collected  from  St.  Paul's  own  words.  [See 
Episcopacy.]  Contested  elections,  in  al- 
most all  considerable  cities,  make  it  very 
dubious  which  were  the  true  bishops ;  and 
decrees  of  councils,  rendering  all  those  or- 
dinations null  where  any  simoniacal  contract 
was  the  foundation  of  them,  makes  it  im- 
possible to  prove  that  there  is  now  upon 
earth  any  one  person  who  is  a  legal  succes- 
sor of  the  apostles ;  at  least,  according  to 
the  principles  of  the  Romish  church.  Con- 
sequently whatever  system  is  built  on  this 
doctrine  must  be  very  precarious.  Howe's 
Efiiscofiaciu  p-  170.  183.  Doddridge's  Lect. 
lect.  197.  Chandler's  Sermoiis  against  Po- 
fierij,  p.  34 — 37.  Pierce's  Sermons,  pref. ; 
and  article  Ordin.^tion. 

SUFFERINGS  OF  CHRIST.  To  form 
an  idea  of  Clirist's  sufferings,  we  should  con- 
sider the  poverty  of  his  birth  ;  the  reproach 
«f  his  character ;  the  pains  of  his  body ;  the 


power  of  his  enemies ;  the  desertion  of  his 

friends ;  the  weight  of  his  people's  sins ;  the 
slow,  ignon\mious,  and  painful  nature  of  his 
death ;  and  the  hidings  of  nis  Father's  face. 
All  these  rendered  his  sufferings  extremely 
seven  ..  yet  some  heretics  said,  that  the 
sufFeiings  of  Christ  were  only  in  appearance 
and  not  real :  but,  as ,  bishop  Pearson  ob- 
serves, "  If  hunger  and  thirst;  if  revilings 
and  contempt ;  if  soirows  and  agonies ;  if 
stripes  and  buffeting  ;  if  condemnation  and 
crucifixion,  be  sufferings,  Jesus  suffered.  If 
the  infirmities  of  our  nature  ;  if  the  weight 
of  our  sins ;  if  the  malice  of  men ;  if  the 
machinations  of  Satan ;  if  the  hand  of  God, 
could  make  him  suffer,  our  Saviour  suffered, 
'  If  the  annals  of  time  ;  if  the  writings  of  the 
apostles ;  if  the  death  of  his  martyrs ;  if  the 
confession  of  Gentiles ;  if  the  scoffs  of  the 
Jews  be  testimonies,  Jesus  suffered."  Pear- 
S071  on  the  Creed.  Dr.  Rambach's  Medita' 
talions  on  the  Sufferings  of  Christ.  For  the 
end  of  Christ's  sufferings,  see  Death  oe 
Christ. 

SUNDAY,  or  the  Lord's  Day,  a  solemn 
festival  observed  by  Christians  on  the  first 
day  of  every  week  in  memory  of  our  Sa- 
viour's resurrection.    See  Sabbath. 

It  has  been  contended  whether  Sunday 
is  a  name  that  ought  to  be  used  by  Chris- 
tians. The  words  Sabbath  and  Lord's  Day, 
say  some,  are  the  only  names  mentioned  in 
scripture  respecting  this  day.  To  call  it 
Sunday,  is  to  set  our  wisdom  before  the  wis- 
dom of  God,  and  to  give  that  glory  to  a 
Pagan  idol  which  is  due  to  him  alone.  The 
ancient  Saxons  called  it  by  this  name,  be- 
cause upon  it  they  worshipped  the  Sun ; 
and  shall  Christians  keep  up  the  memory 
of  that  which  was  highly  displeashig  to  God, 
by  calling  the  Sabbath  by  that  name  rather 
than  by  either  of  those  he  hath  appointed  ? 
It  is  indeed,  called  Sunday,  only  because  it 
is  customary ;  but  this,  say  they,  will  not 
justify  men  in  doing  that  which  is  contrary 
to  the  example  and  command  of  God  in  his 
word. 

Others  observe,  that,  although  it  was  ori- 
ginally called  Sunday  by  the  Heathens,  yet 
it  may  very  pi-operly  retain  that  name 
among  Christians,  because  it  is  dedicated  to 
the  honour  of  the  true  lie:ht,  which  lighteth 
every  man  that  cometh  into  the  world,  of 
Him  who  is  styled  by  the  Prophet  "  the  Sun 
of  Righteousness,"  and  who  on  this  day 
arose  from  the  dead.  But  although  it  was 
ia  the  primitive  times  indifferently  called 
the  Lord's  Day,  or  Sunday,  yet  it  was  never 
denominated  the  Sabbath  ;  a  name  constant 
ly  appropriated  to  Saturday,  or  the  seventh 
day ,  both  by  sacred  and  ecclesiastical  writers. 

SUPEREROGATION,  what  a  man  docs 
beyond  his  duty,  or  more  than  he  is  com- 
manded to  do.  The  Romrnists  stand  up 
strenuously  for  works  of  supererogation,  and 
maintain  that  the  observance  of  evangelical 
councils  is  such.  By  means  hereof  a  stock 
of  merit  is  laid  up,  which  the  church  has 


SUP 


494 


SUP 


the  disposal  of,  and  which  she  distributes  in 
indulgences  to  such  as  need. 

This  absurd  doctrine  was  first  invented 
towards  the  close  of  the  twelfth  century, 
and  modified  and  embelhshed  by  St.  Tho- 
mas in  the  thirteenth  :  according'  to  which, 
it  was  pretendt^d  that  there  actually  existed 
an  immense  treasure  of  merit,  composed  of 
the  pious  deeds  and  virtuous  actions  which 
the  saints  had  performed  beyond  what  was 
necessary  for  their  own  salvation,  and  which 
were,  therefore,  applicable  to  the  benefit  <'f 
others ;  that  the  guardian  and  dispeiiser  of 
this  precious  treasure  was  the  Roman  pon- 
tiff; and  that,  of  consequence,  he  was  em- 
powered to  assign  to  such  as  he  thought  pro- 
per a  portion  of  this  inexhaustible  source  of 
merit,  suitable  to  their  respective  guilt,  and 
sufficient  to  deliver  them  from  the  punish- 
ment due  to  their  crimes. 

SUPERINTENDANT,  an  ecclesiastical 
superior  in  several  reformed  churches  where 
episcopacy  is  not  admitted,  particularly  among 
the  Lutherans  in  Germany,  and  the  Calvi- 
nists  in  some  other  places.  The  superinten- 
dant  is  similar  to  a  bishop,  only  his  power  is 
somewhat  more  restrained  than  that  of  our 
diocesan  bishops.  He  is  the  chief  pastor, 
and  has  the  direction  of  all  the  inferior  pas- 
tors within  his  district  or  diocese. 

SUPERSTITION  is  a  word  that  has 
been  used  so  indefinitely,  that  it  is  difficult 
to  determine  its  precise  meaning.  From  its 
resemblance  in  sound  to  the  Latin  word 
sufierstes,  a  survivor,  it  is  evidently  derived 
from  it;  and  different  attempts  have  been 
made  to  trace  their  connection  in  significa- 
tion, but  without  any  degree  of  certainty.  It 
is  generally  defined  to  be,  the  observance  of 
unnecessary  and  uncommanded  rites  and 
practices  in  I'eligion  ;  reverence  of  objects  not 
fit  for  worship :  too  great  nicety,  fears,  or  scru- 
pulousness: or  extravagant  devotions;  or 
religion  wrong  directed  or  conducted.  The 
word  may  be  applied  to  the  idolatry  of  tlie 
Heathens,  the  traditions  of  the  Jews,  the  uri- 
scriptural  rites  of  the  Catholics ;  to  the  de- 

Eendance  placed  by  many  on  baptism,  the 
lOrd's  supper,  and  other  ceremonies.  It 
may  be  extended  to  those  who,  without  anv 
evidence,  believe  that  prophecies  are  still 
uttered,  or  miracles  are  performed-.  It  i^ 
also  applied  to  those  who  believe  in  witch- 
craft, magic,  omens,  &c. 

Superstition,  says  Claude,  usually  springs 
either,  1.  From  servile  fear,  which  makes 
people  believe  that  God  is  always  wrathful, 
and  invents  means  to  appease  him. — 2.  Or 
from  a  natural  inclination  we  all  have  to 
idolatry,  which  makes  men  think  they  see 
some  ray  of  the  Divinity  in  extraordinary 
creatures,  and  on  this  account  worship  tliem. 
— Or,  3.  From  /ly/jocrimj,  which  makes  men 
willing  to  discharge  their  obligations  to  God 
by  grimace,  and  by  zeal  for  external  servi 
ces. — Or,  from  firesumfition,  which  makes 
men  serve  God  after  their  own  fancies 
Claude's  Essay  on  the  Composition  of  a 
Sermo7i,  vol.   ii.  p.  49  and   299,     Saurin's 


Sermons,  vol.  v.  p.  49,  Eng.  edit.  Grego- 
ry's £ssavs,  essay  iii. 

SUPRALAPSARIANS,  persons  who 
hold  that  God,  without  any  regard  to  the 
good  or  evil  works  of  men,  h;!S  resolved, 
by  an  eternal  decree,  supra  lapsu7n.  ante- 
cedently to  any  knowledge  of  the  fail  of 
Adam,  and  independently  of  it,  to  save 
some  and  reject  others ;  or,  in  other  words, 
tliat  God  intended  to  glorify  his  justice  in 
the  condemnation  of  some,  as  wel!  as  his 
mercy  in  the  salvation  of  others  .  and,  for 
that  purpose,  decreed  that  Adam  should  ne- 
cessarily fall 

Dr.  Gill  gives  us  the  following  account  of 
Supralapsarianism. — The  questinn  which  he 
proposes  to  discuss  is,  "  Whether  men  were 
considered  in  the  mind  of  God  in  the  de- 
cree of  election  as  fallen  or  unfallen.  as  in 
the  corrupt  mass  through  the  fall,  or  in  the 
pure  mass  of  creatureship,  pr'^vious  to  it, 
and  as  to  be  created  ?"  There  are  some 
who  think  that  the  latter,  so  considered, 
were  the  objects  of  election  in  the  Divine 
inind.  These  are  called  Supralapsarians, 
though  of  these,  some  are  of  opinion,  that 
man  was  considered  as  to  be  created  or 
creatable,  and  others  as  created  but  not 
fallen.  The  former  seisms  best,  that,  of  the 
vast  number  of  individuals  which  came  up 
in  the  Divine  mind  whom  his  power  could 
create,  those  whom  he  meant  to  bring  into 
being  he  designed  to  glorify  himself  by 
them  in  some  way  or  other.  The  decree 
of  election  respecting  any  part  of  them  may 
be  distinguished  into  the  decree  of  the  end 
and  the  decree  of  the  means.  The  decree 
of  the  end  respecting  some  is  either  subordi- 
nate to  their  etei'nal  happiness,  or  ultimate, 
which  is  more  properly  the  end,  the  glory 
of  God  ;  and  if  both  are  put  together,  it  is 
a  state  of  everlasting  communion  with  God  ; 
for  the  glorifying  of  the  riches  of  his  grace. 
The  decree  of  the  means  includes  the  de- 
cree to  create  men  to  permit  them  to  fall, 
to  recover  them  out  of  it  through  redemp- 
tion by  Christ,  to  sanctify  them  by  the 
grace  of  the  Spirit  and  com.pletely  save 
them  .  and  which  are  not  to  be  reckoned  as 
materially  many  decrees,  but  as  making 
one  formal  decree  ;  or  they  are  not  to  be 
considered  as  subordinate,  but  as  co-ordi- 
nate means,  and  as  making  up  one  entire 
complete  medium  :  for  it  is  not  to  be  sup- 
posed tl'at  God  decreed  to  create  man,  that 
he  might  permit  him  to  fall,  in  order  to 
redeem,  sanctify  and  save  him  ;  but  he  de- 
creed all  this  that  he  might  glorify  his 
grace,  mercy,  and  justice.  And  in  this 
way  of  considering  the  decrees  of  God, 
they  think  that  thev  sufficiently  obviate  and 
remove  the  slandei'ous  calumny  cast  upon 
them  with  respect  to  the  other  branch  of 
predestination,  which  leaves  men  in  the 
same  state  when  others  are  chosen,  and 
that  for  the  glory  of  Grd  Which  calumny 
is.  that,  according  to  them,  God  made  man 
to<lamn  him;  whereas,  according  to  their 
i-eal  sentiments,  God  decreed  to  make  man, 


SUP 


495 


SWE 


and  made  man  neither  to  damn  him  nor 
save  him,  but  for  his  own  glory,  which  end 
is  answered  in  ihem  some  way  or  (ither. — 
Again  ;  they  argue  that  the  end  is  first  in 
view  before  the  means,  and  the  decree  of 
the  i-nd  is,  in  order  of  nature,  before  the 
decree  of  the  means ;  and  what  is  first  in 
intention,  is  last  in  execution.  New,  as  the 
glory  of  Gfid  is  last  in  execution,  it  must  bi- 
first'in  intention,  wherefore  men  must  btr 
considered  in  the  decree  of  the  end  as  not 
yet  created  and  fallen;  since  the  creation 
and  permission  of  sin  belong  to  the  decree 
of  Hie  means,  whic  :  in  order  of  nature  is 
after  the  decree  of  the  end.  And  they  add 
to  this,  that  if  God  first  decreed  to  create 
man,  and  suffered  him  to  fall,  and  then 
GUI  of  t^e  fail  chose  some  to  grace  and  glo- 
ry', he  must  decree  to  create  man  without 
an  '-;.'I,  which  is  to  make  God  to  do  what 
no  wibe  man  would;  for  when  a  man  is 
abf  ut  to  do  any  thing,  he  proposes  an  end. 
and  then  contrives  and  fixes  on  ways  and 
means  to  bring  about  that  end.  They  think 
also  that  this  way  of  conceiving  and  speak- 
ing of  these  things  best  expresses  the  sove- 
reiSTity  of  God,  in  them,  as  declared  in  the 
9th  of  Romans,  where  be  is  said  to  will 
such  jind  such  things,  for  no  other  reason 
but  because  he  wills  them. 

The  opponents  of  this  doctrine  consider, 
however,  that  it  is  attended  with  insupera- 
ble difficulties.  We  demand,  say  they,  an 
explanation  of  what  they  mean  by  this  prin- 
ciple, "  God  hath  made  all  things  for  his 
own  gloiy."  If  they  mean  that  justice  re- 
quires a  creature  to  devote  himself  to  the 
worship  and  glorifying  of  his  Creator,  we 
gi'ant  it :  if  they  mean  that  the  attributes 
of  God  are  displayed  in  all  his  works,  we 
grant  this  too  ;  but  if  the  proposition  be  in- 
tended to  affirm  that  God  had  no  other 
view  in  creating  men,  so  to  speak,  than  his 
own  interest,  we  deny  the  proposition,  and 
affirm  that  Goci  created  men  for  their  own 
happiness,  and  in  order  to  have  subjects 
upon  whom  he  might  bestow  favours. 

We  desire  to  be  informed,  in  the  next 
place,  say  they,  how  it  can  be  conceived 
that  a  determination  to  damn  millions  of 
men  can  contribute  to  the  glory  of  God  ? 
We  easily  conceive,  that  it  is  for  the  glory 
of  Divine  justice  to  punish  guilty  men  ;  but 
to  resolve  to  damn  men  without  the  consi 
deration  of  sin,  to  create  them  that  they 
might  sin,  to  determine  tliat  they  should  sin 
in  order  to  their  destruction,  is  what  seems 
to  us  more  likely  to  tarnish  the  glory  of  God 
than  to  display  it 

Agnin;  we  demand  how,  according  to 
this  hvpothesis,  it  can  be  conceived  that 
God  is  not  the  author  of  sin  .■'  In  the  gene- 
ral scheme  of  our  churches,  God  only  per- 
mits men  to  sin,  and  it  is  the  abuse  of  li- 
berty that  plunges  man  into  misery  :  even 
this  principle,  all  lenified  as  it  seems,  is  yet 
subject  to  a  great  number  of  difficulties ; 
but  in  this  scheme,  God  wills  sin  to  produce 
the  end  he  proposed  in  creating  the  woild, 


and  it  was  necessary  that  men  should  sin  j 
God  created  them  for  that.  If  this  be  not 
to  make  God  the  author  of  sin,  we  must  re- 
nounce the  most  distinct  and  clear  ideas. 

Again ;  we  require  them  to  reconcile  this 
system  with  many  express  declarations  of 
scripture,  which  inform  us  that  God  would 
have  all  mtn  to  be  saved.  How  dctli  it 
agree  with  such  pressing  intreaties,  such 
cutting  reproofs,  such  tender  expostulations, 
as  God  discovers  in  regard  to  the  uncon- 
verted .'  Matt  xxiii.  37. 

Lastly)  we  desire  to  know,  how  it  is  pos- 
sible to  conceive  a  God,  who,  being  in  the 
actual  enjoyment  of  perfect  happinebs,  in- 
comprehensible, and  supreme,  could  deter- 
mine to  add  this  decree,  though  useless  to 
his  felicity,  to  create  men  without  number 
for  the  purpose  of  confining  them  for  ever 
in  the  chains  of  darkness,  and  burning  them 
for  ever  in  unquenchable  flames.  Gill'i 
Body  of  Divinity,  vol.  i.  p.  299.  Brine's 
IVorkfi.  Saurin's  Sermons,  vol.  v.  p.  336, 
English  translation. 

SUPREMACY  OF  THE  POPE,  a  doc- 
trine held  by  the  Roman  Catholics,  who  be- 
lieve that  the  bishop  of  Rome  is,  under 
Christ,  supreme  pastor  of  the  whole  church: 
and,  as  such,  is  not  only  the  first  bishop  in 
order  and  dignity,  but  has  also  a  power 
and  jurisdiction  over  all  Christians.  This 
doctrine  is  chiefly  built  upon  the  supposed 
primacy  of  Saint  Peter,  of  whom  the  bishop 
of  Rome  is  the  pretended  successor  ;  a  pri- 
macy we  no  where  find  commanded  or 
countenanced,  but  absolutely  prohibited,  in 
the  word  of  God,  Luke  xxii.  14,  24.  Mark 
ix.  35.  See  Infallibility,  Primacy, 
Pope,  and  Popery.  Dr.  Barrow's  Trea- 
tise on  the  Pope's  Supremacy.  Chilling- 
worth's  Religion  of  the  Protestants ;  and 
Smith's  Errors  of  the  Church  of  Rome. 

SUPREMACY,  Oath  of.     See  Oath. 

SUSPICION  consists  in  imagining  evil 
of  others  without  proof.  It  is  sometimes 
opposed  to  charity,  which  thinketh  no  evil. 
"  A  suspicious  temper  checks  in  the  bud 
every  kind  affection  :  it  hardens  the  heart, 
and  estranges  man  from  man.  What  friend- 
ship can  we  expect  from  him  who  views 
all  our  conduct  with  distrustful  eyes,  and 
ascribes  every  benefit  we  confer  to  artifice 
and  stratagem  ?  A  candid  man  is  accustomed 
to  view  the  characters  of  his  neighbours  in 
the  most  favourable  light,  and  is  like  one 
who  dwells  amidst  those  beautiful  scenes  of 
nature  on  which  the  eye  rests  with  plea- 
sure. Whereas  the  suspicious  man,  having 
his  imagination  filled  with  all  the  shocking 
forms  of  human  falsehood,  deceit,  and 
treacheiy,  resembles  the  traveller  in  the 
wilderness,  who  discerns  no  objects  around 
him  but  what  are  either  dreary  or  terrible  ; 
caverns  that  open,  sei-pents  that  hiss,  and 
beasts  of  prey  that  howl." 

SWEARING.    See  Oath. 
Cursing   and    Swearing   is     an    offence 
o.gainst  God  and  religion,  and  a  sin  of  all 
others  the  most  extravagant  and  unaccour.i- 


S  WE 


496 


SYN 


able,  as  having  no  benefit  ov  fadvantage  at- 
tending it.  It  is  a  contempt  of  God  ;  a  vi- 
olation of  his  law  ;  a  great  breach  of  good 
behaviour  ;  and  a  mark  of  levity,  weakness, 
and  wickedness.  How  those  who  live  in 
the  habitual  practice  of  it  can  call  them- 
selves men  of  sense,  of  character,  or  of  de- 
cency, I  know  not.  By  the  last  statute 
against  this  crime,  19  Geoi'ge  II.  which  re- 
peals all  former  ones,  every  labourer,  sailor, 
or  soldier,  profanely  cursing  or  swearing, 
shall  forfeit  one  shilling;  every  other  pei'- 
son,  under  the  rank  of  a  gentleman,  two 
shillings ;  and  every  gentleman,  or  person 
of  superior  rank,  five  shillings,  to  the  poor 
of  the  parish  ;  and  on  a  second  conviction 
double,  and  for  every  subsequent  offence 
treble  the  sum  first  forfeited,  with  all  charg- 
es of  conviction :  and  in  default  of  payment, 
shall  be  sent  to  the  house  of  correction  for 
ten  days. 

SWEDENBORGIANS,  the  followers  of 
Emmanuel  Swedenborg,  a  Swedish  noble- 
man, born  at  Stockholm  in  1689.  He  ap- 
pears to  have  had  a  good  education  :  for  his 
learning  was  extensive  in  almost  every 
branch.  He  professed  himself  ^to  be  the 
founder  of  the  New  Jerusalem  Church,  al- 
luding to  the  New  Jerusalem  spoken  of  in 
the  book  of  the  Revelation.  He  asserts 
that,  in  the  year  1743,  the  Lord  manifested 
himself  to  him  by  a  personal  appearance, 
and  at  the  same  time  opened  his  spiritual 
eyes,  so  that  he  was  enabled  constan'^ly  to 
see  and  converse  with  spirits  and  angels. 
From  that  time  he  began  to  print  and  pub- 
lish various  wonderful  things,  which,  he 
says,  were  I'evealed  to  him,  relating  to  hea- 
ven and  heil,  the  state  of  men  after  death, 
the  worship  of  God,  the  spiritual  sense  of 
the  scriptures,  tlie  various  earths  in  the 
universe,  and  their  inhabitants;  with  many 
other  strange  particulars. 

Swedenborg  lived  and  died  in  the  Luthe- 
ran communion,  but  always  professed  the 
highest  respect  for  the  church  of  England 
He  carried  hisfrespect  for  the  person  and 
divinity  of  Jesus  Christ  to  the  highest  point 
of  veneration,  considering  him  altogether  as 
"  God  manifested  in  the  flesh,  and  as  the 
fulness  of  the  Godliead  united  to  the  man 
Christ  Jesus."  With  respect,  therefore,  to 
the  sacred  Trinity,  though  he  rejected  the 
idea  of  three  distinct  persons  as  destructive 
of  the  unity  of  the  Godhead,  he  admitted 
three  distinct  essences,  principles,  or  cha- 
racters, as  existing  in  it:  namely,  the  divine 
essence  or  character,  in  virtue  of  which  he 
is  called  the  Father  or  Creator,  the  hu- 
man essence,  principle,  or  character,  united 
to  the  divine  in  tlie  person  of  Jtstis  Christ, 
in  virtue  of  which  he  is  called  the  Son  and 
Redeemer ;  and,  lastly,  the  proceeding  es- 
sence or  priuciplp.  in  virtue  of  which  tie  is 
called  the  Holy  (rhost.  He  farther  main- 
tains, that  the  .sacred  scripture  contains 
three  distinct  senses,  ("lUed  celestial,  spi- 
ritual, and  natural,  which  are  united  by  cor- 
respondences :  and  tliat  in   each  sense  it  is 


divine  truth  accommodated  respectively  to 
the  angels  of  the  three  heavens,  aikl  also 
to  men  on  earth.  This  science  of  crrres- 
pondences  (it  is  said)  has  been  lost  for  some 
thousands  of  years,  viz.  ever  since  the  time 
of  Job,  but  is  now  revived  by  Emmanuel 
Swedenborg,  who  uses  it  as  a  key  to  the 
spiritual  or  internal  sense  of  the  sacred 
scripture  ;  every  page  of  which,  he  says,  is 
written  by  correspondence,  that  is,  by  such 
things  in  the  natural  world  as  correspond 
unto  and  signify  things  in  the  spiritual 
world.  He  denies  the  doctrine  of  atone- 
ment, or  vicarious  sacrifice  ;  together  with 
the  doctrines  of  predestination,  uncondi- 
tional election,  justification  by  faith  alone, 
the  resurrection  of  the  material  body,  &c. 
and  in  opposition'  thereto,  maintains  that 
man  is  possessed  of  free  will  in  spiritual 
thines  ;  that  salvation  is  not  attainable  vi'ith- 
out  repentance,  that  is,  abstaining  from 
evils,  because  they  are  sins  against  God, 
and  living  a  life  of  charity  and  faith,  accor- 
ding to  the  commandments  ;  that  man,  im- 
mediately on  his  decease,  rises  again  in  a 
spiritual  body,  Avhich  was  inclosed  in  his 
material  body,  and  that  in  thiF  spiritual 
body  he  lives  as  a  man  to  eternity,  either  in 
heaven  or  in  hell,  according  to  the  quality 
of  his  past  fife.  That  all  those  passages  in 
the  scripture  generally  supposed  to  signify 
the  destruction  of  the  world  by  fire,  and 
commonly  called  the  last  judgment,  must 
be  understood  according  to  the  above-men- 
tioned science  of  correspondences,  which 
teaches,  that  by  the  end  of  the  world,  or 
consummation  of  the  age,  is  not  signified  the 
destruction  of  the  world,  but  "-'^.e  destruction 
or  end  of  t!ie  present  Christian  church, 
both  amui'g  Ro'nai,  Catholics  and  Protes- 
tants, of  every  description  or  denomination  ; 
and  that  this  last  judgment  a'-tuiliy  took 
place,  in  the  spiritual  world  iii  the  yeaf 
1757  ;  from  which  era  is  dated  the  second 
advent  of  the  Lord,  and  the  commence- 
ment of  a  new  Christian  church,  which, 
they  say,  is  meant  by  the  new  hea^•en  and 
new  earth  in  the  Revelation,  and  the  New 
Jerusalem  thence  descending.  They  use  a 
liturgy,  and  instrumental  as  well  as  vocal 
music,  in  their  public  worship.  Szanmary 
Vietv  of  Sivedeiiborg's  Doctrines.  Swederi- 
borg's  Works.  Dialogues  on  Sivedenborg's 
Theological  Writi??gs. 

SYMBOL,  an  abstract  or  compendium  ; 
a  sign  or  representation  of  sometliing  moral 
by  the  figures  or  properties  of  natural 
things.  Hence  smbyols  are  of  various  kinds; 
as  hieroglyphics,  types,  enigmas,  parables, 
fables,  &c.  See  Br.  Lancastei-'s  Diction- 
ary of  Scrifiture  Symbolr-i  ;  and  liic/ieno's 
Simi'holical  Vocabulary  i?i  his  Signs  of  the 
Times.  Fabcr  on  the  Prn/ihecies.  W. 
Jones'  IVorlcs,  vol.  iv.  Let.  11. 

SYNA(U)(tUK,  a  place  where  the  Jews 
meet,  tn  worshin  God. 

SYNERGISTS,  so  called  from  the  Greek 
fltivepyc'iM,  which  signifies  co-operation. 
Hence  this  name  was  jjivcn  to  tho^e  in  the 


T  AL 


497 


TAL 


sixttenth  century  who  denied  that  God 
was  the  sole  agent  in  the  conversion  of  sin- 
ful man,  and  affirmed  that  man  co-operated 
with  Divine  i^race  in  the  accomplishment  of 
this  salutary  purpose. 

SYNOD,  a  meeting  or  assembly  of  eccle- 
Mastical  persons  to  consult  on  matters  of 
rehgion.  Of  these  thei'e  are  four  kinds,  viz. 
1.  General,  where  bishops,  &c.  meet  from 
all  nations.  Tiiese  were  first  called  by  the 
emperors  ;  afterwards  by  Christian  princes, 
till,  in  latter  ages,  the  pope  usurped  to  him- 
self the  greatest  share  in  this  business,  and 
by  his  legates  pi-esided  in  them  when  call- 
ed— 2.  .National,  where  those  of  one  nation 
only  come  together  to  determine  any  point 
of  doctrine  or  discipline.  The  first  of  this 
sort  which  we  read  of  in  England  was  that 
of  Herudford,  or  Hertford,  in  673  ;  and  the 
last  was  that  held  by  cardinal  Pope,  in  1555. 
— 3.  Provincial,  where  those  only  of  one 
province  meet,  now  called  the  convocation. 
— 4.  Diocesan,  where  those  of  but  one  dio- 
cese meet,  to  enforce  canons  made  by  gene- 
ral councils,  or  national  and  provincial 
synods,  and  to  consult  and  agree  upon  rules 
of  discipline  for  themselves.  These  were 
not  wholly  laid  aside,  till,  by  the  act  of 
submission,   25  Henry  VIII.  c.   19.  it  was 


made  unlawful  for  any  synod  to  meet  but  by 
royal  authority.  See  Council,  and  Cow- 
vocation. 

SYRIAN  CHRISTIANS.  The  number 
of  Syrian  churches  is  greater  than  has  been 
supposed.  There  are,  at  this  time,  fifty- 
five  churches  in  Malayala,  acknowledging 
the  Patriarch  of  Antioch.  The  churcli 
was  erected  by  the  present  bishop,  in 
1793.  See  Evangelical  Magazine  for  1807, 
page  480 

The  Syrian  Christians  are  not  Nestorians. 
Formerly,  indeed,  they  had  bishops  of  that 
communion;  but  the  liturgy  of  the  present 
church  is  derived  from  that  of  the  early 
church  of  Antioch,  called  Liturgia  Jucobia 
yl/iostoli.  They  are  usually  denominated 
Jacobitx ;  but  they  differ  in  ceremonial 
from  the  church  of  that  name  in  Syria, 
and  indeed  from  any  existing  church  in 
the  world.  Their  proper  designation,  and 
that  which  is  sanctioned  by  their  own  use, 
is,  Syrian  Christians,  or  tHe  Syrian  church  of 
Malayala. 

The  doctrines  of  the  Syrian  churcIi 
are  contained  in  a  very  few  articles; 
and  are  not  at  variance,  in  essentials, 
with  the  doctrines  of  the  church  of  En- 
gland. 


T. 


TABERNACLE,  among  the  Hebrews,  a 
kind  of  building,  in  the  form  of  a  tent,  set 
up  by  the  express  command  of  God  for  the 
performance  of  religious  worship,  sacrifices, 
&c.     Exod.  xxvi.    xxvii. 

Feast  of  Tabernacles,  a  solemn  festival 
of  the  Hebrews,  observed  after  harvest,  on 
the  15th  day  of  the  month  Tisri,  instituted 
to  commemorate  the  goodness  of  God,  who 
protected  the  Israelites  in  the  wilderness, 
and  made  tlicm  dwell  in  booths  when  they 
came  out  of  Egypt. 

TABORITES.  See  Bohemian  Bre- 
thren. 

TALAPOINS,  or  Talopins,  priests  of 
Siam.  They  enjoy  great  privileges,  but  are 
enjoined  celibacy,  and  austerity  of  life. 
They  live  in  monasteries  contiguous  to  the 
temples  ;  anrl,  what  is  singular,  any  one 
ir.ay  enter  into  the  priesthood,  and,  after  a 
certain  age,  may  quit  it  to  marry,  and 
return  to  society.  There  are  Talapoinesses, 
too,  or  nuns,  wiio  live  in  the  same  convents, 
but  are  not  admitted  till  they  have  passed 
their  fortieth  year.  The  Tala'poins  educate 
children,  and  at  every  new  and  full  moon 
explain  the  precepts  of  their  religion  in 
their  temples  ;  and  during  the  rainy  season, 

3  11 


they  preach  from  six  in  the  morning  till 
noon,  and  from  one  in  the  afternoon  till  five 
in  the  evening.  They  dress  in  a  very 
mean  garb,  and  go  bare-headed  and  bare- 
footed ;  and  no  person  is  admitted  among 
them  v/ho  is  not  well  skilled  in  the  Baly 
language.  They  believe  that  the  universe 
is  eternal,  but  admit  that  certain  parts  of 
it,  as  this  world,  may  be  destroyed,  and 
again  regenerated.  They  believe  in  a  uni- 
versal pervading  spirit,  and  in  the  immor- 
tality and  transmigration  of  the  soul ;  but 
they  extend  this  last  doctrine  not  only  to 
animals,  but  to  vegetables  and  rocks. 
They  have  their  good  and  evil  genii,  and 
particular  local  deities,  who  preside  over 
forests  and  livers,  and  interfere  in  all  sub- 
lunary affairs. 

TALENT  figuratively  signifies  any  gift 
or  opportunity  God  gives  to  men  for  the 
promotion  of  his  glory.  "  Eveiy  thing 
almost,"  says  Mr.  Scott,  "  that  we  are,  ci* 
possess,  or  meet  with,  may  be  considered 
as  a  talent :  for  a  good  or  a  bad  use  may 
be  made  of  every  natural  endowment,  or 
providential  appointment,  or  they  may  re- 
main unoccupied  through  inactivity  and  sel- 
fishness.   Time,  health,  vigour  of  body,  and 


TAL 


498 


TAN 


the  power  of  exertion  and  enduring  fatigue 
. — the  natural  and  acquired  abilities  of  the 
iriitid,  skill  in  any  lawtul  art  or  science, 
nnd  tlie  capacity  for  close  mental  applica- 
tion— the  gift  ot  speecli,  and  that  of  speak- 
ing with  fluency  and  propriety,  and  in  a 
convincing,  attractive,  or  persuasive  man- 
ner— wealth,  iiiriuence,  or  authority — a 
man's  situation  in  the  church,  the  commu- 
nity, or  relative  life — and  the  various  oc- 
currences which  make  way  for  him  to  at- 
tempt any  thing  of  a  beneficial  tendency  : 
tliese,  and  many  others  that  can  scarcely 
be  enumerated,  are  talents  which  the  con- 
sistent Christian  will  improve  to  the  glory 
of  God,  and  the  benefit  of  mankind.  Nay, 
tliis  improvement  procures  an  increase  of 
laients,  and  gives  a  man  an  accession  of 
iiifiuence,  and  an  accumulating  power  of 
(k)ing  good ;  because  it  tends  to  establish 
Ills  reputation  for  prudence,  piety,  integrity, 
i^incerity,  and  disinterested  benevolence : 
ic  gradually  forms  him  to  an  habitual 
readiness  to  engage  in  beneficent  designs, 
and  to  conduct  tliem  in  a  gentle,  unobtru- 
sive, and  unassuming  manner :  it  disposes 
others  to  regard  him  with  increasing  confi- 
d(:-nce  and  aflFection,  and  to  approach  him 
"with  satisfaction ;  and  it  procures  for  him 
tlie  countenance  of  many  persons,  whose  as- 
sistance he  can  employ  in  accomplishing 
iiis  own  salutary  purposes." 

TALMUD,  a  collection  of  Jewish  Avri- 
tings.  There  are  two  works  which  bear 
tiiis  name — the  Talmud  of  Jerusalem, 
iind  the  I'almud  of  Babylon.  Each  of 
these  are  composed  of  two  parts — the 
Mish.na,  which  is  the  text,  and  is  com- 
mon to  both  ;  and  the  Gemara,  or  commen- 
.tary. 

The  Mishna,  which  comprehends  all  the 
laws,  institutions,  and  rules  of  life  (wliich, 
beside  t!ie  ancient  Mebri.  w  scrii)tures,  the  : 
Jews  thought  themselves  bound  to  observe,) 
w;is  composed,  according  to  the  unmimous 
testimony  oS  the  Jews,  about  the  close. of 
the  second  century.  It  was  the  work  of 
ral)')'  Jehuda  (or  Juda)  Hakkadosh,  who 
was  the  ornament  of  the  school  at  Tiberias, 
nnd  is  said  to  have  occupied  him  forty 
years.  The  commentaries  and  addiiions 
which  succeeding  rabbles  made  were  cil- 
lected  I)y  rabbi  Jochana  Ren  Eliezer,  somr 
say  in  the  fifth,  others  say  in  the  sixth,  and 
others  in  the  seventh  century,  und(  r  the 
r.ame  of  Gemara,  that  is,  comfiletion,  be- 
ciuse  it  computed  the  Talmud.  A  similar 
additicn  was  made  to  the  Mishna  by  the 
]^al>ylonish  doct"rs  in  tlie  bi;!;inni!5g  oftlie 
sixth  century,  accordirig  to  Enfield;  and  in 
the  seventh,  according  to  otliers. 

The  Mibhna  is  divided  into  six  parts,  of 
Avliicii  every  one  which  is  entitled  order  is 
l>i;-med  of  treatises ;  every  treatise  is  divid- 
ed into  chapters;  and  every  clapter  into 
ir.isiinas,  or  aphorisms.  In  i\\G  Jist  part  is 
vli;,cussed  whatever  relates  to  seeds,  fruits, 
jitul  trees:  in  the  &cco7ul,  feasts;  in  the 
j'hird,  women,  their  duties,  their  disorders, 


marriages,  divorces,  contracts,  and  nup- 
tials :  in  the  fourth,  are  treated  the  dama- 
ges or  losses  sustained  by  beasts  or  men,  of 
things  found,  deposits,  usuries,  rents,  farms, 
partnership  in  commerce,  inheritance,  sdles 
and  purchases,  oaths,  Avitnesses,  arrests, 
idolatry ;  and  here  are  named  those  by 
whom  the  oral  law  was  received  and  pre- 
served :  in  the^/t/i  part  are  noticed  what 
regards  sacrifices  and  holy  things:  and  the 
sixth  treats  on  purifications,  vessels,  furni- 
ture, clothes,  houses,  leprosy,  baths  and  nu- 
merous other  articles : — all  this  forms  tlie 
Mishna. 

As  the  learned  reader  may  wish  to  obtain 
some  notion  of  rabbinical  composition  and 
judgment,  we  shall  gratify  his  curiosity  suf- 
ficiently by  the  following  specimen :  "Adam's 
body  was  made  of  the  earth  of  Babylon,  his 
head  of  the  land  of  Israel,  his  other  mem- 
bers of  other  parts  of  the  world.  R.  Meir 
thought  he  was  compact  of  the  earth  gath 
ered  out  of  the  whole  earth  :  as  it  is  written, 
thine  eyes  did  see  my  substance.  Now  it  is 
elsewhere  written,  the  eyes  of  the  Lord  are 
over  all  the  earth.  R.  Aha  expressly 
marks  the  twelve  hours  in  which  his  va- 
rious parts  were  formed.  His  stature  wa.s 
from  one  end  of  the  world  to  the  other ; 
and  it  was  for  his  transgression  that  the 
Creator,  laying  his  hand  in  anger  on  him, 
lessened  him  ;  '  for  before,'  says  R.  Elea- 
zer,  *  with  his  hand  he  reached  the  firma- 
ment.' R.  Jehudd  thinks  his  sin  was  heresy  ; 
but  R.  Isaac  thinks  that  it  was  nourishing 
his  foreskin." 

The  Talmud  of  Babylon  is  most  valued  by 
the  Jews;  and  this  is  the  book  which  they 
mean  to  express  when  tliey  talk  of  the  Tal- 
mud in  general  An  abridgment  of  it  was 
made  by  Maimonides  in  the  12th  century, 
I  in  which  he  rejected  some  of  its  greatest 
[  absurdities.  The  Gemara  is  stuffed  with 
:  dreams  and  chimeras,  with  many  ignorant 
■  and  impertinent  questions,  and  the  style 
very  coarse.  The  Mishna  is  written  in  a 
I  style  ccmparatively  pure,  arid  may  be  very 
useful  in  explaining  passages  of  the  New 
Testament,  Avhere  the  phraseology  is  simi- 
lar. Tl\is  is,  indeed,  the  only  use  to  which 
Christians  can  apply  it :  but  this  renders 
it  valuable. — Lightfoot  has  judiciously  avail- 
ed himself  of  such  information  as  lie  could 
deiive  from  it.  Some  of  the  popes,  with  a 
barbarous  zeal,  and  a  timidity  of  spirit  for 
the  succ-'ss  of  the  Christian  religion,  which 
the  belief  of  its  divinity  can  never  excuse, 
ordered  great  numbers  of  the  Talmud  to  be 
burned.  Gregory  IX  bnrned  about  twenty 
crirt-loads  ;  and  Paul  IV.  ordered  12,000 
copies  of  the  Talmud  to  be  destroyed.  Sec 
MiscnNA  :  the  last  edition  of  the  Talmud 
of  l^ubylon,  printed  at  Amsterdam,  in  12 
vols  folio  :  the  Talmud  of  Jerusalem  is  in 
OIK  large  volume  folio. 

TANQUELINIANS,  so  called  from  Tan- 
queliinis,  who  formed  a  lumierous  denomi- 
nation in  Brabant  and  Atitwerp  in  the 
twelftli  century.  He  treated  with  contempt 


TAR 


499 


TEM 


the  external  worshij)  of  God,  the  sacrament 
of  the  Lord's  supper,  and  the  rite  of  baj)- 
tism,  and  held  clandestine  asseniljlies  to 
propagate  his  opinions.  He  declaimed 
against  the  vices  of  the  clergy  with  vehe- 
mence and  intrepidity. 

TARGUM,  a  name  given  to  the  Chaldee 
paraphrases  of  the  books  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment. They  are  called  Jiaraphrascs  or  ex- 
positions,  because  they  are  rather  comments 
and  explications,  than  literal  translations  of 
the  text.  They  are  written  in  the  Chaldee 
tongue,  which  became  familiar  to  the  Jews 
after  the  time  of  their  captivity  in  Babylon, 
and  was  more  known  to  them  than  the  He- 
brew itself:  so  that  when  the  Hebrew  text 
■was  read  in  the  synagogue,  or  in  the  temple, 
they  generally  added  to  it  an  explication  in 
the  Chaldee  tongue  for  the  service  of  the 

1)eople,  who  had  but  a  very  imperfect  know- 
edge  of  the  Hebrew  tongue.  It  is  probable, 
that  even  from  the  time  of  Ezra  this  cus- 
tom l)egan ;  since  this  learned  scribe,  read- 
ing the  law  to  the  people  in  the  temple,  ex- 
plained it,  with  the  other  priests  that  were 
with  him,  to  make  it  understood  by  the  peo- 
ple, Nehemiah  viii.  7,  9, 

But  though  the  custom  of  making  these 
sons  of  expositions  in  the  Chaldee  language 
be  very  ancient  among  the  Hebrews,  yet 
they  have  no  written  paraphrases  or  Tar- 
gums  before  the  era  of  Onkelos  and  Jona- 
than, who  lived  about  the  time  of  our 
Saviour.  Jonathan  is  placed  about  thirty 
years  before  Christ,  under  the  reign  of  He- 
rod the  Great.  Onkelos  is  something  more 
modern.  The  Targum  of  Onkelos  is  the 
most  of  all  esteemed,  and  copies  are  to  be 
found  in  which  it  is  inserted  verse  for  verse 
with  the  Hebrew.  It  is  so  short,  and  so  sim- 
ple, that  it  cannot  be  suspected  of  being  cor- 
i-upted.  This  paraphrast  wrote  only  upon 
the  books  of  Mnses :  and  his  style  approach- 
es nearly  to  the  purity  of  the  Chaldee,  as  it 
is  found  in  Daniel  and  Ezra.  This  Targum 
is  quoted  in  the  Misna,  but  was  not  known 
either  to  Eusebius,  St.  Jerome,  or  Origen. 

The  Targum  of  Jonathan,  son  of  Uziel,  is 
upon  the  greater  and  lesser  prophets.  He 
is  much  more  diffuse  than  Onkelos,  and 
especially  upon  the  lesser  prophets,  Avhere 
he  takes  great  liberties,  and  runs  on  in  alle- 
gories. His  style  is  pure  enough,  and  ap- 
proaches pretty  near  to  the  Chaldee  of  On- 
kelos. It  is  thought  that  the  Jewi.sh  doc- 
tors who  lived  above  seven  hundred  years 
after  him  made  some  additions  to  him. 

The  Targum  of  Joseph  the  Blind  is  upon 
the  Hagiographia.  This  author  is  much 
more  modern,  and  less  esteemed,  than  those 
we  have  now  mentioned.  He  has  written 
upon  the  Psalms,  Job,  the  Proverbs,  the 
Canticles,  Ecclesiastes,  Ruth,  and  Esther. 
His  style  is  a  veiy  corrupt  Chaldee,  with  a  i 
great  mixture  of  words  from  foreign  lan- 
guages. 

The  Targum  of  Jerusalem  is  only  upon 
the  Pentateuch;  nor  is  that  entire  or  per- 
fect.   There   are   whole   verses   wanting, 


others  transposed,  otheis  mutilated;  which 
has  made  many  of  opinion  that  this  is  only 
a  fragment  of  some  ancient  paraphrase  that 
is  now  lost.  There  is  no  Targum  upon 
Daniel,  or  upon  the  books  of  Ezra  and  Ne- 
liemiah. 

These  Targums  are  of  great  use  for  the 
better  understanding  not  only  of  the  Old 
Testament,  on  which  they  are  written,  but 
also  of  the  New.  As  to  the  Old  Testament, 
they  serve  to  vindicate  the  genuineness  of 
the  present  Hebrew  text,  by  proving  it  to 
he  the  same  that  was  in  use  when  these 
Targums  were  made  ;  contrary  to  the  opi- 
nion of  those  who  think  the  Jews  corrupted 
it  after  our  Saviour's  time.  They  help  to 
explain  many  words  and  phrases  in  the 
Hebrew  original,  and  they  hand  down  to  us 
many  of  the  ancient  customs  of  the  Jew.s. 
And  some  of  them,  with  the  phraseologies, 
idioms,  and  peculiar  forms  of  speech,  which 
we  find  in  them,  do,  in  many  instances,  help 
as  much  for  the  better  illustration  and  bet- 
ter understanding  of  the  New  Testament  as 
of  the  Old  :  the  Jei*usalem  Chaldee  dialect, 
in  which  they  are  written,  being  the  vulgar 
language  of  the  Jews,  in  our  Saviour's  time. 
They  also  very  much  serve  the  Christian 
cause  against  the  Jews,  by  interpreting 
many  of  the  prophecies  of  the  Messiah  in 
the  Old  Testament  in  the  same  manner  as 
the  Christians  do.  Many  instances  are  pro- 
duced to  this  purpose  by  Dr.  Prideaux  in 
his  Connections  of  the  History  of  the  Old 
and  A>w  Testament.  These  Targums  are 
published  to  the  best  advantage  in  the  se- 
cond edition  of  the  great  Hebrew  Bible  set 
forth  at  Basil  by  Buxtorf,  the  father,  anno. 
1610 

TEMPER,  the  disposition  of  the  mind, 
whether  natural  or  acquired.  The  word 
is  seldom  used  by  good  writers  without  an 
epithet,  as  a  good  or  bad  temper.  Temper 
must  be  distinguished  from  passion.  The 
passions  are  quick  and  strong  emotions 
which  I)y  degrees  subside.  Temper  is  the 
disposition  which  remains  after  these  emo- 
tions are  past,  and  which  forms  the  habitual 
propensity  of  the  soul.  See  Dr.  JSvans'' 
Practical  Discourses  on  the  Christian  Tem- 
per ;  and  the  various  articles  Love,  Pa- 
tience, HuMiMTY,  Fortitude,  &c.  in 
this  woi'k. 

TEMPERANCE,  that  virtue  which  a 
man  is  said  to  possess  who  moderates  and 
restrains  his  sensual  appetites.  It  is  often, 
however,  used  in  a  much  more  general 
sense,  as  synonimous  with  moderation,  and 
is  then  applied  indiscriminately  to  all  the 
passions. 

'*  Temperance,"  says  Addison,  "  has 
those  particular  advantages  above  all  other 
means  of  health,  that  it  may  be  practised 
by  all  ranks  and  conditions,  at  any  season 
or  in  any  place.  It  is  a  kind  of  regimen 
into  which  every  man  may  put  himself 
without  interruption  to  business,  expence  of 
money,  or  loss  of  time.  Physic,  for  the 
most  part,  is  nothing  else  but  the  substitute 


TEM 


500 


TEM 


for  exercise  or  temperance^''  In  order  to 
obtain  and  practise  this  virtue,  we  should 
consider  it,  1.  As  a  divine  command,  Phil, 
iv.  5.  Luke  xxi.  34.  Prov.  xxiii.  1 — 3 — 2. 
As  conducive  to  health. — 3.  As  advanta- 
geous to  the  powers  of  the  mind. — 4.  As  a 
defence  agiinst  injustice,  lust,  imprudence, 
detraction,  poverty,  8cc — And,  lastly,  the 
example  of  Christ  should  be  a  most  power- 
ful stimulus  to  it.  See  Intemperance, 
Sobriety. 

TEMPLARS,  Templers,  or  Knights 
OF  THE  Temple,  a  religious  order  institu- 
ted at  Jerusalem,  in  the  beginning,  of  the 
twelfth  century,  for  the  defence  of  the  holy 
sepulchre,  and  the  protection  of  Christian 
pilgrims.  They  were  first  called  the  Poor 
of  the  Holy  Citij,  and  afterwards  assumed 
the  appellation  of  Tem/ilars,  because  their 
house  was  near  the  temple.  The  order  was 
founded  by  Baldwin  II.  then  king  of  Jerusa- 
lem, with  the  concurrence  of  the  pojje :  and 
the  principal  articles  of  their  rule  were, 
that  they  should  hear  the  holy  ofiice  through- 
out every  day  ;  or  that,  when  their  military 
duties  should  prevent  this,  they  should  supply 
it  by  a  certain  number  of  paternostei'S  ;  that 
that  they  sliould  abstain  from  flesh  four  daj's 
in  the  week,  and  on  Fridays  from  eggs  and 
milk  meats ;  that  each  knight  might  have 
three  horses  and  one  squire,  and  that  tiiey 
should  neither  hunt  nor  fowl. — After  the 
ruin  of  Jerusalem,  about  1186,  they  spread 
themselves  through  Germany  and  other 
countries  of  Europe,  to  which  they  were 
invited  by  the  liberality  of  the  Christians. 
In  the  year  1228  this  order  acquired  stabili- 
ty by  being  confirmed  in  the  council  of 
Troyes,  and  subjected  to  a  rule  of  discipline 
drawn  up  by  St.  Bernard.  In  every  nation 
they  had  a  particular  governor,  called  Mas- 
ter of  the  Tevjfde,  or  of  the  militia  of  the 
temple.  Their  grand  master  had  his  resi- 
dence at  Paris.  The  order  of  templars 
flourished  for  some  time,  and  acquired,  by 
the  valour  of  its  knights,  immense  riches, 
and  an  eminent  degree  of  military  renown  ; 
but,  as  their  prosperity  increased,  their 
vices  were  multiplied,  and  their  arrogance, 
luxury,  and  cruelty,  rose  at  last  to  such  a 
great  height,  that  their  privileges  were  re- 
voked, and  their  order  suppressed  with  the 
most  ten'ible  circumstances  of  infamy  and 
severity. 

TEMPLE,  a  public  building  Erected  for 
the  i)ur{)ose  of  religious  worshij). 

TEMPORAL,  a  term  often  used  for  se- 
cular, as  a  distinction  from  s])iritual  or  ec- 
clesiastical;  likewise  iw  any  thing  belong- 
ing to  time  in  contrast  with  eteniit\'. 

TEMPORALITIES  OF  BISHOPS,  are 
the  revenues,  lands,  tenements,  and  lav 
fees,  belonging  to  l)isl)nps,  as  they  are  barons 
and  lords  of  ])ariiaiTient. 

TEMPTATION,  the  enticement  of  a 
jierson  to  commit  !jin,  by  offering  some 
seeming  advantage,  'i'liere  are  four  things, 
says  one,  in  temptation  :  1.  Deception.— 2. 
1  ufcction.— 3.  beduction — 4.  Perdition.  The 


sources  of  temptation  are,  Satan,  the  world, 
and  the  flesh.  We  are  exposed  to  them  in 
every  state,  in  every  place,  and  in  every 
time  of  life.  They  may  be  wisely  permitted 
to  shew  us  our  weakness,  to  try  our  faith, 
to  promote  our  humility,  and  to  learn  us  to 
place  our  dependence  on  a  superior  Power : 
yet  we  must  not  run  into  them,  but  watch 
and  pray ;  avoid  sinful  company ;  consider 
the  love,  sufferings,  and  constancy  of  Christ, 
and  the  awful  consequences  of  falling  a  vic- 
tim to  them. — The  following  rules  have  been 
laid  down,  by  which  we  may  in  some  measure 
know  when  a  temptation  comes  from  Satan. — 

1.  VViien  the  temptation  is  unnatural,  or  con- 
trary to  the  general  bias  or  temper  of  our 
minds. — 2.  When  it  is  opposite  to  the  present 
frame  of  the  mind. — 3.  When  the  temptation 
itself  is  irrational ;  being  contrary  to  what- 
ever we  could  imagine  our  own  minds  would 
suggest  to  us. — 4.  When  a  temptation  is  de- 
tested in  its  first  rising  and  appearance — 5. 
Lastly,  when  it  is  violent.  See  Satan. 
Brooks,  Owen,  Gilpin,  Capel,  and  Gillespie^ 
on  Temptation  South's  seveii  Sermons  on 
Temptation,  in  tlie  6th  vol.  of  his  Sermons. 
Pike  and  Haynvard^s  cases  of  i'07isciencc. 
and   Bishop  Porteus'  Sermons,  ser.  3  and 

TEMPTATION    OF    CHRIST.     The 

temptation  of  Christ,  of  which  we  read  in 
the  4tii  chap,  of  Matthew,  has  been  much 
the  subject  of  infidel  ridicule,  and  some  in- 
genious writers,  to  avoid  the  difficulties  of 
a  literal  interpretation,  have  reduced  the 
whole  to  vision  ahd  allegory.  But  perhaps 
this  has  increased  rather  than  removed 
those  difficulties.  Is  it  not  best  always  to 
adhere  as  close  as  possible  to  the  language 
of  inspiration,  without  glossing  it  with  fan- 
cies of  our  own  ^  And  after  all,  what  is 
there  so  inconsistent  with  reason  in  this  ac- 
count ?  That,  when  our  Lord  retired  to  the 
interior  part  of  the  wilderness,  the  enemy 
of  mankind  should  assume  a  disguise  (whe- 
tiier  human  or  angelic  is  not  important,)  and 
present  the  most  plausible  temptation  to  our 
Redeemer,  under  these  trying  circumstan- 
ces, is  perfectly  consistent  with  the  malevo- 
lence of  his  charactej',  b\it  liow  far  he  was 
permitted  to  exert  his  power  in  forming 
them,  is  not  necessary  to  be  inquired.  'I'he 
grand  objection  is,  why  was  Satan  suffered 
thus  to  insult  the  Son  "of  God.''  Wherefore 
did  the  Redeemer  suffer  his  state  of  retire- 
ment to  be  thus  disturbed  with  the  malicious 
suggestions  of  the  fiend  ?  May  it  not  be  an- 
swered that  lierein,  1.  He  gave  an  instance 
of  his  own  condescension  and  humiliation. — 

2.  He  heieln'  proved  his  power  over  the 
tempter. — r,'.  He  set  an  example  of  firmness 
and  virtue  to  hisfolhnvcrs.— And,  4.  He  here 
affords  consolation  to  his  suffering  people,  by 
shewing  not  only  that  he  himself  was  tempt- 
ed, but  is  al}le  to  succour  those  who  are 
temi)ted,  Ileb.  ii.  13.  Hei).  iv.  ]5.  Farmer 
on  Christ's  Teviptalions.  Fdward's  Hist. 
of  Fed(?))prto?t,  nolc  334.  Hc?iryyGill,-Md 
Mucknight,  in  loc. 


TES 


501 


THA 


TERAPHIM,  a  word  in  the  Hebrew  lan- 
guage which  has  much  exercised  the  inge- 
nuity of  the  critics.  It  is  commonly  inter- 
preted idols.  It  would  be  useless  here  to 
trouble  the  reaoer  witii  the  numerous  con- 
jectures which  have  been  formed  respecting 
its  meaning.  Perhaps  the  best  way  to  de- 
termine it  would  be  to  examine  and  compare 
all  the  passages  in  which  it  occurs,  and  to 
consult  the  ancient  translations. 

TESTAMENT  OLD.  See  Bible, 
Scripture. 

TESTAMENT  NEW.  The  religious 
institutions  of  Jesus  Christ,  says  Mr.  Camp- 
bell, is  frequently  denominated  r,  nctivy, 
otxBv.y.ii,  which  is  almost  always  rendered  the 
.Vfw  Testament :  yet  the  word  oix6yiy.>i 
by  itself,  is  s^enerally  translated  covenant. 
It  is  the  Greek  word,  whereby  the  Seventy 
have  uniformly  translated  the  Hebrew  word 
Berith,  which  cur  translators  have  invaria- 
bly translated  covenant.  That  the  Hebrew 
term  corresponds  much  better  to  tiie  English 
word  covenant  than  to  testament,  there 
can  be  no  question  ;  yet  the  word  hu,&i]y,>i 
in  classical  use  is  more  frequently  rendered 
Testanient.  The  proper  Greek  word  for 
covenant  is  rrvvB-r.ati,  which  is  not  found  in 
the  New  Testament,  and  occurs  only  thrice 
in  the  Septuagint,  where  it  is  never  em- 
ployed for  rendering  the  word  Berith. 

The  term  New  is  added  to  distinguish  it 
from  the  Old  Covenant,  that  is,  the  tli'  icn- 
saiion  of  Moses.  The  two  covenants  are 
alwaj's  in  Scripture  the  two  dispensations  : 
that  under  Moses  is  the  old,  that  under  the 
Messiah  is  the  new.  In  the  latitude  wherein 
the  term  is  used  in  holy  writ,  the  command 
under  the  sanction  of  death,  which  God  gave 
to  Adam,  may,  widi  sufficient  propriety,  be 
termed  a  Covenant ;  but  it  is  never  so  c  illed 
in  Scripture:  and  when  mention  is  made  of 
the  two  covenants,  the  old  and  the  new,  or 
the  first  and  the  second,  there  appears  to 
be  no  refei'ence  to  any  thing  that  related  to 
Adam.  In  all  such  places,  Moses  and  Je- 
sus are  contrasted — the  Jewish  economy, 
and  the  Christian  :  mount  Sinai,  in  Arabia, 
where  the  law  was  promulgated,  and  mount 
Sion  in  Jerusalem,  where  the  gospel  was 
first  published. 

These  terms,  from  signifying  the  two  dis- 
pensations, came  soon  to  denote  the  books 
wherein  they  were  written,  t'le  sacred 
writiiv.^s  of  the  Jews  being  called  the  Old 
Testament  ;  and  the  writings  superadded 
by  the  apostles  and  evangelists,  the  New 
Testament.  An  example  of  tlie  use  of  the 
former  application  we  have  in  2  Cor.  iii. 
■14.  "Until  this  day  remaineth  the  veil 
untaken  away  in  the  reading  i^f  the  Old  Tes- 
tament." See  Dr.  CamfibelVs  Fract. 'Dis- 
sertations, part  3. 

TEST  ACT,  is  tlie  statute  25  Car.  II. 
cap.  2,  which  directs  all  officers,  civil  and 
miiicary,  to  take  the  oaths  and  make  the 
declaration  against  transubstantiation,  in  the 
court  cf  King's   Bench    or   Chancer)^  the 


next  term,  or  at  the  next  quarter-sessions, 
or  (by  subsequent  statutes)  within  six 
months  after  their  admission  ;  and  also  within 
the  same  time  to  receive  the  sacrament  of 
the  Lord's  supper,  according  to  the  usage 
of  the  church  of  England,  in  some  public 
church,  immediately  after  divine  service  or 
sermon,  and  to  deliver  into  court  a  certifi- 
cate thereof,  signed  by  the  minister  and 
church  warden  :  and  also  to  prove  the  same 
by  two  credible  witnesses  upon  forfeiture  of 
five  hun;frcd  pounds,  and  disability  to  hold 
the  said  office.  The  avowed  object  of  this 
act  was,  to  exclude  from  places  of  trust  all 
members  of  the  chuich  of  Rome  ;  and  hence 
the  Dissenters  of  that  age,  if  they  did  not 
support  the  bill  when  passing  through  the 
two  houses  of  parliament,  gave  it  no  oppo- 
sition. Fur  this  part  of  their  conduct  they 
have  been  often  censured  with  severity,  as 
having  betrayed  their  rights  from  resent- 
ment to  their  enemies. 

To  make  the  ordinance  of  the  Lord's 
supper  a  qualification  of  admittance  to  any 
office  in  or  under  the  civil  government  is 
evidently  a  profanation  of  the  ordinance  it- 
self; not  to  insist  upon  the  impropriety  of 
excluding  peaceable  and  loyal  subjects  from 
places  of  trust  and  profit,  merely  ob  account 
of  their  religious  opinions.  Various  tracts 
have  been  written  on  the  subject  of  a  repeal 
of  this  act,  by  Priestly,  Englefield,  Walker^ 
Wakefield,  Bristow, '  Palmer,  and  others. 
On  the  conti-ary  side,  by  a  great  number  of 
anonymous  writers. 

THANKFULNESS.  See  Gratitude, 
and  the  next  article. 

THANKSGIVING,  that  part  of  divine 
worship  wherein  we  acknowledge  benefits 
received.  "  It  implies,"  says  Dr.  Barrow, 
(vol.  i.  ser.  8  and  9,)  "  1.  A  right  appre- 
hension of  the  benefits  conferred. — 2.  A 
faithful  retention  of  lx;nefits  in  the  memory, 
and  frequent  reflections  upon  thern. — 3.  A 
due  esteem  and  valuation  of  benefits. — 4.  A 
reception  of  those  benefits  with  a  willing 
mind,  a  vehement  affection. — 5.  Due  ac- 
knowledgment of  our  obligations — 6.  En- 
deavours of  real  compensation  ;  or,  as  it 
respects  the  Divine  Being,  a  willingness  to 
serve  and  exalt  him. — 7.  Esteem,  venera- 
tion, and  love  of  the  benefactor."  The  bles- 
sings for  which  we  should  be  thankful  are, 
1.  Temfioral ;  such  as  health,  food,  rai- 
ment, rest,  8cc. — 2.  Spiritual ;  such  as  the 
Bible,  ordinances,  the  Gospel  and  its  bles- 
sings ;  as  free  grace,  adoption,  pardon,  jus- 
tification, calling,  Sec. — 3.  Eternal,  or  the 
enjoyment  of  God  in  a  future  state. — Also, 
for  all  that  is  past,  wimt  we  now  enjoy,  and 
what  is  promised ;  for  private  and  public, 
for  ordinan^  and  extraordinaiy  blessings ; 
for  prosperity,  and  even  adversity,  so  far  as 
rendered  subservient  to  our  good.  The  ex- 
cellencij  of  this  duty  appears,  if  we  consi- 
der, 1.  Its  antiquity':  it  existed  in  Paradise 
before  Adam  fell,  and  therefore  prior  to  the 
graces  of  faith,  repentance,  &c. — 2.  Its 
sphere  of  operation  ;  being  far  beyond  many 


THE 


502 


THE 


other  graces,  -which  are  confined  to  time 
and  place. — 3.  Its  felicity :  some  duties  are 
painful;  as  repentance,  conflict  with  sin, 
&c.  but  this  is  a  source  of  sublime  plea- 
sure.— 4.  Its  reasonableness — And,  5.  Its 
perpetuity.  This  will  be  in  exercise  for 
ever,  when  other  gi-aces  will  not  be  neces- 
sary, as  faith,  repentance,  &c.  The  obli- 
gation  to  this  duty  arises,  1.  From  the  re- 
lation we  stand  in  to  God. — 2.  The  divine 
command. — 3.  The  promises  God  hath 
made  — 4.  The  example  of  all  good  men. 
— 5.  Our  unworthiness  of  the  blessings  we 
receive. — And,  6.  The  prospect  of  eternal 
gloiy. 

THEFT,  the  taking  away  the  property 
of  another  without  his  knowledge  or  con- 
sent.    This  is  not   only  a   sin    against   our 
neighbour,  but    a    direct    violation    of  that 
part  of  the  decalogue,  which  says,  "  Thou 
shalt  not  steal."    This  law  requires  justice, 
truth,  and  faithfulness,  in   all- our  dealings 
•with  men  ;  to  owe  no  man  any  thing,  but  to 
give  to  all  their  dues ;  to  be  true  to  all  en- 
gagements, promises,  and  contracts  ;  and  to 
be  faithful  in  whatever  is  committed  to  our 
care  and  trust.     It  forbids  all  unjust  ways 
of  increasing  our  own  and  hurting  our  neigh- 
bour's  substance    by   using    false  balances 
and  measures  ;   by  over-reaching   and    cir- 
cumventing in  trade  and  commerce;  by  ta- 
king away  by  force  or  fraud  the  goods,  per- 
sons, and  properties  of  men  ;  by  borrowing 
and  not  paying  again  ;  by  oppression,  extor- 
tion, and  unlawful  usury.    It  may  include  in 
it  also,  what  is  very  seldom  called  by  this 
name,  i.  e.  the  robbing  of  ourselves  and  fa- 
milies, by  neglecting  our   callings,    or  im- 
prudent management  thereof;  lending  larger 
sums  of  money  than  our  circumstances  will 
bear,  when   there    is   no  prospect  of  pay- 
ment ;  by  being  profuse    and   excessive  in 
ourexpences:  indulging  unlawful  pleasures, 
and  thereby  reducing  our  families  to  povei'- 
ty ;  or  even,  on    the  other   hand,  by  laying 
up  a  great  deal  for  the  time  to  come,  while 
our  families  are  left  to  starve,  or  reduced 
to  the  greatest  inconvenience    and  distress. 
THEODOSIANS.    See  Angelites. 
THEOLOGY,  signifies  that  science  which 
treats  of  the  being    and  attributes  of  God, 
his  relations  to  us,  the  dispensations  of  his 
pi'ovidence,  his  will  with  respect  to  our  ac- 
tions, and  his  purposes  with  resjiecttoour  end. 
The  word  was  first  used  to  denote  the  sys- 
tems, or  rather  the  heterogeneous  fables,  of 
those  poets  and  philosophers  who  Avrote  of 
the  genealogy  and  exjjloits  of  the    g'  ds    of 
Greece.     Hence,   Orpheus,    Museus,    He- 
siod,  &c.  were  called  Theologians ;  and  the 
same  epithet   was  given    to  Plato,    on  ac- 
count of  his  sublime    speculations    on    the 
same  subject.     It  was  afterwards  adopted 
by  the    earliest   writers   of    the    Christian 
church,  who  styled  the  author  of  the  Apoc- 
alypse,   by   way  of    eminence,    o  6i6Xoyoi; 
the  divine.    As  the  various  branches  of  the- 
ology are  considered  in  their  places  in  this 
work,  thev  need  not  be  insisted   on  here. 


The  theological  student  will  find  the  folloTv- 
ing  books  on  the  subject,  of  utility ;  Gro- 
tins  de  Veritate  Religionis  C/^ietiante. 
StUlingJieet^a  Origiyjea  Sacrx  ;  Turretine's 
Institutio  Tlieologix  Elenticx.  Butler's 
^valo^y.  Pieced  Theologia  Chnsiiana. 
Stapferi  Instilutiones  Tlieologix.  Witsim 
on  the  Covenants.  Usher,  tioston,  Wat- 
S071,  Gill,  and  Ridgley's  Divinity.  Dod- 
dridge's Lectures.  Brown's  Compendium 
of  JVatural  and  Revealed  Religion  ;  and 
Ryan's  Effect  of  Religion  on  Mankind, 
See  also  articles  Christianity,  Reli- 
gion, Revelation,  Scriptures. 

THEOPASCHITES,  a  denomination,  in 
the  fifth  century,  who  held  that  Christ  had 
but  one  nature,  which  was  the  divine,  and 
consequently  that  this  divine  nature  suf- 
fered. 

THEOPHILANTHROPISTS,  a  sect  of 
deists,  who  in  September  1796,  published 
at  Paris  a  sort  of  catechism  or  directory 
for  social  worship,  under  the  title  of  Ma- 
nuel des  Theanthrofihiles.  This  religious 
breviary  found  favour,  the  congregation  be- 
came numerous:  and  in  the  second  edition 
of  their  Manual  they  assumed  the  less  harsh 
denomination  of  Theophilanthropists,  i.  e. 
lovers  of  God  and  man. — According  to 
them,  the  temple,  the  most  worthy  of  the 
Divinity,  is  the  Universe.  Abandoned  some- 
times under  the  vault  of  heaven  to  the  con- 
templation of  the  beauties  of  nature,  they 
reoo^r  its  Author  the  homage  of  adoration 
and  of  gratitude.  They  nevertheless  have 
temples  erected  by  the  hands  of  men,  in 
which  it  is  more  commodious  for  them  to 
assemble,  to  hear  lessons  concerning  his 
wisdom.  Certain  moral  inscriptions  ;  a  sim- 
ple altar,  on  which  they  deposit,  as  a  sign 
of  gratitude  for  the  benefits  of  the  Creator, 
such  flowers  or  fruits  as  the  seasons  afford  ; 
a  tribune  for  the  lectures  and  discourses, 
form  the  whole  of  the  ornaments  of  their 
temples. 

The  first  inscription,  placed  above  the 
altar,  recalls  to  remembrance  the  two  reli- 
gious dogmas  which  are  the  foundation  of 
their  moral. 

First  inscrifition.  We  believe  in  the  ex- 
istence of  God,  in  the  immortality  of  the 
soul.  Second  inscription.  Worship  God, 
cherish  your  kind,  render  yourselves  useful 
to  your  country.  Third  inscriptiori.  Good 
is  every  thing  which  tends  to  the  preserva- 
tion or  the  perfection  of  man.  Evil  is  every 
thing  which  tends  to  destroy  or  deteriorate 
him.— Fourth  inscription.  Children  honour 
your  fathers  and  mothers  ;  obey  them  with 
aflftction,  comfort  their  old  age.  Fathers 
and  mothers  instruct  your  children, — Eiflh 
inscription.  Wives  regard  your  husbands, 
the  chiefs  of  your  houses.  Husbands  love 
your  wives,  and  render  yourselves  recipro- 
cally happy. 

From  the  concluding  part  of  the  Manuel 
of  the  Theophilanthropists,  Ave  may  learn 
something  more  of  their  sentiments.  "  If 
any  one  ask  you,"  say  they,   "  what  is  the 


THE 


503 


THE 


origin  of  your  religion  and  of  your  worship, 
you  can  answer  him  thus  :    Open  the  most 
ancient  books  which  are  known,  seek  there 
what  was  the  religion,  what  the  worship  of  | 
the  first  human  beings  of  which  history  has  j 
preserved  the  remembrance.     There   you 
will  see  that  their  religion  was  what  we  now  | 
call  natural  religion,  because  it  has  for  its  | 
principle  even  the  Author  of  nature.     It  is  i 
he  that  has  engraven  it  in  the  heart  of  the  j 
first  human    beings,  in  ours,  in  that  of  all ' 
the  inhabitants  of  the  earth  ;  this  religion, 
which  consists  in  worshipping  God  and  che- 
rishing our  kind,  is  what  we  express  by  one' 
single    word,     that     of     Tlieopliilanthrofiy. 
Thus  our  religion  is  that  of  our  first   pa- 
rents ;  it  is  yours  it  is  ours ;  it  is  the  universal 
religion.     As  to  our  worship,  it  is  also  that  of 
our  first  fathers.    See  even  in  the  most  an- 
cient writings,    that   the    exterior  signs  by 
•which  they  rendered  their  homage  to  the 
Creator    were  of  great  simplicity.      They 
dressed  for   him  an  altar  of"  earth  ;    they 
cffered  him,  in  sign  of  their  gratitude  and 
of  their  submission,  some  of  the  productions 
which  they  held  of  his  liberal  hand.    The 
fathers  exhorted  their  children  to  virtue  ; 
they  all  encouraged  one  another,  under  the 
auspices  of  the  Divinity,  to  the  accomplish- 
Tncnt  of  their  duties.    This  simple  worship 
the  sages  of  all  nations  have  not   ceased  to 
pi-ofess,  and  they  have  transmitted  it  down 
to  us  without  interruption. 

"  If  they  yet  ask  you  of  whom  you  hold 
your  mission,  answer,  we  hold  it  of  God 
himself,  who,  in  giving  us  two  arms  to  aid 
our  kind,  has  also  given  us  intelligence  to 
mutually  enlighten  us,  and  the  love  of  good, 
to  biing  us  together  to  virtue ;  of  God,  v.ho 
has  given  experience  and  wisdom  to  the 
aged  to  guide  the  young,  and  autBority  to 
fathers  to  conduct  their  children. 

"  If  ttiey  are  not  struck  with  the  force  of 
these  I'easons,  do  not  farther  discuss  the 
subject,  and  do  not  engage  yovirself  in  con- 
troversies, which  tend  to  diminish  the  love 
of  our  neighbours.  Our  princij)les  are  the 
Eternal  Truth  ;  they  will  subsist,  whatever 
individuals  may  support  or  attack  them,  and 
the  efforts  of  the  wicked  will  not  even  pre- 
vail against  them.  Rest  firmly  attached  to 
them,  without  attacking  or  defending  any 
religious  system  :  and  remember,  that  simi- 
lar discussions  have  never  produced  good, 
and  that  they  have  often  tinged  tfie  earth 
with  the  blood  of  men.  Let  us  lay  aside 
systems,  and  apply  ourselves  to  doing  good  ; 
it  is  the  only  road  to  happiness."  So  much 
for  the  divinity  of  the  Theophilanthropists; 
a  system  entirely  defective,  because  it  wants 
the  true  foundation, — the  word  of  God  ;  tlie 
grand  rule  of  all  our  actions,  and  the  only 
basis  on  which  our  hopes  and  prospects  of 
success  can  be  built. 

THEOSOPHISTS,  a  sect  who  pretend 
to  derive  all  their  knowledge  from  divine 
illumination.  They  boast  that,  by  means  of 
this  celestial  light,  they  are  not  only  admit- 
ted to  the  intimate  knowledge  of  God,  and 


of  all  divine  truth,  but  have  access  to  the 
most  sublime  secrets  of  nature.  They  as- 
cribe it  to  the  singular  manifestation  of 
Divine  benevolence,  that  they  are  able  to 
make  such  a  use  of  the  element  of  fire 
in  the  chemical  art,  as  enables  them  to 
discover  the  essential  principles  of  bodies, 
and  to  disclose  stupendous  mysteries  in 
the  physical  world.  To  this  class,  it  is 
said,  belonged  Parascellus,  R.  Fludd,  Van 
Helmont,  Peter  Poiret,  and  the  Rosicru- 
sians. 

THERAPEUT/E,   so  caUed  from    the 
extraordinary  purity  of  their  religious  wor- 
ship, were  a  Jewish  sect,  who,  with  a  kind 
of    religious    frenzy,   placed    their    whole 
felicity  in  the  contemplation   of  the  Divine 
nature.     Detaching  themselves  wholly  from 
secular  affairs,  they  ti-ansferred  their  pro- 
perty to  their  relations  or  friends,  and  with- 
drew into  solitary  places,  where   they  de- 
voted themselves  to  a  holy  life.    The  prin- 
cipal society  of  this  kind  was  formed  near 
Alexandria,  where  they  lived,  not  far  from 
each  other,  in  separate   cottages,  each    of 
which  had  its  own    sacred    apartment,  to 
which  the  inhabitant   retired   for   the  pur- 
poses   of   devotion.      After  their   morning 
prayers,  they  spent  the  day  in  studying  the 
law  and  the  prophets,  endeavouring,  by  the 
help  of  the  commentaries  of  their  ancestors, 
to    discover    some    allegorical  meaning    hi 
every  part.     Besides  this,  they  entertained 
themselves  with  composing  sacred  hymns 
in  various  kinds  of  metre-     Six  days  of  the 
week  were,  in  this  manner,  passed  in  soli- 
tude.    On  the  seventh  day  they  met,  cloth- 
ed in  a  decent  habit,  in  a  pubhc  assembly  ; 
where,  taking  their  places  according  to  their 
age,  they  sat  with  the  right  hand  between 
the  breast  and  the  chin,  and  the  left  at  the 
s-ide.     Then   some  one  of  the  elders,  step- 
ping forth  into  the  middle  of  the  assembly, 
discoursed  with  a  grave  countenance  and  a 
calm  tone  of  voice,   on  the  doctrines  of  tlie 
sect ;  the  audience,  in  tjiie  mean  time,  re- 
maining in  perfect  silence,  and  occasionally 
expressing  their  attention    and  approbation 
by  a  nod.    The   chapel   where    they    met 
was  divided   into  two   apartments,   one  for 
the  men,  and  the  other  for  the  women.    So 
strict  a   regard  was  paid  to  silence  in  these 
;  assemblies,  that  no  one  was   permitted  to 
I  vvliisper,    nor  even  to  breathe  aloud  ;  but 
when    the    discourse    was   finished,  if    the 
question  which  had  been  proposed  for  solu- 
!  tinn  had  been  treated  to  the  satisfaction  of 
the  audience,  they  expressed   their  appro- 
!  bation    bv  a    murmur  of  applause.     Then 
!  tlie  speaker,  rising,  sung  a  hymn  of  praise 
I  to    God;    in    the   last   verse  of  which  the 
'  whole  assembly  joined.     On  great  festivals, 
!  the   meeting   was   closed    with    a   vigil,  in 
j  which  sacred  music  was  performed,  accom- 
panied   with  solemn    dancing;    and    these 
vigils    were   continued  till    morning,    when 
the   assembly,   after   a  morning  prayer,  in 
which  their  faces  were  directed  towards  the 
rising  sun,  was  broken  up.    So  abstemious 


TH  O 


504 


TOL 


■were  these  asc(i{ics,  that  they  commonly  ate 
•  nothing  before  the  setting  sun,  and  often 
fasted  two  or  three  days.  They  abstained 
from  wine,  and  their  ordinary  food  was 
bread  and  herbs. 

Much  dispute  has  arisen  among  the  learn- 
ed concerning  this  sect.  Some  have  ima- 
gined them  to  have  been  Judaizing  Gentiles; 
but  Philo  supposes  them  to  be  Jews,  by 
speaking  of  them  as  a  branch  of  the  sect  of 
Essenes,  and  expressly  classes  them  among 
the  followers  of  Moses.  Others  have  main- 
tained, that  the  Therapeutx  were  an  Alex- 
andrian sect  of  Jewish  converts  to  the 
Christian  faith,  who  devoted  themselves  to 
a  monastic  life.  But  this  is  impossible;  for 
Phi!o,  who  wrote  before  Christianity  ap- 
peared in  Egypt,  speaks  of  this  as  an  es- 
tablished sect.  From  comparing  Philo's  ac- 
count of  this  sect  with  the  state  of  philoso- 
phy in  the  countiy  where  it  flourished,  it 
seems  likely  that  the  Therapeutic  were  a 
body  of  Jewish  fanatics,  who  suffered  them- 
selves to  be  drawn  aside  from  the  simplicity 
of  their  ancient  religion  by  the  examj)le  of 
the  Egyptians  and  Pythagoreans.  How 
long  this  sect  continued  is  uncertain  ;  but 
it  is  not  improbable  that,  after  the  appear- 
ance of  Christianity  in  Egypt,  it  soon  be- 
came extinct. 

THOUGHT,  an  image  of  any  thing 
formed  in  the  mind  ;  sentiment,  reflection, 
opinion  design.  As  the  thoughts  are  the 
piime  movers  of  the  conduct ;  as  in  the 
sight  of  the  Divine  Being  they  bear  the 
character  of  good  or  evil  ;  and  as  they  are 
therefore  cognizable  at  his  tribunal ;  the 
moral  regulation  of  them  is  of  the  greatest 
importance.  It  is  of  consequence  to  en- 
quire what  thoughts  ought  to  be  rejected 
and  what  to  be  indulged.  Those  of  mi  evil 
nature,  ivhich  ought  to  be  banished  are,  1. 
Fretful  and  discontented  thoughts. — 2.  Anx- 
ious and  apprehensive  thoughts. — 3.  Angry 
and  wrathful  thoughts. — 4.  Malignant  and 
revengeful  thoughts.— <5.  Such  as  are  foolish, 
trifling,  and  uni-easonable. — 6.  Wild  and  ex- 
travagant, vain  and  fantastical. — 7.  Roman- 
tic and  chimerical. — 8.  Impure  and  lascivi- 
ous.— 9.  Gloomy  and  melancholy. — 10.  Hasty 
and  volatile. — 11.  Profane  and  blasphemous. 
The  thoughts  ive  ought  to  indulge,  are 
those  which  give  the  mind  a  rational  or 
religious  pleasure  ;  tend  to  improve  the 
understanding;  raise  the  affections  to  divine 
objects;  to  promote  the  welfare  of  our  fel- 
low creatures,  and  withal  the  Divine  glory. 
To  bring  the  viind  into  a  habit  of  thinking 
as  we  ought  to  think,  there  should  be  a 
constant  dependance  on  and  imploring  of 
divine  grace  ;  an  increasing  acquaintance 
with  the  sacred  scriptures ;  an  improve- 
ment of  every  opportunity  of  serious  con- 
versation ;  a  constant  observance  of  the 
works  of  God  in  creation,  pi'ovidence,  and 
grace ;  and,  lastly,  a  deep  sense  of  the 
realities  of  an  eternal  world  as  revealed  in 
the  word  of  God.  Mason  on  Self-know- 
kdgc.     IVaits  on  the  Mind.     Goodwin's 


Vanity  of  Thoughts.  See  his  Works,  vol. 
iii.  p.  232. 

TIARA,  the  name  of  the  pope's  triple 
crown.  The  tiara  and  keys  are  the  badges 
of  the  papal  dignity  ;  the  tiara  of  his  civil 
rank,  and  the  keys  of  liis  jurisdiction  ;  for 
as  soon  as  the  pope  is  dead,  his  arms  are 
represented  with  the  tiara  alone,  without 
the  keys.  The  ancient  tiara  was  a  round 
high  cap.  John  XIII.  first  encompassed 
it  with  a  crown.  Bonifice  VIII.  added 
a  second  crown;  and  Benedict  XII.  a 
third. 

TIME,  a  mode  of  duration  marked  by 
certain  periods,  chiefly  by  the  motion  and 
revolution  of  the  sun.  'Vhe  general  idea 
which  time  gives  in  every  thing  to  which 
it  is  applied,  is  that  of  limited  duration. 
Thus  we  cannot  say  of  the  Deity  that 
he  exists  in  time,  because  eternity,  which 
he  inhabits,  is  absolutely  uniform,  neither 
admitting  limitation  nor  succession. 

Time  is  said  to  be  redeemed  or  improved 
when  it  is  properly  filled  up  or  employed  in 
the  conscientious  discharge  of  all  the  duties 
which  devolve  upon  us,  as  it  respects  the 
Divine  Being,  ourselves,  and  our  fellow- 
creatures.  Time  may  be  said  to  be  lost 
when  it  is  not  devoted  to  some  good,  useful, 
or  at  least  some  innocent  purpose  ;  or  when 
opportunities  of  improvement,  business,  or 
devotion,  are  neglected.  Time  is  wasted 
by  excessive  sleep,  unnecessary  recrea- 
tions, indolent  habits,  useless  visits,  idle 
reading,  vain  conversation,  and  all  those 
actions  which  have  no  good  end  in  them. 
We  ought  to  improve  the  time,  when  we 
consider,  1.  That  it  is  short.— 2.  Swift— 3. 
Irrecoverable. — 4.  Uncertain. — 5.  That  it  is 
a  talent  committed  to  our  trust. — And,  6. 
That  the  improvement  of  it  is  advantage- 
ous and  interesting  in  every  respect.  See 
Shower  on  Time  and  Eternity.  Fox  on 
Time.  J.  Edwardu^  Posthumous  Sermons, 
ser,  24,  25,  26,  Hale's  Conteinplations,  p. 
211.  Hervey's  Meditat.  Young's  JVight 
Thoughts.     Blair's  Grave. 

TOLERATION,  in  matters  of  religion, 
is  either  civil  or  ecclesiastical.  Civil  tolera- 
tion is  an  impunity,  and  safety  granted  by 
the  state  to  every  sect  that  does  not  main- 
tain doctrines  inconsistent  Avith  the  public 
peace.  Ecclesiastical  toleration  is  the  al- 
lowance which  the  church  grants  to  its 
members  to  differ  in  certain  opinions  not 
reputed  essential.  See  Dr.  Owen,  Locke, 
and  Dr.  Furneaux,  on  Toleration.  Mil- 
ion's  Civil  Power  in  Eccle.v'astical  Causes. 
Hi7its  on  Toleration,  by  Philagatharches. 
Reflexions,  Philoso/ihi(/ues  et  Politiques 
sur  In  Tolerance  Religieuse,  par  J.  P.  De 

TOLERATION  ACT,  an  act  for  ex- 
empting their  Majesties'  Protestant  Sub- 
jects, dissenting  from  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land, from   the  Penalties  of  certain  Laws. 

The  preamble  states,  "  That  forasmuch 
as  some  ease  to  scrupulous  consciences,  in 
the  exercise  of  religion,  may  be  an  effectual 


TOL 


505 


TOL 


meansvto  unite  their  Majesty s'  Prostestant 
Subjects  in  interests  and  affection,"  it 
enacts  as  follows  :  viz. 

Sect.  II.  That  neither  the  statute  made 
in  the  23d  of  Elizabeth,  intituled  "  An  act 
to  retain  the  Queen's  Majesty's  Subjects  in 
their  due  obedience  ;  nor  the  statute  made 
in  the  20th  year  of  the  said  Queen,  "  for  the 
more  speedy  and  due  execution  of  certain 
branches  of  the  former  act;"  nor  that 
clause  of  a  statute  made  in  the  1st  year  of 
the  said  Queen,  intituled  "  An  act  for  the 
Uniformity  of  Common  Prayer,"  &c.  where- 
by all  persons  are  required  to  resort  to 
their  parish  church  or  chapel,  upon  pain  of 
punishment  by  the  censures  of  the  clnirch  ; 
and  also  upon  pain  that  every  person  so  of- 
fending, shall  forfeit  for  every  such  offence 
twelve-pence  ;  nor  the  statute  made  in  the 
3d  year  of  the  late  King  James,  intituled 
♦«  An  act  for  the  better  discovering  and 
repressing  Popish  Recusants  ;"  nor  that 
other  statute,  intituled  "  An  act  to  prevent 
and  avoid  dangers  which  may  grow  by  Po- 
pish Recusants  ;"  nor  any  other  law  or 
statute  of  this  realm  made  against  Papists 
or  Popish  Recusants,  shall  be  construed  to 
extend  to  any  person  or  persons  dissenting 
from  the  Church  of  England,  that  shall 
take  the  oaths  (of  allegiance  and  suprema- 
cy) and  shall  make  and  subscribe  the  de- 
claration (against  Popery ;)  which  oaths 
and  declaration  the  justices  of  peace  at  the 
general  sessions  of  the  peace  for  the  county, 
or  place  where  such  persons  shall  live,  are 
hereby  required  to  administer  to  such  per- 
sons as  shall  offer  themselves  to  make 
and  subscribe  the  same,  and  thereof,  to 
keep  a  register :  and,  likewise,  none  of 
the  persons  aforesaid  shall  give  or  pay,  as 
any  fee  or  reward,  to  any  officer  belonging 
to  the  court,  above  the  sum  of  six-pence, 
for  his  entry  of  his  taking  the  said  oaths, 
&c.  nor  above  the  further  sum  of  six-pence 
for  any  certificate  of  the  same. 

Sect.  IV.  That  every  person  that  shall 
take  the  said  oaths  and  make  and  subscrilje 
the  declaration  aforesaid,  shall  not  be  liable 
to  any  pains,  penalties,  or  forfeitures,  men- 
tioned in  act  made  in  the  35th  of  the  late 
Queen  Elizabeth,  nor  in  an  act  made  in  the 
22d  of  Charles  the  Second,  intituled  "  An 
Act  to  prevent  and  suppress  Seditious  Con- 
venticles ;"  nor  shall  any  of  the  said  persons 
be  prosecuted  in  any  ecclesiastical  court  for 
their  nonconforming  to  the  Church  of  England . 
Sect.  V.  Provided  that,  if  any  assembly 
of  persons,  dissenting  from  the  Churcli  of 
England,  shall  be  held  in  any  place  for  re- 
ligious worship  with  the  doors  locked,  bar- 
red or  bolted,  during  any  time  of  such 
meeting  together,  surli  persons  shall  not 
receive  any  benefit  from  this  law,  but  be 
liable  to  all  the  pains  and  jienalties  of  all 
the  aforesaid  laws. 

Sect.  VI  Provided  that  nothing  herein 
contained  shall  l)e  construed  to  exempt  any 
cf    the    p'.'rsons    aforesaid    from    paying   of 

3  S 


tythes,  or  other  parochial  duties ;  nor  fi'om 
any  prosecution  in  any  ecclesiastical  court 
or  elsewhere,  for  the  same. 

Sect.  VII.  Thatif  any  person  dissenting,  &c. 
as  aforesaid,  shall  hereafter  be  chosen  high 
constable,  or  petit  constable,  church-warden, 
overseer  of  the  poor,  or  any  other  parochial 
or  ward  ofhce,  and  such  person  shall  scruple 
to  take  upon  him  any  of  the  said  oflices,  in 
regard  of  the  oaths,  (jr  any  ether  matter  or 
thing  required  by  the  law  to  be  taken  or 
done  in  respect  of  such  office  every  such  per- 
son shall  and  may  execute  such  office  by  a  suf- 
ficient deputy,  that  shall  comply  with  the 
laws  on  this  belialf. 

Sect.  VIII.  Tliat  no  person  dissenting  from 
the  church  of  England  m  /loly  orders,  or 
pretended  holy  orders,  or,  pretending  to 
holy  orders,  nor  any  preacher  or  teacher  of 
any  congregation  of  DissentiT.g  Protes- 
tants, that  shall  make  and  subscribe  the 
declaration  aforesaid,  and  take  the  said 
oaths  at  the  General  or  Quarter  Sessions  of 
the  Peace,  to  be  held  for  the  county,  town, 
parts,  or  division  where  such  person  lives, 
which  court  is  hereby  impowered  to  admi- 
nister the  same,  and  shall  also  declare  his 
approbation  of  and  subscribe  the  Articles  of 
Religion  mentioned  in  the  statute  made  in 
the  loth  of  Q  Elizabeth,  except  the  34th, 
35th,  and  36th.  and  these  words  in  the  20th 
article,  viz.  '*  The  church  hath  p'-wer  to 
decree  rites  or  ceremonies,  and  authority  in 
controversies  of  faith," — shall  be  liable  to 
any  of  the  pains  or  penalties  mentioned  in 
former  acts. 

Sect.  X.  recites.  That  some  Dissenting 
Protestants  scruple  the  baptizing  of  infants  ; 
and  then  proceeds  to  enact,  That  every 
person  in,  pretended  holy  orders,  Ccc.  &c. 
that  shall  subscribe  the  aforesaid  Articles  of 
Religion,  except  before  excepted,  and  also 
except  part  of  the  27th  article,  touching 
infant  baptism,  and  shall  take  the  said 
oaths,  &c.  &c.  shall  enjoy  all  the  privileges, 
benefits,  and  advatitages  which  any  other 
Dissenting  Minister  might  enjoy. 

Sect  XI.  That  every  teacher  or  preacher 
in  holy  orders,  or  pretended  holy  orders, 
that  is  a  minister,  preacher,  or  teacher  of  a 
congregation,  that  shall  take  the  oaths  here- 
in reqmred,  and  niake  and  subscribe  the 
declaration  aforesaid,  &c.  &c.  shall  be  ex- 
empted from  serving  upon  any  jury,  or  from 
being  appointed  to  bear  the  office  of  church- 
warden, overseer  of  the  poor,  or  any  other 
parochial  or  ward  office,  or  other  office  in 
any  hundred  of  any  shire,  city,  town,  pai'ish, 
division,  or  wapentake. 

Sect.  XII.  That  eveiy  justice  of  the  peace' 
may,  at  any  time,  require  any  person  that 
goes  to  any  meeting  for  exercise  of  religion, 
to  make  and  subscribe  the  declaration  afore- 
said, and  also  to  take  the  said  oaths  or  de- 
claration of  fidelity  hereinafter  mentioned  ; 
ill  case  sucii  persdn  scruples  the  taking  of 
an  oath,  and  upon  refusal,  such  justice  of  the 
peace  is  required  to  commit  'juch  person  to 


TOL 


*65 


TR  A 


prison,  and  to  cenify  the  name  of  snch  person 
to  the  next  General  or  Quarter  Sessions  of 
the  Peace,  Sec. 

Sect.  Xlll.  recites,  'ITiat  there  are  cer- 
tain other  Dissenters  who  scruple  the  tak- 1 
ing  of  any  oath ;  and  then  proceeds  to  enact, 
That  every  such  person  shall  make  and 
subscribe  the  aforesaid  declaration,  and  also 
this  declaration  of  fidelity  following ;  viz. 
"  I,  A.  B.  do  sincerely  promise  and  solemn- 
ly declare,  before  God  and  the  World,  that 
1  will  be  true  and  faithful  to  King  William 
and  Queen  Mary  ;  and  I  do  solemnly  profess 
and  declare,  that  I  do  from  my  heart  abhor, 
detest,  and  renounce,  as  impious  and  hereti- 
cal, that  damnable  doctrine  and  position, 
That  princes  excommunicated  or  deprived 
by  the  Pope,  or  any  authority  of  the  see  of 
Rome,  may  be  deposed  or  murthered  by 
their  subjects,  or  any  other  whatsoever: 
and  I  do  declare,  That  no  foreign  prince, 
person,  prelate,  state,  or  potentate,  hath,  or 
ought  to  have,  any  power,  jurisdiction,  su- 
periority, pre-eminence,  or  authority,  eccle- 
siastical or  spiritual,  within  this  realm  :"  and 
shall  subscribe  a  profession  of  their  Chris- 
tian belief  in  these  words:  "I,  ^.  B.  profess 
faith  in  God  the  Father,  and  in  Jesus  Christ 
his  eternal  Son,  the  true  God,  and  in  the 
Holy  Spirit,  one  God  blessed  for  evermore  ; 
and  do  acknowledge  the  Holy  Scriptures  of 
the  Old  and  New  Testament  to  be  given  by 
divine  inspiration  :" — which  declarations 
and  subscriptions  shall  be  entered  on  record 
at  the  General  Quarter  Sessions,  &c.  and 
every  such  person  shall  be  exempted  from 
all  the  pains  and  penalties  of  all  and  every 
the  aforementioned  statutes,  &c. 

Sect.  XVI.  Provided,  That  all  the  laws 
made  and  provided  for  the  frequenting  of 
divine  service  on  the  Lord's  Day,  commonly 
called  Sunday ;  shall  be  still  in  force,  and 
executed  against  all  persons  that  offend 
against  the  said  laws,  except  such  persons 
come  to  some  congregation  or  assembly  of 
religious  worship,  allowed  or  permitted  by 
this  act. 

Sect.  XVII.  Provided,  That  neither  this 
act,  nor  atiy  clause,  article,  or  thing  herein 
contained,  shall  extend,  or  be  construed  to 
extend,  to  give  any  ease,  benefit,  or  advan- 
tage to  any  Papist  or  Pojjish  Recusant  what- 
soever, or  any  person  that  shall  deny  in  his 
preaching  or  writing  the  doctrine  of  the 
blessed  Trinity,  as  it  is  declared  in  the 
afoiesaid  Articles  of  Kt  ligion. 

Sect.  XVIII.  Provided,  That,  if  any  per- 
son or  persons  do  and  shall  willingly,  mali- 
ciously, or  ccntemptnonsly,  come  into  any 
cathtdral  cr  parish-church,  chapel,  or  other 
congregation  permitted  by  this  act,  and  dis- 
quiet or  disturb  the  same,  or  misuse  any 
preacher  or  teacher,  such  person  or  persons, 
upon  proof  thereof  before  .^ny  justice  of  the 
peace,  by  two  or  more  sufncient  witnesses, 
sh;;ll  find  two  sureties,  to  be  bound  by  recog- 
nizance in  the  penal  sum  of  L.50,  and,  in 
default  of  such  sureties,  shall  be  committed 
to  prison,  there  to  rcuiain  till  the  next  Ge- 


neral or  Quarter  Sessions ;  and,  upon  convio- 
tion  of  the  said  offence  at  the  said  General 
or  Quarter  Sessions,  shall  suffer  the  pain 
and  penalty  of  -L.20,  to  the  use  of  the  King's 
and  Queen's  Majesties,  their  heirs  and  suc- 
cessors. 

Sect.  XIX.  That  no  congregation  or  as- 
sembly for  religious  worship,  shall  be  per- 
m.itted  or  allowed  by  this  act,  until  the  place 
of  such  meeting  shall  be  certified  to  the 
Bishop  of  the  diocese,  or  to  the  Archdeacon 
of  that  archdeaconry,  or  to  the  justices  of 
the  peace  at  the  General  or  Quarter  Ses- 
sions of  the  peace  for  the  county,  city,  or 
place  in  which  such  meeting  shall  be  held, 
and  registered  in  the  said  Bishop's  or  Arch- 
deacon's court  respectively,  or  recorded  at 
the  said  General  or  Quarter  Sessions ;  the 
register  or  clerk  of  the  peace  whereof  re- 
spectively is  hereby  required  to  register  the 
same,  and  to  give  certificate  thereof  to  such 
person  as  shall  demand  the  same ;  for  which 
there  shall  be  no  greater  fee  or  reward 
taken  than  the  sum  of  six-pence." 

Lord  Sidmouth  has  lately  attempted  to  in- 
troduce a  bill  in  the  House  of  Lords,  propo- 
sing some  amendment  or  explanation  of  this 
famous  Act,  in  order  to  prevent  abuses  ;  but 
the  fact  appeared  to  be  the  prevention  of 
Sectarinism  by  means  of  itinerant  preachers; 
and  to  clog  the  exertions  of  those  who  wish 
to  instruct  their  neighbours.  Vast  numbers 
of  petitions  from  all  parts  of  the  country 
were  presented  against  the  bill ;  so  that 
when  it  was  brought  forward  on  May  21, 
1811  (after  a  considerable  discussion,)  the 
question  for  a  second  reading  was  put  and 
negatived  without  a  division.  The  bill  was 
therefore  thrown  out.  It  is  to  be  hoped 
that  this  will  be  the  last  effort  ever  made  to 
infringe  the  Act  of  Toleration. 

T(3nGUE,  Duties  of  the.  "  1.  To 
glorify  God  by  magnifying  his  name. — 2.  To 
sing  his  praises. — 3.  To  declare  to  others 
God's  goodness. — 4.  To  pray  to  him  for 
what  we  want. — 5.  To  make  open  profession 
of  our  subjection  to  him — 6  To  preach  his 
word. — 7.  To  defend  the  truth. — 8.  To  ex- 
hort men  to  particular  duties. — 9.  To  con- 
fess our  sins  to  God. — 10.  To  crave  the  ad- 
vice of  others. — 11.  To  praise  that  which  is 
good  in  others. — 12.  To  bear  witness  to  the 
truth. — 13.  To  defend  the  cause  of  the  inno- 
cent and  just — 14.  To  communicate  to 
others  the  same  good  impressions  we  have 
received." 

TONGUES,  GIFT  OF.  See  Gift  of 
Tongues. 

TRADITION,  something  handed  down 
from  one  generation  to  another.  Thus  the 
Jews  pretended  that,  besides  their  written 
law  contained  in  the  Old  Testament,  Moses 
had  delivered  an  oral  law,  which  had  been 
conveyed  down  from  father  to  son  ;  and  thus 
the  Roman  Catholics  are  said  to  value  par- 
ticular doctrines,  supposed  to  have  descend- 
ed from  the  apostolic  times  by  tradition. 

TRANSLATION,  in  the  ecclesiastical 
sense  of  the  Avord,  is  the  removing  of  a  bi- 


TR  A 


507 


TRI 


shop  from  one  see  to  another.  It  is  also 
used  for  the  version  of  a  book  or  writing 
into  a  different  language  from  that  in  which 
it  was  written. 

In  translating  the  scrifitures,  great  know- 
ledge and  Caution  arc  necessary.  Dr.  Camp- 
bell lays  down  t'lree  fundamental  rules  tor 
translating  :  1  Tlie  translations  should  give 
a  complete  transcript  of  the  ideas  of  the 
original — 3.  The  style  and  manner  of  the 
original  should  be  preserved  — 3.  T!ie  trans- 
lation should  have  all  the  ease  of  original 
composition.  He  observes,  that  the  difficul- 
ties found  in  translating  the  scriptures  arise, 

1.  From  the  singularity  of  Jewish  customs. 

2.  From  the  poveity  (as  appears)  of  their 
native  language. — 3.  From  the  fswness  of 
the  Ixiobs  extant  in  it. — 4.  From  tht-  symbo- 
lical style  of  the  prophets. — 5.  From  the  ex- 
cessive influence  which  a  previous  acquain- 
tance with  translations  have  occasioned. —  [ 
And,  6.  From  pre-possessions,  in  what  way 
so  ever  acquired,  in  regard  to  religious 
tenets. 

Notwithstanding  these  difficulties,  how- 
ever, the  divines  employed  by  King  James 
to  translate  the  Old  and  New  Testaments 
have  given  us  a  translation  which,  with  a  } 
very  few  exceptions,  can  scarcely  be  impro- 
ved.  These  divines  were  profoundly  skilled 
in  the  learning  as  well  as  in  the  languages  of  I 
the  East ;  whilst  some  of  those  who  have  j 
presumed  to  improve  their   version,   seem 
not  to  have  possessed  a  critical  knowledge 
of  the  Greek  tongue,  to  have  known  still ' 
less  of  the  Hebrew,  and  to  iiave  been  abso- 1 
lute  strangers  to  the  dialect  spoken  in  Judea  j 
in  the  days  of  our  Saviour,  as  well  as  to  the  i 
manners,  customs,  and  peculiar  opinions  of 
the  Jewish  sects  "Neither,"  as  one  observes, 
"  metaphysical  acnteness,  nor  the  most  per- 
fect knowledge  of  the  principles  of  transla- 
tion in  general,   will  enable  a  man  who  is 
ignorant  of  these  things  to  improve  the  au- 
thorized  version   either   of  the  Gospels  or 
Epistles ;  for  such  a  man  knows  not  accu-  \ 
rately,  and  therefore  cannot  give  a  complete  j 
transcript  of  the  ideas  of  the  original  wc  rk." 
See    Bible  ;    Afr.    Tyler's    Essay   on    the 
Prindliles  of  Translation  ;  and  Dr.  Camfi- 
btlVs     Frelvninary     Dissertations     to     his 
Translation  of  the  Gospels. 

TRANSUBSTANTIATION,  the  con- 
version or  change  of  the  substance  of  the 
bread  and  wine  in  the  eucharist,  into  the 
body  and  blood  of  Jesus  Christ,  which  the 
Romish  church  suppose  to  be  wrought  by 
the  consecration  of  the  priest.  Nothing  can 
be  more  contradictoiy  to  scripture,  or  to  I 
common  sense,  than  this  doctrine.  It  must 
be  evident  to  ever}'  one  who  is  not  blinded] 
by  ignorance  and  prejudice,  that  our  Lord's 
words,  "  This  is  my  body,"  are  mere  figu- 1 
rative  expressions  :  besides,  such  a  transub- 
stantiation  is  so  opposite  to  the  testimony  of 
cur  senses,  as  completely  to  undermine  the 
whole  proof  of  all  the  miracles  by  which 
God  hath  confirmed  revelation.  According 
to  such  a  transubstarjtiation,  the  same  bodv 


is  alive  and  dead  at  once,  and  may  be  in  a 
million  of  different  places  whole  and  entire 
at  the  same  instant  of  time ;  accidents  re- 
main without  a  substance,  and  substance 
without  accidents;  and  that  a  part  of 
Christ's  body  is  equal  to  the  whole.  It  is 
also  contrary  to  the  end  of  the  sacrament, 
which  is  to  represent  and  commemorate 
Christ,  not  to  believe  that  he  is  corporeally 
pres-ent,  1  Cor.  ix.  24,  25.  But  we  need 
not  waste  time  in  attempting  to  refute  a 
doctrine  which  by  its  impious  consequences 
refutes  itself  See  Smith's  Errors  of  the 
Church  of  Rome,  dial.  6.  ./I  Dialogue  be- 
tioeen  Philalethes  and  Benevolus.  Kidder'a 
Messiah,  part  iii.  p.  80 ;  and  Brown's  Com- 
fiendium,  p.  613. 

TREN  r.  Council  of,  denotes  the  council 
assembled  by  Paul  111.  in  1545,  and  continu- 
ed by  twenty-five  sessions  till  the  year  1563, 
under  Julius  III.  and  Pius  IV.  in  order  to 
correct,  illustrate,  and  fix  with  perspicuity, 
the  doctrine  of  the  church,  to  restore  the 
vigour  of  its  discipline,  and  to  reform  the 
fives  of  Its  ministers.  The  decrees  of  this 
council,  together  with  the  creed  of  pope 
Pius  IV.  contain  a  summary  of  the  doctrines 
of  the  Roman  Catholics.  See  Mosheim's 
Church  History.  The  Modern  Universal 
History,  vol.  23.  Fra.  Paolo  Sarpi's  and 
Father  Paul's  Histories  of  the  Council  of 
Trent. 

TRIERS,  a  society  of  ministers,  with 
some  others,  chosen  by  Cromwell  to  sit  at 
Whitehall.  They  were  mostly  Indepen- 
dents, though  some  Presbyterians  were  join- 
ed with  them.  They  had  power  to  tiy  all 
that  came  for  institution  and  induction  ;  and 
without  their  approbation  none  were  admit- 
ted. They  examined  all  who  v/ere  able  to 
come  up  to  London  ;  but  if  any  were  unable, 
or  of  doubtful  qualifications,  they  referred 
them  to  some  ministers  in  the  country 
where  they  lived.  They  rejected  all  those 
who  did  not  live  according  to  their  profes- 
sion, and  placed  in  their  room  able  serious 
preachers  who  lived  godly  lives,  though  of 
different  onininns. 

TRlNlt  ARIANS.  those  who  believed  in 
the  Trinity.  See  next  article,  and  the  162d 
Lecture  of  Doddridge,  where  the  reader 
will  find  a  statement  of  the  opinions  of  the 
ancients  on  this  doctrine,  as  likewise  many 
of  the  moderns  such  as  Baxter,  Dr.  Clarke, 
Burnet,  Howe,  W^aterland,  Taylor,  Pearson, 
Bull,  VVallis,  Watts,  and  Jeremy  Taylor. 

TRINITY,  the    union  of  three  in  one ; 

generally  applied  to  the  inefFable  mystery  of 

three  per.sons  in  one  God, — Father  Son,  and 

Holy  Spirit.     This  doctrine  is  rejected   by 

many  because  it  is  incomprehensible ;  but, 

as  Mr.  Scott  observes,  if  distinct  fiersonali- 

ty,  agency,  and  divine  fterfectlons,    be  in 

scripture  ascribed  to  the  Father,  and  to  the 

iiSon,  and  to  the  Holy  Spirit,  no  words   can 

'  I  more  exactly  express  the   doctrine,   which 

r  must  unavoidably  be  thence  inferred,  than 

j  those  commonly  used  on  this  subject,  \\z. 

,.that  ihere  are  three  distinct  Persons  in  the 


TRI 


508 


TRU 


'Uuitj-  of  the  Godhead.  The  sacred  oracles 
most  assui'edly  teach  us,  that  the  One  living 
and  true  God  is,  in  some  inexplicable  man- 
ner, Triwie,  for  he  is  spoken  of,  as  One  in 
some  respects,  and  as  Three  in  others.  Gen. 
i.  26.  Gen.  ii.  6,  7.  Is.  xlviii.  16.  Is. 
xxxiv.  16.  2  Cor.  xiii.  14.  John  xiv.  23. 
Matt,  xxviii.  19.  2  Thess.  iii.  3.  1  John 
V.  7.  Acts  V.  3,  4.  The  Trinity  of  Per- 
sons in  the  Deity,  consists  with  the  Unity 
of  the  Divine  Essence ;  though  we  pretend 
not  to  explain  the  modus  of  it,  and  deem 
those  reprehensible  who  have  attempted  it : 
as  the  modus  in  which  any  being  subsists, 
according  to  its  distinct  nature  and  known 
properties,  is  a  secret  to  the  most  learned 
naturalists  to  this  present  day,  and  probably 
will  always  continue  so.  But  if  the  most 
common  of  God's  works,  with  which  we  are 
the  most  conversant,  be  in  their  respect  in- 
comprehensible, how  can  men  think  that 
the  modus  existe^idi,  (or  manner  of  exis- 
tence) of  the  infinite  Creator  can  be  level 
to  their  capacities  ? — The  doctrine  of  the 
Trinity  is  indeed  a  viystery,  but  no  man 
hath  yet  shown  that  it  involves  in  it  a  real 
contradictioti.  Many  have  ventured  to  say, 
that  it  ought  to  be  ranked  with  transubstan- 
tiation,  as  equally  absurd.  But  Archbishop 
Tillotson  has  shown,  by  the  most  convincing 
arguments  imaginable,  that  transubstantia- 
tion  includes  the  most  palpable  contradic- 
tions ;  and  that  we  have  the  evidence  of 
our  eyes,  feeling,  and  taste,  that  what  we 
receive  in  the  Lord's  supper  is  bread,  and 
not  the  body  of  a  mail  ;  whereas  we  have 
the  testimony  of  our  eyes  alone  that  the 
words  "  This  is  my  body,"  are  at  all  in  the 
scriptures.  Now  this  is  intelligible  to  the 
meanest  capacity  :  it  is  fairly  made  out, 
and  perfectly  unanswerable :  but  whoever 
attempted  thus  to  prove  the  doctrine  of  the 
Trinity  to  be  self- contradictory  ?  Wiiat  tes- 
timony of  our  senses,  or  what  demonstrated 
truth,  does  it  contradict  i'  Yet  till  this  be 
shown,  it  is  neither  fair  nor  convincing,  to 
exclaim  against  it  as  contradictory,  absurd, 
and  irrational."  See  articles  Jksus  Christ 
and  HoLV  Ghost  ;  also  Owen,  Watts, 
Jones,  S.  Browne,  Faivcet,  A.  Taylor,  J. 
Scott,  Sim/iso?i,  and  JVeslei/s  Pieces  on  the 
Subject.  Bull's  Drfenso  Fidci  A'lcx.  Dr. 
Allix's  Testimonies  of  the  Jewish  Church. 
Disfilay  of  the  Trinity  by  a  Layimvi.  Scott's 
Jistiat/s. 

THITHEISTS,  a  sect  of  the  sixth  cen- 
tnrv,  whose  chief  was  .John  Ascunage,  a 
Svrian  philosopher,  and  attht;  sume  time  a 
Monophysite.  Tins  man  imagined  in  the 
Deity  three  natures  or  substances  al)solHte- 
ly  equal  in  all  respects,  and  joined  together 
by  no  common  essence;  to  which  opinion 
his  adversaries  gave  the  name  of  Trithe- 
ism.  One  of  the  warmest  dfftnders  of  this 
doctrine  was  John  Philoponus,  an  Alexan- 
drian philosoi)her  and  grammarian  of  the 
highest  reputation;  and  hence  he  has  been 
considered  by  many  as  the  author  of  this 
sect,  whose  members  have  consequently  de- 


rived from    him  the  title  of  Pliiloponists. 

This  sect  was  divided  into  two  parties, 
the  Philoponists  and  the  Cononites:  the 
latter  of  whom  were  so  called  from  Conen, 
bishop  of  Tarsus,  their  chief.  They  agreed 
in  the  doctrine  of  three  persons  in  the  God- 
head, and  differed  only  in  their  manner  of 
explaining  what  the  scriptures  taught  con- 
cerning the  resurrection  of  the  body.  Philo- 
ponus maintained,  that  the  form  as  well  as 
die  matter  of  all  bodies  was  generated  and 
corrufited,  and  that  both,  therefore,  were 
to  be  restored  in  the  resurrection.  Conon 
held,  on  the  contraiy,  that  the  body  never 
lost  its  form ;  that  its  matter  alone  was 
subject  to  corruption  and  decay,  and  was 
consequently  to  be  restored  when  this  mortal 
shall  put  on  Immortality. 

TRUCE  OF  GOD,  a  scheme  set  on  foot 
for  the  purpose  of  quelling  the  violence  and 
preventing  the  frequency  of  private  wars, 
occasioned  by  the  fierce  spirit  of  the  barba- 
rians in  the  middle  ages.  In  France,  a  ge- 
neral peace  and  cessation  from  hostilities 
took  place  A.  D.  1032,  and  continued  for 
seven  years,  in  consequence  of  the  methods 
which  the  bishop  of  Aquitain  successfully 
employed  to  work  upon  the  superstition  of 
the  times.  A  resolution  was  formed,  that 
no  man  should,  in  time  to  come,  attack  or 
molest  his  adversaries  during  the  seasons 
set  apart  for  celebrating  the  great  festivals 
of  the  church,  or  from  the  evening  of  Thurs- 
day in  each  week  to  the  morning  of  Mon- 
day in  the  week  ensuing,  the  intervening 
days,  being  consecrated  as  particularly  holy ; 
our  Lord's  passion  having  happened  on  one 
of  those  days  and  his  resurrection  on  ano- 
ther. A  change  in  the  dispositions  of  men 
so  sudden,  and  which  proposed  a  resolution 
so  unexpected,  was  considered  as  miracu- 
lous ;  and  the  respite  from  hostilities  which 
followed  upon  it  was  called  the  Truce  of 
iiod.  This  cessation  from  hostilities  during 
three  complete  days  every  week,  allowed  a 
considerable  space  for  the  passions  of  the 
antagonists  to  cool,  and  for  the  people  to 
enjoy  a  respite  from  the  calamities  of  war, 
and  to  take  measures  for  their  own  securitv. 

TRUST  IN  GOD,  signifies  that  confi- 
dence in,  or  dependance  we  place  on  him. 
This  trust  ought  to  be,  1.  Sincere  and  un- 
reserved, not  in  idols,  in  men,  in  talents, 
riches,  power,  in  ourselves  part,  and  him 
part,  Prov.  iii.  5,  6 — 2.  Universal;  body, 
soul,  circumstances,  1  Peter  v.  7. — 3.  Per- 
petual, Is.  xxvi.  4. — 4.  With  a  lively  ex- 
pectation of  his  blessing,  Mic.  vii.  7.  Th/^ 
encouragement  we  have  to  trust  in  him 
arises,  1.  From  his  liberality,  Rom.  viii.  32. 
Ps.  Ixxxiv.  11. — 2  His  ability,  James  i.  17. 
— 3.  His  relationship,  Ps.  ciii.  13. — 4.  His 
promi.se.  Is.  xxxiii.  16 — 5.  His  conduct  in 
all  ages  to  those  avIio  have  trusted  hini. 
Gen.  xlviii.  15,  16.  Ps.  xxxvii.  25.  The 
hapfiiness  of  those  who  trust  in  him  is  great, 
if  we  consider,  1.  Their  safety,  Ps.  cxxv. 
1  —2.  Their  courage,  Ps.  xxvii.  1. — 3. 
Their  peace,  Is.  xx\i.  3.-4.  Their  charac- 


VAL 


509 


VAL 


ter  and  fruitfulness,  Ps.  i.  3. — 5.  Their  end, , 
Ps.  xxxvii.  37.  Job.  v.  26. 

TRUTH,  a  term  used   in  opposition   to  j 
falsehood,  and  applied  to  propositions  which  i 
answer  or  accord  to  the  nature  and  reality  [ 
of  the  thing  whereof  something  is  affirmed  \ 
or  denied.    JVatural  or  physical  truth   is  j 
said  to  be  the  agreement  of  our  sentiments  i 
with  the  nature  of  things.    Moral  truth   is  j 
the  conformity  of  our  words  and  actions  to  j 
our    sentiments.       Evangelical  or    Gospel 
truth  is  taken  for  Christ ;  the   doctrines  of ; 
the  Gospel ;  substance  or  reality,  in    oppo-  i 
sition  to  the  shadows  and  ceremonies  of  the  ' 
law,  John  i.  17.     For  this  truth  we  ought  to 
be  sincere  in  seeking,  zealous  in  defending,  1 
and  active  in  propagating  ;  highly  to  prize  1 
it,  constantly  to  rejoice  in  it,  and  uniformly 
to  be  obedient  to  it.     See  Lying,    Since- 
KITY.     Tat  ham's  Scale  of  Truth.      Locke, 
on  the  Under  standing.     Beat  tie  on  Truth,  j 
Dr.  Stennet's  Sermon  on  firofiagating  the  j 
Truth.     Saurin's  Sermons,  English  trans- 
lation, vol.  ii.  ser.  1  and  14. 

TURLUPINS,  a  denomination  which  ap- 

S eared  about  the  year  1372,  principally  in 
avoy  and  Dauphiny,  They  taught  that 
when  a  man  is  an-ived  at  a  certain  state  of 
perfection,  he  is  freed  from  all  subjection  to 
the  divine  law.  It  is  said,  they  often  went 
naked,  and  they  allowed  of  no  prayer  to 
God  but  mental.  They  called  themselves 
the  ^fraternity  o/t/ke  fioor. 

TYPE,  an  impression,  image,  or  repre- 
sentation of  some  model,  which  is  termed 
the  antitype.  In  this  sense  we  often  use  the 
word  to  denote  the  prefiguration  of  the 
great  events  of  man's  redemption  by  per- 
sons or  things  in  the  Old  Testament.  Types 
are  distinguished  into,  1.  Such  as  were  di- 


rectly appointed  for  that  end  ;  as  the  sacri- 
hces. — 2.  Such  as  had  only  a  providential 
ordination  to  that  end  ;  as  the  story  of  Jacob 
and  Esau. — And  3.  Things  that  fell  out  of 
old,  so  as  to  illustrate  present  things  from  a 
similitude  between  them ;  as  the  allegory 
of  Hagar  and  Sarah.  Some  distinguish 
them  into  real  and  personal;  by  the  former 
intending  the  tabernacles,  temples,  and  re- 
ligious institutions;  and  under  the  latter,  in- 
cluding what  are  called  providential  and  per- 
sonal types.  While  we  may  justly  consider 
the  death  of  Christ,  and  liis  resurrection 
from  the  dead,  as  events  that  are  typified 
in  the  Old  Testament,  we  should  be  care- 
ful not  to  consider  ever}'  thing  mentioned  in 
the  Hebrew  scripture  as  a  type,  for  tliis  will 
expose  the  whole  doctrine  of"  types  to  ridi- 
cule :  for  instance,  what  can  be  a  greater 
burlesque  on  the  scriptures  than  to  suppose, 
as  some  have  done,  tiiat  the  extraction  of 
Eve  from  the  side  of  Adam,  Avhile  he  was 
in  a  deep  sleep,  was  intended  as  a  type  of 
the  Roman  .soldier's  piercing  our  Saviour's 
side  while  he  slept  in  death  ^  Such  ideas 
as  these,  vented  sometimes  by  novices,  and 
sometimes  by  more  aged  divines,  give  a 
greater  proof  of  the  wildness  of  their  fan- 
cies than  the  correctness  of  their  judgments. 
See  Mather  and  M'Enven  on  the  Types. 
Ridgley's  Div.  ques.  35. 

TYTHE,  the  tenth  part  of  all  fruits,  &c. 
a  revenue  payable  to  the  clergy.  The 
tythes  among  the  Jews  were  of  three  sorts. 
The  first  to  the  Levites,  for  their  mainte- 
nance. Numb,  xviii,  21 — 24.  The  second 
for  the  feasts  and  sacrifices,  Deut.  xiv.  22  ; 
and  the  third  for  the  poor  every  third  vear. 
Deut.  xiv.  28,  29.    See  Supp.  Paper L 


V  and  U. 


VALENTINIAN5,  a    sect  who  sprung  [ 
up  in  the  second  century,  and  were  so  call- 
ed from  their  leader  Valentinus.    The  Va-  I 
lentinians  were  only  a  branch  of  the  Gnos-  j 
tics,  who  realized  or  personified  the  Platonic  ' 
ideas  concerning  the  Deity,  whom  they  call-  I 
ed  Pleroina,  or  Ple?iitude.     Their  system  I 
was  this;    the  first  principle  is  Bythos,  i.  e. ; 
Depth,  which  remained  many  ages  unknown, 
having  with  it  Ennoe  or  Thought,  and  Sige 
or  Silence  :  from  these  sprung  the  Nous  or , 
Intelligence,  which  is  the  only  Son,  equal  to, 
and  alone  capable  of  comprehending  tlie  By- 
thos.   The  sister  of  Nouse  they  called  Ale- 
theia  or  truth  ;    and    these  constituted  the 
first  quaternity   of  iEons,   which   were  the 
source    and  original  of  all  the   rest ;   for 


Nous  and  Aletheia  produced  the  world  and 
life,  and  from  these  two  proceeded  man  and 
che  church.  But,  besides  these  eight  prin- 
cipal iEons  there  were  twenty-two  more-; 
the  last  of  which,  called  Sophia,  being  de- 
sirous to  arrive  at  the  knowlec'.ge  of  Bythos, 
gave  herself  a  great  deal  of  uneasiness, 
which  created  in  her  Anger  and  Fear,  of 
which  was  born  Matter.  But  the  Horos  or 
Bounder  stopped  her.  preserved  her  in  the 
Pieroma,  and  restored  her  to  Perfection. 
Sophia  then  produced  the  Christ  and  the 
Holy  Spirit,  v/hich  brought  the  /Eons  to 
their  last  perfection,  and  made  every  one  of 
them  contribute  their  utmost  to  foiTn  a 
Saviour.  Her  Enthymese  or  Thought,  dwel- 
ling near  the  Pieroma,    perfected  by  the 


UCK 


510 


VIR 


Christ,  produced  every  thing  that  is  in  this 
world  by  its  divers  passions.  The  Christ 
sent  into  it  tlie  Saviour,  accompanied  Avith 
angels,  who  delivered  it  from  its  passions 
without  annihilating  it:  from  thence  was 
formed  corporeal  matter.  And  in  this  man- 
ner did  they  romance  concerning  God,  na- 
ture, and  tlie  mysteries  of  the  Christian  re- 
ligion. 

VATICAN  MANUSCRIPT,  one  of  the 
principal  Greek  manuscripts  now  extant. 
It  contained  originally  the  whole  Greek  Bi- 
ble. The  age  of  this  manuscript  is  supposed 
to  be  no  higher  than  the  fifth  century.  See 
No.  29,  article  Bible. 

VANITY,  emptiness.  It  is  often  ap- 
plied to  the  man  who  wishes  you  to  think 
more  highly  of  him  than  what  he  really  de- 
serves ;  hence  the  vain  man  Hatters  in  order 
to  be  flattered ;  is  always  fond  of  praise,  en- 
deavours to  bribe  others  into  a  good  opinion 
of  himself  by  his  complaisance,  and  some- 
times even  by  good  offices,  though  often  dis- 
played with  unnecessary  ostentation.  The  term 
is  likewise  applied  to  this  world,  as  unsatis- 
factory. ELccl.  i.  2 ;  to  lying,  Ps.  iv.  2 ;  to 
idnls,  Deut.  xxxii.  21 ;  to  whatever  disap- 
points our  hopes,  Ps  Ix.  11.    See  Pride. 

UBIQUIT ARIANS,  formed  from  ubiquc, 
"  every  where,"  in  ecclesiastical  history,  a 
sect  of  Lutherans  which  rose  and  spread 
itself  in  Germany  ;  and  whose  disting\hsh- 
ing  doctrine  was,  that  the  body  of  Jesus 
Christ  is  every  where,   or  in  every  place, 

Brentius,  one  of  the  earliest  reformers,  is 
said  to  have  first  broached  this  en'ur  m 
1560.  Luther  himself,  in  his  controversy 
with  Zuinglius,  had  thrown  out  some  un- 
guarded expressions  that  seemed  to  imply 
a  belief  of  the  omnipresence  of  the  body  of 
Christ ;  but  he  became  sensible  afterwards 
that  this  opinion  was  attended  with  great 
difficulties,  and  particularly  that  it  ought 
not  to  be  made  use  of  as  a  proof  of  Christ's 
corporeal  presence  in  the  encharist.  How- 
ever, after  tiie  death  of  Liuiier,  this  ab- 
surd hypothesis  was  renewed,  and  dressed 
up  in  a  specious  and  plausible  form  by  Bren- 
tius, Chemnitius,  and  Andrxas,  who  main- 
tained the  communication  of  the  properties 
of  Christ's  divinity  to  his  human  nature  It 
is,  indeed,  obvious  that  every  Lutheran  who 
believes  the  doctrine  of  consubstantiatinn, 
whatever  he  may  pretend,  must  be  an  Ubi- 
quitarian. 

UBIQUITY,  omnipresence  ;  an  attribute 
of  thj  Deity,  whereby  he  is  always  inti- 
mately present  to  all  things.    See  Omni- 

SCIENCK. 

UCKEWALLISTS.  a  sect  which  deri- 
ved its  denomination  from  Uke-VValles,  a 
native  of  Friesland,  who  published  his  sen- 
timents in  1637.  He  entei'tained  a  favoura- 
ble opinion  of  the  eternal  state  of  Judas  and 
the  rest  of  Christ's  murderers.  His  argu- 
ment was  this,  that  the  period  of  time  which 
extended  from  the  birth  of  Christ  to  the 
descent  of  tlie  Holy  Gliost  was  a  time  of 
deep  ignorance,  during  which  the  Jews  were 


destitute  of  divine  light ;  and  that,  of  con- 
sequence, the  sins  and  enormities  which 
were  committed  during  this  interval  were 
in  a  great  measure  excusable,  and  could 
not  merit  the  severest  displays  of  the  di- 
vine justice.  This  denomination  strictly 
adhered  to  the  doctrine  of  the  Mepnonites. 

\  EiJAS,  the  sacred  bof)ks  of  the  Hin- 
dors,  believed  to  be  revealed  by  God,  and 
called  immortal.  They  are  considered  as 
the  fountain  of  all  knowledge,  human  and 
divine,  and  are  four  in  number.  The  prin- 
cipal part  of  them  is  that  which  explain  the 
duties  of  man  in  methodical  arrangement. 
Tke  fourth  book  contains  a  system  ot  divine 
ordinances.  See  the  Jirst  volume  of  the 
Asiatic  Researches. 

VENERA  riUN,  an  affiction  compound- 
ed of  awe  and  love,  and  which  of  all  others 
becomes  creatures  to  bear  toward  their  in- 
finitely perfect  Creator.     See  Devotion. 

VERACITY  OF  GOD  is  his  truth,  or 
an  exact  correspondence  and  conformity  be- 
tween his  word  and  his  mind.  Moses  says, 
"  he  is  a  God  of  truth."  He  is  true  in  and 
of  himself;  he  truly  and  really  exists;  he 
is  the  true  and  living  God :  all  his  perfec- 
tions are  true  and  real ;  truth  is  essential 
to  him  ;  it  is  pure  and  perfect  in  him  ;  it  is 
the  first  and  original  in  him  ;  he  is  the 
fountain  of  truth  :  all  his  works  in  creation, 
providence,  and  grace,  are  according  to 
truth.    See  Faithfulness  of  God. 

VERSCHORISTS,  a  sect  that  derived 
its  denomination  from  Jacob  Verschoor,  a 
native  of  Flushing,  v/ho,  in  the  year  1680, 
out  of  a  perverse  and  heterogeneous  mix- 
ture of  the  tenets  of  Cocceius  and  Spinosa, 
produced  a  new  form  of  religion,  equally 
remarkable  for  its  extravagance  and  impie- 
ty. His  disciples  and  followers  were  called 
Hebrews,  on  account  of  the  zeal  and  assi- 
duity with  which  they  all,  without  distinc- 
tion of  age  or  sex,  applied  themselves  to 
the  study  of  the  Hebrew  language.  Their 
sentiments  were  nearly  the  same  as  the 
Htittemists.    See  Hattemists. 

VICAR,  a  priest  of  a  parish,  the  predial 
tythes  whereof  are  impropriate  or  appropri- 
ated ;  that  is,  belong  either  to  a  chapter, 
religious  house,  &c.  or  to  a  layman  who 
receives  them,  and  only  allows  the  vicar 
the  small  tythes,  or  a  convenient  salary. 

VICE,  a  fault ;  the  opposite  to  virtue. 

VIGIL,  the  eve  or  day  before  any  solemn 
feast,  because  then  Christians  were  wont 
to  watch,  fast,  and  pray  in  tiieir  churches. 

VIRTUE,  a  term  used  in  various  signifi- 
cations. Some  define  it  to  be  "  living  ac- 
cording to  nature  ;"  others,  "  universal  be- 
nevolence to  being."  Some,  again,  place  it 
"  in  regard  to  truth  ;"  others  in  "  the 
moral  sense."  Some  place  it  in  "  the  imi- 
tation of  (iod  ;"  others  "  in  the  love  of  God 
and  our  fellow  creatures."  Some,  again, 
think  it  consists  "  in  mediocrity,"  supposing 
vice  to  consist  In  extremes ;  others  have 
placed  it  in  "  a  wise  regard  to  our  own  in- 
terest."   Dr.  Smith  refers  it  to  the  priuci- 


UNB 


511 


tJNC 


Ele  of  sympathy  ;  and  Paley  defines  it  to 
e  the  doing  good  to  mankind,  in  obedience 
to  the  will  of  God,  and  for  the  sake  of  ever- 
lasting happiness.  Some  of  these  definitions 
are  certamly  objectionable.  Perhaps  those 
who  place  it  in  the  love  of  God  and  our  ft^l- 
low  creatures  may  come  as  near  to  the 
truth  as  any.  See  Edivards  and  Jameson 
on  Virtue.  Grovels  and  Foley's  Moral 
PMl.  Cumberland^ &  Laiu  of  Nature,  cap. 
1.  §  4.  lieattie'a  Elements  of  Moral  Science, 
vol.  ii.  p.  8,  77.  Dr.  Watts'  Self  Love  and 
Virtue  Reconciled,  2d  vol.  of  his  work,  last 
edition. 

VISION,  the  supernatural  representation 
of  an  object  to  a  man  when  waking,  as  in  a 
glass  which  places  the  visage  before  him. 
It  was  one  ot  the  ways  in  which  the  Al- 
mighty was  pleased  to  reveal  himself  to  the 
prophets,  Is.  i,  1.     Is.  xxi.  2. 

VISITATION,  the  survey  or  inspection 
performed  b)j  a  bishop  in  his  diocese,  to  ex- 
amine into  the  state  of  the  church.  In  a 
divine  or  sfiiritual  sense,  it  is  taken  either 
for  a  communication  of  divine  love,  or  for 
any  calamity  afflicting  a  nation. 

UNBELIEF,  the  refusing  assent  to  testi- 
mony. It  is  often  taken  for  distrust  of  God's 
faithfulness,  but  more  particularly  for  the 
discrediting  the  testimony  of  God's  word 
concerning  his  Son,  John  iii.  18,  19  John 
xvi.  9.  "  It  includes,"  says  Dr.  Guise, 
*'  disaffection  to  God,  disregard  to  his  word, 
prejudices  against  the  Redeemer,  readiness 
to  give  credit  to  any  other  than  him,  inor- 
dinate love  to  the  world,  and  preferring  of 
the  applause  of  men  to  the  approbation  of 
God." — "  Unbelief,"  says  the  great  Char- 
nock,  "  is  the  greatest  sin,  as  it  is  the  foun- 
tain of  all  sin ;  it  was  Adam's  first  sin ;  it  is  a 
sin  against  theGospel,  against  the  highest  tes- 
timony ;  a  refusal  to  accept  of  Christ  upon 
the  terms  of  the  Gospel.  It  strikes  peculiarly 
at  God ;  is  the  greatest  reproach  of  him,  robs 
him  of  his  glory,  a  contradiction  to  his  will, 
and  a  contempt  of  his  authority."  The  causes 
of  unbelief,  Satan,  ignorance,  pride,  and 
sensuality.  The  danger  of  it  is  great :  it 
hardens  the  heart,  fills  with  presumption, 
creates  impatience,  deceives  with  error,  and 
finally  exposes  to  condemnation,  John  iii.  11. 
— Charnocfc's  Works,  vol.  ii.  p.  601.  Case's 
Sermons,  ser.  2.  Bishofi  Porteus'  Sermons, 
vol.  i  ser.  2.  Dr.  Owen's  Reasons  of  Faith. 
Hannam'a  Comficndium,  vol.  ii.  p.  26.  CJiiir- 
chill's  Ef..<iay  on  Unbelief. 

UNBELIEVERS  are  of  three  sorts:  1. 
Those  who,  having  heard  the  Gospel,  reject 
it. — 2.  Those  who  verbally  assent  to  it,  vet 
know  not  to  what  they  assent,  or  why  they 
believe. — 3.  They  who,  whatever  knowledge 
they  may  have  of  certain  speculative  points 
of  divinity,  yet  obey  not  the  truth,  but  live 
in  sin. 

The  following  is  a  striking  description 
given  by  Massilon  of  an  unbeliever  (Ser.  i. 
vol.  iii.  Eng.  trans.)  '•  He  is  a  man  with- 
out morals,  probity,  faith  or  character,  who 
owns  no  rule  but  his  passions,  no  law  but  his 


iniquitous  thoughts,  no  master  but  his  de- 
iires,  no  check  but  the  dread  of  authcrity, 
n  •  God  but  himself;  an  unnatural  child, 
since  he  believes  that  chance  alone  hath 
given  him  fathers;  a  faithless  friend,  see- 
ing he  looks  upon  men  merely  as  the  wretch- 
ed fruits  of  a  wild  and  fortuitous  concur- 
rence, to  whom  he  is  connected  only  by 
transitory  ties ;  a  cruel  master,  seeing  he  is 
convinced  that  the  strongest  and  the  rriost 
fortunate  have  always  reason  on  their  side. 
Who  could  henct  forth  place  any  dependence 
on  such  ?  They  no  longer  fear  a  God  ;  they 
no  longer  respect  men  ;  they  lc)ok  forward  to 
nothing  after  this  life :  virtue  and  vice  are 
merely  prejudices  of  education  in  their  eyes, 
and  the  consequences  of  popular  credulity. 
Adulteries,  revenge,  blasphemies,  the  black- 
est treacheries,  abominations  which  we  dare 
not  even  name,  are  no  longer  in  their  opi- 
nion but  human  prohibitions  established 
through  the  policy  of  legislators.  Accord- 
ing to  them  the  niost  horrible  crimes  or  the 
purest  vi/tues  are  all  equally  the  same, 
since  an  eternal  annihilation  shall  soon  equal- 
ize the  just  and  the  impious,  and  forever 
confound  them  both  in  the  dreary  mansion 
of  the  tomb.  What  monsters,  then,  must 
such  be  upon  the  earth!" 

UNCHANGEABLENESS  OF  GOD. 
See  Faithfulness  and  Immutability 
OF  God. 

UNCTION,  in  matters  of  religion,  is  used 
for  the  character  conferred  on  sacred  things 
by  anointing  them  with  oil.  Unctions  were 
verv  frequent  among  the  Hebrews.  They 
anointed  both  their  kings  and  high  priests 
at  the  ceremony  of  their  inauguration.  They 
also  anointed  the  sacred  vessels  of  the  tab- 
ernacle and  temple,  to  sanctify  and  conse- 
crate them  to  the  service  of  God.  In  the 
ancient  Christian  church,  unction  accompa- 
nied the  ceremonies  of  baptism  and  confir- 
mation. Extreme  unction,  or  the  anointing 
persons  in  the  article  of  death,  was  also 
practised  by  the  ancient  Christians,  in  com- 
pliance with  the  precept  of  St.  James, 
chap.  v.  14,  15  ;  and  this  extreme  unction 
the  Romish  church  has  advanced  to  the 
dignity  of  a  sacrament.  It  is  administered 
to  none  but  such  as  are  affected  with  some 
mortal  disease,  or  in  a  decrepit  age.  It  is 
refused  to  impenitent  persons,  as  also  to 
criminals.  The  parts  to  l)e  anointed  are, 
the  eves,  the  ears,  the  nostrils,  the  mouth, 
the  hands,  the  feet,  and  the  reins.  The 
laity  are  anointed  in  the  palms  of  the  hands, 
but  priests  on  the  hack  of  it,  because  the 
palms  of  their  hands  have  been  already  con- 
secvated  by  ordination. 

The  oil'  with  which  the  sick  person  is 
anointed  represents,  it  is  said,  the  grace  of 
God.  which  is  poured  down  into  the  soul; 
and  the  p'ayer  used  at  the  time  of  anointing 
expresses  the  remission  of  sins  thereby  grant- 
ed to  the  sick  person  :  f '  r  the  prayer  is 
this:  "  By  tl.is  liciy  unction,  and  his  own 
most  pious  mercy,  may  the  Almighty  God 
forgive  thee  v/hate^.xr  sins  thou  hast  com- 


UNI 


512 


UNI 


mitted  by  the  sight  "  when  the  eyes  are 
anointerl ;  by  the  hearing ,  when  the  ears  are 
anointt  d  ;  and  so  of  the  other  senses 

The  passage  before  mentioned  from  St. 
James  respecting  he  anointing  with  oil,  has 
been  a  .  ource  of  difficulty  to  some  pious 
minds ;  but  in  order  to  understand  it,  it  is 
necessary  to  observe,  that  anointing  with 
oil  Avas  an  ordinance  for  the  miraculous 
cure  of  sick  pei-sons  (Mark  vi.  13.)  But 
since  those  extraordinary  gifts  are  ceased, 
as  being  n'>  longer  necessary  for  the 
confirmation  of  the  Gospel,  of  course  there 
is  no  warrant  now  for  using  that  cere- 
mony. 

UNDERSTANDING,  the  faculty  of 
perceiving  things  distinctly  ;  or  that  power 
of  the  mind  by  which  we  arrive  at  a  proper 
idea  or  judgment  of  things.  See  Judgment, 
Mind,  Soul. 

UNIFORMITY,  regularity  ;  a  similitude 
or  resemblance  between  the  parts  of  a 
whole.  The  word  is  particularly  used  for 
one  and  the  same  form  of  public  prayers, 
administration  of  sacraments,  and  other 
rites,  &c.  of  the  church  of  England,  pre- 
scribed by  the  famous  stat.  J  Eliz.  and  13, 
.14.  Carol.  II.  cap,  4,  called  the  Act  of 
Unifor^nity. 

UNION  TO  CHRIST,  that  act  of  divine 
grace  by  which  we  are  joined  to  Christ ; 
and  is  considered,  1.  As  virtual,  or  that 
which  was  formed  from  all  eternity,  Epli. 
i.  4. — 2.  Vital  or  spiritual,  formed  in  the 
moment  of  our  regeneration,  John  xvii.  26. 

1  John  iv.  13.  It  is  represented  in  the  scrip- 
ture by  the  strongest  expressions  language 
can  admit  of,  and  even  compared  to  the 
union  between  the  Father  and  the  Son, 
John  xvii.  11,  21,  &c.  It  is  also  compared 
to  the  union  of  a  vine  and  its  branches, 
John  XV.  4,  5.  To  the  union  of  our  food 
with  our  bodies,  John  vi.  56,  57.  To  the 
union  of  the  body  with  the  head,  Eph.  iv. 
15,  16.  To  the  conjugal  union,  Eph.  v.  23, 
30.  To  the  union  of  a  king  and  his  subjects. 
Matt.  XXV.  34,  40.  To  a  building,  1  Pet.  ii. 
4,  5.  Eph.  ii.  21,  22.  It  is  also  represent- 
ed by  an  identity  or  sameness  of  s])irit,  1 
Cor.  vi.  17.  By  an  identity  of  body,  1 
Cor.  xii.  12,  27.  By  an  identity  of  interfst, 
Matt.  xxv.  40.  John  xx.  17.  This  union 
must  be  considered  not  as  a  mere  mental 
union  only  in  comfcnt  or  notion  ;  nor  a  phy- 
sical union  as  l)etween  the  head  and  the 
members  ;  nor  as  an  essential  union,  or  union 
with  the  Divine  nature;  but  as  a  mystical 
union,  Eph.  v.  32  Honourable  union,  1 
John  iii.  1,  2.  Supernatural  union,  1  Cor. 
i.  30.  Holy,  1  John  iii.  24.  Necessary, 
John  XV.  4.  Inviolable,  Rom.  viii.  3S,  39. 
Some  state  it  thus  :  1.  An  union  of  natures, 
Heb.  ii.  11. — 2.  Of  actions,  his  obedience 
being  imputed  to  us,  and  our  sins  reckoned 
to  him,  2  Cor.  v.  21. — 3.  Of  hfe.  Col.  iii  4. 
4.  Of  sentiment,  2  Cnr.  v.  17 — -5.  Of  in- 
terest. Matt   xxv.  34,  Sec — 6    Of  riffLCtion, 

2  Cor.   V.    14. — 7.  Of  nsidence,    John  xvii. 
24.     The  advantages  of  it  are  knowledge, 


Eph.  i.  18.  Fellowship,  1  Cor.  i.  9.  Secu-  ' 
rity,  John  xv.  Felicity,  1  Pet.  i.  8.  Spirit- 
uality, John  XV.  8.  and,  indeed,  all  the 
rich  communications  of  spiritual  blessings 
here  and  hereafter.  Col.  i.  22.  The  evi- 
dences of  union  to  Christ  are,  light  in  the 
understanding,  1  Pet.  ii.  9.  Affection  to 
him,  John  xiv.  21.  Frequent  communion 
with  him,  1  John  i.  3.  Delight  in  his  word, 
ordinances,  and  people,  Psal.  xxvii.  4. 
Psal.  cxix.  Submission  to  his  will,  and 
conformity  to  his  image.  1  John  ii.  5. 
Dickinso7i's  Letters,  let.  17.  jFlavel's  Me- 
thod of  Grace,  ser.  2.  Polhill  on  Union. 
Brown's  Comfiend-  b.  5.  ch.  1. 

UNION  HYPOSTATICAL,  is  the  union 
of  the  human  nature  of  Christ  with  the  di- 
vine, constituting  two  natures  in  one  person. 
Not  consubstantially ,  as  the  tshree  persons 
in  the  Godhead  ;  nor  physically,  as  soul  and 
body  united  in  one  person  ;  nor  ?nystically 
as  is  between  Christ  and  belie\«ers  ;  but  so 
that  the  manhood  subsists  in  the  second 
person,  yet  without  making  confusion,  both 
making  but  one  person.  It  was  miraculous, 
Luke  i.  34,  35.  Complete  and  real :  Christ 
took  a  real  human  body  and  soul,  and  not  in 
appearance.  Inseparable,  Heb.  vii.  25. 
For  the  I'easons  of  this  union,  see  article 
Mediator. 

UNITARIANS,  those  who  confine  the 
glory  and  attributes  of  divinity  to  the  Father, 
and  not  allowing  it  to  the  Son  or  Holy  Spirit. 
They  are  the  same  as  the  Socinians.      See 

SOCINIANS. 

UNITED  BRETHREN.  See  Mora- 
vians. 

UNITY  OF  GOD,  a  term  made  use  of  to 
denote  that  there  is  but  one  God  or  Self- 
existent  Being.  The  unity  of  God  is  argued 
from  his  necessary  existence,  self-sufficien- 
cy, perfection,  independence,  and  omnipo- 
tence ;  from  the  unity  of  design  in  the 
works  of  nature :  and  from  there  lieing  no 
necessity  of  having  more  gods  than  one  : 
but  the  scriptures  set  it  beyond  all  doubt, 
Deut.  vi.  4.  Psal.  Ixxxvi.  10.  Isa.  xliii.  10. 
Mark  xii.  29.  John  xvii.  3.  Rem.  iii.  30. 
1  Cor.  viii.  4,  6.  1  Tim.  ii.  5.  See  Poly- 
THEisJi.  Abcrnethy  on  the  Attributes  of 
God,  vol.  i.  ser.  5.  IVilkins'  A'aticral  Be- 
ligion,  page  113,  114.  Hoivc's  IVorks,  vol. 
i.  page  72,  73.  GiWs  Divinity,  vol.  i.  8vo. 
edition,  page  183.  Ridgeh/s  Divinity^ 
question  8. 

UNIVERSA LISTS,  those  who  suppose 
that,  as  Christ  died  for  all,  so,  before  he 
shall  have  delivered  up  his  mediatorial 
kingdom  to  the  Father,  all  shall  be  brought 
to  a  participation  of  the  benefits  of  his 
death,  in  their  restoration  to  holiness  and 
happiness.  They  teach,  that  the  wicked 
will  receive  a  punishment  apportioned  to 
their  crimes ;  that  punishment  itself  is  a 
mediatorial  work,  and  fourded  upon  mercy; 
that  it  is  a  mean  of  hunil)lini>,  subduing, 
and  finally  reconciling  the  sinner  to  Cjod. 
They  suppose  that  the  words  eternal,  ever- 
lastiiig,  &c.  as  they  sometimes  apply  to  the 


UNI 


513 


URS 


things  wliich  have  ended,  so  they  cannot 
apply  to  endless  misery.  They  say,  this 
doctiine  is  tiie  most  consonant  to  the  per- 
fectifHKs  of  the  Deity,  most  wortliy  tl;e 
character  of  Christ,  and  that  the  scriptures 
cannot  be  reconciled  upon  any  other  plan. 
Tliey  teach  their  followers  ardent  love  to 
God  ;  and  peace,  meekness,  candour,  and 
universal  love  to  men,  they  observe,  are  the  j 
natural  result  of  these  views. 

I'he  sentiments  of  the  Universalists  were 
embraced  by  Origen  in  tlie  third  century,) 
and  in  more  modern  times  by  Chevalier; 
Kamsay,  Dr.  Cheyne,  Mr.  Hartley,  and  j 
otiiers.  But  one  of  the  greatest  adN-ocates ! 
for  this  doctrine  was  Dr.  Ch.'iuncy.  His 
arguments  are  these,  1.  Christ  died  not  for 
a  select  number  of  men  only,  but  for  man- 
kind muver.saUij,  and  without  exception  or 
limitation,  for  the  sacred  scriptures  are 
singularly  emphatical  in  expressing  this 
truth,  1  Thes.  v.  10.  1  Cor.  xv.  3.  Rom. 
V.  6.  1  Pet.  iii.  18.  John  i  29.  iii.  16,  17. 
1  John  ii.  2.  Heb.  ii.  9. — 2.  It  is  the  purpose 
of  God  according  to  his  good  pleasun-  that 
mankind  universally,  in  consequence  of  the 
death  of  his  Son  Jesus  Christ,  shall  certainly 
and  finallv  be  saved,  Rom.  v.  12,  &c.  viii. 
19—24.  Col.  i.  19,  20  Eph.  i.  9,  10  iv. 
10.  2  Tim.  i  4. — 3.  As  a  mean,  in  order 
to  men's  being  made  meet  for  salvation, 
God  will  sooner  or  later,  in  this  state  or 
another,  reduce  them  all  under  a  willing 
and  obedient  subjection  to  his  moral  govern- 
ment, 1  John  iii.  8.  John.  i.  ~z9.  Matt.  i.  21. 
Psal.  viii.  5,  6.  Heb.  ii.  6,  9.  Phil  ii.  9—1 1. 
1  Cor.  XV.  24 — 29. — 4.  The  scripture  lan- 
guage concerning  the  reduced  or  restored, 
in  consequence  of  the  mediatory  interposition 
of  Jesus  Christ,  is  such  as  leads  us  into  the 
thought,  that  it  is  comprehensive  of  man- 
kind universally.  Rev.  v.  13. 

The  opponents,  however,  of  Dr.  Chauncy, 
and  this  doctrine,  obser\'e,  on  the  contrary 
side,  that  the  sacred  scriptures  expressly 
declare  that  the  punishment  of  the  finally 
impenitent  shall  be  eternal,  Matt.  xvii.  8. 
XXV.  41,  46.  Mark  ix.  43.  Rev.  xiv.  11. 
2  Thes.  i.  9.  Eph.  ii.  17.  Jude  13.  Rev. 
ix.  3.  XX.  10.  Matt.  xii.  31,  32.  I^uke  xii. 
10.  Mark  iii.  S9.  1  John  v.  16.  Heb.  i'.  4, 
6.  X.  26,  27.  Matt.  xxvi.  24.  See  articles 
Destructionists,  Hell. 

The  title  of  Universalists  distinguishes 
those  who  embrace  the  sentiments  of  Mr. 
R(  I'y.  See  Rellyanists.  Dr.  Joseph 
Huntingdon  was  a  great  advocate  also  for 
universal  salvation,  as  may  be  seen  from  a 
po^humous  work  of  his,  entitled,  *'  Calvin- 
ism improved;  or  the  Gospel  illustrated 
in  a  System  of  real  Grace  issuing  in  the 
Salvation  of  all  Men."  This  work  was  an- 
swei'ed  by  Mr.  Nathan  Strong,  minister 
of  Hartford,  in  Connecticut  ;  in  which  he 
endeavours  to  reconcile  the  doctrine  of 
eternal  misery  with  the  infinite  benevolence 
of  God. 

This  doctrine  of  universal  salvation,  or 
restoration,  besides  being  generally  acknow- 


ledged by  the  Socinians,  has  been  defended 
in  England  by  Mr.  Winchester,  and  after 
him  by  Mr.  Vidler  and  others.  The  latter 
has  been  opposed  by  Mr.  A.  Fuller  and  Mr. 
C.  Jerram.  Dr.  Cliaiaici/s  Salvation  of  all 
Alt  11.  W/iile's  Ktstorarion  of  all  'Jliinga. 
fdrilty  on  Man.  Universaliais'  Miactl- 
lany.  Fuller's  Letters  to  Vidlcr  ;  and  Let- 
ters to  U7t  Univerialist,  containing  a  Re- 
vieiv  of  that  Lontroversy,  by  Scrutator. 
Mr  Sjiaulding''s  Treatise  on  Universalism, 
published  in   America. 

UNPARDONABLE    SIN.      See    Sin, 
§8. 

\()VV,  a  solemn  and  religious  promise  or 
oath  [See  Oath.]  It  is  more  particularly 
taken  for  a  solemn  promise  made  to  God, 
in  which  we  bind  ourselves  to  do  or  forbear 
somewhat  for  the  promoting  his  glory. 
Under  the  Old  Testament  dispensation, 
vows  were  very  common.  Judges  xi.  Num- 
i)ers  XXX.  But  in  the  New  Testament 
there  is  no  command  whatever  for  the  ob- 
servation of  them.  Hence  it  is  supposed 
that  vows  belong  moi'e  to  the  ceremo- 
nial law  than  to  the  Gospel ;  and  that  we 
are  to  be  more  dependent  on  divine  grace 
to  keep  us  than  to  make  resolutions  and 
vows  which  we  do  not  know  that  we  shall 
be  able  to  perform  ;  and  we  certainly  ought 
not  to  vow  any  thing  but  what  we  are  able 
to  perform. 

URIM  AND  THUMMIM  (light  and 
perfection,)  among  the  ancient  Hebrews,  a 
certain  oracular  manner  of  consulting  God, 
which  was  done  by  the  high  priest,  dres- 
sed in  his  robes,  and  having  on  his  pecto- 
ral, or  breast-plate.  There  have  been  a 
variety  of  opinions  respecting  the  Urim 
and  Thummim,  and  after  all  we  cannot 
determine  what  they  were.  The  use 
made  of  them  was,  to  consult  God  in 
difficult  cases  relating  to  the  whole  state 
of  Israel,  and  sometimes  in  cases  relating 
to  the  king,  the  sanhedrim,  the  general 
of  the  army,  or  some  other  great  person- 
age. 

URSULINES,  an  order  of  nuns,  founded 
originally  by  St.  Angela,  of  Brescia,  in  the 
year  1537,  and  so  called  from  St.  Ursula,  to 
whom  they  were  dedicated. 

At  first  these  religious  did  not  live  in 
community,  but  abode  separately  in  their 
father's  houses ;  and  their  employment  was 
to  search  f(.r  the  afflicted,  to  comfort 
them  ;  for  the  ignorant,  to  instruct  them; 
and  fcir  the  poor,  to  relieve  them  :  to  visit 
the  hospitals,  and  to  attend  upon  the 
sick  ;  in  short,  to  be  always  ready  to  do 
acts  of  charity  and  compassion.  In  1544, 
pope  Paul  in.  confirmed  the  institution  of 
the  Ursulines.  Sir  Charles  Borromcn 
brought  some  of  them  from  Brescia  to  Mi- 
lan, where  they  multiplied  to  the  number 
of  four  hundred  Pope  Gregory  XIII.  and 
his  successors  Sixtus  V.  and  Paul  V.  grant- 
ed new  privileges  to  this  congregation  In 
process  of  time,  the  Ursulines,  who  before 
lived  separately,    began  to  live  in  commu- 


W  AL 


514 


WAL 


nity,  and  embrace  the  regular  life.  The 
first  wh»  did  sn  were  the  Ursulines  of 
Paris,  established  there  in  1604,  who  en- 
tered into  the  cloister  in  the  year  1614,  by 
virtue  of  a  bull  of  pope  Paul  V.  The 
foundress  of  the  Ursulines  of  France  was 
Madam  Frances  de  Bermond,  who  in  1574, 
engaged  about  twenty-five  young  women 
of  Avignon  to  embrace  the  institute  of 
St.  Angela  of  Brescia.  The  principal  em- 
ploy of  the  Ursulines,  since  their  establish- 
ment into  a  regular  order,  were  to  in- 
struct young  women  :  and  their  monas- 
teries were  a  kind  of  schools,  where  young 
ladies  of  the  best  families  received  their  edu- 
cation . 

U^UR  Y,  the  gain  taken  for  the  loan  of 
money  or  wares.  The  Jews  were  to  allow- 
ed to  lend  money  upon  usiny  to  strangers, 
Deut.  xxiii.  20  ;     but    were   prohibited    to 


take  usury  from  their  brethren  of  Israel,  at 
least,  if  they  were  poor,  Exod.  xxii.  25, 
Lev.  XXV.  35,  .37.  From  the  scriptures 
speaking  against  the  practice  of  usury, 
some  have  thought  it  unlawful,  Psal.  xv.  5. 
Prov.  xxviii.  8.  Ezek.  xviii.  8.  But  it  is 
replied,  that  usury  there  only  means  im- 
moderate interest,  or  oppression,  by  taking 
advantage  of  tiie  indigent  circumstances  of 
our  neighbour ;  and  that  it  seems  as  law- 
ful for  a  man  to  receive  interest  for  money, 
which  another  takes  pain  with,  improves 
but  runs  the  hazard  of  in  trade,  as  it  is  to 
receive  rent  for  our  land,  which  another 
takes  pain  with,  improves,  but  runs  the  ha- 
zard of  in  husbandry. 

VULGATE,  a  very  ancient  translation 
of  the  Bible,  and  the  only  one  acknowledged 
by  the  church  of  Rome  to  be  authentic 
See  Bible  No.  32. 


w. 


WALDENSES,  or  Valbenses,  a  sect 
of  reformers,  who   made  their  first  appear- 
ance about  the  year  1160.     They  were  most 
numerous   about   the    vallies  of   Piedmont; 
and   hence,    some    say,    they    were    called 
Valdenses,  or  Vaudois,   and  not  from  Peter 
Valdo,  as  others  suppose.     Mosheim,  how- 
ever, gives  this  account  of  them  ;  he   says, 
that  Peter,    an  opulent  merchant  of  Lyons, 
surnamed    Valdensisy    or     Validisius,    fr<mi 
Vaux,  or  VVaklum,    a   town  in  the  marqui- 
sate  of  Lvons,  being   extremely  zealous  for 
the  advajiCcrmTii  of  true   piety  and  Chris- 
tian knowledge,   employed  a  certain  priest, 
called  Sirji/mniiis  di  Kvisa,  about  the   year 
1160,  in  translating,  from  Latin  into  French, 
the  fiiur  Cinspels,   with  other  books  of  holy 
scripture,  and  the  most   remarkable  senten- 
ces of  the  ancient   doctors,  which  were   so 
highly   esteemed   in   this   centuiy.     But  no 
'     sf)oner  had   he   perused  these  sacred  books 
I     with  a  proper  degree  of  attention,  than  he 
j     perceived  that  the  religion  which  was  now 
>     taught  in  the  Ron\isii  church  diiFered  total- 
Iv  fr  im  that  which   was  originally  inculca- 
j     ted  l)y  Christ  and  his  apostles     Struck  with 
this    glaring    contradiction     between     tlie 
doctri'1-6   of    the    pontiff's    and    the  trMths 
of  the    Gospel,    and    animated    with    zeal, 
he  abandoned  his   mercantile  vocation,  dis- 
tributed his  riches  among  the  poor  (whence 
the   Wal (lenses   were   called  fioor  men   of 
<     LywiaC)  and,   forming  an    association   with 
Ij     other  pi<n)s  men  who  h;id  adopted  his  senti- 
li     tnents  and  his  turn   of  devotion,   he  began, 
in  ^e  year  1180,  to  assume  the  quality  of  a 


public  teacher,  and  to  instruct  the  multi- 
tude in  the  doctrines  and  precepts  of  Chriv 
tianity. 

Soon  after  Peter  had  assumed  the  exer- 
cise of  his  ministry,  the  archbishop  of  Lyons, 
and  the  other  rulers  of  the  church  in  that 
l)rovince,  vigorously  opposed  him.  However, 
their  o])position  was  unsuccessful ;  for  the 
jnuity  and  simplicity  of  that  religion  which 
these  good  men  taught,  the  spotless  inno- 
cence that  shone  forth  in  their  lives  and 
actions,  and  the  nolile  contempt  of  riches 
and  honours  which  was  conspicuous  in  the 
whole  of  their  conduct  and  conversatior, 
appeared  so  engaging  to  all  such  as  had  any 
sense  of  true  piety,  that  the  number  of  their 
followers  daily  increased.  They  accor- 
dingly formed  religions  assemblies,  first  in 
France,  and  afterwards  in  Lombardy  ;  f;  om 
whence  they  prn])agated  their  .sect  through- 
out the  oth(  r  provinces  of  Europe  with  in- 
credible rapidity,  and  with  such  invincible 
On'titude,  that  neither  fire  nor  sword,  nor 
the  most  cruel  inventions  of  merciless  perse- 
cution, cndd  damp  their  zeal,  nor  entirely 
ruin  their  cause. 

The  attempts  of  Peter  Waldus  andjfcis 
followers  were  neither  employed  nor  des^n- 
ed  to  introduce  new  doctrines  into  the 
church,  nor  to  propose  new  articles  of  faith 
to  Christi.-ms.  All  they  aimed  at  was  to 
reduce  the  form  of  ecclesiastical  govern- 
ment, and  the  manners  both  of  the  clergy 
atid  people,  to  that  amiable  simplicity  and 
primitive  sanctity  that  characterised  the 
apostolic  ages,  and  which  appear  so  strongly 


WAL 


515 


WAT 


iTCommended  in  the  precepts  and  injunc- 
tions of  the  Divine  Author  of  our  holy  reh- 
gion.  In  consequence  of  this  design,  they 
complained  that  the  Roman  church  had 
degenerated  under  Constantine  the  Great, 
from  its  primitive  purity  and  sanctity.  They 
denied  tlie  supremacy  of  the  Roman  pontiff", 
and  maintained  that  the  rulers  and  minis- 
ters of  the  church  were  obliged,  by  their 
vocation,  to  imitate  the  poverty  of  the  apos- 
tles, and  to  procure  for  themselves  a  subsis- 
tence by  the  work  of  their  hands.  They 
considered  every  Christian  as,  in  a  certain 
measure,  qualified  and  authorized  to  instruct, 
exiiort,  and  confirm  the  brethren  in  their 
Clirisiian  course;  and  demanded  tlie  resto- 
ration of  the  ancient  penitential  discipline 
of  the  church,  i.  e.  the  expiation  of  trans- 
gressions by  prayer,  fasting,  and  alms, 
which  the  new  invented  d(x:trine  of  indul- 
gences had  almost  totally  abolished. — Ihey 
at  the  same  time  affirmed,  that  every  pious 
Christian  was  qualified  and  entitled  to  pre- 
scribe to  the  penitent  the  kind  or  degree  of 
satisfaction  or  expiation  that  their  transgres- 
sions required ;  that  confession  made  to 
priests  was  by  no  means  necessary,  since 
the  humble  offender  might  acknowledge  his 
sins  and  testify  his  repentance  to  any  true 
believer,  and  might  expect  ft-om  such  the 
counsel  and  admonition  which  his  case  de- 
manded. They  maintained,  that  the  power 
of  delivering  sinners  from  the  guilt  and  pun- 
ishment of  their  offences  belonged  to  God 
alone ;  and  that  indulgences,  of  consequence, 
were  the  criminal  hnentions  of  sordid  ava- 
rice. They  looked  upon  the  prayers  and 
other  ceremonies  that  were  instituted  in  be- 
half of  the  dead,  as  vain,  useless,  and  ab- 
surd, and  denied  the  existence  of  departed 
souls  in  an  intermediate  state  of  purification  ; 
affirming,  that  they  were  immediately,  upon 
their  separation  from  the  body,  received 
into  heaven,  or  thrust  down  to  hell.  These 
and  other  tenets  of  a  like  nature  compostd 
the  system  of  doctrine  propagated  by  the 
Waldenses.  It  is  also  said,  that  several  of 
the  Waldenses  denied  th.e  obligation  of  in- 
fant baptism,  and  that  otliei-s  rtj  cted  water 
bai)tism  entii-ely  ;  but  Wall  has  labouied  to 
prove  that  infant  baptijim  was  generally 
practised  among  them. 

Their,  rules  of  practice  were  extremely; 
austere  ;  for  they  adopted  as  the  model  of  i 
their  moral  discipline  the  sermon  of  Christ  i 
on  the  mount,  which  they  interpreted  and  ; 
explained  in  the  most  rigorous  and  literal  I 
manner  ;  and  consef|uently  prohibited  aiid  ' 
condennu'd  in  tlieir  society  all  wars,  and  \ 
suits  of  law,  and  all  attempts  towards  the  i 
acquisition  of  wealtli  ;  tlie  infiicting  of  capi- 
tal punishments,  self-defence,  against  unjust  \ 
violence,  and  oaths  of  all  kinds.  i 

During  the  greatest  part  of  the  seven- 
teei.th  centurv,  tliose  of  them  who  lived  in; 
the  vaJlies  of  Piedmont,  and  who  had  embra- 
ced tlie  doctrine,  discipline,  and  worshi])  of 
the  church  of  Geneva,  were  oppressed  and 
persecuted  in  the  most  barbarous  and  inhu- 


man manner  by  the  ministers  of  Rome. 
This  per.secution  was  carried  on  with  pecu- 
liar marks  of  rage  and  enormity  in  the 
years  1655,  1656,  and  1696,  and  seemed  to 
portend  nothing  less  than  the  total  extinction 
of  that  unhappy  nation.  'Ihe  most  horrid 
scenes  of  violence  antl  bloodshed  were  exhi- 
bited in  this  theatre  of  papal  tyranny  ;  and 
the  few  W'aldenses  that  siu'vived  wei'e  in- 
debted for  their  existence  and  supjjort  to 
the  intercession  made  for  them  by  the  .En- 
glish and  Dutch  governments,  and  also  by 
the  Swiss  cantons,  who  solicited  the  clemen- 
cy of  the  duke  of  Savoy  on  their  behalf. 

WATCHES.     See  Acoknetm. 

WATCHFULNESS,  vigilance,  or  care 
to  avoid  surrounding  enemies  and  dangers. 
We  are  to  watch  against  the  insinuations  of 
Satan  ;  the  allurements  of  the  world  ;  the 
deceitt'ulne.ss  of  our  hearts;  the  doctrines  of 
the  erroneous  ;  and,  indeed,  against  every 
thing  that  would  prove  inimical  to  our  best 
interests.  We  are  to  exercise  this  duty  at 
all  times,  in  all  places,  and  under  all  cir- 
cumstances, 1  Cor.  xvi.  13.  Luke  xii.  37. 

To  watch,  is  also  to  wait  for  and  expect : 
thus  we  are,  1.  To  watch  the  providence  of 
God. — 2.  The  fulfilment  of  the  prophecies. 
— G.  God's  time  for  our  deliverance  from 
troubles,  Ps.  cxxx. — 4.  We  are  to  watch 
unto  prayer,  Eph.  vi.  18. — 5.  For  death  and 
judgment,  Mark  xiii.  37. 

WATERLANDIANS,  a  sect  of  Ana- 
baptists in  Holland.  They  are  thus  called 
in  distinction  from  the  Fhmingians,  or  Flan- 
drians,  and  likewise  l^ecause  they  consisted 
at  first  of  the  inhabitants  of  a  district  in 
North  Holland,  called  Waterland.  The 
Flemingians  Avere  called  the"  Jine  or  rigid 
and  the  Waterlandrians  the  grofis  or  luode- 
rute  Anabaptists.  The  firmer  observe,, 
with  the  most  religious  accuracy  and  vene- 
ration, the  ancient  doctrine  and  discipline  of 
the  purer  sort  of  Anabaptists  ;  the  latter 
depart  much  more  from  the  primitive  sen- 
timerits  and  manners  of  their  sect,  and  ap- 
proach nearer  to  the  Protestant  churches. 
These  latter,  however,  are  divided  into  two 
distinct  sects,  the  Watei-landers  and  the 
Frieslanders  :  but  this  difference,  it  is  said, 
merely  respects  their  place  of  abode.  Nei- 
ther party  have  any  bisliops,  but  only  pres- 
bj'ters  and  deacons.  Eacii  congregation  is 
independent  of  all  foreign  jurisdiction,  hav- 
ing its  own  court  of  government,  composed 
of  the  presbyters  and  deacons.  But,  the 
supreme  power  being  in  the  hands  of  the 
pecjple,  nothing  of  importance  can  be  trans- 
acted without  their  consent.  The  presby- 
ters are  generally  men  of  learning  ;  and  they" 
have  a  public  professor  at  Amsterdam  for 
iiisfructing  their  youth  in  the  diffirent 
branches  of  erudition,  sacred  and  profane. 
About  1664,  the  Waterlanders  were  s]j!it 
into  the  two  factii  ns  of  the  Galenisf;  and 
the  Apostodlians. — G^ien  Abraham  Ha:**?, 
doctor  of  phy?ic  and  pastor  of  .tt~  rv^^nnnn- 
ites  at  Amsterdam,  a  man  of  uncommon 
penetration  and  eloquence,  inclined  towards 


WHI 


516 


WIC 


the  Avian  and  Socinian  tenets,  and  insisted 
fur  the  reception  of  all  such  in  their  church 
fellowship  as  acknowledged  the  divine  au- 
thority of  the  scriptures,  and  led  virtm  us 
lives.  He  and  his  followers  renounced  the 
designation  of  the  Mennonites.  '1  hey  were 
with  great  zeal  opposed  by  Samuel  Ajiostool, 
another  pliysician  and  eminent  pastor  at 
Amsterdam,  who,  with  his  tollowers,  admit- 
ted none  to  their  communion  but  sucii  as 
professed  to  believe  all  the  points  of  drctrine 
contained  in  their  public  Confession  of  Faiih. 

WEDNESDAY,  ASH.  The  hrst  day  of 
Lent,  when,  in  the  primitive  church  noto- 
rious sinners  were  put  to  open  penance 
tlms:  they  appeared  at  the  church  door 
bare-footed,  and  clotlied  in  sackcloth, 
vherc,  being  examintd,  tlieir  c!;«Liphne  was 
proportioned  according  to  their  offences ; 
after  which,  being  brought  int(j  the  church, 
the  bishop  singing  the  seven  jjenitential 
psalms,  they  prostrated  themselves,  and 
with  tears  begged  absolution  ;  the  whole 
congregation  having  ashes  on  their  heads, 
to  signify,  that  they  were  both  mortal  and 
deserved  to  be  burnt  to  ashes  for  their  sins. 

WESTiMINS'lER  ASSEMBLY,  a  name 
given  to  the  synod  of  divines  called  b)'  par- 
liament in  the  reign  of  Charles  L  f <  r  the 
purpose  of  settling  the  government,  liturgy, 
and  doctrine  of  the  church  of  England.  'I'hey 
were  confined  in  their  debates  to  such  things 
as  the  parliament  proposed.  Some  counties 
had  two  membtts,  and  some  but  one.  And 
because  thi-y  would  seem  impartial,  and 
give  each  party  the  liberty  to  speak,  thty 
chose  many  of  the  mrst  learned  episcopal 
divines  ;  but  few  of  them  came,  because  it 
w  as  not  a  legal  convocation,  the  king  ha\  ing 
declared  against  it.  The  divines  wei'e  men 
of  eminent  learning  and  godliness,  ministe- 
rial abilities,  ar,d  fidelity.  Many  lords  and 
cnmmons  were  joined  with  them,  to  see  that 
they  did  not  go  beyond  their  ccmmission. 
Six  or  seven  Independents  were  also  added 
to  them,  that  all  sides  might  be  heaid. 
This  assembly  first  met  July  1,  16-13,  in 
Henry  the  Seventh's  Chapel. — The  most  re- 
markable hints  concerni;.g  their  debates  are 
to  be  found  in  the  J  -ife  of  Dr.  LightlV>ot,  be- 
fore his  works,  in  folio,  and  in  the  Preface 
to  his  Remains,  in  octavo.  See  also  the  .1s- 
semblij  s  Confession  of  Faith.  A'cal's  Hist. 
of  the  Puritans  ;  and  article  Diuectorv, 
in  this  work.  There  is  a  publicatitin  which 
is  commonly,  but  unjvistiy  ascribed  to  this 
assembly,  viz.  The  ylnnotatiovs  on  the  iiihle. 
The  truth  is,  the  san>e  parliament  that 
called  the  assembly,  employed  the  authcTS 
nf  tliat  work,  and  several  of  them  were 
members  of  the  assembly. 

WHIPPERS,  or  Flag  ELL  ANTES,  a  set 
of  wild  fanatics,  who  cliastised  and  disciplin- 
ed themselves  with  whips  in  public.  It  had 
its  rise  in  Italy  in  the  year  1260 :  i^s  author 
■jvas  one  Rainer,  a  hermit,  and  it  was  pro- 
jjagalcd  iVoiii  hence  through  almost  all  tiu- 
countries  of  Europe.  A  great  number  of 
persons,  of  all  ages,  and  sexes,  made  pro- 


cessions, walking  two  by  two,  with  their 
shouldei's  bare,  which  they  whipped  till  the 
blood  ran  down,  in  order  to  obtain  meicy 
from  God,  and  appease  his  indignation 
against  the  wickedness  of  the  age.  Tluy 
were  then  called  the  Devout  ;  and,  having 
established  a  superior,  he  was  called  Gene- 
ral of  the  Devotion.  Though  the  primitive 
VViiippers  were  exemjilary  in  point  of 
morals,  yet  they  were  joined  by  a  turbulent 
rabble,  who  were  infected  with  the  most  ri- 
diculous and  impious  opinions :  so  that  the 
emperurs  and  pontiffs  thought  proper  to  put 
an  end  to  this  religious  frenzy,  by  declaring 
all  devout  whipping  contraiy  to  the  divine 
law,  and  prejudicial  to  the  soul's  eternal 
interest. 

However,  this  sect  revived  in  Germany 
towards  the  middle  of  the  next  century, 
and,  rambling  through  many  provinces,  oc- 
I  casiontd  great  disturbances.  Ttiey  held, 
!  among  other  things,  that  whipping  was  of 
I  equal  virtue  with  baptism  and  the  other 
sacraments  ;  tiiat  the  forgiveness  of  all  sins 
was  to  be  obtained  by  it  from  God  without 
the  merits  of  Jesus  Christ ;  that  the  o}d 
law  (if  Christ  was  soon  to  be  abolished,  and 
tiiat  a  new  law,  enjoining  the  baptism  (>£ 
blood  to  be  administered  by  whipping,  was 
to  be  substitftted  in  its  place  :  upon  which 
Clement  Vil.  by  an  injndicicius  as  well  as 
unrighteous  policy,  thundered  out  anathemas 
against  the  Whippers,  who  were  burnt  by 
the  inquisitors  in  several  places  ;  but  they 
were  not  easily  extirpated.  They  ap- 
])eared  again  in  Thuriiigia  and  Lower 
Saxony  in  the  fifteenth  centiny,  and  re- 
jected not  only  the  sacraments,  but  every 
branch  of  external  wtrsbip ;  and  placed 
their  only  hopes  of  salvation  in  faith  and 
whipping,  to  which  they  addtd  other 
strange  doctrines  concerning  evil  spirits. 
Their  leader,  Conrad  Sclnnidt,  and  many 
others,  were  committi  d  to  tlie  flames  by 
German  inquisitors,  in  and  after  the  year 
i414. 

WHITE  BRETHREN,  See  Brlthhen 
White 

\ATn'lSUNDA^',  a  snlenm  festival  of 
the  Christian  church,  obseived  on  the  fif- 
tieth day  after  Easter,  in  memory  of  the 
de'^iCtnt  of  the  Holy  (ihost  upon  the  api.s- 
tles  in  the  visible  ajipearance  of  fiery 
cloven  tongues,  and  ot  tho'^e  miraculous 
powers  which  v/ere  then  conferred  upon 
thtm. 

It  is  called  liliitsunclwj,  or  IVhileSiui- 
day,  brcause  this  being  (iie  of  the  statt  d 
times  for  biiptism  in  the  ancitnt  church, 
those  who  weie  baptised  put  on  white  gar- 
ments, as  types  of  that  sjjivitnal  purity  they 
received  in  baptism.  As  the  descent  of  the 
Holy  Ghost  upon  tiie  apostles  happened  >  n 
that  day  which  the  Jews  called  Pcnttcosf, 
this  festival  retained  the  name  Pentecost 
anionc  the  Ciiristians. 

WiCK!'.DNESS.    See  Sin. 

WICKLIFFITES,  the  followers  of  the 
famous  John  Wicklitfe,  called  "  the  first  re- 


WIL 


517 


WI  L 


former,"  who  was  bom  in  Yorkshire  in  the  ! 
year  1324.     He  attacked  the  jurisdiction  of 
the  pope  and  the  bisliops      He  was  (or  this 
twice  summoned  to  a  council  at  J^ambeth,  | 
to  give  an   account    of   his  doctrines ;  but  | 
being  countenanced  by  the  duke  of  Lancas-  ] 
ter,  was  both  times  dismisstrd  witliout  con-  | 
demnation.     Wickliffc,  therefore,  contitiued  j 
to  spread  his  new  principles  as   usual,   ad- 1 
ding  to  them  doctrines  still  more  alarming  ;  i 
by  which  he  drew  after  him  a  great  number  j 
of  disciples.     Upon  this,  WiUiam  Couitnay, 
abp.  of  Cantei'bury,   called   another  council  j 
in  1382,    which  condenmed  24  jjropositions , 
of  VV'icklift'e  and  his  disci  j)les,  and  obtained  j 
a  declaration  of  Richard  II.  against  all  who  j 
should  preach  them  :   but  while  these   pro- 
ceedings were  agitating,  VV'ickliffe  died  at  ] 
Lutterworth,   leaving  many  works    behind 
him  for  the  establishment  of  his  doctrines. 
He  was  buried  in  his  own  church,   at   Lut- 
terworth, in  Leicestershire,  where  his  bones 
were  suffered  to  rest  in   peace  til  the  year 
1428,   when  by    an    order    from    the  po])e, 
they  were  taken  up  and   burnt.     W^icklili'e 
was  doubtless   a  vtry   extraordinary   man, 
considering   the    times    in  which    he  lived. 
He  discovered  the    absurdities  and  imposi- 
tions of  the  church  of   Home,  and  had  the 
honesty   and   resolution   to  promulgate  his 
opinions,  which  a  little  more  support  would 
probably  liave  enabled  him  to  establish  :  they 
were  evidently  the  foundation  of   the  subse- 
quent reformation. 

VVILHELMlNIANS,  a  denomination  in 
the  13lh  century,  so  called  from  VVilMelmi- 
na,  a  Bohemian  woman,  who  resided  in  the 
territory  of  Milan.  She  persuaded  a  large 
number  that  the  Holy  Ghost  was  become 
incarnate  in  l)er  person  for  the  salvation  of 
a  great  part  of  mankind.  According  to  her 
doctrines  none  were  saved  by  tne  blood  of 
Jesus  but  true  and  pious  Christians  ;  while 
the  Jews,  Saracens,  and  unworthy  Chris- 
tians, were  to  obtain  salvation  thn  ugh  the 
Holy  Spirit  which  dwelt  in  her,  and  that, 
in  consequence  thereof,  all  which  happeiied 
in  Christ  durnig  his  appearance  upon  t-arth 
in  the  human  nature  was  to  be  exactly  re- 
newed in  her  person,  or  rather  in  that 
of  the  Holy  Ghost,  which  was  united  to 
her.  'i' 

VVILK1N30NL\NS,    the    followers    of! 
Jemima  Wilkinson,  who  was  born  in  Cum-  I 
berland,    in    America.     In  October    1770,  i 
she  asserted   that   she  was  taken  sick,  and  ' 
actually  died,  and   that  her   soul    went   to  I 
heaven,  where  it  still  continues.     Soon  after'' 
her  body  was  re-animated  with   the  spirit ', 
and  power  of  Christ,  upon   which   she   set  I 
up  as  a  pul)lic  teacher  ;    and  declared   she  i\ 
had  an   immediate  revelation    for   all  slie 
delivered,  and    was  arrived   to  a    state  of 
absolute  perlV'Ction.     It   is  also  said  she  pre- 
tended to  foretel   future   events,  to  discern 
the  secrets  of  the  heart,  and  to  have  the  pow- 
er of  healing  diseases:  and  if  any  person  who 
had  m.ide  ap]jlication  to  her  was  not  healed, 
she  attributed  it  to  his  want  of  faith.    She 


asserted  that  those  who  refused  to  believe 
these  exalted  things  concerning  her,  will  be 
in' the  state  of  the  unlieheving  Jews,  who 
rejected  the  counsel  of  God  against  tliem- 
selves  :  and  she  told  her  hearers  that  was 
the  eleventh  hour,  and  the  last  call  of 
mercy  that  ever  should  be  granted  them  ; 
for  she  heard  an  inquiry  in  heaven,  saying, 
"  Who  will  go  and  preach  to  a  dying 
world?"  or  words  to  that  import;  and  she 
said  she  answered,  '•  Here  am  1 — send 
me:"  and  that  she  left  the  realms  of  light 
and  glory,  and  the  company  of  the  heavenly 
host,  who  are  continually  praising  and  wor- 
shipping God,  in  order  to  descend  upon 
earth,  and  j)ass  through  many  sufferings 
and  trials  for  the  happiness  of  mankind. 
She  assumed  the  title  of  the  universal 
friend  of  mankind  ;  hence  her  followers  dis- 
tinguished themselves  by  the  name  of 
Fiiends 

WILL,  that  faculty  of  tlie  soul  by  which 
it  chooses  or  refuses  any  thing  offered  to  it. 
When  man  was  created  he  had  liberty  and 
power  to  do  what  was  pleasing  in  the  sight 
of  GckI  ;  but  by  the  fall,  he  lost  all  ability 
of  wili  to  any  spiritual  good  ;  nor  has  he  any 
will  to  that  which  ia  good  until  Divine 
grace  enlightens  the  understanding  and 
changes  the  heart.  "  The  rial  are  of  the 
will,  indeed,  is  in  itself  indisputedly  free. 
Will,  as  will,  must  be  so,  or  there  is  no  such 
faculty  ;  but  the  human  will,  being  finite, 
hath  a  necessary  bound,  which  indeed  so 
far  may  be  said  to  confine  it,  because  it 
cannot  act  beyond  it  ;  yet  within  the  extent 
of  its  capacity  it  necessarily  is  and  ever  will 
be  spontaneous. 

"  The  limits  of  the  will,  therefore,  do 
not  take  away  its  inherent  liberty.  Tlie 
exercise  of  its  powers  may  be  confined, 
as  It  necessarily  must,  in  a  JjnUe  being; 
but  where  it  is  not  confined,  that  exer- 
cise will  correspond  with  its  nature  and  situa- 
tion. 

"  This  being  understood,  it  is  easy  to  per- 
ceive that  man  in  his  fallen  state  can  only 
will  according  to  his  fallen  capacities;  and 
that,  however  freely  liis  volitions  may  flow 
within  their  extent,  he  cannot  possibly  over- 
pass them.  He,  therefore,  as  a  sinful,  car- 
nal, and  perverse  apostate,  can  will  only 
according  to  the  nature  of  his  apostacy, 
which  is  continually  and  invariably  evil, 
witliout  capacity  to  exceed  its  bounds  into 
goodness,  purity,  and  trutli:  orr^herwise  he 
would  will  contrary  to  or  bevond  his  nature 
and  situation,  whicii  is  equally  impossible  in 
itself,  and  contradictory  to  the  revelatinn  of 
(■iod."  See  Edward's  on  the  IVill.  Thtoi 
Misc.  vol.  iv.  p.  391.  GiU'h  Cause  of  God 
and  2Vuth.  To/iludy's  Historic  Proof. 
Watts'  Jis say  071  the  Freedom  of  the  iritl. 
Chorrioc/c's  H'vrks,  vol.  ii.  page  175  and 
187.  I.orfce  on  the  Understuncluig.  Beid 
on  the  yJctive  Powers,  p.  267,  291 ;  and 
articles  Liceuty  and  Necessity  in  this 
work. 

WILL  WORSHIP,  the   invention   and 


AVIS 


518 


WON 


practice  of  such  expedients  of  appeasing  or 
of  pleasing  God  as  neither  reason  nor  reve- 
lation suggest. 

WILL  OF  GOD  is  taken,  1.  For  that 
which  he  has  from  all  eternity  determined, 
which  is  unchangeable,  and  must  certainly 
come  to  pass ;  tins  is  called  his  secret  will. 
— 2.  It  is  taken  for  what  he  has  prescribed 
to  us  in  his  word  as  a  rule  of  duty :  this  is 
called  his  revealed  will.  A  question  of  very 
great  importance  respecting  our  duty,  de- 
serves here  to  be  considered.  The  question 
is  this :  *'  How  may  a  person  who  is  desi- 
rous of  following  the  dictates  of  Providence 
in  every  i-espect  know  the  mind  and  will  of 
Ciod  in  any  particular  circumstance,  wheth- 
er temporal  or  spiritual }  Now,  in  order  to 
come  at  the  knowledge  of  that  which  is 
proper  and  needful  for  us  to  be  acquainted 
with,  we  are  taught  by  prudence  and  con- 
science to  make  use  of,  1.  Deliberation. — 2. 
Consultation. — 3.  Suppl  cation  ;  but,  1.  \Wtt 
should  not  make  our  inclinations  the  rule  of 
our  conduct. — 2.  We  should  not  make  our 
particular  frames  the  rule  of  our  judgment 
and  determination. — 3.  We  are  not  to  be 
guided  by  any  unaccountable  impulses  and 
impressions. — 4.  We  must  not  make  the 
event  our  rule  of  judgment.  1.  Unless 
something  different  from  our  present  siiua- 
tiou  offer  itself  to  our  serious  consideration, 
we  are  not  to  be  desirous  of  changing  our 
state,  except  it  is  unprofitable  or  unlawful. 
— 2.  When  an  alteration  of  circumstance  is 
proposed  to  us,  or  Providence  lays  two  oi- 
more  things  before  our  eyes,  we  should  en- 
deavour to  take  a  distinct  view  of  each 
case;  compare  them  with  one  another, 
and  then  determine  by  such  maxims  as 
these  : — Of  two  natural  evils  choose  the 
least  ;  of  two  moral  evils  choose  neither  ; 
of  two  moral  or  spiritual  good  things  chodse 
the  greatest. — 3.  When  upon  due  conside- 
i-dtion  nothing  appears  in  the  necessity  of 
the  case  or  the  leadings  of  Providence  to 
make  the  way  clear,  we  must  not  hurry 
Providence,  but  remain  in  a  state  of  sus- 
pense, or  abide  where  we  are  waiting  upon 
the  Lord  by  pi'ayer,  and  waiting  for  the 
Loi'd  in  the  way  of  his  provide)ice.  In  all 
cases  it  should  be  our  peipctual  concern  to 
keep  as  much  as  possible  out  of  the  way  of 
temptation  to  omit  any  duty,  or  commit  any 
sin.  \Ve  should  endeavour  to  keep  up  a 
reverence  for  the  word  and  ])rovidence  <  f 
God  upon  our  hearts,  and  to  have  a  steady 
eye  to  his  glory,  and  to  behold  (iod  in 
covenant  as  managing  every  providential 
circumstance  in  subserviency  to  his  gra- 
cious purposes  in  Christ  Jesus'  Pike 
and  Huyvjard^s  Cases  of  Conscience,  p. 
156. 

WISDOM  denotes  a  high  and  refined 
notion  of  things,  imnifdiatcly  presevited  to 
the  mind,  as  it  were,  by  intuition,  without 
the  as!^istance  of  reasoning.  In  a  moral 
sense,  it  signifies  the  same  as  prudence,  or 
that  knowledge  by  which  we  connect  the 
best  means  with  the  best  ends.    Some,  how- 


ever, distinguish  wisdom  from  prudence 
thus:  wisdom  leads  us  to  speak  and  act 
what  is  most  proper ;  prudence  prevents 
our  speaking  or  acting  improperly.  A  wise 
man  employs  the  most  proper  means  for 
success;  a  prudent  man  the  safest  means 
for  not  being  brought  into  danger. 

Spiriiual  J-l'isdo?n  consists  in  the  know- 
ledge and  fear  of  God,  It  is  beautifully 
described  by  St.  James,  "  as  pure,  pt ace- 
able,  gentle,  easy^to  be  entreated,  full  of 
mercy  and  good  fruits,  without  partiality, 
and  without  hypficrisy."  James  iii.  17.  See 
Devotion,  Religion. 

WlSDOiM  OF  GOD  is  that  grand  attri- 
bute of  his  nature  by  which  he  knows  and 
orders  all  things  for  the  promotion  of  his 
glory  and  the  good  of  his  ci-tatures.  This 
appears  in  all  the  works  of  his  hands.  Psal. 
civ.  24;  in  the  dispensations  of  his  provi- 
deuce,  Psal.  xcvii.  1,  2 ;  in  the  work  of 
redemption,  Eph.  iii.  10  ;  in  the  government 
and  preservation  of  his  church  in  all  ages, 
Psal.  cvii.  7.  This  doctrine  should  teach 
us  admiration.  Rev  xv.  3,  4  ;  trust  and  con- 
fidence, Psal  ix.  10;  prayer,  Pfov.  iii.  5,  6  ; 
submission,  Heb.  xii.  9  ;  praise,  Psal.  ciii.  1 
— 4.  See  C/iarnock's  Jf'orks,  vol.  i.  SaU' 
ri?i's  Sermons,  vol.  i.  page  157,  Eng.  trans. 
Gill's  Diviiiiiy,  vol.  i  page  93.  Aberneilni^s 
Sermons,  vol.  i.  sermon  10  Kay's  Wisdom 
of  God  in  Creation.  Foley's  Xutural 
Theology 

Wri'CHCRAFT,  a  supernatural  power 
which  persons  were  formerly  supposed  to 
obtain  the  possession  of,  by  entering  into  a 
compact  with  the  Devil.  Witchcraft  was 
universally  believed  in  Europe  till  the  16th 
century,  and  even  maintaii.ed  its  ground 
with  tolerable  firmness  till  the  middle  of 
the  irth.  The  latest  Witchcraft  frenzy 
was  in  New  England  in  1692,  when  the 
execution  of  witches  became  a  calamity 
more  dreadful  than  the  swoi'd  or  the  pesti- 
lence. Some  have  denied  the  existence  of 
:  witchcraft  altogether.  That  such  persons 
have  been  found  among  men  seems,  how- 
ever, evident  from  the  Scriptures.  Deut. 
xviii.  10.  Exod  xxii.  18.  Gal.  v.  20.  Lev, 
xix.  13.  XX.  6.  The  inconsistency  of 
holding  such  persons  in  estimation,  or  hav- 
ing recourse  to  fortune-tellers,  diviners, 
charmers,  and  such  like,  appear  in  this,  1. 
It  is  imitating  the  heathens  and  giving 
countenance  to  the  foolish  sujjerstitii n  and 
absurd  practices  of  pagans. — 2  Such  cha- 
racters are  held  in  abhorrence  by  the  Lord, 
and  their  very  existence  forbidden.  Lev. 
XX.  6.  Exod  XX.  18 — 3.  He  threatens  to 
punish  those  who  consult  them.  Lev.  xx. 
6. — 4.  It  is  wrong  to  have  any  thing  to  do 
witli  them,  as  it  is  setting  an  awful  exanijjle 
to  others. — 5.  It  is  often  productive  of  llie 
greatest  evils,  dcceinion,  discord,  disixp- 
pointment,  and  inc.re(lil)le  mischief  Hutu- 
kins'  tivo  Sermons  on  U'itc/icraft.  A?!c. 
/Iric.  Mfjore's  Theological  Works,  page 
240.  251.     Nutchimon  on  ll'iic/urafl. 

WONDEK,  any  thing  which  causes  sur- 


won 


519 


AVOR 


prise  by  its  strangeness.  "  It  expresses," 
says  Mr.  Cogaii,  "  an  emdarraxsmerit  of  the 
mind  after  it  is  somewhat  recovered  from 
the  first  percussion  of  surprise.  It  is  the 
effect  produced  by  an  interesting  sul)ject 
which  has  been  suddenly  presented  to  the 
mind,  but  concerning  which  there  are  many 
intricacies,  eitlier  respecting  the  cause  or 
manner  in  which  any  event  has  taken  place 
motives  of  extraordinary' conduct,  &c."  How 
it  differs  from  admiration,  See  Admira- 
tion. 

WORKS  OF  GOD.    See  Bible,  Reve- 
lation. Scripture. 

WORKS  GOOD,  are  those  actions  which 
are  conformable  to  truth,  justice,  or  pro- 
priety ;  whether  natural,  civil,  relative,  mo- 
ral, or  religious.  T/te  circujustances  re- 
qtmite  to  a  good  worky  are  1.  That  it  be 
according  to  the  will  of  God. — 2.  That  it 
spring  from  love  to  God,  1  Tim.  i.  5. — 3.  It 
must  be  done  in  faith,  Rom.  xiv.  23. — 4.  It 
must  be  done  to  the  glory  of  God,  1  Cor.  x. 
."1.  Phil.  i.  11.  T/ie  caicses  of  good  luorks, 
are,  1.  God  himself,  Heb.  xiii.  21. — 2.  By 
union  to  Christ,  Eph.  ii.  10  — 3.  Through 
faith,  Heb.  xi.  4,  6. — 4.  By  the  word  and 
Spirit,  Luke  viii.  15.  Is.  iii.  3.  2  Tim.  iii. 
16.  jIs  to  the  nature  arid  firo/ieriies  of  good 
ivorks,  1.  They  are  imperfect,  Ecc  vii.  20. 
Rev.  iii.  2. — 2.  Not  meritorious,  Tit.  iii.  5. 
Luke  xvii.  10. — 3.  Yet  found  only  in  the  re- 
generate. Matt,  vii  17.  The  rieces&ary  uses 
of  good  works,  1.  They  show  our  gratitude, 
Psal.  cxvi.  12,  13. — 2  Are  an  ornament  to 
our  profession.  Tit.  ii.  10 — 3.  Evidence  our 
regeneration,  Job  xv.  5 — 4.  Profitable  to 
others,  Titus  iii.  8.  See  Holiness,  Obe- 
dience, Sanctification.  GiWs  Body 
of  Div.  book  iv.  v<,l.  iii.  Ridgley's  body  of 
jUh>.  qu.  92.     Marshall  on  Sancfif  cation. 

WORLD,  the  whole  system  of  created 
things,  (See  Creation.)  It  is  taken  also 
for  a  secular  life,  the  present  state  rf  ex- 
istence, and  the  pleasures  and  interests 
whicli  steal  away  the  soul  from  God  The 
lox<e  of  the  ITor/d  does  not  consist  in  tlie 
use  and  enjoyments  of  the  comforts  God 
gives  us,  but  in  an  inordinate  attachment  to 
the  tilings  of  time  and  sense.  "1.  We  love 
the  world  too  mucli,"  says  Dr.  J-rtin, 
"  when  for  the  sake  of  any  profit  or  plea- 
sure, we  wilfully,  knowingly,  and  deliber;itely 
transgress  the  commands  of  God. — 2.  Whtii 
•we  take  more  pains  about  the  present  life 
than  the  next. — 3.  When  we  cannot  he 
contented,  patient,  or  resigned  under  low 
and  inconvenient  circumstances. — 4.  We 
love  the  woild  too  much  when  we  cannot 
part  with   any  thing   we    possess    to   those 

who  want,  deserve,  and  have  a  right  to  it. 

5.  W'hcn  we  envy  those  who  are  more  for- 
tunate and  more  favoured  by  the  world  than 
we  are — 6.  When  we  honoui-,  and  esteem, 
and  favour  persons  purely  according  to 
their  birth,  fortunes,  and  success,  measu- 
ring our  judgment  and  approbation  by  their 
outward  appearance  and  situation  in  life. — 
7.    When    worldly    prosperity    makes   us ! 


I  proud,  and  vain,  and  arrogant. — 8.  When 
I  we  omit  no  opportunity  of  enjoying  the  good 
things  of  this  lite :  when  our  gi-eat  and  chief 
business  is  to  divert  ourselves  till  we  con- 
tract an  indifference  for  rational  and  manly 
occupations,  deceiving  ourselves,  and  fancy- 
ing that  we  are  not  in  a  bad  condition,  be- 
cause others  are  worse  than  we."  Jortin's 
Scrm.  vol.  iii.  ser.  9-  Bishofi  Hopkins  on 
the  Vanity  of  the  World.  Dr.  Stennet's 
Sermon  on  Conformity  lo  the  World.  H. 
Moore  on  Education,  chap  9,  vol.  ii.  R. 
ITalker^s  Sermons,  vol.  iv.  ser.  20. 

WORLD,  jiges  of.  The  time  preced- 
ing the  birth  of  Chi-ist  has  generally  been 
divided  into  six  ages.  The  first  extends 
from  the  beginning  of  the  world  to  the  de- 
luge, and  comprehends  one  thousand  six 
hundred  and  fifty-six  years.  The  second, 
from  the  deluge  to  Abraham's  entering  the 
Land  of  Promise,  in  2082,  comprehends  four 
hundred  and  twenty-six  years.  The  third 
from  Abraham's  entering  into  the  promised 
land  to  the  Exodus  in  2523,  four  hundred  and 
thirty  years.  The  fourth  from  the  going 
out  of  Egypt  to  the  foundation  of  the  tem- 
ple by  Solomon  in  2992,  four  hundred  and 
seventy-nine  years.  The  fifth,  from  Solo- 
mon's foundation  of  the  temple  to  the  Baby- 
lonish captivity  in  3416,  four  hundred  and 
twenty-one  years.  The  sixth,  from  the 
Babylonish  captivity  to  the  birth  of  Christ, 
A.  M.  4000,  the  fourth  year  before  the  vul- 
gar era,  includes  five  hundred  and  eighty-four 
years. 

■    VVORLD     DISSOLUTION    OF.     See 
Conflagration,  Dissolution. 
WORLD,  Eternity  of.   See  Eternity 

OF    THE    WORLD. 

V\-0RSH1P  D.^EMON,  the  wor.ship  of  a 
class  of  spirits  which  were  thought  to  be 
superior  to  the  soul  of  man  ;  but  inferior  to 
those  intelligences  which  animated  the  sun, 
the  moon,  and  the  planets,  and  to  whom 
I  were  committed  the  government  of  the 
world,  particular  nations,  &c.  Though 
they  Avere  generally  invisible,  they  were  not 
supposed  to  be  pure  disembodied  spirits,  but 
to  have  some  kind  of  etherial  vehicle. 
They  were  of  vaj'ious  orders,  and  accoi-d- 
ing  to  the  situation  over  which  th;.y  presi- 
ded had  different  namf^s  Hence  the  Greek 
and  Roman  poets  talk  of  satyrs,  dryads, 
nymphs,  fawns,  &c.  &:c.  These  different 
orders  of  inteUigenccs  which,  though  wor- 
shipped as  gods  or  demi-gods,  were  yet 
believed  to  partake  of  human  passions 
and  aiipetites,  led  the  way  to  the  deifi- 
cation of  departed  heroes,  and  other  emi- 
nent benefactors  of  the  hujnan  race  ;  and 
from  this  latter  probably  arose  the  belief  of 
natural  and  tutelar  gods,  as  well  as  the 
practice  of  worshipping  these  gods  through 
the  medium  of  statues  cut  into  a  human 
figure.     See  looLATRy  and  Polytheism. 

Warburton's  Divine  Legation.  farmer 
on  the  Worship  of  Dmnions.  Gale's  Court 
of  the  Gentiles. 

'  WORSHIP    OF  GOD,    fcuitm  DeiJ 


ZE  A 


520 


ZE  A 


amounts  to  the  same  with  what  we  other- 
wise call  religion.  Tliis  worship  consists 
in  paying  a  due  respect,  veneration,  and 
homage  to  the  Deity,  under  a  sense  of  an 
obligation  to  him.  And  this  internal  re- 
spect, &c.  is  to  be  shewn  and  testified  by 
external  acts ;  as  prayers,  thanksgiv- 
ings, &c. 

Private  mors/ii/i  should  be  conducted 
with,  1.  Reverence  and  veneration. — 2.  Self- 
abasement  and  confession. — 3.  Contennpla- 
tion  of  the  perfections  and  promises  of  God. 
— 4.  Supplication  for  ourselves  and  others. 
— 5.  Earnest  desire  of  the  enjoyment  of 
God. — 6.  Frequent  and  regular.  Some  who 
have  acknowledged  the  propriety  of  private 
worship  have  objected  to  that  of  a  public 
natUi'e,  but  without  any  sufficient  ground 
For  Christ  attended  public  worship  himself, 
Luke  iv.  he  prayed  with  his  disciples,  Luke 
ix.  28,  29.  Luke  xi.  1  ;  he  promises  his 
presence  to  social  worshippers,  Matt,  xviii. 
20.  It  may  be  argued  also  from  the  con- 
duct of  the  apostles.  Acts  i.  24.  Acts  ii. 
Acts  iv.  24.  Acts  vi.  4.  Rom.  xv.  30.  1 
Cor.  xiv.  Acts  xxi.  2  Thes.  iii.  1,  2.  1 
Cor.  xi.  and  from  general  precepts,  1  Tim. 
ii.  2,  8.  Hebrews  x.  25.  Dcut.  xxxi.  12. 
Psalm  c.  4. 

Public  ivorshifi  is  of  great  utility ^  as,  1.  It 
gives  Christians  an  opportunity  of  openly 
professing  their  fait!»  in  and  love  to  Christ. 
— 2.  It  preserves  a  sense  of  religion  in  the 
mind,  without  which  society  could  not  well 
exist. — 3.  It  enlivens  devotion  and  promotes 
zeal. — 4.  It  is  the  mean  of  receiving  in- 
struction and  consolation — 5.  It  affords  an 
excellent  example  to  others,  and  excites 
them  to  fear  (iod,  &c. 

Public  Tjorsliifi  should  be,  1.  solemn,  not 
light  and  trifling,  I's.  Ixxxix.  7. — 2.  Simple, 
not  pompous  and  ceremonial,  Isa.  Ixii.  2. — 


j  3.  Cheerful,  and  not  with  forbidding  aspect, 

j  Psal.  c. — 4.  Sincere,  and    not   hypocritical, 

Isaiah  i.  12.  Matt,  xxiii.  13      John   iv.   24. 

— 5.    Pure,    and    not   superstitious,    Isaiah 

hii.  15. 

We  cannot  conclude  this  article  without 
taking  notice  of  the  shameful  and  exceed- 
ingly improper  practice  of  coming  in  late  to 
public  worship.  It  evidently  manifests  a 
stale  of  lukewarmness  ;  it  is  a  breach  of 
order  and  decency ;  it  is  a  disturbance  to 
both  ministers  and  people  ;  it  is  slighting 
the  ordinances  which  God  has  appt^nted 
for  our  good  :  and  an  affront  to  God  himself! 
How  such  can  be  in  a  devotional  frame 
themselves,  when  they  so  often  spoil  the 
devotions  of  others,  I  know  not.  Watts* 
Holifiess  of  Time  and  Places.  Km^horn 
and  Loader  on  Public  Worshif:.  Parry's, 
Barbauld's,  Sim/isori's,  and  IVilson's  jin- 
swer  to  Wakt field's  Inquiry  on  the  Autho- 
rity, Propriety,  and  Utility  of  Public 
IVorshifi.     J\'eivman  on    early   Attendaixce. 

WRATH,  violent  and  permanent  anger. 
See  Anger. 

WRATH  OF  GOD  is  his  indignation  at 
sin,  and  punishment  of  it,  Rom.  i  18.  The 
objects  of  God's  anger  or  wrath  are  the  un- 
godly, whom,  he  has  declared  he  will 
punish.  His  wrath  is  sometimes  mani- 
fested in  this  life,  and  that  in  an  awful  de- 
gree, as  we  see  in  the  case  of  the  old  world, 
Sodom  and  Gomorrah,  the  plagues  of 
Egypt,  the  punisliment  and  captivity  of  the 
Jews,  and  the  many  striking  judgments  on 
nations  and  individuals.  But  a  still  more 
awful  punishment  awaits  the  impenitent  in 
the  world  to  come ;  for  the  wicked,  it  is 
said,  shall  go  away  into  everlasting  punish- 
ment, where  the  worm  dieth  not,  and  the 
fire  is  not  quenched,  Matt.  xxv.  46.  Rom. 
i.  IS.  ii.  8,  9.  See  Hell,  Sin. 


Z. 


ZACHEANS,  the  disciples  of  Zacheus, 
a  native  of  Palestine,  wlio,  about  the  year 
350,  retired  to  a  mountain  near  the  city  of 
Jerusalem,  and  there  performed  his  devo- 
tions in  secret ;  pretending  that  prayer  was 
only  agreeable  to  God  when  it  was  perform- 
ed secretly,  and  in  silence- 

ZEAL,  a  passionate  ardour  for  any  per-" 

>     son  or  r^use.     There  are   various  kinds   of 

\   zeal ;  as  1.  An   ignorant   zeal,    Kom.  x.  2, 

^  3. — 2.  A  persecuting    zeal,    Phil.  iii.  6 — 3. 

I  A  superstitious   zeal,  1  Kings  xviii.  Gal.  i. 

il4. — 4.  An  hypocritical  zeal,  2  Kings  x.  16. 

\ — 5.  A  contentious  zeal,    1  Cor.  xi.  16. — 6. 

'  A  partial  zeal,  Hos.  vii.  8. — 7,  A  tempora- 


ry zeal,  2  Kings  xii.  and  xiii.  (ial.  iv.  15, 
l'6.— 8.  A  genuine  zeal,  which  is  a  sincere 
and  warm  concern  for  the  glory  of  God, 
and  the  spiritual  welfare  of  mankind.  This 
is  generallv  compounded  of  sound  know- 
ledge, strong  faith,  and  disinterested  regard  ; 
and  will  manifest  itself  by  self-denial,  pa- 
tient endurance,  and  constant  exertion.  The 
motives  to  true  zeal  are,  1.  The  divine 
command.  Rev.  iii.  19.— 2.  The  example 
of  Christ,  Acts  x.  38.-3.  The  importance 
of  the  service  of  Christ— 4.  The  advantage 
and  pleasure  it  brings  to  the  possessor.— 5. 
The  instances  and  honourable  comnnenda- 
tion  of  it  in  the  scriptures ;  Moses,  Phme- 


ZEN 


521 


Z  UI 


has,  Caleb,  David,  Paul,  &c.  Gal.  iv.  18.  Rev. 
iii.  15,  &c.  Tit.  ii.  14. — 6.  The  incalculable 
gO(^d  eftccts  it  produces  on  others,  Janus  v. 
20.  See  Reynolds  and  Orion  on  Sacred 
Zeal  Evans'  Christian  Temper,  ser.  57. 
Hughes'  Sermon  on  Zeal.  Mason's  Chiist, 
Mor   ser.  28. 

ZEALOT,  an  ancient  sect  of  the  Jews; 
so  called  from  their  pretended  zeal  for 
God's  law,  and  the  honour  of  religion. 

ZEND,  or  Zendavesta,  a  book  ascri- 
bed to  Zoroaster,  and  containing  his  pretend- 
ed revel.itions,  which  the  ancient  Magicians 
and  modern  Persees  observe  and  reverenct- 
in  the  same  manner  as  the  Christians  do 
the  Bible,  making  it  the  sole  rule  of  their 
faith  and  manners.  The  Zend  contains  a 
reformed  system  of  magianism,  teaching 
that  there  is  a  Supreme  Being,  eternal,  self- 
existent,  and  independent,  who  created  both 
light  and  darkness,  out  of-  which  he  made 
all  other  things ;  that  these  are  in  a  state  of 
conflict,  which  will  continue  to  the  end  of 
the  world,  that  then  there  shall  be  a  gene- 
ral resurrection  and  judgment,  and  that 
just  retribution  shall  be  rendered  unto  men 


according  to  their  works  ;  that  the  angel  of 
darkness,  with  his  followers  shall  be  con- 
signed to  a  place  of  everlasting  darkness 
and  punishment ;  and  the  angel  of  light, 
with  his  disciples,  introduced  into  a  state  of 
everlasting  light  and  happiness  ;  after  which, 
light  and  darkness  shall  no  more  interfere 
with  each  other.  It  is  evident,  from  these, 
and  various  other  sentiments  contained  in 
the  Zend,  that  many  parts  of  it  are  taken 
out  of  the  Old  Testament.  Dr  Baumgar- 
ten  asserts,  that  this  work  contains  doc- 
trines, opinions,  and  facts,  actually  borrow- 
ed from  the  Jews,  Christians,  and  Maho- 
metans ;  whence,  and  from  other  circum- 
stances, he  concludes,  that  both  the  history 
and  writings  of  this  prophet  were  probably 
invented  in  the  later  ages. 

ZUINGLIANS,  a  branch  of  the  Re- 
formers,  so  called  from  Zuinglius,  a  noted 
divine  of  Switzerland.  His  chief  diflFerence 
from  Luther  was  concerning  the  eucharist. 
He  maintained  that  the  bread  and  wine 
were  only  signijications  of  the  body  and 
blood  of  Jesus  Christ,  whereas  Luther  be- 
lieved in  consiibstantiation. 


THE  END. 


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